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THE RISE OF SPIRITUAL IN ’S IDENTITY QUEST: UNDERSTANDING ’S OEUVRES THROUGH SUFI FRAMEWORK

A THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum) Degree in English Studies

by Sri Hariyatmi Student Number: 126332037

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2014

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A THESIS

THE RISE OF SPIRITUAL ’S IDENTITY QUEST: UNDERSTANDING ORHAN PAMUK’S OEUVRES THROUGH SUFI FRAMEWORK

by Sri Hariyatmi Student Number: 126332037

Approved by

Alb. Bagus Laksana, SJ., Ph.D. Yogyakarta, May 12, 2014 Advisor

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A THESIS

THE RISE OF SPIRITUAL ISLAM IN TURKEY’S IDENTITY QUEST: UNDERSTANDING ORHAN PAMUK’S OEUVRES THROUGH SUFI FRAMEWORK

Presented by Sri Hariyatmi Student Number: 126332037

Defended before the Thesis Committee and Declared Acceptable

Chairperson : ______

Secretary : ______

Members : 1. ______

2. ______

Yogyakarta, , 2014 The Graduate Program Director Sanata Dharma University

Prof. Dr. Augustinus Supratiknya

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all ideas, phrases, sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, and sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else’s ideas, phrases, or sentences without proper references.

Yogyakarta, 12 Mei, 2014

Sri Hariyatmi

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma :

Nama : Sri Hariyatmi

Nomor Mahasiswa : 126332037

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul :

THE RISE OF SPIRITUAL ISLAM IN TURKEY’S IDENTITY QUEST: UNDERSTANDING ORHAN PAMUK’S OEUVRES THROUGH SUFI FRAMEWORK

beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, me-ngalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal : 12 Mei 2014

Yang menyatakan

Sri Hariyatmi

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is perhaps a cliché to begin an acknowledgment section with a statement about the difficulty of adequately thanking those who have helped me with my work. In fact, I find that the thought of writing these acknowledgments is almost as daunting as that of writing the thesis itself because the impossibility to acknowledge all the input, assistance, and encouragement that went during the preparation of this thesis. They will go unnamed here, but I hope that they know who they are and that I thank them.

Thank for the wisdom and perseverance that He has been bestowed upon me during this research project, and indeed, throughout my life. I feel very fortunate to have had the opportunity to work extensively with Fr. Bagus Laksana,

SJ., Ph. D. who has made this research a process which has been deeply rewarding.

He led me to develop this research (which had its genesis from his short statement on and identity construction) that I have loved to work on, offered ears to my ramblings, and nudged me when I wandered off the track throughout the research process with an astonishing patience. I am cordially grateful to his guidance, advices, constructive insights, generous engagements and for everything that I learned from him during this period of time.

My sincere appreciation goes to all lecturers in English Language Studies of

Sanata Dharma University from whom I learned a lot. I want to extend my gratitude to Dr. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A. (Hons) for her valuable support and encouragement during my study. I must also acknowledge the lecturers of IRB,

Fr. Baskara T Wardaya, Fr. Gregorious Budi Subanar, and Dr. Katrin Bandel for

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the insightful and friendly academic discussion, shared either in a class or in a casual conversation.

I am also grateful to all my classmates, who have been helping me in my school life. Adesia Kusuma Wardani was there when I began my time as a graduate school student. I owe her huge thanks for catching all that I’ve been thrown at her and I hope she knows how much I appreciate that. Elizabeth

Natalina Huwa for her sincere encouragement, Catharina Brameswari, Maximus

Nitsae, Adrianus Seto Adi Nugroho, Diksita Galuh Nirwastu, Gisela Swaragita,

Maria Agatha Rina Widyastuti, for their friendship and for calling me to ‘remain in play’ whenever I feel lost in this struggle. Special thanks to Gregoria Mayang

Dwi Andhesti, the best short-time roomie I could possibly ask for. This piece of my journey here is coming to an end but I believe we will continue to be a great friend.

I also indebted to Jeffrey Williams for his priceless and endless encouragement to follow my dream….whatever it may be. My words will fail but there are moments of time which transcend anything the thought can’t comprehend. So…I know that you know how much I thank you.

I cannot thank enough my unbiological sister Calandra Artemis Luna for always listening to me, for sharing tears and amusement, and she never left me alone during this study, despite the distance. I enjoyed ‘stealing’ her nights peaceful sleep to proofread my work and I’m glad she could do nothing about it.

To my Fulbright-er fellows 2010/2011 especially those who went to

Columbia University with me for our summer class: Anna Karpusheva, Daisuke

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Kimura, Dewantoro Ratri, Ezgi Bircan Bahçe, Fatima Mohammed, Kadek Ari

Natarina, Luciana Marchetti, Marina Anokhina, Mícheál Cathasaigh, Vitor

Marconi, Yannik Herawati, and Zeehan , thank you for sharing the ‘world’ with me and teaching me all different new colors that enrich my horizon.

To Dra. Zita Rarastesa, M.A, I cannot thank enough for all the encouragement through my academic journey and her trust that I can achieve anything in my life even in the time when I do not have any in myself. To Prof.

Dr. Dyah Bekti Ernawati in , I hope she knew that her support, guidance, and memories will always be one of the talismans to lift me up whenever I’m down.

Last but not least, a profound appreciation goes to my parents for their unconditional support. In particular the endless patience and understanding shown by my mum for always letting me choosing my own path and adventure, life has to offer. For my dad in heaven, there is not a single day passes without my thought of you. Thank you for being a very devoted father and for teaching me that I can do anything in my life as long as I have motivation and determination.

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Notes on Transcription

Throughout this thesis, there are Turkish spelling for personal name and places.

Therefore, some indications on pronunciation are given to assist the readers who are not familiar with Turkish.1

C, c j as in jam Ç, ç ch as in church Ğ, ğ soft g lengthens the preceding vowel and is not sounded, thus Erdoğan is pronounced Erdoan I, ı without a dot, pronounced like the first syllable of ‘earnest’ İ, I a dot, somewhere between “in” and “eel” Ö, ö French eu as in deux Ş, ş sh as in shame Ü, ü French u as in lumière

1 Qtd in Donald Quataert, The 1700-1922 ( Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2005) xiv.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ………………………………………………………………. i APPROVAL PAGE ………………………………………………………... ii DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE …………………………………………… iii STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY………………………………………… iv LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS ………………………... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ….…………………………………………….. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS …………………………………………………... viii NOTES ON TRANSCRI PTION…………………………………………... xi ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………... xii ABSTRAK …………………………………………………………………. xiii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION …………………………………………… 1 A. The Issue at Hand ………...………………………………………...... 1 B. Towards Contribution…………………………………………………... 12 C. Scope of Study….……………………………………………………..... 14 D. Research Methods …....…………………………………………………. 14 E. Chapter Outline ….………………………………………………...... 15

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………… A. Review of Related Theory……………………………………………… 17 1. A Brief Introduction to Sufism …………………………………….. 19 2. The Mystical Stages of Union ……………………………………… 26 B. Review of Previous Study………………………………………………. 28 C. Theoretical Framework………....………………………………………. 36 D. Orhan Pamuk’s Oeuvres and His Background………………………….. 37

CHAPTER III Sufi Framework of Meanings in Relation to The Fundamental Question of Identity Formation in Orhan Pamuk’s The Black Book, , and ……………………………... 40 A. The Sufi Symbolism in The Black Book, Snow, and The Museum of Innocence………………………………………………………...... 42 1. Night/Darkness………. ……………………………………………. 43 2. Raki and The State of Drunkenness…….………………………….. 50 3. Mirror …………………………………………………………….... 56 4. The Scent of Beloved’s Belonging ………………………...... 61 B. The Traits of Love Quest in The Black Book, Snow, and The Museum of Innocence that Reflect the Stages of Sufi Mystical Union …………….. 66 1. The State of Initial Union…………. ...……………………………... 67

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2. The State of Separation………………….…….……………………. 74 2.1 The Pain of Separation……………………………………………… 81 3. The State of re-Union……………………………………....………. 94 4. Conclusion…………………………………………………………. 103

CHAPTER IV The mystical Stages in Turkey’s Identity Quest 105 A. From the Late Ottoman to the Early Republic …………………………. 106 B. The Mystical Stages in Turkey’s Identity Quest ……………………….. 110 1. The Initial Union between the Old and the New Cultural ‘Costume’…………...……………………………………………… 111 2. The Replacement of the Ottoman Heritage with the Secular Western Identity……………………………………………………………… 137 2.1 The Melancholy of Separation from the Cultural Roots…………….………………………….…………………… 143 3. A Dynamic-self : an Amalgam of re-Union of the Old and the New Cultural Identity………………….…………………………………. 159 4. Conclusion………………………………………….………………. 177

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS ………………………..………………….. A. Concluding Remarks ……………………………………………………. 180 B. Ideas for Further Research……………………………………………..... 186

REFERENCES …………………………………………………………….. 187

APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………... 195 Appendix 1. Orhan Pamuk’s Award……...……………………………….. 195 Appendix 2. Orhan Pamuk’s Honorary Degrees&Honours ……………….. 196 Appendix 3. Orhan Pamuk’s Oeuvres...…………………………………… 196

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Abstract

Sri Hariyatmi 2014. The Rise of Spiritual Islam in Turkey’s Identity Quest: Understanding Orhan Pamuk’s Oeuvres Through Sufi Framework Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program of English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University

This study explores the issue of Turkey’s identity quest in Orhan Pamuk’s conception, with particular reference to his The Black Book (1990), Snow (2002), and The Museum of Innocence (2008). These three deal primarily with the issue on Turkey’s identity construction. The nation’s cultural identity quest is contested between two polarities; i.e European and Islamic values, Kemalist vis- à-vis Ottoman past. These conditions tear apart the characters in Pamuk’s three novels in this study and the country as a whole and bring profound sadness and confusion on their identity construction. Drawing on Sufi framework as theoretical concept, the aim of this study is to explore Pamuk’s conception on Turkey’s identity quest and to discuss the influence of Sufi framework in Pamuk’s works in order to get a better understanding on Pamuk’s narratives (through Sufi framework). The analysis demonstrated that Pamuk’s three novels under study bear the concept of identity formation within the framework of Sufism. The symbolism in the three novels are common symbolism in Sufi framework leading to the union of the Beloved. The multilayered search which embarked upon the searching of the lost love and ended in finding the true self is the common metaphor in Sufi framework. The journey of Turkey’s identity formation in the three novels showed that Turkey underwent three stages in their identity quest as the three-fold structure of Sufi framework (union, separation, and re-union). The three phases can be outlined as follows: The Meeting between the Old and New Cultural ‘Costume’ signifying the union phase; the separation phase that came as a result of The Replacement of the Ottoman Heritage with the Secular Western Identity; and the re-union phase resulting in a dynamic-Self; that is an Amalgam of re- Union between the Old and the New Cultural Identity.

Keywords: Sufi framework, identity construction, , Ottoman, union, separation, re-union.

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ABSTRAK

Sri Hariyatmi. 2014. Kebangkitan Spiritual Islam Dalam Perjalanan Pencarian Identitas Turki. Memahami Karya Orhan Pamuk dalam Bingkai Sufism. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Pasca Sarjana. Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengeksplorasi isu perjalanan identitas Turki menurut konsep Pamuk dengan menggunakan tiga novelnya The Black Book (1990), Snow (2002) dan The Museum of Innocence (2008). Tiga novel ini berbagi isu yang tentang konstruksi identitas Turki yang terkontestasi diantara dua kutub berbeda yang terus bersinggungan; nilai-nilai Eropa dan Islam serta Kemalis sekularis dan kejayaan masa lalu Ottoman. Sebuah kondisi yang seolah- olah dalam skala kecil membelah keutuhan karakter dalam ketiga novel Pamuk dan berkelindan dengan isu konstruksi identitas Turki sebagai sebuah bangsa yang sarat problematika. Dengan menggunakan framework Sufisme sebagai landasan teori, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menggali konsep perjalanan identitas menurut Pamuk serta melihat bagaimana konsep perjalanan identitas dalam kerangka Sufi menjadi sarana untuk memahami karya-karyanya. Berdasarkan analisis yang telah dilakukan, ditemukan bahwa bahwa ketiga novel Pamuk dalam penelitian ini sarat dengan konsep konstruksi identitas dalam kerangka Sufi. Simbolisme dalam tiga novel Pamuk simbolisme yang umum digunakan dalam kerangka Sufi yang nantinya akan menuju penyatuan dengan yang terkasih. Pencarian berlapis yang diawali dengan pencarian sang terkasih yang menghilang, pada akhirnya berakhir pada penemuan keutuhan jati diri adalah metaphor dalam kerangka Sufi. Dalam perjalanan pencarian jati dirinya Turki melalui tiga tahap yang sama dengan tahapan pencarian jati diri dalam kerangka Sufisme. Tahapan dimaksud adalah perjumpaan, perpisahan, dan perjumpaan kembali yang dikategorikan sebagai berikut; Perjumpaan antara Kostum Budaya Lama dan Baru yang mewakili fase perjumpaan, fase perpisahan terjadi sebagai akibat dari Penggantian Warisan Kebudayan Ottoman dengan Identitas Sekuler Barat, dan tahap perjumpaan kembali menghasilkan Identitas yang Dinamis sebagai amalgamasi antara Identitas Kultural Lama dan Baru.

Kata kunci: kerangka Sufi, konstruksi identitas, Kemalism, Ottoman, perjumpaan, perpisahan, perjumpaan kembali.

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

I am living in a culture where the clash of East and West, or the harmony of East and West is the lifestyle. That is Turkey- Orhan Pamuk1

A. The Issue at Hand

Turkey is an exceptional country where two civilizations, i.e. East and West, meet. It serves as a bridge that stretches out between two horizons of dominant believes system in which the unique amalgam of Eastern and Western traditions mingle. The real major bridge lying over the Bosphorus strait unites these two worlds: the European and Asian sides of . Back to its glorious past as one of the grandest world empire, Turkey is a historical rendezvous2 of diverse civilizations, especially , Persia, Byzantium, and Ottoman, that makes it a meeting point of numerous traditions. This meeting brings a distinctively unique atmosphere in Turkish identity construction.

Turkey’s position as a bride between the two continents Asian and European is hypothesized by Huntington in his controversial book The Clash of Civilization and the Remaking of World Order (1996), being a bridge between cultures, cements Turkey’s position as a country whose sense of identity will remain forever torn. Huntington believes that as a rendezvous amongst two civilizations,

Turkey exhibits ‘a fair degree of cultural homogeneity, but is divided over

1 Quoted from Brian Lavery, “In the Thick Change Where Continents Meet,” New York Times (27 August 2003), 3.

2 A term borrowed from A. Bagus Laksana’s article “Istanbul: Melancholy yang Mendera,” Basis 6 (01-02), 2013: 28- 35.

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whether its society belongs to one civilization or another. Turkey is, the most obvious and prototypical, torn country.’3

Turkish Nobel Laureate 2006, Orhan Pamuk, who is recognized worldwide for his most acclaimed work Benim Adim Karmizi (My Name is Red, 1998, 2000), and Kar (Snow, 2002, 2004) seems to grab Huntington’s notion of “torn country”.

The reason is that he focuses his works on the melancholy of Turkey’s identity construction within its East and West conflicts.4 However, he argues with

Huntington’s thesis that the confrontation between East and West will forever tear his country apart. In his Paris Review he observes:

I’m an optimist. Turkey should not worry about having two spirits, belonging to two different cultures, having two souls. Schizophrenia makes you intelligent. You may lose your relation with reality- I’m a fiction writer, so I don’t think that’s such a bad thing- but you shouldn’t worry about your schizophrenia. If you worry too much about one part of you killing the other, you’ll be left with a single spirit. That is worse than having the sickness. This is my theory. I try to propagate it in Turkish politics, among Turkish politicians who demand that the country should have one consistent soul- that it should belong to either the East or the West or be nationalistic. I’m critical of that monistic outlook.5

In this commentary, Pamuk recognizes that identity formation is an ongoing process and requires an interaction with others, with the world around. It is an endless flux of negotiation with outward milieu which is dynamic and fluid in nature. Pamuk’s complex understanding of the East and West identity recalls Said definition that “identity does not necessarily imply ontologically given and

3 Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilization and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon, 1996), 42.

4 David N. Coury, “”Torn Country”: Turkey and the West in Orhan Pamuk’s Snow,” Critique 50. 4 (2009): 340-349, 345.

5 Orhan Pamuk, Other Colors, trans. Maureen Freely (New York: Alfred A. Knof, 2008), 369.

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eternally determined stability, or uniqueness, or irreducible character, or privileged status as something total and complete in and of itself”.6 Therefore,

Pamuk points out that rejecting other elements that make up identity will be even worse than having ‘schizophrenia’. In a similar tone, ,7 the darling of the world’s devout seeker, says the following:

This human is guesthouse every morning a new arrival a joy, a depression, meanness. Some momentary awareness comes as an unexpected visitor. Welcome and entertain them all! Even if they are a crowd of sorrows who violently sweep your house empty of its furniture. Still treat each guest honorably. He may be cleaning out for some new delight. The dark, thought, the shame, the malice met them at the door laughing and invite them in, be grateful for whoever comes because each has been sent as a guide from the beyond.8

Rumi suggests that in his quest, a person is a craft for innumerable experience of diverse interactions he encounters with other people. To achieve the wholeness, he should celebrate all similar grace that comes along visiting him; either the good or bad thing, as they are essential elements on his travel to seek his true self.

6 Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York: Vintage Books, 1993), 315.

7 Rumi, the Sufi poet par excellence, was born in , northern Persia (contemporary northern Afghanistan) in September 30, 1207 and died in Konya (a town in contemporary central south eastern Turkey) in December 17, 1273. His father Baha'uddin, a respected Islamic scholar and mystic, led the family on a twelve year migration, (likely due to the imminent arrival of the Mongol army), across , , Iraq and Turkey, eventually settling in Konya, the capital of Rum around 1229. Rumi's relocation from one place to other places shows that his life was not the life of an ordinary man living peacefully in a settled family and society. This state of affairs that tear him away from the soil that had been the home of his family affects his tales that yearning for union. One can feel and imagine Rumi’s longing and agony for his ‘home’ in his masterpieces: Mathnavi, Diwan-i- Shams-i , and his table talk (Discourse of Rumi). See Rumi The Book One, trans. Jawid Mojaddedi (Oxford: Oxford UP 2008): xiii-xix.

8 Rumi Masnavi III, 3256 qtd in Annemarie Schimmel, As Through a Veil: Mystical Dimension of Poetry inIslam (New York: Columbia University Press 1982), 19.

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However, Turkey’s unique role as the bridge between two dominant civilizations breathes a certain melancholy of predicament or a confusion of loss identity brought by the conflict amongst European and Islamic values, between

Kemalist secularism and their Ottoman past. The secular reorganization of the

Ottoman Empire began with the (restructuring) reforms of 1839. Sultan

Mahmud II executed a series of reforms by virtue of which the empire was to assert itself vis-`a-vis Western accomplishments.9

With the determined leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk,10 the elite who founded the Turkish Republic on the ashes of the empire in 1923, Turkey pursued a more radical modernization. He proposed the principle of secularism, in which the religion would be controlled by the state rather than separated from it, as the cornerstone of his reforms11. These reforms represented a radical leap and a cultural separation from the past, partly because they disowned the Islamic heritage of the Ottoman system, as Ataturk wanted to create a new Turkish identity opposed to Ottoman identity with its roots in Islam. Ataturk believes that

9 Charter Vaughn Findley, “The Tanzimat” in The Cambridge , ed. Kemal H. Karpat (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008): 11-37, 11-12.

10 Atatürk means “father Turk, ancestor of Turks” was the name given to Mustafa Kemal by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey following the Law on Family Names in 1935, and nobody is allowed to use this surname as it is reserved exclusively for Mustafa Kemal. See Soner Cagaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey. Who is a Turk? (London: Rouledge, 2006) for more details on Westernization project in Turkey.

11 Soner Cagaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey. Who is a Turk (London: Rouledge, 2006), 63.

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to achieve his modernization agenda, the logical step he should take was to annul the cultural identity of being a Muslim.12

Atatürk’s Republic closed down various religious in Turkey and destroyed the hybridity of Ottoman or Turkish Islam. The decision to choose

Ankara as the state capital instead of Istanbul, which was the soul of the Ottoman empire for 450 years, the use of Latin alphabet instead of script, the regulation to have a family name, the abolition of medrese-religious college and lodges as they symbolize the backwardness, and the abolition of the caliphate13 along with the office of Syeh-ul-islam14 were some of radical reforms executed by Atatürk. The outlaw of fez15 was considered as a great symbolic revolution since it was an important symbol of Muslim culture.16

These cultural and political discontinuities between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey have unavoidably created a cultural vacuum, which produced an identity crisis.17 The westernization agenda that provides two extreme choices for Turkey, i.e. completely Western or totally Eastern would

12 Soner Cagaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey. Who is a Turk (London: Rouledge, 2006), 65.

13 of the community of Islam in the period of Ottoman Empire (1260-1923).

14 The highest religious community in the Ottoman Empire.

15 Headgear worn by Muslim men. It was also an official headgear of the army and civil service in the era of Ottoman Empire. In 1925 Turkey enacted the Hat Law that required the Turkish to wear Western hats instead of their . This law forbade the use of any other head gear. Mustafa Kemal considered that the law was an important tool for him to modernize Turkish society and join European civilization. See Camilla T. Nereid,” Kemalism on the Catwalk: the Turkish Hat Law of 1925” Journal of Social History (Spring 2011): 707- 726, 723.

16 Sooner Cagaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey. Who is a Turk? (London: Rouledge, 2006), 13.

17 Feroz Ahmad, Turkey the Quest for Identity (Oxford: One World Publication, 2003), 77.

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bring danger for the future of the nation. On the one hand, if the westernization project were taken by the negation of Ottoman system and the adoption of

Western mode, Turkey would lose its national distinctiveness. On the other hand, if the Islamic legal frame of Ottoman legacy were maintained, Turkey would not be able to modernize and become part of ‘civilized world”.18 This dilemma has been haunting Turkey’s national identity and has resulted in a certain melancholy in Turkey’s identity quest.

For Pamuk, however, this identity crisis becomes his sea of inspirations. As the Ottoman Empire and Atatürk’s westernization long for inventing a new image to transform Turkey, Pamuk skillfully interweaves these crisis for the newness of life and for adoption of another culture as a natural void inside us into a unique tapestry of identity quest. This searching for other-self becomes the soul of his novels. He weaves this transformation and sprinkles it with the nostalgia of the past glory and the dynamics of modernity that Turkey undergoes in their past and present days.

The agenda of modernity in Turkey’s history is characterized by the abolishment of Turkey’s cultural root (Ottoman Islam heritage). This abolition resulted in a certain melancholy as Turkey has to abandon their cultural identity and replace it with totally new culture (Western culture). In Pamuk’s novels this melancholy is intertwined with the pain of separation from the beloved or the longing for the alterity in order to achieve the so called wholeness.

18 Alev Cinar, Modernity, Islam, and (Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), 14.

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The story of The Black Book (1990)19 that Galip recites to the BBC film crew, narrating a nineteenth century prince who tries to become his own self by getting rid of people, books, furniture, and anything that might make him wants to be someone else. Allthough boredom and solitude take over his life; he never stops trying to clear his head of alien matter. The prince’s effort shows that to resist newness is to reject the stuff of life. He envies the “stones in the desert for just being themselves,” until he dies in his loneliness in a practically vacant room painted white.

The story reveals that the capacity to be in relation with the other is an essential part of the self in identity construction as humans are naturally open to outside influence, change, and a new experience. Therefore, Rumi reminds us that within people there are always longing and desire, that even the whole world were theirs to own, still they would find no rest or comfort. Refusing new idea or imposing one particular concept will be a blunder in identity construction as fixity of the self is an illusion in identity searching. Identity, as Bauman shows, ‘is not secured by a long life guarantee, it is eminently negotiable and revocable’.20

Identity in Pamuk’s tales is his best companion in narrating how his country came into being21. This enormous theme is always contested and negotiated within the mist of East and West’s dichotomy and enveloped inside the richness

19 Orhan Pamuk, The Black Book, trans. Maureen Freely (London: Faber and Faber, 2006). Unless specified, all further reference to The Black Book henceforth BB.

20 Zygmunt Bauman, Identity: conversations with Benedetto Vecchi (Cambridge: Polity Press. 2004), 11.

21 Based on Margaret Atwood’s review on Orhan Pamuk’s Snow, entitled, "Headscarves to Die For," New York Times, August 15, 2004.

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of Turkey’s history. The way Pamuk flirts with history and mixes it with a breathtaking love story takes his readers into a maze of imaginative bewilderment with ‘a number of fresh, intact, and new possibilities’.22

Erdağ Göknar 23 states that historicity has been an issue in all of Pamuk’s works which focusing around four major ideas: “Ottoman history in European context, the transition from Ottoman Empire to modern Middle East, the early- twentieth- century Kemalist revolution, and the legacy of all three on present day

Turkey”.24 Pamuk’s oeuvre in general, is characterized by constant exposition of the tension between East-West long standing relations as well as the quest of

Turkish identity vis-à-vis the pull of Islam and the lure of European modernity.

Interestingly, the tension between East and West in Pamuk’s novels offers multi-faceted prisms of meaning and the meaning of identity formation which will never be the same again after he transforms the characters in his novels by using his distinctive way. Pamuk intimately flirts with the bipolar notion of East and West then collaboratively paints it on his canvas of thought.

In the end, he tickles his readers with a new color of paradigms that lies between these two endless sources of ‘inspiration’. Pamuk’s novels that thoroughly constructed as synthesis of East and West’s along with its legacy and the influence of other literary figures is inevitable because “all fables are

22 Orhan Pamuk, Other Colors, trans. Maureen Freely (New York: Alfred A. Knof. 2008).

23 Erdağ M. Göknar is Assistant Professor of Turkish Studies at Duke University and an award- winning literary translator for his translation on Orhan Pamuk’s My Name is Red.

24 Göknar, ‘Orhan Pamuk and the Ottoman Theme,” World Literature Today (2006): 34-37.

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everybody’s fables”.25 Pamuk’s galaxy of ideas displays fluidity of East and West everlasting bond. Apparently, Pamuk succeeded to weave Rumi’s idea that either the Westerner or the Easterner is stranger to one another.26

How Pamuk’s knits the ‘sacred’ meeting between East and West along with the complexity of his country’s history and intertwines it with a love story within an individual identity predicament into a delicate wave of tapestry, raise my interest to do research based on his oeuvre. Reading Pamuk’s tales along with the narration of his country, Turkey, will inspire the readers to explore the richness of various perspectives in solving issues related to identity formation and cultural plurality. It will encourage Indonesian readers to study more about their differences as they will encounter labyrinth of identity quest coated with the ghostly presence of the past lost glory and the dynamics of modern life’s contested identity within its plurality. Pamuk’s oeuvre will also take us into different angle in deciphering a problem, as he offers an appealing alternative to the obstacles a multicultural country has to deal with.

Understanding Pamuk’s tales means raising our awareness to be more tolerant in perceiving difference and in solving issues and conflicts from different point of view as life is richer than it seems. Inclination toward specific or essential dogmas in the midst of diversity will merely leave one of us scarred.

Critics argue that Pamuk’s corpuses are highly influenced by Western literary figures. His first and last political novel, Snow (2004), evoked comparison to Frantz Kafka’s The Castle. (1994) is described by reviewers as

25 Orhan Pamuk, My Name is Red, trans. Erdağ Göknar (London: Faber and Faber 2001), 428.

26 A.J Arberry, Discourses of Rumi (London: J. Murray, 1961), 99.

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James Joyce’s Ulysses with the light touch. The Black Book is acclaimed as a combination of the narrative trick of Italo Calvino and the medieval esoteric of

Umberto Eco. His memoirs Istanbul: The Memories and the City (2006) is placed alongside ’s Dublin and Robert Musil’s Vienna.27

Pamuk himself also acknowledges the influence of those writers in his writing. As he confesses in Other Colors:

All my books are made from a mixture of Eastern and Western methods, styles, habits, and histories, and if I am rich it’s thanks to these legacies. My comfort, my double happiness, comes from the same source: I can, without any quilt, wander between two worlds, and in both I am at home. Conservatives and religious fundamentalists who are not at ease in the West, as I am, and idealist modernist who are not ease with tradition, will never understand how this might be possible.28

Thus, East and West are a career29 for Pamuk. He earns his international standing from his restless effort wandering between these two worlds-resulting in in- between amalgams of these two distinctive houses of civilizations that become part of his career. He also clarifies that he admires some Russian writers and dedicates four chapters in his essay to discuss the books of Nabokov, Hugo, and mostly Dostoyevsky. These authors are those who leave foot prints in his heart for the beauty of their texts.30

Apart from the influence of Western canonical literary figures, the traits in

Pamuk’s novels are identity predicament folded in a blanket of the melancholy of

27 My own summary based on National Book Festival 2010 in Washington DC.

28 Orhan Pamuk, Other Colors Trans. Maureen Freely (New York: Alfred A. Knof. 2008), 264.

29 A modification based on the original version “The East is a Career” of Disdraeli’s 1847 novel Tancred used by Said as the opening quotation in his Orientalism.

30 Orhan Pamuk, Other Colors, trans. Maureen Freely (New York: Alfred A. Knof. 2008): 134- 153.

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nostalgia he refers as hüzün in Istanbul: Memories and the City. He weaves the yearning and despair for newness of the Venetian slave and his master Hoja in

The White Castle. He also flirts constantly with loneliness that he portrays in “his first and political novel” Snow.31 It is a tale that depicts inconsolable solitude of wandering poet Ka. He is torn between his Western’s intelligentsia and his East’s

‘backward’ origin.

The agony of losing memory and identity is beautifully written in The Black

Book. His last novel The Museum of Innocence32 recounts an obsessive tragic love story within the dynamic of Turkish modernization and the immortal theme of

East and West meeting. These novels reveal that the soul of Pamuk’s tales somehow whispers similar voice with Rumi’s doctrine in his Mathnavi (the spiritual verses of Rumi’s masterpiece which contains 25.700 couplets, amassed in six volumes).

Mathnavi demands the “listeners to hear the story of human love and separation”.33 The opening of Mahnavi opens with The Song of the reed, the opening poem in Rumi’s Mathnavi in which Rumi uses the metaphor of a reed cut from a reed bed and then made into a flute which becomes a symbol of a human separated from its source, the Beloved. And as the reed flute wails all day, telling

31 Orhan Pamuk, Snow, trans. Maureen Freely (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002).

32 Pamuk, The Museum of Innocence, trans. Maureen Freely (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009). All future reference to The Museum of Innocence will henceforth by MoI.

33 Rumi, Spiritual Verses, trans. Alan Williams (London: Penguin Classic, 2006), xvii.

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about its separation from the reed bed, Rumi wails all day telling about being separated from his Beloved and the deep longing to reunite with it again. 34

Similar song is sung in Pamuk’s tales; it sings the ecstatic longing for the loss of Turkey’s origin in the present Turkey’s life. Being cut from the continuity of Ottoman Empire’s legacy and Turkey’s cultural root, the characters in Pamuk’s novels are wandering constantly between two different polarizations, trapping in a deep lamentation of losing their cultural roots and suffering from profound bewilderment of choosing one identity over another on their travel to their ‘true’ self in their identity quest.

Hence, to unfold the dynamic of Turkey identity’s predicament as well as the solution that Pamuk has to offer, this study formulates the research questions as follows:

1. How is the Sufi framework of meaning in the The Black Book,

Snow, and The Museum of Innocence shown in terms of

symbolism, metaphors, and the stages of identity formation?

2. How does Sufi framework indirectly influence Pamuk’s concept of

identity formation in The Black Book, Snow, and The Museum of

Innocence?

B. Towards a Contribution

The present work hopes to anticipate its major contribution toward a better understanding of Pamuk’s three novels in terms of mystical understanding through the Sufi framework of identity formation as the theoretical concept.

34 See Rumi Masnavi Book One, trans. Jawid Mojaddedi (Oxford: Oxfor UP, 2008): 4-5.

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This study is expected to provide an alternative on the diversity of literary horizon, particularly literary oeuvre from Middle East/ Turkey which is still less explored by Indonesian scholars specifically scholars from Sanata Dharma

University. As Turkey and Indonesia share comparable history as well as contemporary issues of contested identity within plurality, studying will be beneficial for Indonesian scholars to attain better understanding of other cultures as well as their own. In view of this, certain parallel in the identity quest of Indonesia and Turkey may emerge.

Another hope is that this study will provide more angles and perspectives in conducting research on identity formation by employing the concept of the Sufi framework of identity construction. Sufism is astoundingly not merely about

Rumi and the exquisite beauty of his love poems, but it also offers rich layers of identity searching theory.

The widely known theory used in exploring the identity formation or doubling identity is Freud’s psychoanalysis theory; Lacan’s mirroring stage35, and Bhabha’s poscolonial concepts (mimicry, hybridity, and liminality).36

35 One example of a research that used Jaques Lacan’s Mirroring Stage is a Ph.D. dissertation of Semra Saraçoğlu’s entitled Self Reflexivity in Modern Text: a Comparative Study of the Works of John Fowles and Orhan Pamuk.( Turkey: Middle East Technical University, 2003).

36 The example of a research that used Bhabha’ theory of mimicry is research article of Nagihan Haliloğlu entitled “Re-Thinking Ottoman Empire: East West Collaboration in Orhan Pamuk’s ,”In Re-Thinking Europe Literature and (Trans)National Identity Vol. 55. Eds. Bemong Nele, Mirjam Truwant, and Pieter Vermeulen. (Amsterdam: Rodopi,2008); a research article that also applied Bhabha’s theory of hybridityand in-betweenness is written by Rezzan Kocaöner Silkü, “Nation and Narration”: Cultural Interactions in Orhan Pamuk's My Name is Red, Aesthetic Education 37 (2003): 1-13; another research that employed Bhabha’s concept of liminality is a Ph.D. dissertation of Leyla Yücel, An Experimental Analysis: The Problem of Liminality in Orhan Pamuk’s The Black Book and The New Life, Unpublished Dissertation (Belgium: Ghent University, 2013).

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However, only few researches explore identity construction by using the Sufi’s framework of identity formation.

As corollary to the above, this work hopes to supplement the limited corpus of studying Middle Eastern literature on Orhan Pamuk’s works. Finally, it is the hope that the spiritual dimension of the Sufi framework of identity formation may be promoted by this work.

C. Scope of the Study

The study will be focusing on three novels of Orhan Pamuk: The Black

Book, Snow, and The Museum of Innocence in order to unravel how Pamuk exposes the dynamics of identity formation in the structure and direction in these three novels, and how far the Sufi framework of human identity quest helps us to understand the overall and deeper structure of his narrative.

All the three novels selected in this study exemplify Turkey identity quest that evokes the concept of identity construction within Sufi framework.

Therefore, this study should reveal the influence of Sufi framework of identity formation in Pamuk’s identity concept.

D. Research Method

This study is a library research where data gathering is divided into two categories: primary and secondary data. The primary data of this study is Orhan

Pamuk’s novels, particularly The Black Book (1994), Snow (2004), and The

Museum of Innocence (2008). The secondary data will be taken from criticism, articles, and journals discussing and analyzing Orhan Pamuk and his literary

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works. In addition to these, Orhan Pamuk’s biography, Istanbul Memories of the

City (2006), his collected essay Other Colors (2007) and his other novels37 will also be employed as the source of secondary data.

This library research will employ descriptive qualitative method to describe the collected data. The data are piled by close reading of the novels, summarizing the conflicts, actions, textual evidences, and interpretations. Afterwards, the data will be analyzed to answer the research questions in the preceding subchapter.

E. Chapter Outline

The material of this work is divided thematically. Chapter one is to provide the basic information on the subject matter which comprises of the background of the study, research questions, significance of the study and methodology of the study. Chapter two is literature review that presents a brief summary of related previous studies conducted on similar literary works, the theory employed in the study, and the theoretical framework of the study. To familiarize the readers with

Orhan Pamuk and his oeuvre, the summary of his selected literary works and his brief biography will also be presented in this chapter. The next chapter will discuss the answers to the research questions. Each answer would deserve one chapter discussion. Thus, chapter three will discuss the Sufi framework of meaning in terms of symbolism and the stages of identity formation that shown in the three novels in the present study. Chapter four will examine the tension and complexity of identity formation in Pamuk’s novels and the influence of Sufi

37 So far Pamuk has written eight novels including the three novels used as the primary data in this study. Other novels written by Pamuk are Cevdet Bey and His Son (1982- no English translation available until now), The (1983, English translation available in 2012), The White Castle (1985), The New Life (1994), and My Name is Red (1998).

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framework of identity formation on Pamuk’s identity quest presented in The

Black Book, Snow, and The Museum of Innocence. The final chapter concludes the work by presenting the findings and implications of the study. Selected bibliography that contains of the works cited in this study as references or works which are not cited, but have been helpful in the process of writing will be placed on the last part of the thesis.

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Everyone is sometimes a Westerner and sometimes an Easterner - in fact a constant combination of the two- Pamuk38

A. Review of Related Theory

Defining identity is apparently the heart of Turkey in its relationship with the West and modernity. This notion of identity quest and nationhood is hard to answer. The binary choices they have: to remain completely Eastern or to become totally Western, are problematic,39 as identity construction itself is inseparable from the other self, as reiterated by Galip in The Black Book, “I am both myself and also another”40. Galip discovers a simple truth that unless he interacts with outward milieu he will not develop as a subject. As Bhabha also argues, identity formation is a result of long contact with one another and this contact leads to the process of identity construction.41

Pamuk’s narratives, as mentioned in the preceding chapter, deal a lot with the journey of identity construction. This theme is echoed continuously in his oeuvres and apparently becomes the main issue in almost every tale he writes.

The so called identity quest in Pamuk’s tales offers multiple layers of complexities. People will undergo in their search for their real self as identity

38 Orhan Pamuk, Other Colors, trans. Maureen Freely (New York: Alfred A. Knof, 2008), 370.

39 Alev Çivnar, Modernity, Islam, and Secularism in Turkey (Minnesota: Minnesota UP, 2005), 14.

40 Orhan Pamuk, The Black Book, trans. Maureen Freely (London: Faber and Faber, 2006), 388.

41 Homi K. Bhaba, The Location of Culture (London: Rouledge, 1994), 2.

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constructions provides dynamism in its nature. As Pamuk writes in Snow, longing for new identity will elevate diverse complexity as undergoes by the poet

Ka. He is bewildered between his Western upbringing and his Turkish origin.

The Western values he holds dearly gives him a solitude life in return, whereas the traditional ‘backward’ ethics of his native country rewards him the sound of his muse that has been absent for four years and break the tumult of writing block he suffers while he lives in Frankfurt.

In Sufi perspective, identity quest is part of its grand narrative. Sufism addresses the few who yearn for answer on the deepest level to the question of who they are and in a manner that would touch and transform their whole being.

The Sufi path is the means within the Islamic tradition of finding the ultimate answer to this basic question and of discovering our real identity.42

Identity searching is an endless journey as long as the heart is still beating. Therefore every created self will continue developing and unfolding their “I”. Sufi perspective believes that no self has achieved its final selfhood as each creature dwells in change and flux. “Every time that I thought I had come to the end of the path,” confesses al- Bistami, “it was made known to me that this was the beginning of it.”43 In travelling this path, the self will start to climb from one ‘station’ to another as a means to access the inner reality. Sufi definition of ‘station’ is what is considered by another as a ’stage’. 44

42Seyyed Hossein Nasr, The Garden of Truth. The Vision and Promise of Sufism, Islam’s Mystical Tradition (New York: Harper Collins, 2008), 4.

43 Eric Geoffrey, Introduction to Sufism. The Inner Path of Islam (Indiana: World Wisdom), 10.

44 Ibid. 10.

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People do not know the full answer of what they are because they are only what they are at the present moment, and at every moment of their existence, they are something new. They are not created by finite, finished identity and they will never be such being. 45They live today and they will live forever in the process of change. “The Sufi is the child of the moment”. Sufi lives in a constant awareness that his self is nothing but what he is at the present moment. 46

1. A Brief Introduction to Sufism.

There is no love but for the First Friend whose naked glory you hide under hundred of veils-Annemarie Schimmel47 In order to approach Sufism, it is worth relaxing for a moment to bear in mind on the idea of as relating to “something mysterious, not to be reached by ordinary means or by “intellectual effort”, but by closing “the eyes” as

45 William C. Chittick Sufism a Beginner’s Guide (Oxford: One World Publication, 2008), 61.

46 Ibid, 54-55.

47 Annemarie Schimmel (1922-2003) was a professor of comparative religion in Harvard University. She was a German orientalist, fascinated with the and wrote extensively on Islam and Sufism. She was also a much sought after lecturer who could lecture without a manuscript in German, English, , Turkish, or with manuscript in French, Arabic, Russia, and Urdu. Her teaching post included University which gave her ‘obsession’ with Rumi, Bonn University, and Harvard University. Her classes on Sufism were well attended and her teaching materials resulted in her most celebrated book Mystical Dimension of Islam. The book is considered classic in the field on Islamic mysticism.

She published more than 800 hundred books and essays and earned an impressive number of honorary doctorates, prizes, and medals during her academic life. Retiring from Harvard in 1992, she came back to Germany and continued teaching and lecturing in Bonn University. In 1995 she received the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade Association, honoring “her achievement in generating East and West understanding.” Annemarie Scimmel died on January 26, 2003 of complications following surgery. Summarized based on her biography on the website of the Harvard University (http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/12.16/31-mm.html).

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the Greek myein root suggests.48 The origin of Sufism can also be traced upon via the etymology of the Arabic word tasawwuf, referring to the action of being Sufi.

As Hujwiri, an eminent medieval scholar and authority on Sufism summaries his treatise on Sufism:

Some assert that the Sufi so called because he wears a woolen garment (jāma-i şūf), or others that he is so called because he is in the first rank (saff- i awwal), others say it is because the Sufis claim to belong to the ashāb- i Şuffa (the people of the Bench who gathered around the Prophet’s ). Others, again, declare that the name is derived from şāfā (purity).49

Another definition is that the word Sufi is derived from the word suf, wool, and modern scholars have concluded that Sufi most likely original meaning is one who wears wool.50 Of their own origins, the Sufis themselves have this to say:

Sufism is founded on eight qualities exemplified in eight apostles: the generosity of Abraham, the acquiescence of Ishmael, the patience of Job, the symbolism of Zacharia, the strangerhood of John, the pilgrimhood of Jesus, the wearing of wool by Moses, and the poverty of Muhammed.51

Sufism or commonly recognized as generally accepted name for Islamic mysticism is a teaching about the different paths or methods human beings should follow in order to get closer to God and eventually unite with Him. William

Chittick states that Sufism is the universal manifestation of Islam, in which ‘man

48 Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam (Chapell Hill: The University of North Carolina Press 1975), 3.

49 Al-Hujwiri Ali B. al Jullabi, The Kash al Mahjub; The Oldest Persian treatise on Sufism, Trans& ed R.A. Nicholson (Great Britain: Lowe& Brydone, 1911), 30 qtd in Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam (Chapell Hill: The University of North Carolina Press 1975), 14.

50 William C. Chittick, Sufism a Beginner’s Guide (Oxford: One World Publication, 2008), 22.

51 Schimmel, 1975: 14-15.

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transcends his own individual self and reaches God”.52 Most Western scholars like

William Stoddart think that Sufism is to Islam what Yoga is to Hinduism, Zen to

Buddhism, and mysticism to Christianity.53 In Schimmel worlds Sufism is “an exteriorization of Islam, a personal experience of the central mystery of Islam, that of tauhid “to declare that God is One.”54 It is “the esoteric or inward (bātin) aspect of Islam, is to be distinguished from exoteric or “external” (zāhir)”.55

Broadly, Sufism has been demarcated by scholars and commentators, traditional and contemporary, as sober and intoxicated.56 The sober Sufism is characterized by the courtesy of a servant’s relationship with his Lord. Sobriety allows for clear differentiation between God and correlates with the distinction between Creator and creatures and is associated with wonderment, awe, contraction, and fear.57 Sober Sufism tends to attract the more educated practitioners who are willing to devote long hours to study texts that are as hard as the works on jurisprudence, , or philosophy. They discover their natural home in prose, which is perfectly suited for the theological abstraction and legal analysis.58

52 Chittick, The Sufi Doctrine of Rumi (Indiana: World Wisdom, 2005), 9.

53 William Stoddart, Sufism- The Mystical Doctrines and Methods of Islam (Wellingborough: Thorsons Publishers Limited, 1976), 19.

54 Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam (North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press, 1975), 17.

55 Titus Buckard, Introduction to Sufi Doctrine (Indiana: World Wisdom, 2008), 3.

56 , Sufism a Beginner’s Guide (Oxford: One World Pulication, 2008), 34.

57 Ibid. 32.

58 Ibid. 33.

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In contrast, the intoxicated Sufism is characterized by attaining the eternal source of all beauty and loves within themselves and tend to de-emphasize the

Sharia and declare union with God openly. 59They see God in all things and lose the ability to discriminate between Him and His creation.60 Intoxication is associated with expansion, hope, and intimacy with God. Intoxicated Sufism celebrates God’s presence in the medium of poetry, which is ideally suited to describe the imaginal realm of unveiled, unitary knowledge. 61 Unlike sober

Sufism, intoxicated rarely demonstrates interest in juridical issues or theological debates. They see God in all things and lose the ability to discriminate between

Him and creation. 62

The classic example of the contrast between two literary figures of high point in the Sufi tradition is Ibn ‘Arabi and Rumi. The former wrote voluminously in enormously erudite and exceedingly difficult Arabic prose and address theoretical issues arises in Islamic thought and practice that only those most learned in Islamic sciences could hope to understand them. The later wrote over

70,000 verses of intoxicating-poetry in a language that any Persian speaking

59 William Chittick, Sufism: a Beginner’s Guide (Oxford: One World Publication, 2008), 32.

60 This credo encourages dispute between Sufism and Orthodox Islam. The notion of the highest point in Sufism’s spirituality regarded as the greatest in Orthodox Islam. The most well known story about the clash between these two polarities is the execution of Husayn Ibn Mansûr, known to fame as al Hallâj (cotton-carder) who once declared his union with God openly by his most celebrated of all Sufi claims “ana Al- Haqq, I’m the Absolute Truth.” A claim that equivalent to “I’m God.” As a result, Hallaj was beheaded on 26 March 922. Despite of this occurrence, Hallaj’s name, as Attar puts has become “a symbol of martyr of love, unitive experience, and a lover greatest sin to divulge the secret of his love. See Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam (New York: Columbia UP, 1975): 62-68 and R.A. Nicholson, The Mystic of Islam (Indiana: World Wisdom, 2002): 106-7.

61 Chittick, 2008, 32.

62 Chittick, 2008, 33.

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Muslim could understand.63 However, the contrast between these two writers should not suggest that Rumi was anti-rational or unlearned, or that Ibn ‘Arabi was not a lover and a poet. Rumi and Ibn ‘Arabi are the model of human perfection yielding differences in perspective and rhetorical means, despite a unity of purposes. argues strongly that Rumi and Ibn ‘Arabi belongs to a similar group of fidèles d’ amour.64

Sufism briefly is composed of mystic teachings and methods of gaining what is considered by Sufis to be true knowledge. It is at the same time a ‘way of

Love’ that leads to total unification with God. 65 Moving beyond the or the

Islamic Law, and focusing their attention on the tarīqa or the mystical path and the haqīqa or the truth, the ultimate goal of Sufism is to be intimately re-united with the Divine Beloved.66

The entire process of striving intimacy with the Divine Beloved involves the purification of one’s character, both spiritually and morally. This refinement in

Islam is known as the basis of “greater holy war” and is characterized by struggling against one’s or carnal soul. This struggle can manifest in rituals of self-mortification and the dispelling of the bodily and worldly attachments.67

The path or journey that man takes toward the union with God:

63 William C Chittick, Sufism: a Beginner’s Guide (Oxford: One World Publication, 2008): 31-5.

64 Henry Corbin, Creative Imagination in the Sufism of Ibn’Arabi (London: Rouledge, 2007):70-1.

65 William Stoddart, Sufism-The Mystical Doctrines and Methods of Islam (Wellingborough: Thorsons Publishers Limited, 1976), 48.

66 Eric Geoffrey, Introduction to Sufism: The Inner Path of Islam (Indiana: World Wisdom, 2010), 14.

67 Ibid.11-12.

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is “expressed by the portrayal of human-in-separation, in which the lovers are “torn” apart from each other. The separation is characterized by a quest and a journey back to each other fraught with pain, agony, and intense longing”.This state of affair symbolizes the consciousness of the human soul of its separation from its source (God), and a yearning to return to it. 68 Therefore, most of widely known love romances and allegorical stories in

Sufi poetry such as the tales of Laylâ and Majnûn, Yûsuf (Joseph) and Zulaykhâ, the Moth and the Candle, the Nightingale and the Rose, are:

Shadow-pictures of the soul’s passionate longing to be reunited with God. The soul is likened to a moaning dove that has lost her mate; to a reed torn from its bed and made into a flute whose plaintive music fills the eye with tears; to a falcon summoned by the fowler’s whistle to perch again upon his wrist; to snow melting in the sun and mounting as vapor to the sky; to a frenzied camel swiftly plunging through the desert by night; to a caged parrot, a fish on dry land, a pawn that seeks to become a king.69

In Rumi words, this agony of longing is beautifully depicted in The Lament of the Reed, one of the best Sufi poems ever written:

Now listen to this reed-flute’s deep lament About the heartache being apart has meant: Since from the reed-bed they uprooted me My song’s expressed each human’s agony, A breast which separation’s split in two Is what I seek, to share this pain with you: When kept from their true origin, all yearn For union on the day they can return.70

It is the account of the separation of the lover and the yearning to reunion personified as the ney, reed flute to use as a music instrument by being burned through its core. That ney reed symbolizing human soul expresses the agony of separation from its root (Divine Reality) as well as its emotional longing to

68 Lalita Sinha, Unveiling the Garden of Love Mystical Symbolism in Layla Majnun&Gita Govinda (Indiana: World Wisdom, 2008), 4. 69 Reynold. A. Nicholson, The Mystic of Islam (Indiana: World Wisdom, 2002), 83.

70 Rumi, The Masnavi Book One, trans. Jawid Mojaddedi (Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008), 4.

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remedy the separation of the reed flute of his heart from his Beloved.71 This poem reveals that the longing and emptiness we feel for a lost loved is only a reflection,

“a hologram, of the longing we feel for God; it is the longing we feel to become whole again, the longing to return to the root from which we were cut”.72 Thus

Rumi’s classis poem, the Mathnavi, initiates with the lament of the reed that

“leads the reader into the complexities of human love and separation”.73

Separation is “the human predicament: love is both the cause of, and the solution to, this predicament”.74

In Sufism, the learning is passed on to disciples from a master. Thus, Sufism is “an initiatory path where a master- disciple relationship enables the transmission of spiritual blessing”.75 The final goal of Sufism is to be united with

God in paradoxical way as in Islamic tradition “there is no continuity of substance between God and creation”.76 Therefore Sufi ultimate aim is to vanish in God

(). It means that Sufis are:

removed from from the various temptations of the world, the initiate then knows the intoxication of immersion in the . Being completely unaware of himself as subject-consciousness, he becomes a mirror in which God contemplates Himself.77

71 Shams-i Tabriz, Rumi’s Sun: The Teaching of Shams of Tabriz, trans. Refik Algam and Adam Helminski (Canada: Morning Lights Press, 2008), viii.

72 Jonatan Star, Rumi in the Arms of Beloved (London: Penguin Books, 2008), 18.

73 Rumi, Spiritual Verses, trans. Allan Williams (London: Penguin Books, 2006): xvi-xvii.

74 Ibid. xvii.

75 Eric Geoffrey, Introduction to Sufism: The Inner Path of Islam (Indiana: World Wisdom, 2010), 2.

76 Ibid. 14.

77 Ibid. 14.

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2. The Mystical Stages of Union

As Sufi ultimate goal is to become one with Truth, divine Being, oneness of

Being, or God. Thus, Sufi “sees God in all being, in every manifested thing.”78 It is worth noting that in Sufi tradition the Sufi perceive that all creations are created to discover God in them as stated in the “We shall show them Our signs in the and in themselves until they see that it is the Truth [God].79 The

Quran also says, “To God belong the East and the West: wherever you turn, there is the face of God. For God is All-pervade, All-Knowing” 80

Unio Mystica, the ultimate aim of union with the Divine is achieved at through a process of transformation. Transformation emerges through three stages of mystical development, namely, union, separation, and reunion. Union refers to the state of initial union, a primordial state of the souls and reflects the original, paradisiacal of man. In contrast to union, separation is “the fall of man from his divine state, and the severance of the self from its Center, it involves the crushing of the self or ego and involves great trial and tribulation”, 81 or blessing in disguise because without them the Beloved would not be accomplished. 82 This stage is crucial in journey to union with the Beloved. It is

78 Eric Geoffrey, Introduction to Sufism: The Inner Path of Islam (Indiana: World Wisdom, 2010), 13.

79 Quran 41: 53.

80 William C Chittick, Sufism: a Beginner’s Guide (Oxford: One World Publication, 2008), 30.

81 Lalita Sinha, Unveiling the Garden of Love Mystical Symbolism in Layla Majnun& Gita Govinda (Indiana: World Wisdom, 2008): 47-48.

82 Ibid. 105.

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in separation that reunion is possible. Separation is to transform the self to the next level of his quest. Mysticism symbolizes this transformation in terms of

Alchemy, as explained by Buckhardt as follows:

For true alchemy, the lead or other base metal that was to be transmuted into gold was only a symbol- a very adequate one- of the human soul sunk in the darkness and chaos of passion, while gold represented the original nature of man, in which even the body is ennobled and transfigured by the life of the spirit.83

However, “this process is voluntary, embarked upon by the sole motivation of love as the underlying motif of love is not as means to an end but the end in itself.”84 Hence, the mystic path to the Beloved is depicted by the predicament of the soul as a result of its separation from the Beloved.The last stage of unio mystica is reunion, which

[It] denotes the state of union regained by the human soul after the experience of earthly realities, or separation. Although this state shares similarities to the bliss of union; it is different in that it is concerned of intellectual penetration of the heart, not with the bliss of innocence. The re- union refers to a spiritual return, in which the soul realizes its true self leading to a direct vision of, and identification with the Ultimate Reality. 85

In the context of Pamuk’s oeuvres, the deep longing for a new identity as well as the agony of separation from their traditional self (the Ottoman’s legacy) which is harshly taken from them apparently is the heart of his tales. This endless predicament between being completely East or totally West eventually becomes a unique experience in Pamuk’s hand. He stitches the collective feeling of

83 Titus Buckhardt, Miror of the Intellect: Essays on Traditional Science and Sacred Art, Trans. and ed. William Stoddart (Albany: SUNY Press, 1987), 180.

84 Lalita Sinha, Unveiling the Garden of Love Mystical Symbolism in Layla Majnun& Gita Govinda. ( Indiana: World Wisdom, 2008): 48.

85 Ibid. 47-49.

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melancholy shared by the whole nation into a personal tale of identity quest enveloped in the bittersweet agony of searching for true love, soul- destroying separation from the lover, and the ecstatic longing to reunite with the beloved in worldly context that indirectly expresses ideals associated with the Sufi mystical experience.

Accordingly, the issue to be addressed in the present study is the implicit string between the quests of Turkey’s identity in Pamuk’s tales and the identity formation in Sufi framework.

B. Review of Previous Study

Numerous studies have been done based on Orhan Pamuk’s oeuvres that investigate the intertwined relationship between East and West; the tension between modernity and the deep loss of separation from the Ottoman legacy; the longing to find the new ideal identity and the parallelism between Pamuk’s text and other texts. 86

A research article by Ian Almond, entitled Islam, Melancholy and Sad,

Concrete Minarets: The Futility of Narrative in Orhan Pamuk’s “The Back

Book” examines how Islam is involved in the sadness of Pamuk’s works. Almond employs deconstruction theory in his study and discovers three kinds of sadness

86 The other literary studies and inquires carried out on Pamuk’s oeuvres such as Can V. Yeginsu. “Exile, the Turkish Republic, and Orhan Pamuk”,World Literature Today ( November-December 2006); David J. Gramling. “Pamuk’s Dis-orient: Reassembling Kafka’s The Castle in Snow (2002)” TRANSIT, 3(1), 2007; Grant Fared. “To dig a well with a needle”: Orhan Pamuk’s Poems of Comparative Globalization”The Global South 1.2 (Fall, 2007): 81-99; Kübra Zeynev Sariaslan. Pamuk’s Kars and its Others: An Ethnography on Identifications and Boundaries of Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Secularism, Unpublished Master Thesis (Turkey: Middle East Technical University, 2010); Mary Jo Kietzman. “Speaking “to All Humanity”: Renaissance Drama in Orhan Pamuk’s Snow”.Texas Studies in Literature and Language, 52.3 (Fall, 2010): 325-352 are not discussed as these studies do not support the present study.

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in The Black Book as a result of Islam’s involvement in this novel. The first sadness results from the death of the mysteryand the second sadness arises from the death of identity. In The Black Book, Islam is implicated on the nostalgia for a

“true” identity in two ways: it helps to establish and it is also used to dismantle the notion of a self. The last melancholy is the grief of our own weakness as a consequence of our own unhappiness.87

Nagihan Haliloğlu’s research article’s Re-Thinking Ottoman Empire: East-

West Collaboration in Orhan Pamuk’s The White Castle discusses the relationships between the East and West collaboration by employing Bhabha’s mimicry and Said’s Orientalism. In this study, Nagihan argues that Pamuk identifies orientalism as complicity; the narrative of orientalism is merely an instrument/imagination of the European in producing exotic stories about the East.

As Hoja and the Venetian slave learn about each other’s life through writing that eventually let them to exchange places. The study revealed that The White Castle chronicle is showing how the East and the West collaborate in remembering histories and depicting each other, and the East-West collaboration is not going to be brought through technological partnership but through the means of writing in order to understand each other.88

Similar research on the notion of East and West dichotomy has done by

David N. Cury in his research “Torn County”: Turkey and the West in Orhan

87 Ian Almond, “Islam, Melancholy and Sad, Concrete Minarets: The Futility of Narrative in Orhan Pamuk’s “The Black Book”, New Literary History 34 (2003): 75-90.

88 Nagihan Haliloğlu, “Re-Thinking Ottoman Empire: East West Collaboration in Orhan Pamuk’s The White Castle,” Rethinking Europe 55 (2008): 111-121.

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Pamuks Snow. Cury explored Pamuk’s Snow by using Huntington’s thesis The

Clash of Civilization to show the inclination of this novel to Huntington’s notion of cultural and civilization clash. In his findings Cury states that the novel engages Huntington’s thesis of the clash of civilization along fault lines between

Islam and the West. In addition, the novel also grapples the issue proposed by

Huntington: the issue of Turkey’s position as a country whose sense of identity will remain forever torn, and eventually it will fail to identify its cultural values and sense of nationhood.89

Still lingering on the notion of East and West’s differences based on

Pamuk’s Snow, Mary Jo Kietzman’s research article entitled “Speaking “to All

Humanity”: Renaissance Drama in Orhan Pamuk’s Snow”90 examined Pamuk’s adaptation on Thomas Kyd’s Spanish Tragedy into his work on contemporary

Turkish politics. Kietzman discovers that Pamuk has created “organics combination of Eastern and Western influences” and suggests “a possible other models of modern, pluralistic nation that are dialogic rather than totalitarian as was the Kemalist version of modernity.”91

Aylin Bayrakceken and Don Randall’s research article Meeting East and

West: Orhan Pamuk’s Istabulite Perspective also explored identity construction as a result of East and West meeting. This study tried to investigate “a series of

89 David N. Cury, “Torn County”: Turkey and the West in Orhan Pamuks Snow”. Critique 50. 4 (Summer 2009):340-349.

90 Mary Jo Kietzman, “Speaking “to All Humanity”: Renaissance Drama in Orhan Pamuk’s Snow,” Texas Studies in Literature and Language, 52. 3 (Fall 2010): 325-352.

91 Ibid. 342.

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identity experiment structures” of Pamuk ‘s The White Castle. In analizing the constructruction of Pamuk concept of East and West in The White Castle, this study combined Jacques Lacan’s mirroring phase and Bhaba’s concept of mimicry.

The study concludes that The White Castle shows how Pamuk does not see his country as an “Eastern nation losing its soul to mistaken West- focused aspiration and identification.” Furthermore, the study suggests that the power sturuggle and identity construction in the novel is “a matter of “we” and “they”.

The meeting of these two binary opposition: we/they; East/West encourages cultural transformation where these “inhabiting them can and do interact as well as transform each other,” the way Hoja, the master and his Italian slave eventually exchange places due to their uncanny resemblance (Hoja secures new life in

Venice, Italy as scholar and writer whereas the Italian slave stays in Istanbul continue Hoja’s life in the Otoman court as the Sultan’s imperial astrologist .The study reveals that a novel third identity may emerge from the meeting of East and

West.92

Another research focusing on Turkey’s identity construction based on

Pamuk’s memoirs has been conducted by Adriana d Alves De Paula Martins entitled Orhan Pamuk and the Construction of Turkey’s National Memory in

Istanbul. Memories of a City. Adriana’s objective was to examine how Pamuk‘s

Istanbul “revises Turkish cultural memory at a crucial moment of the country‘s history and how this review addresses the issue of national representation and of a

92 Aylin bayrakceken and Don Randall, “Meeting of East and West: Orhan Pamuk’s Istanbulite Perspective” CRITIQUE 6 (3) (2005): 191-204. Web. January 11. 2014.

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complex and labyrinthine identity.” Applying post-colonial theory in her study,

Adriana Alves concludes that by visiting, and describing the Istanbul of the present through the remains of the past, Pamuk revises and rewrites Turkish official memory, making the Turks and the foreigners aware of the importance of the blend of the East with the West. And what matter the most is not civilizations, but human lives, little things about daily life, little smells, colors, and atmosphere of daily life and their little stories that bring people together by acknowledging their equality in their difference regardless of their East or their West.93

Still focused on the dichotomy of the East and West, a research article by

Rezzan Kocaöner Silkü, entitled “Nation and Narration": Cultural Interactions in

Orhan Pamuk's My Name is Red explores the text as a portrayal of the Ottoman history and Turkish culture with reference to Bhabha’s postcolonial concepts such as hybridity, in- betweenness, or double consciousness, and Said's arguments on the Orient and the Occident. This article shows that Pamuk tried to transgress the cultural boundaries between the East and the West by using in- betweenness as a bridge through the medium of literature. He quotes from the Koran: "To God belongs the East and the West", suggests the unifying aspects of the eastern and western cultures. Orhan Pamuk also transgresses the traditional understanding of point of view in the art of fiction and tells his story from different perspectives, including human beings, animals, colors and corpses that enable him to create

93 Adriana Alves De Paula, “Orhan Pamuk and the Construction of Turkey’s National Memory in Istanbul. Memories of a City,” Mathesis 19 (2010): 169-180.

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suspense for his thriller and establish a bridge between the clashing cultural values of the East and the West.94

Another study applying Bhabha’s concept of liminality is a dissertation of

Leyla Yücel entitled An Experimental Analysis: The Problem of Liminality in

Orhan Pamuk’s The Black Book and The New Life. In this dissertation, Yücel examined the interpretation of Bhabha’s liminality on the concept of liminality within the scope of Turkey’s identity crisis in Pamuk’s The Black Book and The

New Life. Yücel’s research revealed that Bhabhian liminality celebrates hybrid meanings and identities as well as negotiation and mediation of cultures. On the contrary, the problem of liminal identity crisis in Pamuk’s writings is an indicator of the problem of the impossibility of transcending the liminal phase.95

Semra Caraçoğlu, in her doctoral dissertation entitled Self-Reflectivity in

Postmodernist Text: A Comparative Study of the Works of John Fowles and

Orhan Pamuk (2003), observed the comparables features in the novels of one

British and one Turkish writer- John Fowles and Orhan Pamuk. Drawing on

Robert Scholes’ theory of reality, Linda Huncheon’s classification of self- reflexivity, and Jacques Lacan’s The Mirror Stage, this study discovered that the analysis of the six novels (The French Lieutenant’s Woman, The Magus, Daniel

Martin by Fowles, and The Black Book, The New Life, and My Name is Red by

94 Rezzan Kocaöner Silkü, “Nation and Narration": Cultural Interactions in Orhan Pamuk's My Name is Red, Aesthetic Education 37 (2003): 1-13.

95 Leyla Yücel, An Experimental Analysis: The Problem of Liminality in Orhan Pamuk’s The Black Book and The New Life, Unpublished Dissertation (Belgium: Ghent University, 2013).

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Pamuk) demonstrates that self-reflexivity is an indispensable characteristic of postmodern fictions and that Pamuk is more postmodernist compared to Fowles.96

Melİz Ergİn’s doctoral dissertation entitled Eat-West Entanglements:

Pamuk, Özdamar, Derrida (2009), analyzed the representation of cultural, linguistic, and religious tensions chronicled by these authors who have variously inhabited Western and non-Western worlds. The study revealed that Pamuk,

Özdamar, and Derrida accommodate the ever-shifting ways of interaction on the levels of both content and form. They offer examples of grafted genre that accentuate the resemblances in difference across various generic forms. The grafted narratives they construct supersede and re-formulate the permeable boundaries between self and other, and call attention to the many Easts and Wests, enmeshed as they are in one another.97

H.E. Almaz, in his doctoral dissertation entitled Capitalizing Istanbul: reading Orhan Pamuk’s literary cityscape (2011), examined Pamuk’s relevance for cultural debates around urbanization and for literary debates. In conducting his research, Almaz selected six terms that serve as six lenses to explore Pamuk’s work and unpack his introduction of new symbols relating to Istanbul. These are:

(1) the clash and ‘the bridge,’ (2) the quest, (3) exile / home, (4) melancholy, (5) the mist- as an image to describe the ‘soul’ of the city, and (6) Pamuk’s

96 Semra Caraçoğlu, Self-Reflectivity in Postmodernist Text: A Comparative Study of the Works of John Fowles and Orhan Pamuk, Unpublished Dissertation. (Turkey: The Middle East Technical University, 2003).

97 Melİz Ergİn, East-West’s Entanglements: Pamuk, Özdamar, Derrida, Unpublished Dissertation. (Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 2009).

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‘masterpiece.’ These six lenses provide a means to approach the various themes that converge to make Pamuk’s Istanbul a literary capital.98

A recent study by Üner Daglier entitled Orhan Pamuk on the Turkish

Modernization Project: Is It a Farewell to the West? aimed to understand

Pamuk’s optimism in Snow regarding “the rise of political Islam and the future of democracy in Turkey by employing culturalist perspective on modernization and development.” This study make use of Pamuk’s three novels The Black Book, My

Name is Red and Snow in analyzing the connection between and the progress of modernity. These three novels are employed to compare the journey of Turkey’s modernization agenda since the earlier time of Ottoman era and Atatürk’s Westernization project. Based on the comparison of the three novels, the study unfolds that the mission to abandon Turkey’s cultural root and tradition seems undoable due to its “deep-seated cultural tradition” that hold back the progress of modernity.99

In Indonesia, research or articles on Orhan Pamuk’s oeuvre has not yet been widely discussed or done. Only a few, and extremely limited articles on Pamuk’s corpus can be found in articles written by A. Bagus Laksana. In his articles entitled Istanbul: Melankoli yang Mendera, he examines that hüzün, the concept of melancholy in Pamuk’s memoirs Istanbul: Memories and the City and My

Name is Red affects Istanbul and its entirely resident’s feeling toward the declining memory of their past’s legacy in their present identity. Another article

98 H.E. Almaz, Capitalizing Istanbul: reading Orhan Pamuk’s literary cityscape, Unpublished Dissertation. (Amsterdam: University van Amsterdam, 2011).

99 Üner Daglier, “Orhan Pamuk on the Turkish Modernization Project: Is It a Farewell to the West?” Humanitas XXV (1&2): 146-167. Web. February 11. 2014.

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written by A. Bagus Laksana entitled Mereka-reka Estetika Keribetan Hidup

Harian explores the mystery of daily life as portrayed in Pamuk’s Snow. Here, he discusses the complexity of daily life behind its simplicity. He shows that in Snow the suicide done by young girls in Kars, small town in northeast Turkey is told as daily activity. Somehow behind this weave of suicidal action lays more complex issues related to the veiling in Turkey. This issue reveals that the simplicity of daily life breathes its own mystery.

C. Theoretical Framework

The numerous studies done on Pamuk’s oeuvre mostly employ Edward

Said’s Orientalism or Bhabha’s theory of poscoloniality such as the concept

liminality, mimicry and hibridity, and Jacques Lacan’s Mirroring Stage, to

examine the identity formation and East- West’s entanglement in Pamuk’s tales.

The novelty of this study will be on the account of the identity quest’s analysis

within Sufi framework of identity formation.

Not to discount other scholarships, but rather it is hoped that this study will

offer a glimpse on the concept of identity formation within the Sufi framework

as it offers different color to the canvas of identity formation exposed in the

literature field to those unfamiliar with it. In Sufi framework, identity

construction starts from worldy phenomena and will eventually end in the

divine. It transcends from material into spiritual world. However, at the end of

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the quest, the self must always return to worldly experience and “resuming the

quest because the state of attainment cannot be sustained”.100

As a consequence, Sufi framework of identity formation is applied in this

research for several reasons. First, it helps to unfold the question of identity as

Pamuk first coined in The White Castle “Why am I what I am” (Pamuk White

58) and compulsively reappear as the soul of his novels along with the longing

of past nostalgia and searching for lost love.

Second, Sufi framework of identity formation offers a different paradigm to

examine the complexity of identity construction in Pamuk’s novels. As identity

searching is part of Sufism, therefore Sufi framework of identity formation will

be a rich instrument to decipher the identity formation in Pamuk‘s tales. The last

reason is that Sufi identity framework is the least developed theory used to

understand and analyze Pamuk’s identity quest and its indirect influence on

Pamuk’s narrative technique.

D. Orhan Pamuk’s Oeuvre and His Background

Ferit Orhan Pamuk, who is widely known as Orhan Pamuk for his long trail

of literary excellence, is the author of much loaded novels such as My Name is

Red and Snow. His books have been successful and widely translated into 60

including Catalan and Bahasa Indonesia. In 2006, he was awarded the

Nobel Price of Literature and Time magazine called him as one of the most 100

influential people in the world.

100 Aron Aji and Katrina Runge, “Haroun’s Mystic Journey: Salman Rushdie’s Haroun and the Sea of Stories” In No Small World Vision and Revisions of World Literature. Ed. Michael Thomas Carrol (Illionois: National Council of Teachers of English 1996), 131-145: 143.

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Orhan Pamuk, born in Istanbul, June 7, 1952, was a grandson of a

prominent Turkish engineer who owned factory and build a railroad. Pamuk

longed to be a painter. However as a young man bounded to his Europeanized,

bourgeois family tradition he study engineering and architecture instead of

painting. Pamuk’s ‘willingness’ to please his family last for a short time and

eventually he abandoned his engineering and architecture course and he gave

up his ambition to become an architect and an engineering. He then went to

school of journalism in Istanbul University although he never worked as a

journalist. At the age of 23 Pamuk decided to become a novelist, and giving up

everything else “retreated into his flat” and began to write.

Although Pamuk and his generation had not experienced firsthand the

foundational reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–1938), “a sense of

dividedness and of a double life slipped into Pamuk’s childhood.”101 As he

described in his memoirs Istanbul and Memory of a City, 102 he was troubled by

the fantasy of a second Orhan who lived in another part of the city. The fantasy

of an alter ego is a recurring motif in both Pamuk’s memoirs and in his works

such as The White Castle, The Ne Life, Snow, and The Museum of Innocence.

His fantasy of doubling reveals his favor of having two souls for Turkey.

For him, the approach to impose one soul on Turkey: to be secular West or to

be eternally traditional and Islamic, is deteriorating themselves. Pamuk

101 Kader Konuk, “Istanbul on Fire: End-of- Empire Melancholy in Orhan Pamuk’s IstanbulMemories and The Cities” The Germanic Review 86 (4) (2011): 5.

102 See Orhan Pamuk, Istanbul Memory and the City, trans. Maureen Freely (New York: Vintage International, 2008).

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believes that a country can have two souls like a person and these two souls are

continually in dialogue with each other, sparring with each other and

transforming each other.103

103 Orhan Pamuk PBS interview Talking Turkey Web. April 25.2013.

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CHAPTER THREE

SUFI FRAMEWORK OF MEANINGS IN RELATION TO THE

FUNDAMENTAL QUESTION OF IDENTITY FORMATION IN ORHAN

PAMUK’S THE BLACK BOOK, SNOW, AND THE MUSEUM OF

INNOCENCE

A hundred thousand secrets will be known When that surprising face is unveiled and shown- Attar104

This chapter will address the first research question in this study on how

Pamuk’s The Black Book, Snow, and The Museum of Innocence breathe the Sufi framework of meanings in terms of symbolism, metaphors, and the stages of identity formation. The journey of love is somehow similar in nature with the journey of discovering the true-self. In the Sufi tradition human love is a metaphorical love and the soul needs the wings of love to fly toward the Divine love. Identity formation in all its essence will lead to the Divine love. As the

104 Farid ud-din Attar, a Persian poet who was born at some time during the twelfth century in Nishapur (where Khayyam had also been born), in north-east Iran, and died in the same city early in the thirteenth century. His name, Attar, is a form of the word from which we get the ‘attar’ of ‘attar of roses’ and it indicates a perfume seller or a druggist. Those unfamiliar with the writings of Sufis could have no better introduction than Attar’s Mantiq ut-Tair (The Conference of the Birds) where thirty birds lead by Hoopoe (hudhud) in their quest of their king, the mystical Simurgh that resides in mount Qaf. After perform hazardous journey: the birds must cross seven valleys in order to find the Simorgh: Talab (Yearning), Eshq (Love), Ma’rifat (Gnosis), Istighnah (Detachment), Tawheed (Unity of God), Hayrat (Bewilderment) and, finally, Fuqur and Fana (Selflessness and Oblivion in God). These represent the stations or all obstacles the soul must pass through to realize the true nature of God. They eventually discover that the Divine bird, Si murgh, is nothing but themselves. Being”thirty birds”(si murgh in Persian). See Annemarie Schimmel, The Mystical Dimension of Islam (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press 1975): 303-307.

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ultimate end of both journeys, either love or identity is wholeness or unity with the other self or the Beloved.105

The stories of the three novels in the present study recount the story of human love to represent Divine love. Human love, in Sufi tradition is considered as “the ladder leading to the love of the Merciful”.106 One of the most favorite

Sufi verses in the early days says that “And in everything there is a witness for

Him. Which point to the fact that he is One”.107

In Sufi tradition, all hopes, desires, loves that people have are desire for God but He is veiled from Him by love for different things- parents, money, friends, sciences and everything loved in the world.108 Therefore in Sufi tradition they recognize that “human love is called metaphorical love in contrast to the pure, true, Divine love. Love of human being is the ladder leading to the love of the

Merciful.”109 This so-called Divine love or the highest level of love will be achieved when a person encounters the experience of overwhelming love.

Therefore, to decipher the relation of Pamuk’s tales with the ideals’ trait of

Sufism, this study employs Sufi framework as the theoretical concept and there will be two subchapters where each chapter will contain three and four sub headings respectively. The first sub chapter will present the symbolism in

Pamuk’s novels that reveal the ideals of Sufism where four sub headings: night,

105 William C. Chittick, Sufism A Beginner Guide (Oxford: One World Publication 2008): 94-98.

106 Annemarie Schimmel, As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam (New York: Columbia University Press 1982), 68.

107 Ibid, 45.

108 A.J Arberry, The Discourse of Rumi ( London: J. Murray, 1961), 35.

109 Schimmel.(1982), 68.

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raki, mirror, and the beloved’s belonging, as common symbolisms in Sufi tradition will be discussed here.

The concept of Sufi mystical experience in Pamuk’s three novels in this study will be scrutinized in the following sub chapters where three sub headings will be elaborated here, namely (1) initial union as the first level of love, (2) the pain of separation as the purification level, and (3) the reunion as the ultimate level of love. Each of the fore coming symbolism and stages to mention and discuss are not neat and discrete but overlapping and recursive.

A. The Sufi Symbolism in The Black Book, Snow, and The Museum of

Innocence

As mentioned in the first chapter, the works of Pamuk deal a lot with Sufi literature oeuvres. Therefore in this sub heading, Sufi symbolisms in Pamuk’s The

Black Book, Snow, and The Museum of Innocence will be discussed in order to unfold the strings of Pamuk’s work with Sufi symbolisms. This sub chapter will be divided into four divisions to provide a comprehensive understanding on Sufi symbolism in Pamuk’s three novels in question.

In Sufi tradition, the poets love to employ the art of fazādd meaning to contrast pairs of words which is especially applicable to the description of God, who manifest Himself under the dual aspects of luft and qhar, kindness and wrath, of jamāal and jalāl, the fascinans and the tremendum. The dual aspect of the Perfect One Divine is necessary in maintaining the flow of life, as are the yang and yin, the positive and the negative poles. Consequently, Sufi poetical tradition presents beauty and love which are interdependent and appear on earth in various

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variations.110 It goes without saying that almost all the symbolisms in the Sufi tradition always come in pair and reveal pair. This understanding establishes the

Divine as the point of departure and return, and all else between. The following discussion on Sufi symbolism will unfold that everything is always coming in pairs; union and separation, real and illusory, departure and return, pleasure and pain, poison and anti-dote, etc.

1. Night/ Darkness

To begin with, this sub heading will discuss the setting of the three novels in question in its relations to the setting in Sufism. In Sufi tradition, night has a significant meaning as it signifies unity. In the darkness of the night lies an invitation for the lovers to be closer to their beloved and to be united with them.

Prophet ’s accession to heaven to meet the Beloved which is famous as miraj in the Muslim tradition took place at night. The Qur’an is revealed at the night known as Laylatul Qadr, an extraordinary night which counts better than thousand ordinary nights.

Hafiz, the most celebrated thirteenth century of Persian mystic poet,

“perceives with deep insight that union is hidden behind the darkness.” Hafiz believes that “only in absolute darkness, in the dark night of the soul, can the sun at midnight rises.” 111As also stated in one of the :

Our Lord, blessed and exalted is He, descend every night to the nearest heaven when the latter one-third night remains, (and) says, Is there anyone who calls upon Me so that I my accept him, who

110 Annemarie Schimmel, As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam (New York: Columbia University Press 1982), 59.

111 Ibid. 69.

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ask Me so that I may grant him, who seeks forgiveness of Me that I may forgive him.

In the context of Pamuk’s novels in this study, the darkness of the night is the main setting in The Black Book. Almost all the activities in the novels take place when darkness has swallowed the day. Galip discovers that Rüya left him at supper time. He searches for Rüya every night after he has done with his daily duties. His wandering on every corner of Istanbul while the lord of the darkness embraces the rest of the city into its wings reveals his deep lamentation that unites with the mystery of the dark.

In Snow, snow keeps recurring from the very beginning of the novel. It sometimes falls at night or during the day. In addition to the image of snow, Sufi tradition also acknowledges the important role of dream. Dream can be interpreted as a sign that God wants to reveal something to the one who dreams. The dream itself also takes place at night. It can be seen from Sadettin’s invitation to

Ka “Last night I saw you in my dreams. It was snowing in my dream, and every snowflake that fell to the earth shone with divine radiance” (Snow, 90).

It was at night and it was snowing in Sheikh Saadettin’s dream. This fact shows that snow also signifies union or a longing for union. Snow, just like rain symbolizes descent of grace. Rain is called rahmat, ‘mercy’.112 Whenever the snow falls, an indescribable emotion embraces Ka’s soul.113 This peculiar

112 Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam (New York: Columbia UP, 1975), 217.

113 A film entitled Baran (Rain) directed by Majid Majidi released by Miramax Film in 1999 obviously provides perfect visualization on the issue of God’s decent grace. This best foreign language film winning in Montreal film festival is “deceptively simple” as New York Post claimed, demonstrates that rain fall symbolizes barakah or God’s mercy that sends an invitation for the lovers to fill the small leak in their heart. This image is beautifully depicted in the scene

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sensation embraces Ka with an intimate state of feeling that reminds him of

God:”The snow reminds me of God,” said Ka. “The snow reminded me of the beauty and mystery of creation; of the essential joy that is life” (Snow, 96). The image of snow leads Ka to feel empty or incomplete. Every time the snow falls,

Ka discovers that his heart cries for another missing thing in his life. This longing inside his heart heals whenever he sees the beauty of snow falling.

In Snow, Ka discovers an image whispering a longing for something that his heart desires. In the beginning of the novel when Ka travels by bus that will take him to Kars, snow starts to fall as the night starts to envelop the sky. As the night gets darker and the snow falls thicker and heavier, it turns out to be a blizzard. Yet for Ka, he sees it as “a promise, a sign pointing the way back to the happiness and purity he had known, once as a child” (Snow, 4). “The extraordinary beauty of the snow that night” and the mystery of the night brought him an extraordinary joy which was greater than any he had known before (Snow,

4).

Although Ka has seen plenty of snow during his years in Frankfurt, this particular brand of snow; the snow of Kars, of “the most forgotten part of the world,” of İpek, and of the local Karsians’ twisted search for liberation, whether it is in their faith or political life somehow bring suffering for Ka in the most literal

when the hero recalls his Beloved presence as the rain starts to fall. The rain sends an invitation that reminds the hero about his Beloved and makes him realizes that he has a hole inside his heart as a result of separation from his Beloved. The Beloved’s belonging also sends similar invitation to the hero about the Beloved’s existence and invites him to strive for union. Here, the hero keeps his Beloved’s hairclip that he puts on his hat. The hairclip sends an invitation for him to seek his Beloved. For more discussion on the objects of the Beloved’s belonging refers to the third subheading The Beloved’s Belonging and its Scent as Invitation for Union.

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sense. It sets off memories; bring him back of the reminiscence of the cold- winters of his Istanbulite childhood, this melancholic snow in Kars suggests the oblivion forced by time, blanketed with deep melancholy and heart breaking lamentation. At another moment, it encourages an abrupt flow of religious yearning:

“What do you mean, you don’t know?” Mesut asked, with some annoyance. “Aren’t you an atheist too?” “I don’t know,” said Ka. “Then tell me this: Do you or don’t you believe that God Almighty created the universe and everything in it, even the snow that is swirling down from the sky?” “The snow reminds me of God,” said Ka. “Yes, but do you believe that God created snow?” Mesut insisted. There was a silence…( Snow, 83).

While the silence embraces Ka and the religious school boys he talks to, Ka hears the call deep inside him: the call he heard only at moments of inspiration, the only sound that could ever make him happy, the sound of his muse. For the first time in four years a poem was coming to him; although he had yet to hear the words, he knew it was already written; even as it waited in its hiding place, it radiated the power and beauty of destiny. Ka returns to his hotel room and immediately writes down the poem in “the green notebook he had brought with him from Frankfurt.” He calls the poem “Snow,” and it serves as the overture to a series of other poems- nineteen in all- that soon fill the green notebook (Snow, 83-

86).

The other vital issues in this novel also take place at night. The waves of suicidal girls as a result of the headscarf banning at university take place at night.

The arrival of his poems occurs while he is having dinner with İpek, her family,

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and other new people he meets at Kars. This encounter signifies that night offers togetherness and intimacy among those closely related. In the night of Sunay

Zaim’s play at National theatre, after Necip shows his landscape, a place where

God does not exist, Ka confesses what he longs to become: “ I wanted to be a

Westerner and a believer” (Snow, 142). His confession shows his longing for the possibility of two different poles to co-exist without the need to eliminate one of them.

Similar setting that symbolizes unity of the Sufi tradition in The Museum of

Innocence is night as well. The readers are taken into the sacred meeting between

Kemal and Füsun that mostly takes place at night. In the time of Kemal’s terrible illness for loosing Füsun after his engagement party, it is the thought of Füsun that helps him secure a sound sleep at night. His search for Füsun every night at the old neighborhood between Fatih and the Golden Horn brings a bittersweet joy as he confesses “As I walked these dark and muddy streets, my dreams of Füsun, painful as they were, still brought me happiness” (MoI, 211). Kemal’s wandering every night expresses similar tone with Ka’s experience. If Ka discovers that the snow falling leads him to long for union, Kemal’s longing to be united with Füsun intensified every night as he wanders the street of Istanbul hoping to locate Füsun.

After Kemal’s incurable pain caused by his separation from Füsun and his

339 painful days he spends in effort to locate her, Kemal unexpectedly receives a letter from Füsun inviting him to have dinner with her parents. The reunion shattered Kemal’s elation as upon entering entering Füsun’s home he learns that

Füsun has been married to Feridun, a young and aspiring filmmaker. For

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approximately eight years, Kemal spends dinner with Füsun, her parents, and sometimes her husband as well in order to get closer to his beloved and to win her back. In this new fact, Kemal encounters another frustrating effort to get him closer to Füsun. His first step is giving his financial support for Füsun’s husband to make a European- style art film that will not merely ‘teach’ Turkish audience about a good film but also to raise Füsun into celebrity.

This so called film project provides Kemal with a decent reason for visiting

Füsun and her family, to have “business” talk and dinner with them. The dinner includes eating out in local restaurant or spending more times outside the house to watch films. A little picnic over the Bosphorus Bridge following the meal showers

Kemal with profound happiness to heal his lovesick. “I had realized that seeing

Füsun twice a week on the pretense of making a film was enough to assuage my pain” (MoI, 256). During their long and explicitly non- physical reconnection, he starts to squirrel away thousands of physical relics that Fusün has touched, or which remind him of Fusün; a barrette, a salt shaker she once touched, her hairpins, pits of the olive she has eaten, more than 50 stubs of films seen with her, her half eaten ice-cream cone, the tombala-set used for the eight consecutive New

Years he spent at her house, the little china dog that sits on top of her family's television and a total of 4,213 cigarette butts allegedly smoked by Füsun.

Kemal’s fondness of filching has its genesis in The Silent House, Pamuk’s second novel in 1983 and newly translated into English in 2012. Hasan the lovelorn in the novel once secretly look through the handbags of his beloved while she is

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swimming. Among her possessions; hair clips, cigarette, wallet, and suntan lotion, he swipes the green comb and keep it as memento for his unreturned love.114

The recurring images of darkness and snow in The Black Book conveyed by words such as “night,” “black”, “dark”, “blanket,” that speaks in a deep and intense feeling talking about union and separation. In The Black Book the solitude of the night blankets Galip’s heart and Galip’s state of feeling is intensified by the snow falling “a sad heavy snow that seems to beckon him, that tugged his heart”

(BB, 53). This snow that falls in the evening takes his heart to the “24 years old memory of life he’d missed” (BB, 53). However, Galip primordial longing for union takes place as he discovers that Rüya abandons him. In his search for his wife, Galip starts to realize that something is missing in his life and he has to fill that part. His sole way to cure the emptiness inside him is to discover Celâl and live as Celâl. Galip first initial union with Celâl takes place one night at Celâl’s flat when he starts to sleep at Celâl’s bed wearing Celâl’s pajamas (BB, 245).

Thus the setting of The Black Book, Snow, and The Museum of Innocence reveals the state of union as recognized in the Sufi tradition. The recurring image of night and darkness in the three novels in question is accompanied by the image of snow particularly in The Black Book and Snow. The whiteness of the snow depicts the light that gives color to the blanket of darkness. It shows the harmony of colors that represents black and white respectively. In Sufi tradition, black and white, light and darkness symbolize fana or the annihilation of the self and baqa,

114 See Orhan Pamuk, The Silent House, trans. Maureen Freely (London: Faber and Faber, 2012).

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subsistence in the Divine Beloved or the Self.115 Therefore “the existence is the light, and thus when light makes its full appearance, all things disappear”116

2. Raki and The State of Drunkenness

Pamuk’s oeuvres speak and present raki, Turkey’s traditional wine in an intimate way that readers will be familiar with raki as it keeps recurring almost in all his novels from one page to another. Pamuk employs this particular Turkish liquor to depict certain emotional state of his characters. He loves to dramatize his characters state of feeling by telling his readers how much raki his characters have drunk before they lost in a deep thought. The state of drunkenness in Pamuk’s characters starts from a glass of raki after another glass; the characters want to forget their worries and elate their spirit. They start drinking with the company of others and eventually they end up all alone by themselves and isolated on their own predicament. Raki in Pamuk’s novels is the best company of the lover who longs to re-unite with his beloved. Apparently, love and wine are inseparable for the lover. They are both intoxicating their state of mind.

Although the drinking of wine is strictly forbidden in the Islamic tradition, it appears in many poems of Sufi mystics. The appearance of wine in the Sufi poems is the poets’ way to communicate their message about the intoxication of the divine love. In the context of Pamuk’s tales, raki is a familiar ingredient that is never absent in his work. Just like Attar, Rumi, and Hafiz, the Sufi poets par excellence in their own period of time, Pamuk’s metaphor of wine reveals the

115 Eric Geoffrey, Introduction to Sufism the Inner Path of Islam (Indiana: World Wisdom 2010), 15.

116 Laleh Bakhtiar, Sufi: Expression of the Mystic Quest (New York: Thames& Hudson 1976), 90.

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intoxication of the lovers in their path to achieve union with their beloved. In

Pamuk’s earlier novel, The Silent House117, Dr. Darvinoğlu (the son of Darwin) is presented as a man with deep attachment to his works and discovers refuge in raki when the rest of the world seems to conspire refusing his ‘beloved’ research on science and technology. The state of drunkenness he encounters enveloped him into a different world where he no longer understands or cares about the world around him. In his state of unconsciousness he is aware that something is missing from his life that waits for fulfillment. His consciousness is buried inside and all he thinks about only his ‘beloved’ work, his encyclopedia.

In the three novels in under study, the presentation of raki in Pamuk’s Snow and The Museum of Innocence is thicker compared to his earlier works The Black

Book. The similar thing of the presentation of raki in the three novels is the way the characters have raki in companionship that leads to isolation. Ka who is bewildered between his Western upbringing and his Eastern origin takes refuge in

117 The Silent House recounts the story of Dr. Darvinoğlu, a doctor who is working on an encyclopedia of science that will cover all Western sciences, natural sciences, and the science of the West and the Renaissance. He believes that his encyclopedia will enlighten his people’s life toward modernity or Western world. The soul of his encyclopedia is sciences that discard all things logic cannot prove, including the existence of God. His works is terrifying for his society who has strong Islamic religious background. Being too stern to his society’s ignorance of science as well as their religious life, Dr. Darvinoğlu starts to abuse his patients’ inability to understand the sciences he tries to teach them, and force them to leave God. He forces his female patient to take off her headscarf otherwise he will not cure her ailment. This circumstances lead to the ruin of his financial issue as people cease to visit him as they are terrified to have contact with an atheist.

His atheism also worsens his relationship with his devoted religious wife, Fatma who suffers for her husband’s Godless life. He finds consolation on his hard times from his maid, a woman who possesses “particular beauty of their people“as he says. This simple woman gives him two boys that makes Fatma angrier even more and take consolation by torturing the maid and her boys. The chaos in his financial and personal life disturbs his works on his encyclopedia. Raki then, is his refuge to clear off his mind from his trouble. He becomes very intimate with raki as he needs to forget all the problem in his life that distract his focus. Being intoxicated with his raki, he is able to pull himself from the external world and only remember his encyclopedia. See Orhan Pamuk, The Silent House, trans. Victoria Holbrook (New York: Vintage International, 1990).

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raki whenever he starts to feel terribly frustrated by the choice of being an atheist and by the presence of God that starts to fill the empty spaces in his heart. Prior to his meeting with Sheikh Saadettin Efendi, Ka drinks three glasses of raki to overcome his anxiety. As the raki takes over his consciousness, Ka finds no obstacles to share whatever on his mind with Sheikh Saadetin Efendi. He confesses that he comes to Kars to find happiness and to believe in God: “I came here to find happiness” (Snow, 95). In his longing to acknowledge God’s presence in his heart, Ka feels that the Westerner inside him refuses. As a Western intelligentsia, Ka’s view on God in the East and West is different. He is perplexed with the yearning inside him that longs to acknowledge God. His confusion grows more miserable as the God in the West does not provide him with happiness he can embrace at Kars. On the other hand, God in the East that showers him with happiness and the muse to write his poems is not the educated God as the one he finds in the West:

I felt guilty about having refused all my life to believe in the same God as the uneducated – the aunties with their heads wrapped in scarves, the uncles with the prayer beads in their hands. There’s a lot of pride involved in my refusal to believe in God. But now I want to believe in that God who is making this beautiful snow falls from the sky (Snow, 97).

Just like Dr. Selahattin Darvinoğlu who discovers state of peace under the influences of raki, a feeling of tranquility embraces Ka’s soul after he treats himself with glasses of raki. As he feels the serenity in his heart, his poems will arrive and Ka will write them without any difficulties. Ka senses that an invisible voice is rising up inside him and he will fully give himself to that voice so that he can write the poem whispered by the voice. When he doubts about the beauty of

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his poems as his mind still foggy with drink, he finds that “his poems is flawless”

(Snow, 99).

In The Museum of Innocence, raki speaks similar voice as in Snow. Raki provides an intimate feeling for Kemal in his journey to satisfy his yearning for union with Füsun, his beloved. Raki for Kemal, becomes his ritual in the thousand diners he shares with Füsun. Kemal’s intimacy with raki starts when he is badly smitten by his love for Füsun. Raki, for Kemal is his morphine to forget the pain caused by the fact that Füsun is now a wife for another guy. By having his raki,

Kemal is able to strengthen his dream that one day he will win Füsun back and will live a life full of happiness with her. This so called elates his spirits and gives him a new sight of love that promises forgetfulness from his worries of his love stories.

In one of the dinners he has with Fusun, his raki loosens his passion and lessens the pain caused by his obsessive feeling toward pursuing Füsun back into his life. Soothed by his raki, Kemal cannot help to reconcile with himself that even being close to the beloved is more than enough to taste profound happiness.

Kemal is delighted by “The pleasure of sitting beside Füsun” (MoI, 267), and the sensation of unintentional physical contact with her: “My arms would brush against the velvet skin of her arms…I would almost faint from happiness” (MoI,

267). He is calmed with his simple formula that “Happiness means being close to the one you love, that’s all” (MoI, 256). Kemal defines his attachment to Füsun as something that “is not just physically but spiritually” (MoI, 269). The raki Kemal

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has after reaching home from his visits to Füsun is his ritual before he goes to bed and praying that God will grant him a normal life (MoI, 317).

The metaphor of wine is applied to represent two similar traits of being in love and being intoxicated. Both of them are: intoxicated means for the ordinary person, the loss of awareness of one’s immediate environment, for the mystic it means the goals of love is loss awareness of all but God.118 Thus mystical intoxication is not from the wine of the grape but rather from the pre- eternal wine of love.119

The preceding elaboration about each character and their attachment to raki brings the three characters in the three novels show that they have certain intimacy with raki. They are intoxicated by the ‘wine of love’ that offers them to taste both the bitterness and the joy of love at the same time. However, the state of their predicaments leads them to transformation rather than destruction. Their transformation towards perfection will be achieved following their awareness that they are missing something in their life. The missing thing waits for fulfillment and it will lead them to achieve the ultimate end of their longing- union with their

Beloved.

Here, Pamuk’s raki is a means to transform his characters towards a complete or wholeness of the self after their predicament to strive for happiness.

Pamuk also shows that his characters have their raki in companion with other people as the identity construction is not possible without contact with external

118 Annemarie Schimmel, As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 9.

119 Ibid. 78.

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world. However, the point of achievement in their identity journey will be different from one another even though they start their quest together at similar point of time as each individual has different capacity to develop. In this case,

Pamuk concept of raki reveals the concept of Hafiz’s wine,120 the Nightingale of

Persia, whose ghazals almost inseparable from the metaphor of wine and also tavern.

Hafiz’s wine and tavern refer to a meeting of the minds between others who have experienced the Divine. The tavern could also be a physical meeting place away from religious buildings where spiritual seekers could freely share their experiences with one another. The wine that Hafiz keeps referring to is the metaphor symbolizes that the ‘knowing’ can come only through gnosis because one cannot become drunk on Divine love unless he actually drinks it. Gnosis, like

“riding a bicycle, is experiential.” Ones needs to get on their bike and ride it to fully understand the balance needed to ride a bike. A comprehensive explanation on the issues will be useless until ones experience riding their own bike. In the same way, knowing the Divine cannot solely take place through intellectual quest and it is only possible to ‘meet’ the Divine by first hand experience. The wine in

Hafiz’s diwan symbolizes love. Hafiz pictures the whole world as a tavern

120 Shamsuddin Mohammad, a fourteenth century Persian poet, was known as Hafiz, a name that means ‘one who can recite the entire Quran’. He was one of the world greatest mystic poets whom Goethe refers as his twins. In fact Goethe’s West-östlicher Divan (1819) is written upon Hafiz’ Divan (1814). Hafiz is also famous as the grandmaster of symbolism. He applied symbolism in his poems as a teaching tool and a way to keep his true meaning secret from the prying eyes of the religious fundamentalist. Like many other Sufi mystical poets (Rumi, Attar, Hakim ), Hafiz likens the absolute beauty of the Divine to a rose and he speaks of himself as a nightingale that is hopelessly in love with the rose. See Masoomeh Kalatehseifary, Joseph vs. Hammer Purgstall’s German Translation of Hafez’s Divan and Goethe’s West-östlicher Divan. Unpublished Master Thesis, (Ontario: University of Waterloo, 2009).

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fragrant with the wine of merciful being and every person takes that wine which is in accord with his own evolution.121

In Hafiz’s concept, everyone receives certain wine based on their capability therefore a wine of one person is not a wine for another. The state of drunkenness as a result of wine drinking symbolizes the lovers’ journey toward union with the

Divine. It is said the more the lovers drink from the wine of love the closer they draw to the Beloved.122 In similar string, raki in Pamuk’s three novels in question also reveals the journey to the Beloved that becomes nearer as the characters have more raki. Ka will be able to receive his muse and his longing for union with God are intensified when he drinks his raki. In Kemal’s case, the more raki he drinks with Füsun’s father the longer he will stay in Füsun’s house and enjoy the time he spends near his Beloved.

3. Mirror as the Symbol of Unity

Mirror has become one of the images in Sufi tradition that constantly recurring in Sufi mystical poems, range from Attar (d. 1220) to Rumi (d.1273).123

In Islamic culture, mirror is recognized as a symbolism that one Muslim has to look himself of another Muslim. The prophet has said that one Muslim is the mirror to another Muslim. Each Muslim will find in the other , the inspiration to walk on the mystic path. Thus, the image of mirror will reflect the

121 Hafiz, The Green Sea of Heaven, trans. Elizbeth T Gray. Jr (Oregon: White Cloud Press, 1995), 25.

122 Ibid, 25.

123 There are many versions concerning the day of Attar and Rumi’s demise. To this particular issue, this study refers to Rumi, The Masnavi. Book One, Trans. Jawid Mojaddedi (Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008): xiv-xv.

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beauty of the Beloved and the lovers strive to be united with the Beloved as described by Hoopoe124 “A lover is one whom all thought of the Self have died.125

Having lost its own identity, it has become more He than He himself, and thus constitutes the only gift which the lover can offer to the Beloved.126

The Black Book that recounts Galip’s frantic search for Rüya by becoming

Celâl is an allusion of the story of Rumi when he lost Shams.127 And the only possible way for Galip to discover Celâl who happens to be his childhood hero is to study his columns. In doing so, Galip will secure Celâl’s daily columns and garden of memory. Celâl’s missing is caused by his lost memory that leads him to his inability to write his columns. When Galip imitates Celâl and answers a phone call from Celâl’s devoted reader, he is advised that in order to remember Celâl’s past and bring back all Celâl’s memory is by studying Celâl’s old column.

”You’ve either lost or destroyed your memory, or perhaps you don’t want to

124 Hoopoe (hudhud) once was the go between Solomon and the queen Sheba. Hoopoe leads the birds’ journey to meet their king, simurgh that resides in mount Kaf. The story about this soul- birds’ quest is beautifully written in one of the best Sufi poems entitled Mantiq Ut-tair / The Conference of the Birds written by Attar. See Attar, The Conference of the Birds, trans. Afham Darbandi& Dick Davis (London: Penguin 1984).

125 Attar, The Conference of the Birds, trans. Afham Darbandi&Dick Davis (London: Penguin 1984), 32.

126 Rumi Masnavi I, 3192.

127 Shamsodin from Tabriz or Shams i- Tabriz, is an enigmatic figure who helped to lead Rumi to a higher level of Sufi mysticism. The period of times Rumi spent with Shams provoked jealousy among Rumi’s disciples who eventually drove Shams away from Rumi. The tale says that Shams was killed by Rumi’s disciples, but only limited evidence found to prove this claim. In Rumi’s point of view, Shams was the most complete manifestation of God. Rumi wrote his gazals, or lyrical poems upon Shams’ disappearance and named it Divan e- Shams or ‘The Collection of Shams’ as his acknowledgement of Shams who had provided him inspirations to write poetry. See Rumi, The Masnavi Book One, trans. Jawid Mojaddedi (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004): xvi-xvii.

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remember. Take a look at your old columns; read a few of them while you’re at it- then you’ll remember” (BB, 238).

This resemblance and being complete in other’s image is firstly appeared in

Pamuk’s obsessive novel on double identity The White Castle. The first time the captured Venetian sees Hoja he feels like he looks at mirror and discovers his self there. Tangled with a subservient bond, the master Hoja- Venetian slave relationship exposes how proximity and physiological likeness dissolve the Self into the Other: “I began to believe”, as the Venetian says “that my personality had split itself off from me and united with Hoja’s, and vice versa” (Pamuk, White

115). After many years of a distinctly odd slavery, the Venetian is more than willing to trade his place in Venezia and live with Hoja because, as he says “ I knew that if I should return to Venice I would not be able to pick up my life where

I had left it” (Pamuk White 102). Hoja, on the other hand being worn- out of the provinciality of the Ottoman Istanbul, seems to be delighted in the opportunity to secure that life.

The White Castle complicates an endless of the Self- Other binary opposition as Hoja is both the Venetian’s master and his novice at the same time.

He is also master twice over: in his native Istanbul and in his Venetian slave’s native city. The Venetian, for his part, is a slave- teacher in Istanbul and later because of their uncanny resemblance, he has to remain as “master” to replace

Hoja who escape to his dream life in the Western world- as [Hoja] ”wanted to establish relations with ‘their’ men of science…he wanted to correspond with men of science in Venice, Flanders, whatever land occurred to him at that moment”

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(Pamuk White 121). Eventually the nameless master and his slave swap their identities in a seamless transition: the searcher and the object of his search changes places.128

Each character in these works shows that in order to be united with their beloved they live the way their beloved’s live and forget all about their own attributes. In his predicament for searching Celâl and Rüya, Galip discovers that

Celâl had bought his childhood home to use as library and museum. Galip starts to work on acquiring Celâl’s garden of memory. Galip then sneaks into and takes

Celâl’s flat, clothes, files, and phone calls. His transformation to another ‘world’ initiates when “he took off his clothes and stepped into Celâl’s pajamas” (BB, 25).

He sleeps on Celâl’s bed, sat down at Celâl’s desk to read, helps himself with a cup of coffee, and recalls how “Celâl sat down at his desk wearing his blue stripped pajamas to correct his copy with the same green ballpoint pen, he also smoked a cigarette” (BB, 251). Living in Celâl’s flat as Celâl, Galip eventually can see the world the way Celal does. Studying Celal’s columns and unfolding the mystery behind each of them Galip “feels closer” to Celâl. He believes that he can write everything that Celâl writes: “I’ve read everything you’ve ever written, I know everything about you, read everything there is to know” (BB, 321). “By now he knew everything Celâl had ever written as well as if he’d written himself” (BB,

324). Reinventing Celâl’s garden of memory, Galip lost his own and he then assumed a new identity and new life. Galip does no longer exist; the seeker becomes one (inextricably intertwined) with the object he sought. Just like the

128 See Orhan Pamuk The White Castle, trans. Victoria Holbrook (New York: Vintage International 1990).

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thirty soul birds performs a hazardous journey to meet their king, Simourgh that lives in Mount Qaf. After passing seven valleys they discover that what they seek is themselves. By the end they become Simourgh, “thirty birds”.129 In Rumi’s words,”Everything is the Beloved- and the lover a veil, Living is the Beloved, and the lover is dead.”130 Eventually Galip becomes one with Celâl, the object he sought. He no longer lives as himself but as Celâl.

In the course of Kemal, his awareness of the other part of himself raises at the time he wants to exchange the Jenny Colon handbag he purchases for his girlfriend. While waiting for Füsun to finish with her customer, he cannot help to look at Füsun and feels that he sees nobody else but himself. He finds some identical features of Füsun that reminds him of himself. Seeing Füsun’s figure, he feels as if he looks at a mirror and finds his own reflection. Füsun’s image that reflects Kemal’s image invites him to be united with her and tugs his feeling toward union with this other self. Kemal feels that… “When I looking at Füsun, I saw someone familiar, someone I felt I knew intimately. She resembled me. I felt

I could easily put myself in her place, could understand her deeply” (MoI, 15).

“Her body, with its long limbs, fine bones, and fragile shoulders, reminded me of my own. Had I been a girl, had I been twelve years younger, this is what my body would be like” (MoI, 17).

In Snow, the issue on resemblance or being ‘dead’ to live in the Beloved’s attributes is not presented as thick as in The Black Book and The Museum of

129 See Attar, Mantiq Ut-tair “The Conference of the Birds,” trans. Afham Darbandi& Dick Davis (London: Penguin 1984).

130 Rumi Masnavi I: 30.

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Innocence. This issue is highlighted in the beginning of the novel, when Ka feels his resemblance on Necip, a young Islamist school boy who long to be a writer and is preparing Islamic science fiction. Ka feels that this boy ‘steals’ his heart in the first time he meets him. Yet, the longing of the lover to discover his Beloved is represented by Pamuk who takes apart in this novel as Ka’s best friend. Pamuk visits Ka’s apartment in Frankfurt following his demises to collect Ka’s belonging and “to find the thing I coveted the most” (Snow, 257). In his visit Pamuk traces back Ka’s daily ‘ritual’ such as walking down the route Ka’s performs before his death. Following Ka’s footsteps and visiting places he visits during his life,

Pamuk feels like he does not travel on Ka’s memory but his own: “I felt I was looking at my own memories” (Snow, 251). On the time he spends at Kars to retrieve Ka’s poems, Pamuk states that “There had been many moment when I felt

I was Ka” (Snow, 411).

3. The Scent of the Beloved’s Belonging

As stated in the opening of this chapter, each novel in this study does not

always present similar Sufi symbolism in terms of quality and quantity. The

memorabilia of the beloved that bears the beloved’s scent in these three novels

under study meets this qualification. The beloved’s belonging that is laden with

their scents depicted in the three novels of this study is not similar either in

quality or quantity. It can be seen from the fore coming discussion that The

Museum of Innocence presents more mementos of the beloved compared to

those presented in The Black Book or Snow. For this reason, The Museum of

Innocence will initiate the discussion in this sub heading. However, the three

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novels bear similar thing in common; each of the characters, Galip, Kemal, and

Ka, they love collecting objects of memorabilia associating with their beloved.

These objects, beside laden with their beloved memories, intensify the lover’s

longing for union with their beloved. The mementos of the beloved send an

invitation for union to the lovers. Just like Jacob’s blind eyes are cured by the

scent of Joseph’s shirt which is “connected to the fragrance of morning breeze

which the lover hopes will bring him news from the beloved”.131 In Rumi’s

word, the image of scent “makes the absent Friend present, and gives particular

information about him.132

In The Museum of Innocence, Kemal breaks his words not to visit

Merhamet’s apartment. His banishment from the apartment does not provide him

with an exit for his predicament. Instead, it makes his heart aching even deeper.

His heart wails trying to banish Füsun from his memory and his life is

disrespectful for her and him. He believes he has betrayed Füsun, raison d etre

of his very existence. To pay for his betrayal he decides to think of her only and

to live in the place nearest to where she was (MoI, 177). In the apartment where

the affair took place, he begins collecting ordinary objects which remind him of

her: “Sitting shirtless on the edge of the bed where I had made love to Füsun

forty- four times, and surrounded by all those memory- laden things (three of

which I display herewith), I spent a happy hour caressing them lovingly” (MoI,

202).

131 Annemarie Schimmel, As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam (New York: Columbia University Press 1982), 74.

132 Ibid. 3.

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When he lies down like an animal listening helplessly to his last breath on

the bed at Merhamet apartment, Kemal seizes upon objects of their common

memories that bore Füsun’s essence: the bed, the pillows, and the sheets that still

carry Füsun’s scent. Scent is another image familiar in Sufi tradition. Sufi

recognizes scent as a mystical symbolism that will eventually lead to the source

of fragrance which is the Divine Beloved.133 Kemal discovers that these objects

are “palliative” for the “magnitude” of his anguish. Just by playing and rubbing

these objects on his neck, his face, and forehead, he can transfer the charm and

the illusion of the radiating memory of his happiness with Füsun soothes his

wounded heart (MoI, 155-157). Inhaling Füsun scents that still remains in the

sheets, he feels as if he is trying to feel her inside him and he feels that he almost

becomes her. When her scents grow fainter, Kemal desperately picks other

objects and looks for traces of the scent of her hands and sniffs deeply from the

objects he finds instant relief in his nose and lungs (MoI, 177).

Kemal’s way to heal his agony by searching and inhaling Füsuns scent is

in a way reveals the image of musk deer in Sufi tradition where a musk deer

leaves fragrant trace that may indicate the path to find the Beloved.134 The

occurrences of scent are an essential element in Sufi tradition. Scent or fragrance

in Sufi tradition is a medium that offers some news on the Beloved even to those

who have never seen them, as well as those who never apprehended that their

beauty is hidden behind cypress and roses, behind dark cloud and the jasmine

133 Annemarie Schimmel, As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam (New York: Columbia University Press 1982), 81.

134 Ibid. 81

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bush.135 In Pamuk’s tales, the beloved’s belonging and their fragrances have

become one of ingredients that keep recurring. In addition to The Museum of

Innocence, Pamuk’s novel that present fragrance and cologne as an element used

by the characters in their daily ritual also occurs in The Silent House. In this

family saga, fragrance is represented by cologne and the characters depicted

doing the ‘cologne rituals’ is Nilgun and Fatma, her grandmother. This cologne

ritual gets even thicker in The Museum of Innocence in which cologne is always

present every night after supper during Kemal’s eight years’ visit to Fusun’s

family. They always rub the cologne on their faces, temples, or wrist and inhale

the fragrance while enjoying the time they spend together after diner.136

In The Black Book, Galip is described as someone who is able to

“remember a smell just by recognizing the objects associates with it” (BB, 241).

In doing so, Galip can recognize things associated with the smell. He will feel

Celâl and Rüya’s presence just by smelling the remaining smell that still lingers

in the objects associated with them. The object that invites Galip to heal his

longing for Ruya and Celâl is Celâl’s green ballpoint pen. Whenever Galip’s

desires “to be with Celâl and Rüya rose so powerfully inside him”, he felt such a

deep pain inside him and he missed Celâl and Rüya so desperately” (BB, 325,

323), Galip takes refuge on Celâl’s green ballpoint pen. Galip uses this pen to

correct the copy on Celâl’s column. Galip “remembered that when Celâl sat

down at this desk wearing his blue stripped pajamas to correct his copy with the

135 Annemarie Schimmel, As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam (New York: Columbia University Press 1982), 81.

136 See Orhan Pamuk, The Silent House, trans. Robert Finn (London: Faber and Faber, 2012).

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same green ballpoint pen […] he had a gut feeling that things were going well”

(BB, 251).

Snow celebrates fragrance as the trace of the Beloved in a slightly different

way. Ka, the poet, whenever he is frustrated for his failure to maintain his state

of happiness with İpek, will lick his wound by inhaling the scent of their

lovemaking that still lingers in his hotel room. Every time he feels desperately

alone and helpless, certain kind of smells that reminds him of his past will come

back to him. Just like the smell of his father after he shaves. “And now the smell

come back to him” (Snow, 86). Or the smell of his coat that “reminds [himself]

of Frankfurt; for a few minutes he could see the city in full color and wished he

were there” (Snow, 177).

From the above discussion, it can be summarized that Pamuk’s three

novels in this study bear Sufi framework of meaning in terms of symbolism,

image, and metaphor. Although each novel has different quality in picturing Sufi

framework of meanings, they are somehow enriching each other in a way that

every novel spoils the readers with different features of Sufi framework that

Pamuk wishes to emphasize in the three novels in this study. Another trait of

Sufi structure is the journey of the lovers to reach the ultimate end of their love;

union with their beloved. To achieve this supreme aim, the lovers have to endure

a quest that will lead them to their beloved. This love quest will deserve one

chapter discussion in the following sub- chapter.

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B. The Traits of Love Quest in Orhan Pamuk’s Tales that Reflect the

Stages of Sufi Mystical Union

In Sufi tradition, there are three stages that represent the journey from worldly love to Divine love. These stages are, namely, union, separation, and re- union. In this respect, the themes of union, separation, and re-union in The Black

Book, Snow, and The Museum of Innocence portray the stages of this mystical development. The most significant elements celebrated in Pamuk’s The Black

Book, Snow, and The Museum of Innocence is the yearning of the lovers that seek to locate their Beloved. The lovers in these three novels are longing to find their missing Beloved. “Where is my Beloved?” is the locus of Pamuk’s three novels in question. Undoubtedly, he follows the trace of the Sufi poets that employs the entire universe in order to worship God.137

Sanai 138 wrote Litany of the Birds, a beautiful poem in which every bird addresses God in their own language: the stark speaks with a constant lak lak, attesting al-mulk, al-izz lak, “Thine is the kingdom, Thine is the Glory”, while the dove is always asking the way toward the Friend139 by calling kū kū, “Where?

Where?” 140

137 Annemarie Schimmel, As Through a Veil: Mystical Dimension of Poetry in Islam (New York: Columbia University Press 1982), 75.

138 Sanai was Persian poet who lived in Ghazni in present day Afganistan between 11th and 12th Century. He was the one to whom Rumi acknowledged as one of the two primary inspiration for him. Sanai died between 1131 and 1141.

139 In the Sufi tradition, they call God, the Real as the Beloved or the Friend.

140 Schimmel, As Through a Veil Mystical: Dimension of Poetry in Islam (New York: Columbia University Press 1982), 75.

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These ideas taken up by Pamuk were represented by the characters on his

The Black Book, Snow, and The Museum of Innocence who constantly search places to discover their Beloved and be united with them. Thus three stages endured by the lovers are a journey for them to get an answer to their own question on the place where they can discover their Beloved, a question that does not solely raise their predicament but also becomes a medium leading them to discover their true self.

1. The State of Initial Union

The nature of union here shows the portrayal of the union of the lovers which started from worldly scene or the physical union encountered by the characters that shows the primordial level of love. The qualities of physical union of the lovers will be examined from the setting in which the lovers first encountered their first meeting as the point of departure of their “journey”.

The Black Book recounts the story of a “world-weary” lawyer, Galip who plods around Istanbul for a week in search of his missing wife, Rüya, a Turkish word for mystical dream or vision. Galip has looked up the meaning of Rüya in an old Ottoman’s Turkish dictionary in the first time he saw Rüya’s picture in one his grandmother’s postcard. So it does not surprise him that Rüya means dream

(BB, 8). In Sufi tradition, mystical dream points to the alam al-mithal, “the world of symbols and similitudes, which exist between the sensible, phenomenal world and the world of intelligible noumena”.141 Rüya, in the end of Galip’s journey symbolizes Galip’s longing to discover his true self. Eventually, Galip discovers

141 Laleh Bakhtiar, Sufi: Expression of the Mystic Quest (New York: Thames& Hudsn, 1976), 116.

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his wholeness which is achieved following Rüya’s disappearance and his effort to locate her.

Galip suspects that Rüya has abandoned him with Celâl, her half-brother, a famous newspaper columnist whom Galip admired as a boy. Later Galip tries to figure out the secondary meaning of his name and Celâl, he is amazed to discover that Galip means victory and the meaning Celâl besides a Turkish word for “fury” is divine or one of God’s 99 names in Muslim tradition (Jalal, in Arabic). ,

Celâl’s family name attaches intimately with his first name since it means

“spiritual traveler”. Galip decides that the key to find Rüya is by figuring out the nature of Celâl’s columns focusing on reading the universe as the forest of signs which when he interprets correctly will lead him back to his beloved, Rüya, the raison d’ être of his existence. In the opening of the novel, the readers are invited to follow Galip’s search for his wife, Rüya who has left him one evening upon his arrival after work. Galip embarks on a more intellectual journey by searching

Celâl, his uncle, following his futile literal journey to locate his runaway wife in the backstreet of Istanbul. As Galip assumes that Celâl is the sole way for him to discover his wife, the reader then starts to suspect that this novel is not solely a search for a lost-lover but also a search for an authentic self.

The tale of Snow narrates a story about Ka, a poet who decides to visit Kars, a rural Anatilian village in northeastern Turkey following his mother’s funeral in

Istanbul. Having lived for twelve years of exilic life as political refugee in

Frankfurt, Germany, Ka embarks a journey to Kars in order to write an article about a wave of suicides by young Turkish girls protesting the official ban of

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wearing headscarves. His clandestine motif however, is to search out a Turkish beauty to be his wife, and he secretly hopes that the lady is İpek, once his schoolfellow in Istanbul, who now is separated from her husband. Snow shares similar core of quest with The Black Black Book, Snow opens with thes story of

Ka who is searching for an ideal Turkish beauty to be his wife. As his journey takes him closer to İpek, Ka discovers his muse that has been disappearing during his solitude life in Frankfurt. Ka’s search for İpek is not simply a search for a lover but eventually a search for his muse that makes his life as a poet complete.

Similar encounter is experienced by Kemal, the hero in Pamuk’s The

Museum of Innocence, who falls desperately in love with a poor 18 year old distant relative, Füsun, before his engagement with “proper” lady from his class.

Unable to end his relationship with Sibel, Kemal looses Füsun who disappears with her family after his engagement party. Kemal spirals into a bottomless well of agony and his mind becomes consumed by Füsun; memories of her scent, her speech, and her smile engulf him from the glee of life.

In The Black Book, the lovers union is depicted by the hero gazing at his sleeping beloved and terrified with the thought of what might be there in his wife memory, in Rüya’s garden (BB, 3). ‘The First Time Galip Saw Rüya’ is the first chapter and the first sub heading of The Black Book where the readers get the picture of Galip’s initial union with Rüya. The depiction of the state of union in

The Black Book is shown in the profusion of how Galip longs to see the beautiful

Rüya which keeps recurring right from the beginning of the work. Galip’s longing shows the deep love and adoration he feels towards her. Whereas in Snow, Ka, the

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hero meets his lover for the first time after his visit to Kars in Snow palace hotel run by his beloved’s father. And the hero in The Museum of Innocence encounters his first meeting with his Beloved in one of the boutiques where she works as a shop girl, when he wants to purchase Jenny Colon handbag for his girlfriend.

Kemal experiences his first physical contact with Füsun when he returns the handbag that happens to be counterfeit one. This handbag issue embarrassed

Füsun badly and she gets severely aggravated. Kemal’s infatuation and his sexual attraction towards Füsun start when he wraps his arms around Füsun to console her grief for the embarrassing moment of the small argument they have about the fake handbag. Aware of his “forbidden’ feeling, he is providing a “hide out” place for them to meet personally. Being afraid of his society response with his encounter with this shop girl, Kemal uses Merhamet apartment, where his family has a flat that his mother uses to store old furniture and outdated stuffs. Besides being his refuge when he cannot concentrate on his study or his work, this

Merhamet apartment keeps his childhood nostalgia that he still inhales the scent of its memory every time he spends his time there. In his family apartment Kemal ultimately has his physical union with Füsun. They spend approximately forty- four times of sexual union as the initial stage of Kemal’s journey to the next level of love.

In similar tone with Kemal’s tales, Ka in Snow, after waiting desperately to have lovemaking with İpek, has finally gets the opportunity after succeeding in plotting a meeting between Islamist prominent figure represented by Blue, the ex-

Communist represented by Turgut Bey, İpek’s father, and Kurdish nationalist

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represented by Serdar Bey to make a joint announcement to send to the West on the issue of military coup in Kars. This plot is ultimately drags Turgut Bey out of his hotel and Ka eventually has his physical union with İpek as she is willing to make love only if his father does not stay under the same roof as hers. ”I could never make love with my father so near, in the same house” (Snow, 89).

These three works share similar depiction that plays beauty as their locus of the protagonist in the state of union. However, in The Black Book, Rüya which means dream/ vision in English, is mostly depicted as the one who is busy wandering on the garden of her memories and cut herself off from the rest of the world. There is only light evidence that shows how Rüya’s beauty is adored by

Galip and other characters in the stories. The way Galip passes his clumsy hands through Rüya’s “black silken hair” is one of limited evidences that reveal Rüya’s outward beauty. The biggest part in The Black Book that portrays the initial union between the lovers is Galip’s lamentation on the mystery of Rüya’s garden of memory that closed to him, and how he longs to step inside and to find out Rüya’s secret life. Here, Rüya description of her physical appearance in the initial union is not depicted as much as the other two female characters; Füsun and İpek in The

Museum of Innocence and Snow respectively.

In this regard, the presentation is different either in Snow or The Museum of

Innocence. In both of these novels, there is a profusion of evidence from the beginning of the novels that signifies the beauty of the beloved. In The Museum of

Innocence, Füsun’s alluring beauty distracts Kemal’s mind since their first meeting at the boutique where she works as a shop girl. Füsun’s slender figure,

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her honey-hued arms, and her elegant gestures are able to tug Kemal’s ghost from his body to embrace and kiss her (MoI, 7). Her beauty is not merely fascinating to

Kemal but to other men and women even children realize how mesmerizingly beautiful Füsun is and shows his fascination by asking if she is an actress.142

Füsun’s beauty has also been the source of Kemal’s pride and happiness especially when people think that Füsun is his lover. Later, the narrative of

Füsun’s beauty is recurring until the closing of the novel when Kemal shows her photograph to Pamuk and tells him how gorgeous she is; he kisses her photograph lovingly before he gives his last word about his state of feeling to his readers. He said “Let everyone know, I lived a very happy life” (MoI, 532).

Similarly in Snow, the Beloved, İpek is constantly portrayed in a splendid beauty since Ka’s intention to visit Kars, although he worries that he might forget how beautiful İpek as her beauty was not caught his interest in his university days.

It is until Ka finds that İpek had separated from Muhtar that he starts to remember how beautiful she was and his intention to marry her aroused. His wonder is replaced by his shock when he discovers that İpek’s beauty is far more radiant and livelier than she had been at university days.”Her lightly colored lips, her pale complexion, her shining eyes, her open, intimate gaze-unsettled Ka” (Snow, 31).

Similar to the way Kemal in The Museum of Innocence feels so proud of

Fusun’s beauty, Ka shares similar pride as he is the one who able to have this

Turkish beauty in his arms. Ka even feels prouder as he notices that of all the ladies he meets in Kars, none overshadows İpek’s beauty, not even her sister,

142 Pamuk reminds his readers that in that days (late 70 and early 80s) the way to tell girls they were beautiful is by asking if she is an actress.

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Kadife. This fact showers him with wave of pride. However, Ka and Kemal do not have commonalities on the way they treat their feeling.

For Ka, he openly reveals his feeling toward İpek and he is embraced in perfect happiness that he can show everyone that he is in love with İpek and that two of them are perfectly happy to be together. Things that Kemal un able to do on his relationship with Füsun is to declare his love for her in public. Yet Kemal possesses more confidence compared to Ka who seems to have none. Ka always finds that happiness is impossible for him as he constantly expects pain that will immediately take away his joy and sorrow and will steal happiness from him. In

Kemal case, he believes that all the pain he suffers from loving Füsun will be rewarded with immense happiness if they manage to be together one day.

The union that the three characters in the BB, Snow, and MoI encounter can be categorized as the first level of love in Sufi tradition. This union still shows the predominance of lower self in each character, be it Galip, Ka, or Kemal. In the case of Galip, his anguish leads him into anger he addressed to Rüya. Ka on the other hand is blinded with his obsession to find a wife and to view İpek as the object of his desire and consider that İpek is a widow that makes his effort to get her less difficult. Ka also sees İpek as his refuge to console his long solitude while he lives in Frankfurt. Ka believes that by winning İpek’s heart, marrying her, and taking her to Frankfurt, he will find remedy for his solitary life. Similar issue is undergone by Kemal. Füsun is the object to secure his childhood memory. In

Füsun, Kemal can bridge his long forgotten past and Füsun takes back all sweet memories that he does not even remember that he has it.

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The state of initial union of the characters in the three novels under this study shows how the characters encounter what Sufi tradition calls the first level of love. The state of love encountered by the three characters in the three novels in this study is the manifestation of love that eventually leads them to the higher state of love: love toward the real/ purer love. Their love is “the ladder toward the love of the Merciful”.143 In order to ascend to the next level of love, a person has to travel to the next station in mystical experience which is known as the state of separation where the pain of this state is necessary for the lover in order to purify themselves and achieve unity with their Other’s self. The state separation and the pain of separation will be analyzed in the following two sub headings.

2. The State of Separation

As mentioned in the previous discussion, a person will have to travel from one station to the next station in order to achieve the higher level of love or to unite with his other self. From the station of initial union, the next path that the lovers have to face is the state of separation. In this state the lover has to undergo separation from his beloved. However, the state of separation also bears unity.

The disconnectedness in separation has an “element of connectedness”, thus disconnectedness is not confined to being physically apart, just as connectedness does not necessarily mean being in physical contact”. 144 In this state, the elements of separation manifest as pain or suffering endured by the lovers.

143 Annemarie Schimmel, The Mystical Dimension of Islam (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press 1975), 292.

144 Lalita Sinha, Unveiling the Garden of Love: Mystical Symbolism in Layla Majnun& Gita Govinda (Indiana: World Wisdom 2008), 94.

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For Galip in The Black Book, losing his wife who leaves only with short notice that she will stay in touch, he starts to invent a story to other people about

Ruya. He is the only one who knows Rüya’s leaving and he tells no one about his predicament. He tells his family and friends that Rüya is not feeling well, that she catches flu so she has to stay home to recover. Galip keeps constructing one story after another about the fact that he loses his wife.

Following Rüya’s mysterious disappearance Galip plungs into a labyrinth feeling of anger and jealousy. He feels angry as Rüya leaves him without any explanation. His anger confused him as he also believes that Rüya still trusts him by asking him to take care of his father and she will take care of his mother. A sort of conspiracy that makes him feels less miserable. In the midst of his numerous questions, he cannot control his jealousy that Rüya might leave him for her ex- husband. Trapped in the midst of all possible reasons why his wife abandoned him, Galip starts his searching without telling anyone about his missing wife.

Rüya’s short notice that contains nineteen words telling that she will stay in touch makes him decide to say nothing to anyone about Rüya’s missing until he can track her down. When he starts to search for Rüya, he does not tell anyone from whom he tries to collect clues where Rüya would be hiding. He will tell a story about somebody else whose wife leaves him out of the blue. In so doing, he hopes that his audience will indirectly help him to break up the puzzles on Rüya’s hideout.

On the other occasions he visits Rüya’s ex husband as he thinks that Rüya might hide with him, Galip tells him that he has an urgent case to sort out. He tells

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him that his client had been unjustly accused of murder and that the real murder is still wandering the city under an alias. Therefore he is looking for some information about certain person who might be that suspected murderer (BB, 125).

To his old friends Galip confesses that his life with Rüya is as great as ever and they live their daily life full of love and compassion, a story that Galip himself sometimes confused as he starts to believe the story he invented as the true story than the truth he keeps for himself. “I sometimes start to believe on the story”(BB,

163). Losing his wife, Galip starts a new life by wandering every corner of

Istanbul every night, frantically looking for his lost wife.

A new suspicion arises in Galip’s mind when he realizes that Celâl, his idolized uncle who happens to be Rüya’s step brother has also disappeared on the day he lost Rüya. This fact leads him to think that his wife might be hiding with his step brother. The only possible way to discover Rüya is to seek for Celâl, and to locate Celâl, Galip has to decipher Celâl’s column that he believes will provide a hidden message about their hiding. Celâl is well known for the secret messages in his writing and when people successfully unlock them, they will get the message Celâl attempt to communicate.

The reason behind Celâl’s vanishing is that he lost his “garden” of memory.

His lost memory affects his inability to write his columns and his decision to vanish from the rest of the world. Celâl’s vanishing caused problems in his work; his editor starts to think that he needs to find somebody else to replace Celâl along with his column. To save Celâl’s column and to continue his efforts finding Rüya,

Galip convinces Celâl’s editor that he has Celâl’s writing for his column. An

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article that in fact is his own writing based on his research on Celâl’s old columns.

Galip obsessively works hard to reinvent new articles for Celal’s column as he believes that it is his only way that will lead him to Rüya’s hideout. Studying

Celâl’s columns in order to study how Celâl thinks is his passport to locate Rüya.

In Snow, Ka’s separation from his muse makes him unable to write a single poem for approximately twelve years. This circumstance weakens Ka’s soul and worsens his solitude. As he reveals his condition to İpek and tells her a story he’d never told anyone about the silence buried inside him, about the solitude he intimately befriends with in Frankfurt since he lives all by himself there. He does not have any relationship either with his fellow Turks or with Germany. Ka is considered as “a half crazed-effete intellectuals” (Snow, 33-34). Ka tells İpek:

Four years ago these silences took over my entire life. I needed noise it was only by shutting out noise that I was able to write poetry, “said Ka. “But now I lived in utter silence. I wasn’t speaking with any Germans, and my relations with the Turks weren’t good either- they dismissed me as a half-crazed, effete intellectual. I wasn’t seeing anyone, I wasn’t talking to anyone, and I was not writing poems (Snow, 34).

Besides taking refuge from his solitude, Ka’s visit to Kars provides him with sweet feeling of his childhood nostalgia he no longer can find in Istanbul after his twelve years in exile. All the stuffs he recognized when he was a little kid have gone; they either had been torn down or lost their soul. Finding things that reminds him of his childhood displayed in the windows shop in Kars, a wave of happiness enveloped him into a peaceful state of mind once he knows from his childhood, a feeling that makes him forget the misery in Kars and the issue of the suicide girls (Snow, 18).

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Ka, the exile, can find resemblance of happiness only at Kars, where he believes himself to be a medium for his poems, just like a mystical dervish who simply hears them. “He believes himself to be but the medium, the amanuensis”

(Snow, 377). However, he fails to recognize that Kars which he considers as “the most unknown corner of the world” (Snow, 97) is a place where he can find happiness and his muse. Only with the presence of happiness a poet is able to write his poems. As he tells İpek: ”If you’ve been unhappy for a long time, you lose your poetic powers” (Snow,127). Stubbornly, he insists that he will get his happiness in Frankfurt where he is an exile and nobody cares about him: “But in

Germany I’m worthless nobody. I was falling apart there” (Snow, 103). Frankfurt is the only place that he wants to spend the rest of his life with İpek and that he believes he will create his own happiness with her despite “how unhappy he’d been in Frankfurt” (Snow, 264).

Bizarrely, staying for a couple of days in Kars, Ka creates opportunities to interact with the local people who inspire him to write his poetry. The “noisy” he engages with a host of the towns, the believers who accuse him as a atheist, the bourgeoisie who takes him as an exile and the Turkish beauty he wishes to marry eliminates the “silence buried inside him, the silence that had kept him from writing a single poem for the past four years” ( Snow, 33). Sadly, although Ka is genuinely interested and inspired by his conversation with the local Karsian including Blue, the Islamist leader, Kadife, Blue’s girlfriend who is insisting on wearing headscarf, İpek, a “symbol of escape from this defeatist state of mind”

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(Snow, 52), the religious individual like, Muhtar, Necip, and the Sheikh, he does not recognize that these interactions are inspiring him to write his poems.

Failing to grasp the meaning of Kars and his interactions with Kars’ residents, Ka withdraws himself and chooses to locate happiness not within collective thought and gathering but in strictly private interest. Ka remarks that a poet ought to sacrifice his connection to the present that distracts him from his art.

He believes that one of the most important ideas about an idea behind a poem is

“the poet’s ability to shut off part of his mind even while the world is in turmoil”

(Snow, 167). Ka’s decision to seek happiness alone leads him nowhere but to the state of miserable life. He is bewildered between two binary choices that are problematic: Eastern ‘backwardness’ and Western modernity. A frustrating choice that makes Sunay ask in satirical way: “What are we to do with the poet of ours, whose intelligent belongs to Europe, whose heart belongs to the religious high school militants, and whose heart is all mixed up?” (Snow, 206).

In The Museum of Innocence, Kemal’s life abruptly changes direction upon reuniting with a distant relative, the 18- year-old Füsun, in the fashion boutique where she works. Kemal and Füsun begin a steamy 44-day affair in the summer of

1975, during which they make love in one of the apartments owned by Kemal’s family. From the moment he holds Füsun in his arms, he cannot resist his desire to be connected with someone from his past. Giving out the address of his family apartment, Kemal’s unintentionally creates his own predicament that tear apart his personal as well as his social life.

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Kemal apparently does not take his relationship with Füsun seriously even though their encounter has certain intimacy especially after their love making at his family apartment. Kemal obviously just enjoys the time he spends with Füsun every afternoon between two-four as a fun thing to kill the time. Kemal even bargains Füsun’s first lovemaking with tutoring her mathematics so that the girl will pass the university exam. By doing so, it will lighten the emotional burden and leave him a sort of pleasure and a strange pride as he will be of use to the girl and he also perfectly understands that he will have more meetings with Füsun as well as more lovemaking with her. His thought showers him with intense joy although he has no intention whatsoever to take seriously all that happen between them. “But I understood that the only way I could carry this off would be to act as if nothing out of the ordinary were happening” (MoI, 31). His respond to Füsun’s declaration of love also shows his state of feeling. Kemal’s failure to respond adequately to Füsun compassionate love statement will haunt his heart for his inability to respond Füsun’s word lovingly. “Let me confess that my first impulse was to grin stupidly. Here, at one of the deepest, most profound moments of my life, there was something contrived in my demeanor. I love you very much too”

(MoI, 71).

It is not until Füsun leaves him after his engagement party that Kemal ultimately realized how much he loves Füsun. The pain he suffers from Füsun’s disappearance is so intense that certain sickness emerges as he is overwhelmed by the separation from Füsun. As his lamentation settles in his body, Kemal wanders through the street of Istanbul to find his lost love: “I began to frequent those

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crowded places where I might see her ghost; and eventually I would mark these places, too, on my map of Istanbul. Istanbul was now a galaxy of signs that reminded me of her” (MoI, 167).

2.1 The Pain of Separation

The state of separation is characterized by the pain endured by the lover.

The lamentation of the lover as a result from the disconnectedness from their beloved is a phenomenon that will lead them to transformation. In mystical point of view separation is necessary for transformation. As believed in spiritual tradition “apparent destruction is really a transformation.”145 In Schimmel’s words

“The pain of separation will lead the lover to purification, as ‘the human soul can mature only by through suffering’.”146 The pain is the result of the disconnectedness from the beloved, the longing to reunite again or the attachment of the lovers to the beloved that detach them from their personal and social life.

Just like the attachment of Nightingale,147 the “ideal soul bird who spends his life longing for the rose”. 148 If he ever loses sight from her “he would lose his reason

145 René Guénon, Fundamental Symbols: The Universal Language of Sacred Science, trans. Alvin Moore Jr. Rev (Oxford: Quinta Esentia1995), 145.

146 Annemarie Schimmel, As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam (New York: Columbia University Press 1982), 137.

147 Nightingale and the rose are the epitome of the relations between lover and beloved. The image of rose and Nightingale is one of the most recurring image in most of Sufi’s poems especially those written by Attar, Rumi, and Hafiz. To get a comprehensive story of how Nightingale singing his praises to the rose see Attar, The Conference of the Birds, trans. Afham Darbandi& Dick Davis (London: Penguin 1984) and Hafiz, The Green Sea of Heaven Fifty Ghazals from the Diwan of Hafiz, trans. Elizabeth T. Gray, JR (Oregon: White Cloud Press, 2002).

148 Schimmel. 1982, 76.

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and his song would fail”.149 As the rose is protected by “innumerable thorn, makes the Nightingale eloquent, his longing can never be fulfilled in this life”.150

Therefore, the pain is necessary in the Sufi tradition as a ladder to achieve happiness. The lovers’ longing for the pain is the common feature in mystic tradition of all religions for in the pain of love that the lovers will taste the greatest joy in life. Pain, thus becomes the most important ingredients of love, as it “has been granted by the Beloved, who will appear as the physician to heal the wound”.151

The pain of separation presented in the three novels in this study depicts different elements and intensify each element differently. Yet the differences do not affect the atmosphere of mystical experience as they are essentially similar.

Pamuk emphasizes different element in his works as each novel is rich in its own unique trait. The predicament of the lovers is strengthened by the metaphor of mirage: an image produced by hot water, an oasis, which seems real yet does not exist. Mirage is a mix between the real and the illusory. The “mirage” in the three novels in this study is defined as a state of pleasure that will emerge through the lovers overwhelming pain from the state of separation. Hence, the lovers will endure both pain and pleasure in an alluring mirage. Thus, as the Sufi tradition is familiar with, gain will be achieved as reward of pain.

149 Attar, The Conference of the Birds, trans. Afham Darbandi& Dick Davis (London: Penguin 1984), 17.

150 Annemarie Schimmel, As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam (New York: Columbia University Press 1982): 76-7.

151 Ibid. 71.

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In the Museum of Innocence, similar illustration of the real and the illusory is evoked in Kemal’s agony in his search for his lost beauty, Füsun. Every single day after his engagement, Kemal comes to Merhamet apartment hopes that Füsun will keep her promise to meet him at the same time as before. Yet, she never appears and her absence consumes Kemal in a profound agony. However, each new day Kemal still has a hope that his beloved will eventually arrive. This

“hopeful expectation would ease the pain, an excitement wreathing my head down to the tip of my nose even as my heart ached and my stomach cramped” (MoI,

146). When his reason forces him to accept that Füsun is not coming, the deadly pain inside his heart breaks him that he cannot do anything but throw himself onto a bed like an invalid ( MoI, 147).

In his yearning to see his beloved, Kemal becomes increasingly desperate.

His lovesick emerges from his mind and soul and dissolves into his body. This pain aches terribly from the upper left hand of his stomach and spread to his entire body. Whenever Füsun does not come as he expects, the pain becomes fatal and he ends up lying like a corpse on his bed (MoI, 148-150). The worst is that no matter how painful his heart and even though his pain grows more intense and harsher, a tiny hope of seeing Füsun again sustains his schedule to wait for Füsun every day at his apartment. Kemal believes that only by giving over to the pain and surrendering to its full intensity that he can come closer to Füsun (MoI, 155).

Kemal” had learned that until [he] could harvest the pleasure of an illusion there was no sense in dispelling it, at the expense of [his] aching heart” (MoI, 166).

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Being tired of his endless predicament that ‘consumes’ his soul and normal life, Kemal believes he has to stop coming to Merhamet apartment and to forget

Füsun. He bans himself from the street and places that are full of reminiscence and a brief history with Füsun that might sink him into the well of agony. Kemal draws a psychological map to those places and streets where he forbids himself to come as it will intensify his suffering. His efforts come out of belief that it will cure his illness no matter how slow the remedy is (MoI, 165).

Sadly, Kemal’s banishment from the streets and places is so reminiscent of

Füsun instead of curing his ailment, he starts to see Füsun’s ‘ghost’ in crowded streets and at parties. The image of Füsun that appears out of nothing sends a wave of joy that creeping from Kemal’s heart and spread out to his entire body.

When he discovers that Füsun’s figure he is running toward is not Füsun, he is stupefied. The mirage of Füsun keeps appearing in every street and place where no potential that be reminiscent of Füsun. Füsun’s mirage brings a brief consolation as well as bitterness. Although bewildered between the joy and sorrow for finding Füsun’s ghost, Kemal still strongly believes that he will find

Füsun, and this belief is what bounds his soul to his body (MoI, 168). As he confesses:

Still, I could not live without the occasional sweet feeling, and so I began to frequent those crowded places where I might see her ghost; and eventually I would mark those places, too, on my mental map of Istanbul. Those places where her ghosts had appeared most often were the ones where I was most regularly to be found. Istanbul was now a galaxy of signs that reminded me of her (MoI, 167).

Kemal starts seeing mirage of Füsun in every place is a result of his overwhelming lamentation for losing her. These mirages offer poison and the

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antidote at once: it appears through pain and it gives joy through it. Thus the lover endures pain and pleasure in an enchanting mirage.

In The Black Book, Galip’s lamentation to search for his lost wife is depicted through the way he memorizes all the best time he shares with Rüya and

Celâl. To ease the sorrow of missing his wife, Galip’s makes up story of his own daily life with Rüya and lets everyone know that he has a perfect life. In his search for Rüya, Galip pretends that he is working on a murder case therefore he needs to track down the murderer. When he is working with other people he will call home and make conversation with Rüya to convince his surrounding that Rüya is at home waiting for him.

Galip sinks into a profound lamentation when the reminiscence of his bitter- sweet memories with Rüya engulfs his mind and memory. Married to a beautiful lady bring him joy and sadness at once. The sorrow that pierces his heart is caused by his inability to fully understand Rüya. Galip has no idea about Rüya’s feeling as Rüya herself never reveals what she feels inside to him. Galip does never really understand Rüya yet never does he dare to ask Rüya about her true feeling as he is scared of the effect of his question that may harm his marriage. Galip has encountered separation from Rüya even when he was still together with her as

Rüya never let him know her secret live. Thus what Galip encounters is defined in

Sufi tradition as shab-i-hijrán or the “Night of Separation” and rúz-i-wasl or the

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“Day of Union” for every separation is great with imminent union and in every union prospectively conceals separation.152

Although Galip is married to Rüya and lives with her, this state of union also bears separation as Galip feels that there is a gulf between them that can be wider if he attempts to cross over to get closer to Rüya. Rüya’s garden of memory or secret life that she never reveals to Galip shows the position of God in Sufi tradition as . As the saying in one of hadidth qudsi153, “kuntu kanzan makhiyan…” “I was a hidden treasure and wanted to be known, so I created the world”154 However the most hidden truth of God is never revealed to the lover as know the essence will ruin the lover. Even Moses “swooned at the vision of only so much as the Burning Bush”155 So every time “he wants to ask his wife about her secret life, he feared the gulf that might open up between them after the question” (BB, 55). All that Galip can do to understand Rüya and to know her better is by inventing Rüya’s image he always wants her to be or by recalling all the memories he shares with her. Yet he never manages to get closer to ‘the real’ Rüya or to”the garden of Rüya’s memories, it was closed to him”

(BB, 54). Just like God’s “greatest Name is hidden and known only to the

152 HáfÍz, The Green Sea of Heaven Fifty Ghazals from the DÍwán of HáfÍz, trans. Elizabeth T. Gray, JR (Oregon: White Cloud Press, 2002), 21.

153 Hadith qudsi (“holy utterances”) is a scriptural category intermediate between the Qur’an and Hadidth. They were related to the prophet himself and do not belong to the body of Quranic revelation.

154 One of Prophetic saying or hadidh qudsi, directly given to prophet Muhammad without the go between which is done by the archangel Gabriel.

155 Annemarie Schimmel, As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam (New York: Columbia University Press 1982), 9.

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innermost circles of the initiated.”156 As Galip’s longing to know the deepest part of Rüya which is hidden from him, it is the separation from Rüya that will lead him unveiling Rüya’s secret.

The occurrences of garden in The Black Book, are represented as Galip’s garden of memory or Rüya’s memory or Rüya’s garden. In the first page of The

Black Book, Galip is remembering how Celâl writes in one of his columns that

“memory, is a garden” ( BB, 3). In Sufi tradition word for garden is jannah means both garden and paradise. According to Nurbakhsh, the present leader of the Sufi

Nimatullahi tariqa157, paradise symbolizes the station of theophanies, whether of effects, acts, attributes, or the essence. “The earthly garden is signifying a worldly reality, which in turn signifies a Divine reality.”158

The garden of memory which is the core in The Black Book shows the worldly reality that will lead the lover to discover the Beloved once he is able to unlock the lost memory/garden. It is only when Galip succeed to reinvent Celâl’s garden of memory that he eventually discovers Celâl and Rüya. Although he loses his own memory he assumes a new life, a new identity, Celâl.

Another feature in the state of separation is that the lover has to abandon his

‘self’ and gain himself in the Beloved. This state is called as fana, annihilation of the self in the Beloved. It signifies that everything but the Beloved will vanish. As

156 Annemarie Schimmel, As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam (New York: Columbia University Press 1982), 28.

157 Sufi order originating in Iran whose name is derived from its founder Shah Nimatullah.

158 Lalita Sinha, Unveiling The Garden of Love Mystical Symbolism in Layla Majnun& Gita Govinda (Indiana: World Wisdom 2008), 46.

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the Quranic verses state: “All that is on earth is passing away (fan-in). There remains but the Countenance of your Lord of Majesty and Munificence”.159

Pamuk’s oeuvres deal intimately with the idea of fan-in by the constant concurring of missing objects depicted in his works.160

Pamuk’s The Black Book, Snow, and The Museum of Innocence along with his other novels also present missing object in their plot. Each novel possesses certain object that missing; in The Black Book, Rüya loses her green ballpoint that

Celâl’s gives her, in Snow, the green poetry notebook in which Ka writes his nineteen poems during his visit at Kars is missing after his demise, and in The

Museum of Innocence Kemal loses one of Fusun’s earrings that falls during their lovemaking. These missing objects try to speak that nothing but the Beloved will remain. The rest will undergo destruction.

In Snow, the pain of separation endured by Ka, the solitary poet takes place when he finally unfolds his writing block. The pain of Ka’s separation envelops him when he discovers his muse.161His longing to be happy and his yearning to

159 Qur’an 55: 26-27.

160 In The Silent House, the missing object is represented by the losing manuscript of Dr. Selahattin. These manuscripts are the materials that will make up his encyclopedia. Working tires sly for years without fruitless, as Ataturk’s Westernization agenda replaced the alphabet from Arabic into Latin. The encyclopedia finds no way to publish as they are burned into ashes by Fatma. Faruk, Dr. Selahatin’s grandson who works as historian attempts to collect his grandfather half-finished encyclopedia manuscript, but his effort comes to no avail. Faruk ends up thinking that his grandfather’s encyclopedia will forever lost without a single trace. In his masterpiece, My Name is Red, the missing object is represented by the lost of the most important page of miniature that will put copy a portrait of His Highness, which had been commissioned from a Venetian employ the style of Venetian painter with the Sultan image in the center.

161 In the Sufi tradition, the definition of everything always has a relative meaning depending on its context. On the one hand something is considered as an ‘end’ in the context of “the end of union”. On the other hand it may be seen as the beginning I the context ‘the beginning of an end”. In mystical process, union and separation are preconditions of each other: there is union in separation

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resolve an identity crisis that has left him isolated in Frankfurt unable to write

(Snow, 8) are eventually healed. The happiness he is searching for silently embraces him in a snowstorm whose silence intimates the inner peace he has been yearning for years. An inner peace that leads him to sleep: “cleansed by memories of innocence and childhood, he succumbed to optimism and dared to believe himself at home in this world” (Snow, 4).

Finding that his writing block is unlocked, instead of rejoicing it Ka’s soul is thorn between two poles: on the one hand he believes that happiness does not belong to a poor country like Kars, on the other hand it is in Kars, “the poorest, most forgotten, and most ignored part of Turkey” that he finds his muse and is able to resolve his writing block. He defines happiness as “finding another world to live in, a world where you can forget all this poverty and tyranny (Snow, 326).

He convinces İpek that once they leave for Frankfurt they will live in immense happiness for the rest of their life. As what he imagines when “The giant snowflakes wafting slowly through the glow were the stuff of fairy tales, and as

Ka watched them continue to fall, he had a vision of himself with İpek in

Frankfurt” (Snow, 27).

Either in Frankfurt or in Kars, Ka separates from the happiness he is desperately longing for. As an elite Westernized Turk, Ka grew up in Nisantasi,

Istanbul among society people and when he moves to Frankfurt he feels that he is a member of the Western intelligentsia who shares similar God with the rest of the intellectual people there, despite the Westerners’ indifference towards him. Ka and a separation in union. See Lalita Sinha, Unveiling the Garden of Love Mystical Symbolism in Layla Majnun& Gita Govinda (Indiana: World Wisdom, 2008), 81.

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bitterly confesses that: “I may belong to the intelligentsia in Turkey,’ said Ka.

‘But in Germany I’m a worthless nobody. I was falling apart there” (Snow, 103).

Ka indicates that his experience of God is more Western than Islamic. Ka states:

The idea of a solitary westernized individual whose faith in God is private is very threatening to you. An atheist who belongs to a community is far easier for you to trust than a solitary man who believes in God. For you, a solitary man is far more wretched and sinful than non believer (Snow, 61).

In Kars, a place he believes as poor and backward, he doubts that he can

“believe in the same God as the uneducated- the aunties with their heads wrapped in scarves, the uncles with the prayer beads in their hands”(Snow, 97). Even though he confesses that he comes to Kars to find happiness but the idea that God in Muslim world against the idea of modernizing the people in Kars makes him believe the same God as the rest of the people. In answering the sheikh, Ka states:

“ I’ve always wanted this country to prosper, to modernize….I’ve always wanted the freedom for its people, but it seemed to me that our religion was always against all this”(Snow, 96).

Unfortunately, the Frankfurt happiness that he believes is waiting for him and İpek seems fictional and even delusional when he is caught and beaten by Z

Dermikol (head of a “Special Operations team) who persuades Ka to reveal Blue’s hiding place. As Ka insists to hide what he knows about Blue, Z Dermikol hits him with a piece of history way more destroying than a physical blow: Blue and

İpek were lovers, a disheartening news that pierces Ka’s soul into devastating pain he can barely manage. His dream of profound happiness to have with İpek in

Frankfurt is eaten by “this crushing, soul-destroying pain” (Snow, 373). “Jealousy

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and remorse were defeating his every effort to think logically; his mind was in total disarray” (Snow, 373). As he “left the National Theatre in distress” (Snow,

373), he decides to betray Blue’s hideout. “The house is raided and “they have killed Blue” (Snow, 389).

Ka’s separation from his muse leads him astray as he cannot grasp happiness and is unable to write a single poem. However, this separation provides him another form of bliss that is an individual experience and logic; privilege that is not possible for him to acquire in a communal society of Kars. It is remarkable however, that Ka’s poems do not come all the way from concentration but which he feels” are not his own creation” (Snow, 100). Ka’s poems emerge as he explores to the impulses of his religious and attachments feelings as a result of his encounters with local hosts of Kars.

His first poem arrives after four years of silence when three religious devoted high schools boys provoking him with question about his feeling of being atheist. These boys: Fazil, Mesut, and Necip worry that Westernization may lead them unknowingly to atheism. Necip tells Ka a story about a school director who learns from a dervish that he has the disease of atheism: “It seems you’ve lost your faith in God,’ he said. ‘What’s worse, you don’t even know it, and as if that weren’t bad enough, you’re even proud of not knowing it!’ (Snow, 81).

The boys’ fear of unknowingly becoming atheist as the idea of suicide by devout headscarf girls terrified them. For them, religious belief must be absolutely certain: anything else entails a desire for suicide. Their heart that have special space for the suicidal girls conflicting with their religious tradition saying that

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those commited a suicide similar to an atheist and thus they will not be able to enter the door of heaven. Therefore they want to satisfy their hunger of curiosity whether an atheist is unhappy and wants to kills himself:

” Are you an atheist?’, asked Fazil, with imploring eyes. “And if you are an atheist, do you want to kill yourself?” “Even on the days when I’m most certain that I am an atheist, I feel no urge to commit suicide,” said Ka (Snow, 85).

Ka’s meeting with sheikh Sadettin Effendi and their tête-à-tête about God and how the ideals of God in his Western’s image is not found in Kars yet God in

Kars can provide him with “a beautiful snow [falling] from the sky” (Snow, 97), the snow that reminds him of God. As he states: “The snow reminded me of God.

The snow reminded me of the beauty and the mystery of creations; of the essential joy that is life” (Snow, 96). Thus, Ka’s nineteen poems are “mapped” into the snowflake, which has three axes: memory, imagination, and reason (Ka said that he was inspired by Bacon’s tree of knowledge) (Snow,261, 376). The snowflake is an expression of cosmic order and also a reflection of the fluctuating extreme reality that Ka experiences. Yet, it symbolizes the crystalline pattern of Sufi tradition. The entire axis in Ka’s poems reveals one of the feautures applied by

Sufi poets to deliver message that everything is always coming in pairs. 162 The poems of order and happiness are on the reason axis that in opposition of sufferring poems. He puts childhood memories and some events he experiences at kars on the axis of memory together with Necip’s fear of being an atheist and the night of the coup. A poem of love is put nearby a poem of jealousy, whereas a

162 Please refers to page 42 for the discussion of Sufi symbolisms that always comes or reveals pairs.

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poem of happiness bordering to a poem of suicide, all these poems belong to imagination axis. His poems however, “seemed to be a poem someone else has written” (Snow, 98-99). All of these poems come to him “as if someone were whispering the poems into his ears; back in Frankfurt, he could hardly hear them at all (Snow, 257).

Ka’s concept of happiness is described differently from Kemal and Galip, and his perspective makes his predicament even worse. Kemal and Galip believe that after all the agony they are suffering from losing their beloved eventually they will find profane joy with them. Ka, however discovers that happiness is impossible as he always believes that pain will immediately follow his happiness.

Unlike others, he lives in his own “polar extremities of existence” he believes that hate follows love, evil comes after good, pain ‘eats’ happiness:

Ka had always shied away from happiness for fear of the pain that might follow, so we already know that his most intense emotions came not when he was happy but when he was beset by certainty that his happiness would soon be lost to him….Love equaled pain….Heaven and were in the same place. In those same streets he had played soccer, gathered mulberries, and collected those player trading cards you got with chewing gum; it was precisely because the dogs turned the scene of these childish joys into a living hell that the joys so keenly (Snow, 340- 41).

In the end, Ka forsakes the happiness he discovers in Kars as he fails to embrace the companions of Kars’ residents and to admit that his ‘Frankfurt happiness’ is a mirage that is gone once he gets closer to it. Ultimately, Ka’s separation from his muse is his union with his ‘Frankfurt happiness’ takes him back to Frankfurt, all broken and alone.

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3. The State of re-Union

Re-union “denotes the state of union regained by the human soul after the experience of earthly realities or separation”. 163 Thus, after the lover suffers like the reed which is torn from the reed bed and constantly sings a song full of longing for the source. Before proceeding into the analysis of the final stage, it is worthy to recall the previous discussion that the division between separation and union is blurred as union and separation is precondition to one another.164 This signifies that union does not always mean being in physical contact just as separation is not necessarily being physically apart.

The re- union or the ending in Pamuk’s oeuvres is extraordinary distinctive as he uses death as the ultimate journey of his characters in his oeuvres.

The occurrence of death seems to become the locus in Pamuk’s works. Besides his constant flirt with East and West identity conflict, Pamuk is never tired of

‘killing’ the characters in his works. Pamuk’s intimacy with death keeps echoing in almost of his tales. The Silent House, his early novel written in 1983 and recently translated into English in 2012, exposes the death of Nilgun who is murdered by Hasan, a boy who is desperately in love with her. Finding that the girls his heart sings a love song is a communist, Hasan cannot help but beats her as he believes that she betrays their Islamic values. Nilgun dies few days later as a result of Hasan’s beating. In The New Life (1995), again Pamuk short cuts his characters life on a bus accident while they searching for a new life as promised

163 Lalita Sinha, Unveiling the Garden of Love: Mystical Symbolism in Layla Majnun and Gita Govinda (Indiana: World Wisdom 2010), 49.

164 Lalita Sinha, Unveiling the Garden of Love: Mystical Symbolism in Layla Majnun and Gita Govinda (Indiana: World Wisdom 2010), 81.

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by a book they read one day. A book that had changed their life but in searching for the brand new life as stated in the book, the characters have to trade their life and meet their destiny: die. The aroma of death is also thick in Pamuk’s My Name is Red (1998) one of his masterpieces that earned him an international big hit that focusing on finding the murder in the novel in order to finish the Sultan’s order.

The conflict starts with the death of Master gilder Elegant Effendi who was murdered by a fellow artist. He and three other miniaturists had been working secretly on a book (delegated by the Sultan) using the new Frankish methods. The thriller of the novel closes when the murderer is found following by the death of the murderer itself.165

Death, (in an ordinary point of view) is naturally recognized as the end of one’s life or journey. In mystical perspective, death is used as a symbol that signifies unity. It is the point of union in Sufi tradition. In the circle of darwis, it is not birthday that they celebrate, but their ursh their death.166 Thus, death is central topic in most of , and death has endangered “the innumerable cruel description of the lover dying on the path towards the Beloved.”167 The

165 See Orhan Pamuk, The Silent House, trans. Robert Finn (London: Fabeer and Faber, 2012); The New Life, trans. Güneli Gün (new York: Farrar Straus Girroux, 1997); My Name is Red, trans. Erdağ Göknar (London: Faber and Faber, 2001).

166 In the circle of dervish, death is worth celebrating than birthday. They are not celebrating their birthday but their ursh, the day of their death. The most well known celebrated death day is Rumi’s demise. Devout seeker and pilgrimage from all the corner of the globe visits his mausoleum in Konya, Central , Turkey and celebrates his death every December 17. To emphasize the joy of death, in his tomb written a precept says “Now for my funeral, Bring drums and tambourines and kettledrums. And bring me dancing to my grave, my friends, Intoxicated, joyful, clap your hands!”

167 Annemarie Schimmel, As Through a Veil: Mystical Dimension of Poetry in Islam (New York: Columbia University Press 1982), 46.

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hadith from the Prophet “die before ye die” is the basis that tantalizes the longing for death on the path of the beloved. Attar put this state of union in a poetical way

“If you hope for union then die!”168 Death is a medium to be united with the beloved; it is the remedy to cure the pain of separation encounters by the lovers.

In Sufi literature, death is such an exclusive thing that the lovers longing in their whole life. Death is the bridge that will unite the lovers with their beloved.169

At the heart of The Black Book is the search for the beloved who leaving without a trace and when finally appearing they are found died. The death of the beloved however, is accompanied by the death of Galip’s garden of memory.

Galip wanders every corner of Istanbul and meets diverse people including his schoolmate and the prostitute that makes him feel newly born, to find Rüya but comes to no avail. At the end he realizes that the only way to find her is to find

Celâl. Celâl, his wife step brother, also disappears at the night when his wife is missing. Galip concludes that the only possible way to find Rüya is to seek Celâl.

Galip believes that Rüya and Celâl must be hiding in similar place. Therefore, finding Celâl will take him to Rüya as well.

In his anguish of loosing Rüya, Galip takes a great confidence that Celâl is the answer to work out his predicament. Galip then visits Celâl’s office in a hope to find his wife. He will do as what he does to anyone else. He will not tell him the truth about Rüya’s missing in the first place instead he will tell him about a distraught client whose wife abandons him. Galip will tell him “that Rüya a little

168 Ibid. 70.

169 Schimmel, “Sun at Midnight. Despair and Trust in the Islamic Mystical Tradition” Diogenes 165. 421 (1994):1-24.

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out of sorts, nothing more” (BB, 95). Thus, on his way to Celâl’ office, Galip is imagining how his conversation with Celâl will flow. How Celâl will respond to his story after he listens carefully to every detail of Galip’s story. A soothing feeling embraces his heart as he knows that whenever Celâl speaks ‘the world would begin to make sense again” (BB, 95). At this point, Galip thinks “how much that everything will be better if he could leave this world behind forever and live in Celâl’s world instead” (BB, 95).

Sadly, Celâl is not available at his office and instead of finding Celâl, Galip meets two old journalists that tell him about Celâl’s absence for days. “Celâl Bey hasn’t been in for days” (BB, 96). The two old journalists advise Galip that in order to find Celâl, Galip has to study his writing. They say “If you want to find him, study his columns” (BB, 102). The old columnist and the magazine writer assume that if Celâl is gone into hiding to sort of his crisis, they believe that Celâl must have someone with him, “Someone to whom he could pass on his literary secrets, his will and testament” (BB, 103).

Eventually, one night Galip finds Celâl died in front of Alaadin shop. Celâl is apparently being murdered by one of his fanatic readers. The next day, Rüya’s body is found inside Alaadin shop among the dolls on the display. This novel brings two different state of death yet shows similar theme which is union. The death of Rüya and Celâl is the final search for Galip’s wandering either in every corner of Istanbul or in Celâl’s bottomless well of past memory. By the death of these two, Galip is eventually united with his beloved. He finally can reach his dream (Rüya) by achieving enlightenment (Celâl). Galip’s union with his beloved

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thus shows the ideal of Sufi framework, people need to suffer in order to reach purification. He endures this suffering every night by exploring Istanbul’s street in searching for Rüya and Celâl. Thus, Galip has to endure the pain caused by Celâl and Rüya missing prior to his struggle to achieve enlightenment and to be united with his beloved Rüya.

Galip finally reaches his union with his dream after he successfully reinvents Celâl’s garden of memory, inventing Celâl’s garden of memory and past, Galip cannot persist to write as Celâl. Celâl has not died but lives trough

Galip and continues writing as Celâl. This is how Galip securing himself into a new liberating literary career in Celâl’s identity.

Kemal in The Museum of Innocence is eventually be united with his beloved Füsun after she crashes the car on their way to Europe. He is no longer embarrassed with his collection of objects that becomes his consolation during his pathetic days and heartache to win Füsun back. He finally displays all the objects that were laden with Füsun’s memory into a museum devoted to the memory of his beloved. He wants to spend the rest of his life with all objects that reminds him of Füsun.

In approximately eight years that he spends with Füsun and her family,

Kemal only once verbally admits to Füsun’s mother that he loves her daughter, the rest of his times he only sits by her side contentedly and passively, expressing his love through looks and brief brushes of skin. When Füsun separates from her husband and agrees to marry Kemal, she demands that Kemal first takes her and her mother on a road trip across Europe. On the first night of the trip, Kemal and

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Füsun make love for the first time since their first lovemaking in 1975. The following morning, tipsy and accusing Kemal of thwarting her chances at cinematic stardom, Füsun drives the 1956 Chevrolet Kemal inherited from his father into a 105-year-old plane tree going 105 kilometers per hour. From the passenger seat, ever the pensive and reflective narrator, Kemal explains to readers:

Truly I knew then, in the depths of my soul, that we had come to the end of our allotted portion of happiness that our time had come to leave this beautiful realm, by way of racing toward the plane tree. Füsun had locked onto it, as onto a target. And so it was I felt, my future could not be parted from hers. Wherever we were going, I would be there with her, and we were never to enjoy the happiness one could find on this earth. It was a terrible shame, but it seemed inevitable (MoI, 488).

Within seven seconds, Füsun is dead, and Kemal enters a coma from which he eventually recovers one month later. Losing Füsun for the second time, without any chance to see her again Kemal discovers that he no longer lives as himself. He feels that Füsun lives inside him regardless of her physical absence.

And just like Majnun170 who concentrates his thought on Layla, Kemal focuses his life on Füsun and he creates a “world” that assumes the form of Füsun in his life. After visiting 5000 museums all over the world, not the big crowded

“ostentatious ones”, but “the empty museums”, “the collections no one ever visits” (MoI, 495), Kemal discovers consolation of his broken heart: “Whenever wandering alone trough museums like this, I felt myself uplifted. […] it was as if I had entered a separate realm that coexisted with the city’s crowded streets but was

170 In Sufi tradition, Majnun literally means crazy, is an epitomizing figure of the seeker who travels the thorns of love caused by his separation from Layla, his beloved. Majnun’s predicament is the most perfect example of mystical quest. Layla Majnun is a classic poem of Nizami which was written in latter half of 12th Century. See Nizami, The Story of Layla and Majnun, trans. Rudolf Gelpke (New York: Omega Publication, 1997).

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not of them; and in the eerie timelessness of this other universe, I would find solace” (MoI, 495) Kemal then decides to buy the Çukurcuma home to house his fetishistic collection and to live with it: by immortalizing Füsun into a museum,

Kemal unites with his beloved by living in constant remembrance of Füsun’s memory: ” I may not have “won” the woman I love so obsessively, but it cheered me to have broken off a piece of her, however small” (MoI, 372). Kemal’s museum is his ‘kaaba’171, a place, in Rumi and Hafiz’s word is not a physical place but a spiritual place representing the state of union and symbolizing intimacy. Kaaba also symbolizes the Divine essence, while the Black stone within it represents the human spiritual essence.172 Museum of Innocence that he builds upon Füsun’s death is the home of all the objects that Füsun has touched which he pilfers during his visits to the Keskin household in Çukurcuma.

This re- union reveals the ideals in Sufi tradition that union or separation is beyond physical dimension. This means that experiencing union is not always being physically united. As a person can find connectedness in separation, a person can also taste disconnectedness in union.173 Either Galip or Kemal, they lost their beloved when they are united with them. When they undergo the stage of separation from their beloved, they believe that after all the pain they endure they

171 In Muslim tradition, the fifth tenet of Islam is the pilgrimage to the Holy Land of . Kaaba represents the house of where they will encircle the kaaba and recite a prayer.

172 Lelah Bakhtiar, Sufi: Expression of the Mystic Quest (New York: Thames& Hudson 1976), 137.

173 Hafiz, The Green Sea of Heaven, trans. Elizabeth T. Gray, JR. (Oregon: White Cloud Press 2002), 21.

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will discover happiness. They will eventually unite with their beloved and all the pain and longing they are suffering will meet its remedy.

Füsun, Rüya, and Celâl’s death for Kemal and Galip respectively means that they encounter final separation from their beloved. However, Kemal and

Galip’ loss of their beloved no longer hurts them as they way they suffer in their first separation from their beloved. This is in accordance with Sufi tradition as

Sufi believes that physical death could not but be “the moment of celebration when the last obstacle was lifted and he was able to return fully to the ocean of light from which he had become momentarily separated.” 174

In their final separation, Kemal and Galip discover that it is not necessary to search for their beloved or suffering from incurable heartbroken. They are aware that as their beloved live in them and they live as their beloved; hence there is no need to search for their beloved. Kemal installs a museum as his retreat for Füsun and Galip assumes a new life by securing Celâl’c columns. This state of re-union is what Sufi tradition recognizes as “seekers who finally became one with those they sought” (BB, 261). Or the fusion of I and you, for there is no I or you but we.

This is the state that Rumi beautifully puts in his mathnavi “if I am He, then why am I still searching?”175

Ka, in Snow experiences a slight different re-union. He abandons the happiness he finds in Kars and he prefers to go home to Frankfurt without İpek

174 , “Rūmī and the Sufi Tradition. Studies in Comparative Religion”, © World Wisdom, Inc 8. 2 (1974): 1-18, 11.

175 Rumi, Mathnavi Qtd in Orhan Pamuk. The Black Book, trans. Maureen Freely (London: Faber and Faber, 2006), 261.

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and lives his lonely life all by himself. For years and years Ka has drawn deeper into his solitude and does not even bother to send all the letters he wrote to İpek.

He withdraws himself from his surrounding and lives in the silence of his pain:

All my life I’ve felt as lost and lonely as a wounded animal (Ka wrote)…But here

I am, abandoned and wasting away; the scars of my unbearable suffering on every inch of my body. Sometimes I think it’s not just you I’ve lost, but that I’ve lost everything in the world (Snow, 259-260). The following four years after his visit to Kars and his unbearable solitude, Ka is shot to death by one of Blue’s admirers as the price he has to pay for breaking his promise to Blue: “ Whatever they do to you, they must also do to me” (Snow, 325).

Ka’s demise is a consequence of his decision prior to his departure from

Kars with İpek. Ka’s choice is provoked by Z Dermikol, the police commander in

Kars who tells him heartbreaking news about İpek. İpek to whom Ka pins all his

Frankfurt happiness was once upon a time Blue’s mistress: “This İpek Hanim176 with whom you hope to live happily ever after- she was, once upon a time, Blue’s mistress” (Snow, 356). Z Dermikol then reads a few excerpts of some conversation between İpek and Blue that chase away Ka’s doubt:

My darling, my dearest, the days I spend without you I’m hardly alive!” That. For example is what İpek Hanim said on a hot summer’s day four years ago. […] “Everyone has only one true love in life, and you are that love in mine.” [...] In the past two days alone, she’s phoned him three times. We don’t have transcript of these last conversation, but it doesn’t matter; when you see İpek Hanim, you can ask her yourself (Snow, 358).

176 Hanim is the title for Turkish female, for men it is Bey. These traditional Turkish titles which belong to Ottoman’s legacy were abolished in November 1935 by Atatürk and replaced with Mr, Mrs, and Miss. See History Today, November 2009.

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Although Z Dermikol cannot provide İpek and Blue’s latest conversation, what he has been telling Ka obviously changes Ka’s mind as well as his destiny.

Only a few hours after this painful revelation, a group of soldiers raids Blue’s hiding place and kills him (Snow, 389). Blue’s demise turns out to be Ka’s fate four years later. As tragic as it may seem, Ka’s death however freed him from all his lamentation: the state of exile either in Kars or Frankfurt, the crushing pain of his jealousy to Blue, and his solitude in Kars. Ka’s death is his portal to free himself from all of his predicaments. As Hallaj177 had sung, “In my being killed is my life.”178

4. Conclusion

From the preceding discussion, it can be seen that the three novels in this study show that in their journey the lovers have to encounter several stages to gain wholeness as the ultimate end of their journey. This wholeness or unity arrives through process of transformation. This transformation will only gain through separation that leads the lovers forward. This state of separation or disconnectedness, the lovers also ‘embrace’ connectedness as previously mentioned in the beginning of the discussion. Separation is fruitful as the lovers gain purification. After Galip’s separation from his wife, Rüya, this state leads him to unite with his other self in Celâl. Rüya’s banishment becomes Galip’s

177 Mansur Al Hallaj, the martyr of love par excellence in Sufi’s tradition, who was sentenced to death because of his saying ana al-Haqq “I am the Absolute Truth”, something people at the time found offensive and could not understand. His hands and feet were cut off and his body were burned and the ashes thrown into the Tigris. He was a legendary Iranian Sufi master who lived between 858-922 in present day Iraq. See Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975): 66-73.

178 Rumi, Diwan i kabir 1735/ 18202.

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media to discover that he has a ‘hole’ in his life to complete. This hole is filled by writing Celâl’s columns and securing its place in magazine. Similar to Galip’s case, Kemal’s separation from Füsun leads him to collect Füsun’s belongings and launches himself as an ethnographer for his love life and his culture. Ka, who forever encounters separation either in Frankfurt or Kars, also embraces union in these two different ‘worlds’. His solitude life and identity crisis in Frankfurt lead him to visit Kars and discover his muse. In Kars, Ka unites with his muse and makes him a modern dervish who writes his poems based on the “voice” inside that dictates the poem.

Each of the lovers in this study eventually reaches the ultimate end of their journey. They re-unite with their beloved after their separation. However, this re- union is not simple as it is ambiguous in nature. This re-union bears another separation and tensions as well. Unlike the separation in the first stage of the journey, the tension in this stage is not causing the same level of distress since the lovers have been transformed. Galip is no longer searching for Rüya. In the end

Rüya is the image that leads him to unite with his other self. The supreme purpose of his search is eventually wholeness of his self that he discovers in Celâl. Similar tone is shared by Kemal. His re-union with Füsun represented by Füsun death is different from the separation he encounters in his early journey. Being physically separated from Füsun for the rest of his life, Kemal somehow lives as Füsun.

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CHAPTER IV

THE MYSTICAL STAGES IN TURKEY IDENTITY QUEST

Part of me longed, like radical Westernizer, for the city to become entirely European. But another part of me yearned to belong to the Istanbul I had grown to love, by instinct, by habit, and by memory- Pamuk179

This chapter will uncover the second question of the study, which is how the

Sufi framework of identity formation indirectly influences Pamuk’s three novels under study. This chapter will be divided thematically into two subchapters: the first sub- chapter will deal with a brief highlight on Turkey’s history of the transition from the late Ottoman era to the Era of Republic. By providing a historical account on the transition from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic of

Turkey, this first sub-chapter is meant to provide a better understanding of the contemporary identity predicament of Turkey and to demonstrate how the denial of the Ottoman past turned Turkey’s identity into a fragmented one.

The following sub-chapter will examine the concept of identity quest that

Pamuk offers in his three novels studied. The concept is presented in the quest of identity that reveals the keys of unio mystica or the ultimate point of identification with the Divine in Sufi tradition.180 Thus this chapter will have four sub headings in response to the three stages of mystical quest in Sufi framework.

179 Orhan Pamuk, Istanbul Memories and the City, trans. Maureen Freely (New York: Alfred A. Knopf 2004), 323.

180 Lalita Sinha, Unveiling the Garden of Love Mystical Symbolism in Layla Majnun& Gita Govinda (Indiana: World Wisdom, 2008), 47.

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Therefore, the second sub-chapter will be divided into three sub headings where each of them will examine each level of identity construction within the mystical stages of Sufism. By doing so, this chapter is expected to show how

Pamuk offers new framework and understanding of identity formation in Turkey’s identity quest portrayed in each of these novels and how his interpretation can be understood in the framework of Sufism.

A. From the Late Ottoman Millet to the Early Republic

Turkey possesses a unique location on two different continents (Europe and

Asia) and the political center of the Empire (Istanbul) was located where two of these continents meet. This geographical in-betweenness encourages cultural meeting that is constant in nature since the Ottoman time (even before during and after the Byzantine), simply because the empire was one of the main world trade routes. In the present day, Turkey has undoubtedly become the most secular country in the world. What makes Turkey even more distinctive in this regard is its function as the successor of predominantly Islamic culture. Islamic law181 was used as the rule in society life, but then with the establishment of the Turkey

Republic by the army commander in-chief, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1923, the

Ottoman legacy that was based on Islamic code was attacked and replaced with secularism, Westernization, and nationalism.182

181 Islamic law is known as sharia, a legal framework within which the public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on Islam. 182 Soner Cagaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey Who is A Turk? (London: Rouledge, 2005), 2.

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In the early period of Kemalism183 Mustafa Kemal Atatürk wanted to create a new Turkish identity in opposition to the Ottoman identity with its roots in Islam and they obsessed to radically transform the Ottoman Islamic structure into a nation-state within the framework of ideological positivism.184 Ataturk was a firm believer in Turkey’s European destiny and in the theories that attributed to Islam as the greatest part of the responsibility for the economic and military backwardness of Muslim countries.185 In McCarty’s words:

The Turks rejected Ottoman traditions so that they could more completely become part of the West. It was the fundamental ideology of the new Turkish state that the Republic had begun anew and owed little to the Ottoman.186

Ataturk’s leadership worked on the comprehensive transformation of

Turkification and Westernization, and that transformed politics, religion, language, and history. As Lewis observes:

During the 1930s the pressure of secularization in Turkey became very strong indeed. Although the regime never adopted an avowedly anti Islamic policy, its desire to end the power of organized Islam and breaks its hold on the minds and hearts of the was clear. The prohibition of religious education, the transfer of to secular purposes, reinforced the lesson of the legal and social reforms. In the rapidly growing new capital, now new mosques were built. 187

183 The word Kemalism was first used by Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoglu to refer to the new nation building state ideology; this word is also used to define the revolutionary ideology between 1923 and 1935. See Meliz Ergin, East-West Entanglements: Pamuk, Özdamar, Derrida, Unpublished Dissertation (Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 2009), 17.

184 Aysu Gelgec Gulpinar, Women in the Twentieth Century: Modernity, Feminism, and Islam in Turkey, Unpublished Master Thesis (Arlington: University of Texas in Arlington, 2006), 8.

185 Shireen T. Hunter, The Future of Islam and the West: Clash of Civilizations or Peaceful Coexistence? (Westport, CT, and London: Praeger with the Center for Strategic and International Students Washington DC, 1998), 85.

186 Justin McCarty, The Ottoman Peoples and The End of Empire (London: Arnold, 2001), 216.

187 Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London: Oxford UP, under the auspices of the Royal institute of International Affairs, 1961), 406.

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As a result of the sentiment towards Ottoman Islam, several features that have marked Turkey’s distinctiveness as Muslim society were abolished. Blindy possessed by the lure of Western’s civilization, it was easy for Atatürk to discard

Islam and its legacy that he considered as an obstacle to catch up with globalization and the modernization. Atatürk established a series of reforms to secularize Turkey during the 1920s.188 On January 2, 1924 he changed the Muslim

Sabbath, Friday, into Sunday and replaced the lunar calendar and clock with

Gregorian calendar and solar clock.189

The capital was moved from Istanbul as the center of Ottoman golden time to Ankara, the mosques were transformed into museums, dervish lodges were shut down, and traditional outfits were abolished. A secular civil code regulating matters of marriage, inheritance, divorce, and adoption was approved by the

Turkish Grand National Assembly on February 17, 1926.190 In the following eight months, the sharia court was annulled on October 4, 1926, declaring Islamic law null and void. The declaration of Islam as Turkey’s state religion was removed from the constitution by the parliament on April 10, 1928.191 Finally, Ankara

188 Robert Shannan Peckam, “Frontier Fictions,” in National Histories, Natural States Nationalism and the Politics of Place in Greece (London: I.B. Tauris, 2001), 40.

189 Kemal H. Karpat, “Ottomanism, Fatherland and the ‘Turkishness’ of the State,” in The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State (2001): 341-345.

190 Hakan M. Yavuz, “Islam and Nationalism: Yusuf Akçura, Üç Tarz-I Siyaset,” Oxford Journal of 4(2) (1993): 190-92, 207.

191 Hakan M. Yavuz, “The Pattern of Islamic Identity: Dynamics of National and Transnational Loyalties and Identities.” Central Asian Survey 14. 3 (1995), 360.

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declared that the Latin alphabet would replace Arabic script, the alphabet of

Quran, effective from January 1, 1929.192 All of these policies show that:

The establishment of an officially secular state, any idea that Turkey should act primarily, or even partially, as a Muslim state was definitely abandoned. Atatürk’s clear aim was to establish Turkey as a respected nation, on the Western model.193

The roots of this Westernization reform can be traced back from the

Tanzimat era which began in 1839. This era was characterized by attempts to modernize the Ottoman Empire and to forestall foreign intervention. In this period, several westernizing reforms, especially in military forces and cultural life, were reinforced to save the empire that was weakened by the increasing nationalist rebellions among the ethnic communities by strengthening its relations with Europe. Much of the Ottoman system was reorganized along largely French lines.194 However, during this era Ottoman culture continued to rely on Islamic tradition and the Westernization reforms in this period were a controlled translation of Western cultural elements into the Eastern tradition.195

192 Kemal H. Karpat ”Transformation of the Ottoman State: 1789-1908,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 3 (1972): 266.

193 William Hale, Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774-2000 (London and Portland: Frank Coss 2000), 332.

194 Cem Emrence. “Three Waves of Late Ottoman Historiography 1950-2007,” Middle East Studies Association Bulletin 41. 2 (2007): 137-151.

195 Melitz Ergin East- West Entanglements: Pamuk, Ozdamar, Derrida, Unpublished Dissertation (Vancouver: University of British Columbia 2009), 16.

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B. The Mystical Stages in Turkey’s Identity Quest.

As mentioned in the opening remark of this chapter, this sub-chapter will examine the stages in Turkey’s identity quest that are similar to the mystical stages in Sufi identity construction. In this study, Sufi identity framework is applied to analyze Turkey’s identity quest as a national predicament in Turkey.

Although the personal quest of each character in the three novels under this study has been dealt with in the preceding chapter, this personal quest in fact is intertwined with the problem Turkey’s national identity formation. The personal quests that have been discussed in Chapter 3 will be further analyzed in its relation within the grander scope of a nation. Therefore, Sufi identity framework of identity formation can be employed here to reveal several issues faced by a nation (Turkey) in its identity quest.

Drawing similar pattern as the discussion in Chapter 3 that employed three stages in Sufi framework of identity’s formation, this sub-chapter will also deal with these three stages that bear the essence of union, separation, and re-union to

Turkey’s identity quest. The three phases can be outlined as follows: The Initial

Union of the Old and New Cultural ‘Costume’ signifying the union phase, the separation phase came as a result of The Replacement of Ottoman Cultural

Heritage with Secular Western Identity, and the re-union phase resulting in a dynamic-Self as an Amalgam of re-Union between the Old and the New Cultural

Identity.

Each stage in Sufi framework of identity construction will uncover the journey of a broken self towards wholeness and the tension that come along with

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the journey. In its quest to its ultimate end (meeting with the Divine or the true-

Self) each stage of the quest will reveal that conflicts and tensions will always arise in the journey; and the union that he seeks is both cultural and political where tension will always be there and the quest will not always come to a closure since it is an endless journey that is complex in nature.

1. The Initial Union of the Old and the New Cultural ‘Costume’

He must abandon his past totally if he was to become a totally new being. So he cut off all relations with his father and his family . . . But it was not easy to become free of them. Orhan Pamuk- The New Life

Pamuk “narrates his country into being”196 by weaving his novels with a backdrop of Ottoman history and Turkish culture. Hence his texts mix the East and the West, and “address the short of timeless, universal issues that make superb literary fiction”.197 He portrays the motherland as being divided between the

“ghostly presence of a lost great empire and the constraint imposed by the construction of a secular nation.”198 His tales are constantly engaged with the oscillation between East and West, a never ending ‘dance’ or identity confusion carried by the conflict between European and Islamic values. He loves adopting traditional Ottoman and Islamic culture in his writing and discussing Turkish’s fractured sense of identity. As Göknar argues, Pamuk’s adaptation to make use of

196 Margaret Atwood, “Headscarf to Die For,” New York Times, August 15, 2004.

197 Eric J. Ianneli, “My Name is Red by Orhan Pamuk” Rain Taxi Online Edition (Rain Taxi Inc 2001): 1-3.

198 Adriana Alves De Paula Martins, “Orhan Pamuk and the Construction of Turkey’s National Memory in Istanbul. Memories of a City,” Mathesis 19 (2010): 169-180.

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Ottoman past is to be able “to scrutinize identity subversion or new understanding of selfhood”.199

The primordial union of Turkey’s past and new costume is depicted in his early novel The Silent House. In this family saga novel, Pamuk shows us the effect of secularization agenda on the life of each character. Atatürk’s earlier transformations to exclude Islamic legacies were clearly depicted in this novel, which has five different characters narrating their own story. The Hat Law or Hat

Revolution that requires all Turkish male to wear Western hat instead of their fez, the policy to stop using Arabic script and switch into the Latin alphabet, and the surname adoption200 for all Turkish citizens are mainly discussed in this novel.

Darvinoğlu, the family name in this novel, means the son of Darwin, revealing the character’s fascination towards the promising Western’s knowledge and sciences.

The three novels in the present study, The Black Book, Snow, and The

Museum of Innocence also deal in one way or another with the agenda of

Westernization-modernization brought by Turkish Republic, an agenda that brings a predicament of identity formation amongts Turkish people. The three novels in this study breathe similar melancholy in a way that each novel presents multilayered plotlines that open as a love story but develop as a quest of finding the true self. The three male protagonists in this study, Galip, Ka, and Kemal start their journey with a “prosaic physical search” for their beloved women. Yet, the

199 Erdağ Göknar, Orhan Pamuk: Secularism and Blasphemy: The Politic of Turkish Novel, ed. Erdağ Göknar (London: Rouledge, 2013), 19.

200 Ataturk ordered all Turkish citizens to adopt surname from the first day of 1935. The parliament circulated a list of approved-surname for the citizen to adopt. It was on November 24 Mustafa Kemal gave himself the surname Atatürk. See Soner Cagaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey who is Turk? (New York: Rouledge, 2006), 64.

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journey turns into a metaphysical quest in which the characters search for the meaning of their selves. The love story in the three novels in this study apparently is a framework in which the protagonist seeks their authentic self.

The three female protagonists in the three novels can be seen as symbol of

Sufi Beloved whom the entire three helpless male protagonists set their quest to search for. Female is the “mystical imagery that poets in classical Persian Sufi epic configure as the Divine Beloved.”201 In Sufi tradition, the “highest conceivable dignity- Divine manifestation is ascribed to the female principle”.202

As examined in the preceding chapter, Galip, Kemal, and Ka start their journey upon loosing the women they are desperately in love with. As their quasy- mystical journey to seek their female beloved unfolds, Rüya, Füsun, and İpek are no longer important as eventually Galip, Kemal, and Ka discover that what they are looking for is their selves. They eventually transform to a profoundly different person from the one at the beginning of their journey. Their missing beloved turns out to be a symbol that leads them to discover their true-Self.

This double journey is also depicted in Pamuk’s early novel The New Life.

In this novel Osman, the protagonist, embarks a physical journey to pursue a new life upon reading a book with its oft-quoted “I read a book one day and my whole life had changed”. As he becomes consumed with the book, eventually he stops attending his classes and obsessed to read the book closely and he ultimately set on a bus journey to meet the author of the book and Janan, the girl whom he is in

201 Michael Barry, “The Allegory of Drunkenness and the Theophany of the Beloved in Sixteenth- Century Illustration of Hafiz,” in Hafiz and the Religion of Love in Classical Persian Poetry, ed. Leonard Lewisohn (London: I.B. Tauris 2010: 213-226), 225.

202 Ibid. 225.

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love with and who inspires him to read this quasi- scriptural book. During his journey to discover Nahit, the writer of the book, and Janan, Osman at the same time also searches for his true self. In his random bus travels looking for Nahit and Janan, Osman is eventually redefined and re-explored his own identity. He keeps stealing identity cards from the passenger of every bus accident he encounters. By doing so, Osman shifts from one identity into another; by living as different person. It is a metaphor Pamuk uses to symbolize the quest of Turkey identity’s contruction that living completely by imitating other’s culture and abandoning its own culture.

Thus the protagonist in these four novels shares similar fate; they are in love with a woman and they start a physical quest for the sake of the woman and end up in a deeper metaphysical pilgrimage to question their true selves. The identity quest by the protagonists in the afore-mentioned novels can be compared to

Turkey’s identity predicament which was constantly put into question ever since the new-state nation rejected all their parental cultures of the Ottoman Empire. An act that in Tanpinar’s203 words is identified as a cultural neurosis: “If I may be so

203 Ahmed Hamdi Tanpinar (1901-1962) was one of prominent Turkish novelists who is categorized in the era of Turkish social nationalism (1922-1949), an era in which literary works revealed “the proliferation of ideological novels; that is, historically grounded representations of new ‘men’ and new societies. Tanpinar authored five novels during his writing career. His novels explore the Ottoman legacy of Turkish modernity. They chronicle the dramatic cultural change that accompanied the transformation of the Islamic Ottoman Empire into the secular Republic of Turkey and resulted in instability of identities.

Although Pamuk refused to be regarded as Tanpinar’s heir but in his memoir Istanbul: Memories of a City (2005) he expressed a warm approval of Tanpinar in it. In this book, Pamuk describes Tanpınar as the writer with whom he “feels the closest bond” (99) and praises him as “Turkey’s greatest twentieth century novelist” (225). See, Çimen Günay-Erkol. “Sleepwalking in Istanbul: A Man in Anguish in A.H Tanpinar’s A Mind at Peace” Symposium Summer (2009): 85-106; Erdağ Göknar, “The Novel in Turkish: Narrative Tradition to Nobel Price” in The Cambridge History of Turkey, ed. Kemal H. Karpat (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008): 472-503.

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rash, I would say that we are all living in a kind of Oedipus complex since

Tanzimat; we feel, in a sense, that we have unintentionally murdered our father.204

The Black Book is known as Pamuk’s magnum opus for the richness of its content that combines Turkey’s cultural literary tradition range from Sufism, , mathnavi and Tukey’s history blanketed within the complexities of its plots- related to modernization that kills the Eastern value of Ottoman legacy.

Pamuk’s favor on the ‘sacred’ meeting of East-West takes the form in The Black

Book. He then (masterfully) develops the rich concept of identity quest in all his following novels as the development of The Black Book. Each novel deals with different feature in portraying the predicament of Turkey’s identity construction.

One prominent trait of his oeuvres is that through his novels he brings “at least two opposing texts together to shatter prejudices and existing beliefs”.205

The Black Book recounts a story about a dreamy lawyer Galip in search for his missing wife and his cousin in law Celâl. This story takes place in Istanbul in

1980 which is also the year of the latest military coup in Turkey. Galip’s quest for

Rüya and Celâl into the labyrinthine of Istanbul is laden with references to cultural change as a result of Atatürk’s Westernization agenda. At the heart of this novel lies a search within a search, a similar quest for the Beloved as well as the cultural shift in Turkey depicted in The Museum of Innocence.

The Museum of Innocence (2008) is Pamuk’s latest novel following his

Nobel laureate winning in 2006. Similar to The Black Book and Snow, Pamuk

204 Qtd in Çimen Günay-Erkol. “Sleepwalking in Istanbul: A Man in Anguish in A.H Tanpinar’s A Mind at Peace” Symposium Summer (2009):85-106, 86.

205 Orhan Pamuk, Other Colors, trans Maureen Freely (London: Faber and Faber, 2007), 103.

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consistently presents Turkey identity contestation within the dichotomy of East and West. The Museum of Innocence draws small gap with The Black Book in term of specific issues addressed in this novel. If The Black Book laments over the loosing of Turkish identity in the early Republic Turkey, The Museum of

Innocence whistles similar agony on the banishment of Turkish’s cultural identity in a more contemporary issue specifically on the life style and woman’s body as the contested identity as depicted in Snow.

In The Museum of Innocence, Pamuk takes the reader back to the Istanbul of his youth, and this novel belies the common belief that once a writer has become a

Nobel laureate, his or her best work is in the past. It is a long obsessive love story of Istanbul elite Kemal Basmaci, an elite West- obsessed bourgeois whose life is impeccably fortunate beyond rationalization for his engagement to Sibel, another member of a well-off Istanbulite bourgeois who is widely believed to be Kemal’s ideal wie due to her Western education and beauty.As his father told him “Sibel is very special, a very charming girl. A woman, a rare flower like her- you must make sure you never break her heart. You must care for her always, and treat her with the utmost tenderness” (MoI, 89).

Snow, on the other hand, covers a wide range of issues that previously examined in The Black Book. It discusses the ambivalence of the nation in adjusting their self to be the member of new ’world’. Snow presents a grander scope of issues in identity quest. This quest is carried by its characters’ personal experiences and in one way or another reflects the country’s experience as a whole. The story opens with the arrival of Kerim Alakuşoğlu, later known as Ka,

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after he discards his given name because he “doesn’t like it…even if it meant conflict with teachers and government officials” (Snow, 5), in the once cosmopolitan city of Kars on Turkey’s eastern-most border, “ a place that the whole world had forgotten” (Snow, 10). Ka’s arrival in Kars is upon the request of his friend Taner. Taner asked him to write an article “about the municipal elections coming up and how- just in the city of Batman- an extraordinary number of girls in Kars had succumbed to suicide epidemic” (Snow, 8). Ka, tempted by the tempting news Taner provides that their once beautiful old classmate İpek Hanim whom he wishes to marry is now living in Kars with his father and sister, cannot but accept the offer. Kars impeccably suits the story of this doubling journey. It has shifted from one state to another in the course of history embodying doubleness. For many years between 1877 and 1918 it was part of the Russian Empire and becoming part of the new born Turkish Republic in 1921 (Snow, 27).

Unlike Pamuk’s other tales which setting is Istanbul, Pamuk chooses Kars, the peripheral city in north-eastern Turkey, bordering with Armenia as his attempt to bring back the intricacies of the Ottoman-Turkish history. Kars, a shortened name for the Turkish Kar-su (“Snow Water”), was “annexed by Russia during the Russo-Turkish War in 1877-1878, and then briefly formed a part of the

Democratic Republic of Armenia after World War I until Turkish general Kazim

Karabekir re-conquered it in November 1920”.206

206 Michael McGaha, Autobographies of Ohan Pamuk: The Writer in His Novels (Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press, 2008), 157.

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Snow which takes place in the northeastern Anatolian city of Kars, accentuates the controversial Armenian question, which began in the 1920s and lasts to this day. Toward the end of the Ottoman Empire, when nationalist uprisings among different ethnic groups began to increase, the relations between the Armenian community- which formed an important part of the Ottoman population (around 10% of the population in Ottoman Anatolia)- and Muslims, especially the Kurds, intensified. In this period, Ottoman Interior Minister Tâlât

Pasha ordered the relocation of the entire Armenian population of the war zone to

Zor (in the Syrian desert), and that the relocation, carried out in 1915-16, resulted in many deaths. The Turkish-Armenian border remains closed to this day, as the accounts regarding what happened almost a century ago are still to be settled. 207

The way Pamuk rhapsodizing European’s influence by the feeling of nostalgia on its old decaying building once the home of Armenians and Russians is to cover Kars’ divided spirit which is relevant to the spirit of Snow. When Ka first arrives in the city, the narrator reiterates that the decrepit Russian buildings, shanty towns and empty, snow-covered squares “spoke of a strange and powerful loneliness. It was as if he were in a place that the whole world had forgotten; as if it were snowing at the end of the world” (Snow, 10).

Snow covers identity crisis that befell the characters as a result of two different souls that embodies the nation. The way they cut off from their origin, which is the ‘traditional’ Ottoman culture brings a certain kind of melancholy that bewildered the Turk as portrayed in The Black Book. This bewilderment leads to

207 See Melİz Ergİn. East-West’s Entanglements: Pamuk, Özdamar, Derrida, Unpublished Dissertation (Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 2009): 21-22.

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conflict and disputes within the country among its citizens as they struggle to define and construct their true self. Snow is an amalgam of the longing to the traditional Islamic values as well as the prospect for individualization and modernity as the features that distinguish the characteristics of Western and

Eastern society. All of these issues are the expansion in The Black Book, The

Silent House, and My Name is Red. In Snow, Pamuk intermixes all these fragments with more contemporary issues, including the headscarf banning for university students that causes these girls to commit suicide, the question of God existence that first springs in The Silence House208 (Pamuk examines these issues in a more distinctive way in Snow) and the polarity between Islam and secularism that tears the characters and modern Turkey’s soul. Snow also tackles an issue on identity formation in the midst of identity crisis.

The three novels in this study share similar issues upon the Westernization project. The project literally compelled Turkey to oscillate between two-selves; the authentic self and the imposed other. The former refers to the original self- the cultural Islamic Eastern identity, the latter refers to secular identity that the nation-state tries to set on. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire at the hands of the Allies in World War I and the subsequent plans for its separation,

Mustafa Kemal and the Nationalist cadres started to lead the Turkish War of

Independence in 1919 that they had won. Atatürk’s victory initiated the

208 In The Silence House, the part of being atheist is portrayed in Dr Selahattin who as scientist will only believe what science and experience can prove.

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establishment of the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923, a modern, secular, and Western nation-state. 209

Unlike the Ottomans that expressed their victory and ultimate authority over the formerly Byzantine Empire in 1453 by simply taking over the central symbol of the State, Hagia- Sophia Church and converted it into a mosque, the new-born Turkish Republic took a radical leap that completely cuts its bond with the Ottoman’s past. Mustafa Kemal re-adjusted the entire social framework, passing a number of reforms that outlawed all practices and authority of Islam, banned religious lodges (tekkes) and Sufi orders (tarikat), expatriated the

Ottomans dynasty, removed the article that defined the Turkish state as ‘Islamic’ from the constitution, replaced the with Roman script, abolished the wearing of fez and other religious symbols and encouraged Western clothing for men and women.210

All of these reforms annulled the Ottoman culture that had been Turkey’s cultural roots for thousands of years. As a result, the new cultural identity that eliminates its rival through dictatorial means encourages certain sadness and confusion amongst the society’s members.211 Pamuk’s The Black Book, The

Museum of Innocence, and Snow intelligently captured this melancholy and

209 Soner Cagaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey Who is Turk? (London: Rouledge, 2006), 11-13

210 See Alev Çivnar. Modernity, Islam, and Secularism in Turkey (Minnesota: Minnesota UP, 2005), 111.

211 See Alev Çivnar. Modernity, Islam, and Secularism in Turkey (Minnesota: Minnesota UP, 2005), 15.

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present the nature of identity’s oscillation as a result of the ruthless detachment from their cultural native land.

In The Black Book, this oscillation portrayed in the characters who live as other people in order to live in the sentiments of insecurity and hopelessness which are rooted from the need of positioning oneself in the mist of fractured identity. Belkis, once Galip and Rüya’s classmate, suffers from the idea of imitating others in their life. Belkis and her husband, Nihat, live their life as Rüya and Galip. If Belkis is the imitation of Rüya, Nihat, as Belkis recounts: “had to be an imitation of you [Galip], because there were a few evenings when the cognac get better of me and I couldn’t stop myself from speaking about you and Rüya”

(BB, 202). Belkis confesses that it must be hard for a person to be himself. She concludes that people want to be someone else out of jealousy and this obsession pierces their heart into an agony. However, she still wishes to be someone else:

I so longed to be that other person, I thought I could slip off my own skin as easily as a glove; my desire was so fierce that I thought it would ease me into this other person’s skin and let me begin a new life212…and my longing to become this person, to live her life, became so intense, and the pain I felt was so overwhelming, that tears would slip from my eyes. Even after all these years, I still can’t understand why someone would want to live someone else’s life and not their own. My life was not real life but an imitation, and like all imitations I thought of myself as a wretched and pitiful creature, doomed to be forgotten (BB, 202-3).

212 The New Life (1994) with its widely quoted line “I read a book one day and my whole life was changed” is Pamuk’s novel written after The Black Book (1990). The quest to find missing ‘something’ in The Black Book continuess in The New Life. While Galip in The Black Book searches for his missing wife in the street of Istanbul, Osman in The New Life sets out on a quest on bus journey for the upon reading a quasi scriptural mysterious book The New Life. This book promises a new life for those read it. Osman stops attending classes and devotes himself on reading the book. Here Osman starts his quest by looking for Nahit and Dr. Mehmet because they are also influenced by the book. Osman’s quest toward self-recognition and new life is examined in The New Life along with the modernization that takes over the life of Turkish society. If in The Black Book the Westernization means imitating the West (French and Europe), in The New Life the Westernization focuses on the imitation of America.

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Rüya’s ex-husband also confesses that back on the days when he still together with Rüya, they both also long to live as someone else: “They’d devoted their lives to the propagation of ideas; this had meant taking manifestos from a distant country they’d never visited […] all they’d wanted all along was to be someone other than the people they were” (BB, 128).

Celâl also shares similar predicament with Belkis and Rüya’s ex-husband in his effort to secure his lost- authentic self in the world of imitation. He follows the track of the Ottoman sultans who used to wander the streets in Istanbul in disguise. Celâl does this because he wishes to escape from his self and to become another (BB, 331), an effort described as pitiful by one of his old columnist friends. This old columnist believes that only “those who know that they themselves are the universe whose mystery they are seeking, and that the universe is he who seeking the mystery? Only those who have achieved this enlightenment have the right to disguise themselves and become someone else” (BB,332). In The

New Life Celâl is also remembered as a pathetic columnist who could not manage to be his self: “it’s all nothing but misadventure. […] There is no way that we can be ourselves any longer, a fact that even the well-known columnist Celâl Salik realized, which led to his suicide; it’s someone else who’s writing under his name’.213 This imitation depicted as well by the Turkish’s movie stars and

Turkish people who imitate these movie stars. The old columnist reiterates:”I pity those poor films stars of ours who can be neither themselves or nor someone else.

213 Orhan Pamuk, The New Life, trans. Güneli Gün ( London: Faber and Faber, 1998): 94-5.

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I feel even greater pity for those compatriots of ours who see themselves in those film stars” (BB, 332).

In The Museum of Innocence, the question of identity formation brings certain melancholy that occupies on the question of women’s life. The analysis in this sub heading however, will be focused on the identity formation in Turkey over its complex negotiation between East and West which address a particular issue on the negotiation of modernity over women body or sexuality. The modernity pursued in Turkey’s agenda toward joining Western world sacrifices their women more than they do to their men.214 Woman is considered as a site of negotiation or a symbol of a nation. In Pamuk’s novels, the marginalization of women as a result of the dark patriarchal practice reserved exclusively in his two novels Snow and The Museum of Innocence. The issue of the headscarf banning and the sexuality of women become the contested identity in Pamuk’s Snow and

The Museum of Innocence respectively.

The central issue in The Museum of Innocence as a result of the denial of the parental culture- the Ottoman heritage, led the individuals in Turkey to suffer from a “part- culture”215 syndrome. They may be looking outwardly Western

214 Turkey’s history shows that not only female’s body which was sacrificed on the altar of modernization, male’s body also became a bargaining site on Turkey’s journey towards modernization. Atatürk wanted his countrymen to dress like ‘civilized’ people, therefore he believed that they needed to give up their Ottoman’s attires. He first wanted his men to get rid of their fez and introduced Western hat which he believed more proper for those who wanted to be civilized. Atatürk then passed The Hat Law in November 25, 1925 to formally banned the fez, which resulted a number of protest throughout Anatolia. See Arus Yumul. “Fashioning the Turkish Body Politic” in Turkey’s Engagement with Modernity, eds. Celia Kerslake, Kerem Öktem, and Philip Robins (London: Palgrave Macmilan, 2010), 349-69: 350-1

215 Homi K. Bhabha. “Culture In- Between.” In Questions of Cultural Identity, eds. Stuart Hall and Pal Du Gay (London: Sage Publication, 2003): 53-60.

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while inside they are mentally stuck in the liminoid space. The society’s response to unveiling women that becomes an icon of modernity in Kemalist- modernization agenda reveals how their native mentality is hunted between their cultural past and their modern lifestyle. The Turkish modernization that imposed new costume (cultural identity) for women in the case of Western outfit to replace their ‘backward’- headscarf, inevitably brings female and virginity to the forefront. Pamuk brings up the issue of women sexuality in Snow and The

Museum of Innocence to show another site of contested identity in Turkey as a result of the modernists’ denial of the Ottoman cultural legacy.

In Snow, the imposed ‘other’ is to unveil their woman in order to ‘liberate’ them from the ‘barbarism’ and ‘backwardness’ inherited from their imperial background. A headscarf-wearing woman is the representation of the Ottomans as conditioned by western Orientalists. As the new secularist Turkish’s agenda is to break from the Ottomans, the best means for them to distance itself from the

Ottoman is by presenting women in public sphere wearing Western clothing.216

As one of secularist people, Sunay Zaim, emphasizes that headscarf is a manifestation of coercive religious practice. Believing himself as the herder of

Atatürk’s Westernization agenda, he wants to liberate women since women’s liberation is a primary goal of Republicans. “I staged this revolution precisely so you women could be as independent as women in Europe. That’s why I’m asking you to remove that scarf” (Snow, 401). Sunay staged a revolution with the help of military support. His aim is to forestall of the winning of a Muslim political party

216 Alev Çivnar, Modernity, Islam, and Secularism in Turkey (Minnesota: Minnesota UP, 2005), 60.

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in the upcoming election. The actual Welfare party was led by Necmettin

Erbakan. His rising to the position of prime minister was forced to resign by the military coup in 1997. In 1998, the constitutional court outlawed the Welfare party for being anti-secular. 217

In The Museum of Innocence however, the issue of women body is no longer focused on the headscarf, but rather on the issue of virginity. Nonetheless, women still serve as a site of bargaining in modern Turkish patriarchal society.

Although the response of unveiling women in The Museum of Innocence is pretty mild, Turkish women are the object of male gaze along with their new cultural costume. Füsun, the protagonist in The Museum of Innocence also shares the fate of other Turkish women, her beauty intensifies male gaze to which she is subjected. From her early puberty, Füsun has learned to live with constant male insistent gaze in her neighborhood and even from Kemal. This gaze will be defined in the future as harassment by modern people. As Kemal states: “Modern generations may well consider what I was doing as a form of harassment”. (MoI,

347). The narrator states that in Turkey, women share similar predicament as being the object of male insistent gaze. They are, however powerless to do anything to freed themselves from this predicament, but “pretend not even to have noticed that a man was sitting across from her with menace in his eyes, and she

217 See Erdağ Göknar. “Melodramas of Conspiracy, Burlesques of Coup: Snow (2002)” in Orhan Pamuk, Secularism and Blasphemy: The Politic of Turkish Novel, ed. Erdağ Göknar (London: Rouledge, 2013):183-204, 184.

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would give [them] not so much as a glance in response” (MoI, 348). The provincial-elite men who come to Istanbul make women’s visibility even worse.

Sibel once tells Kemal about the way men from the provinces harassed women “If they saw a beautiful woman wearing lipstick and without scarf on her head, they would just stand and stare in vicious amazement” (MoI, 348).

The issue of modernizing unveiled-women is promoted through beauty contest in the early of the Republic during Atatürk’s reign. This contest is a means for the Republican to show that they had such ultimate power over Islam and symbolized their radical break from the Ottoman- Islamic ways to take off toward the Western modernity. One of the campaigns from the Kemalist modernization to

‘liberate’ Turkish women is by encouraging women to enter beauty pageant contest. During the 1920s and 1930s the image of Westernized Turkish women were growing in local and global public sphere. European journals and magazines were depicting images of modern Turkish women, portraying the dramatic transformations happening in Turkey. One of the most compelling images has been the image of women in bathing suit. This image has destroyed the Islamic norms of publicness and privacy. The image of women in bathing suit is a full symbol of the abolishment of Ottoman Islam authority over female bodies and puts in its place the authority of secularism. During the early years of the

Republic, the images of women in bathing suit were widely used in cartoons, photographs, and illustrations. In 1929, the state sponsored the first beauty pageant in Turkey and the secularist newspaper of the state Cumhuriyet

(Republic) encouraged Turkish women to enter the beauty pageant in order to get

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a passport to be Turkey’s ambassador in the international world through competition of beauty pageant. In fact in 1932, Turkish beauty, Keriman Halis, was the first Turkish beauty queen who became Miss World.218 In the period of

Atatürk,

When the girls walked down the catwalk in black swimsuits, they were both manifesting their interest in Turkish history and culture, and also the entire world how modern they were, which was all the good. By the seventies, the contest had become the province of girls with no culture or manner and coarse hopes of becoming singers and models, so the significance of beauty contest became something else altogether (MoI, 301).

The modern society, no matter how modern and Western their external appearances are, consider that participation in the beauty pageant as a degrading morality. Füsun is depicted entering the beauty pageant once held in Istanbul and the society’s response upset his father who permits her to join the contest “when he heard what people said about her, he would regret tolerating the disgrace”

(MoI, 300). Even Kemal’s mother, as a distant family of hers feels that Füsun’s stunt to take part in the beauty contest is sort of public disgrace. As she learns that Füsun’s mother supports her involvement in the beauty contest, she addresses her disappointment toward her and distances herself from Füsun’s family. Kemal narrates “my mother learning that aunt Nesibe had in fact encouraged her daughter, even taking a pride in this stunt that should have caused her to feel only shame, my mother had hardened her heart toward aunt Nesibe” (MoI, 8).

As a citizen of a country that suddenly designed its profile in an entirely different way, Turkish’s people become a traveler who stays neither here or there.

218 See Alev Çivnar. Modernity, Islam, and Secularism in Turkey, (Minnesota: Minnesota UP, 2005): 63-71.

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They stand on the threshold between two different worlds that brought them confusion and perplexity in the transition of their old and new cultural costume. In this case, Turkish women are apparently suffering more from the oscillation of these two selves (the cultural origin- the Eastern Ottoman identity and the imposed other- a secular Western identity). In addition to society’s response to their new outlook which somehow leads to harassments either in verbal or nonverbal way, the society is (again) trapped in the ambivalence of being modern and traditional resulting in bewilderment on the issue of lifestyle promoted by the state secularist. Besides the constant harassments’ from the male gaze relating to the headscarf, which becomes more profound issue in this novel, female sexuality and virginity deserve more discussion in The Museum of Innocence. Turkish modernization has brought this issue to the forefront. Pamuk dedicates one chapter to examine this issue in the section entitled “A Few Unpalatable

Anthropological Truths” where the narrator outlines some serious consequences for women who were “going all the way” even from the most modernist elite in society. The society narrates this fact to favor the later generation sometimes after

2100 with historical fact concerning society’s view on female virginity:

One thousand nine hundred and seventy- five solar year after the birth of Christ, in the Balkan, the Middle East, and the western and southern shores of Mediterranean, as in Istanbul, the city that was the capital of the region, virginity was still regarded s a treasure that young girls should protect until the day they married. Following the drive to Westernize and modernize, […] the practical value of this treasure began to decline in certain parts of Istanbul. […] But in those days, even in Istanbul’s most affluent Westernized circles, a young girl who surrendered her chastity before marriage could still expect to be judged in certain ways (MoI, 61).

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The “urban legend of Istanbul women who are willing to sleep with a man just for the fun of it,” (MoI, 63) is just a myth shared by sexually dissatisfied men.

The upper class elite may enjoy certain sexual freedom, yet their sexual adventures are only tolerated “if they had proven themselves “serious”, either by formal engagement or another show that they were “destined for marriage” (MoI,

62). Kemal has already slept with his fiancée, who trusts him enough to give in her virginity out of love and is in no doubt that eventually there would be a wedding to close their love story. Wihout the confident of marriage at the end, women will not dare to surrender herself to their couple. Even though some people think that:

If we insist virginity is still so important how we can pretend we’re modern and European? […] but it goes without saying that in this country a young woman’s virginity is of the utmost importance to her, no matter how modern and European she is (MoI, 417).

In Istanbul in 1975, a woman who commits this courageous transgression is either rewarded with a ring or condemned to disgrace. In Snow, the issue of oscillation between East and West is portrayed on the life of several characters.

The first character is the male protagonist Ka who constantly oscillates between religious and secular life. Ka is presented as one who has an identity crisis and is in a dilemma as to whether he is an atheist or a believer. At the beginning of the novel Ka sees himself as an educated Westerner secularist and views fundamentalist Islam as backward and anti-modern.219 His arrival at Kars in some

219 Pamuk’ s Ka evokes the bittersweet condition that Pamuk encounters as a result of his fame and his theme that is centered around the oscillation between East and West- between Islam and Secularism. Ka who nestles in liminoid space as a result of being pariah either in Frankfurt or Turkey shares similar fate with Pamuk who earns no home neither in religious nor secularist circle. It becomes public top- secret that Pamuk has been widely attacked by some conservative religious

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point in the mid-1990s is to write a local suicide epidemic among headscarf- wearing girls. His investigation of the “headscarves girls’ creates an opportunity to encounter Turkish ‘Others’ (dignified rural people, former Communists, devout high school boys, Kemalists, secularists, holy men and even Blue, the underground leader of the political Islam) with whom he shares common ground.

Ka however starts to worry that his interaction with these fellow Turks will banish the “Westernized world he had known from a childhood” (Snow, 26).

In Frankfurt, Ka is a solitary individual who chooses to withdraw himself from other Turkish refugee and from native Frankfurt who do not even take him into account. Uniquely, Ka favors his rootless condition as his strength, depending on the situation that will be beneficial to him. When he thinks that his solitude in Frankfurt will give him a benefit, he proudly reiterates that he is all right to be excluded from Western society: “The thing that saved me was not learning German,” said Ka. “My body rejected the language, so I was able to preserve my purity and my soul.” (Snow, 33). In contrast, when he believes that his privilege as a poet that earns him a place as one of Western intelligentsia, he withdraws himself from being involved as one of Turkish citizen.

Ka, is himself torn apart between the polarity of Europe and traditional

Turkish society, secularist and Islam. His travel to Kars following his mother’s funeral is blanketed in his own motif to marry the divorced Turkish beauty, Ĭpek,

and secular sectors of the Turkish society due to the perspective from which he reflects on national identity and on the country‘s present world position. The polemic results, among other aspects, from his insistence on discussing Turkish fractured sense of identity, since he portrays the nation as being divided between the ghostly presence of a lost great empire and the constraints imposed by the construction of a secular nation. See. Maureen Freely, A Conversation with Orhan Pamuk Web. March 13. 2013.

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and to resolve an identity crisis that has left him isolated in Frankfurt, unable to write. He hides his loneliness as well as his unhappiness from everyone else including himself. Only to the Sheikh that he is able to reveal what lays in the bottom of his heart that he seeks for happiness. ‘I came here to find happiness’

(Snow, 95).

However, Ka believes that the God he is searching for is somewhere else and not there amongst people in Kars. He sinks deeper into the well of bewilderment as he knows that he starts to feel happy in Kars yet he believes his

Western part tells him that he is not one of people in Kars or to be part of them, and even believes the same God with them. “I want to believe in the God you believe in and be like you, but because there’s Westerner inside me, my mind is confused” (Snow, 98). Ka’s oscillating nature regarding his faith started since his early life:

When I was a child, our maid used to take us to ‘Teşvikiye Mosque’, said Ka.”[…] and I would roll around on the carpets with other children. At school, I memorized all the prayers to ingratiate with the teacher- he helped us memorize fatiha by hitting us. […] I learned everything they taught us about Islam, but then I forgot it (Snow, 93). Ka also confesses that he does not need any religion because he is already very happy. He tells İpek his inclination towards secularism: “I’m very happy right now; I have no need for religion” (Snow, 91), a totally different feeling from one he encounters when he embarks upon his first solitary walk through the city of Kar. He expresses how he moved with heartbreaking determination to the poorest neighborhoods where “the desolation and remoteness of the place hit him with such force that he felt God inside him” (Snow, 19).

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Ka and other characters in Snow believe that one cannot be a Westerner and a believer at once as each of these polarities conflict one another and they believe there is no way out but to choose one out of the two. This perspective is Pamuk’s metaphor of the Islamist and secularist in Turkey who insist to transform Turkey’s cultural identity based on one fixated self. Therefore for the young Islamist school boys, Ka is an embodiment of the West and an individual. Necip, a young boy whom he makes friends with as he discovers resemblance of his youth in this devoted religious boy, does not believe when Ka says that God and heaven do exist. In Necip’s opinion, it is impossible for a Westerner to believe in God.

“Because you belong to the intelligentsia. People in the intelligentsia never believe in God. They believe in what Europeans do, and they think they are better than ordinary people” (Snow, 103). Interestingly, Necip is another character in

Snow depicted to suffer from the oscillation between religion and secularism. In the case of Necip220, the young Islamic High School fundamentalist, who is madly in love with Kadife and eventually dies in the night of revolution, the fear of doubting God’s existence is slowly eating his soul. He is agonized by his fear and he feels that his faith is weakening:

There is another voice inside me that tells me, ‘Don’t believe in God.’ Because when you devote so much of your heart to believing something

220 Pamuk names two of his characters, Necip and Fazil after an important Turkish poet, novelist, banker, and playwright, Necip Fazil Kisakürek (1904-83), whose career reflects the mixture of Eastern and Western influences. He published a magazine Büyük Doğu (Great East) as his campaign for Islam and the East. He built his “revival on a combination of religion, national culture and modernity.” See Elizabeth Özdalga “Transformation of Sufi-Based Communities in Modern Turkey” Turkey’s Engagement with Modernity Conflict and Change in the Twentieth Century , eds. Celia Kerslake, Kerem Öktem, and Philip Robins (New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2010): 69-91, 75-76. Pamuk’s characters Necip and Fazil in Snow are religious High school students who aspire to write Islamic science fiction, combining Islam content in the form of Western.

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exists, you can’t help having a little, a little voice that asks, ‘What if it doesn’t? You understand, don’t you? Just at those time when I realize my belief in my beautiful God sustained me, I would sometimes ask myself, just as a child would wonder what would happen if his parents died, ‘What if God didn’t exist, what would happen then? (Snow, 135).

Necip shares his agony of becoming an atheist221 to Ka as the one he looks up to. Necip’s agony grows stronger and his fear slowly consuming the peacefulness of his mind as he can discover a miserable landscape in which the

God does not exist:

[…] The road where God does not exist is as snowy and muddy as the roads in Kars, but it’s all purple! There’s something in the middle of the road that tells me ‘Stop!’ but I still can’t keep myself from looking right down to the end of the road, to the place where this world ends. Right at the end of this world, I can see a tree, one last tree, and it’s bare and leafless. Then, because I’m looking at it, it turns bright red and bursts into flame. It’s at this point that I begin to feel very guilty for being so curious about the land where God does not exist (Snow, 142).

Necip also breaks the stereotype of Islamist young boys as he dreams to write a science fiction on the Western form. He wants to mix the Eastern Islamic values with modernity and present it in the form of the Western novel to prove that Islamic tradition and its followers are able to get along well with modernity.

Ka, on the other hands starts to acknowledge the love of God “I must have started believing in God years ago. This happened so slowly; it wasn’t until I arrived in Kars that I noticed it” (Snow, 141). Ka feels at Kars as the writing block

221 John von Heyking notes that Necip’s concern on becoming an atheist shows the “inability to sustain individual personalities and agency. Necip’s anxiety expresses an absence of freewill and personal agency characteristic of mass man”. See Jon von Heyking, “Mysticism in Contemporary Islamic Political Thought: Orhan Pamuk and Abdolkarim Soroush” Humanitas XIX. 1&2 (2006): 71-96, 76. In Snow Pamuk continues to contrast the Eastern and Western’s distintive traits he once examines in My Name is Red. If in My Name is Red Pamuk presents the lack of individuality in the Ottoman artists compared to Venetian artists trough their painting, in Snow the so called individuality is presented by the belief and disbelief in God.

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he undergoes in Frankfurt that makes him unable to write for years has gone.

“But after coming to Kars, all the roads on which poetry travels has reopened. I attribute this to the love of God I’ve felt herein Kars” (Snow, 327). Unfortunately when he reveals his feeling, Blue, the Islamist, shares similar point as Necip:

I don’t want to destroy your illusion, but your love for God comes out of Western romantic novels. In a place like this, if you worship God as a European, you’re bound to be laughingstock. Then you cannot even believe what you believe. You don’t belong to this country; you’re not even a Turk anymore. First try to be like everyone else. Then try to believe in God (Snow, 327).

That is the why Ka keeps being trapped on the oscillation of East and West tradition. Similar issue occurs in Kadife’s life. Kadife, the so called leader of head scarf girls and Blue’s mistress is another central figure on the oscillation between Eastern and Western cultural tradition. She is a woman raised in a secular family in Istanbul. His father is leftish who does not believe in God, and she herself in the beginning is an atheist as well. She is once a model in Istanbul and comes to Kars “to do a shampoo commercial shooting for television” (Snow,

108). Kadife is secretly admired by some of the headscarf girls at Kars. They invite Kadife for tea one day, in which Kadife who feel embarrassed to say Islam as their religion, ask them “If your religion requires you to hide your hair, and the state forbids you to wear headscarf, why don’t you be like so and so?... Then the whole world would stand up and take notice” (Snow, 108).

Kadife confesses that as a secular person she starts to be curious about the headscarf girls that defy the state’s demand to unveil their head. She further reiterates that her visit to these headscarf- wearing girls is a visit “out of devilish curiosity” and “to make fun of them” (Snow, 113), but it turns out that she grows

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sympathetic towards these girls and she decides to veil herself (for one day) and staging a campaign against this headscarf banning. Kadife decided to veil herself out of her own free-will and to fight for their right shows that headscarf is not all about being traditional or submissive to the tradition. Veiling is no longer backward, but political. As Muzaffer Bey, the old mayor of Kars tells Ka: “Now the streets of Kars are filled with young women in head scarves of every kind.”

Muzaff Bey added, “And because they’ve been barred from their classes for flaunting this symbol of political Islam, they’ve begun committing suicide”

(Snow, 21). However, when the police arrest her and her friends, she cannot take her headscarf off. “[...] If I had said, ‘Forget the scarf; I never really meant it anyway,’ the whole of Kars would have spat in my face. Now I’ve come to see that God put me through all this suffering to help me find the path of truth (Snow,

114).

Kadife’s conversion from an atheist to a veiled-girl shows that veil is not the symbol of submission as the West and secularists claim. She proves that headscarf is a symbol of subjectivity as she chooses to put it on based on her free will in order “to make a political statement” (Snow, 113). 222 Kadife, an atheist

222 Following the headscarf banning in 1987 that was obviously uncompromised and promoted coercion toward the headscarf-wearing students, they refused to take off their headscarf and leave it at home. Rather they wanted to explicitly bear their Islamic identity and pursue freedom to attain education. Being rebellious to the state’s policy they were either turned away at the gate or refused to enter the classroom. In May 1987, fifty- eight students at Ankara University had received disciplinary suspensions for going to the class without leaving behind their headscarf at home. Such response only encouraged the resolve of those young women who shocked the secularist since these girls are not resorting on Quranic references in defense of their choice to wear their headscarf, instead they evoke liberal democratic values for what they called freedom of choice as the most basic human rights: individual right to choose their forms of dress. See Alev Çivnar, Modernity, Islam, and Secularism in Turkey (Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), 82.

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once, turns out to be “one of the saints who’ll help turns the head scarf into the flag of Anatolia’s oppressed Muslim women” (Snow, 109).

Kadife’s first reason for putting on a headscarf is to “make a political statement” without any oppression neither from the state nor her parents.

Although she “intended to wear it only for one day”, but she” could scarcely think of it as a joke anymore.” Her decision leads to her transformation to spiritual development regardless of her motif to cover herself in the first place

”Now I’ve come to see that God put me through all this suffering to help me find the path of truth. Once I was atheist like you” (Snow, 114).

This subchapter has addressed the issue of the initial union (the meeting) between the old and the new cultural ‘costume’. The old cultural costume is the

Otoman Islam cultural legacy, whereas the new cultural costume is the new way of life brought by Atatürk’s reformation. In their initial union with new way of life means that Turkish people depicted in the three novels under study, undergo a shift in their whole life. The Islamic cultural tradition that has become their

‘textbook’ of life for generations replaced with new way of life promoted by

Atatürk’s cultural reformation. As a result, Turkish people have to adjust their way of life, which leads them into the state of confusion. Towards supporting the discussion of this subchapter, attention will be drawn into the next subchapter to further discuss the following state in Turkey’s identity construction.

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2. The Replacement of Ottoman Heritage with Secular Western Identity

The multilayered search that obviously is the heart of The Black Book,

Snow, and The Museum of Innocence, is presented from the very beginning of the novels. The search is blanketed within the effect of early Kemalism’s agenda that wants to distance itelf from the Ottoman’s past. One of the agenda of Kemalism is to cut the country from Islamic tradition that becomes the obstacle for Turkey to join Western civilization. This radical break from the old cultural custom unavoidably brings profound change and sadness to the characters and the country as a whole. The fore coming sub headings will examine the lamentation of the characters in The Black Book, The Museum of Innocence and Snow over the personal and political consequences of identity loss as a result of the state’s policy of banning Turkish hybrid traditions and Ottoman legacies.

The modernist reformation that undermines Turkish’s past and tradition is written in one of Celâl’s political columns talk about an old man who suffers from insomniacs and how “the sleepless nights erased his mind of all memories; he’d find himself caught inside a nameless, featureless, odorless, colorless world where time itself had stopped…” (BB, 134). Celâl said that when everything is taken so harshly from their life, everything gets hard for everybody including him. Nothing left for them but to bury their roots in the bottomless sea of their past. To continue living all they need to do is embracing the new life given for them: “No one can ever be himself in this land! In the land of the defeated and oppressed, to be is to be someone else. I am someone else therefore I am” (BB, 369 ).

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Galip who is submerged in deep sorrow for loosing Rüya, reiterates similar sentiments as Celâl, as Galip is also looking for the lost meaning:

Once upon a time, they had all lived together, and their lives had had meaning, but then, for some unknown reason, they had lost that meaning, just as they’d also lost their memories. Every time they tried to recover that meaning, every time they ventured into that spider-infested labyrinth of memory, they got lost; as they wandered about the blind alleys of their minds, searching in vain for a way back, the key to their new life fell into the bottomless well of their memories; knowing it was lost to them forever, they felt the helpless pain known only by those who have lost their homes, their countries, their past, their history (BB, 194).

The separation from their native origin is leading into the state of confusion for Celâl and Galip. The cultural heritage they are familiar with such as the old capital Istanbul, traditional clothing, Ottoman language and alphabet, and the dervish lodges are pushed down from their life. Pamuk explains this lost in the metaphor of asphalt. He writes how “the cobblestones along the streetcar line disappear under layers of asphalt for which he could see no reason” (BB, 12).

Here as Leyla Yücel argues on her dissertation, Pamuk symbolizes the

“cobblestones as the legacy of the Ottoman past, while the asphalt refers to the modernization agenda that wishes to break away from the past by abolished the presence of the Ottoman culture.”223 Modernization changes “the street of Istanbul the better to imitate the ghost city of a foreign land, and luckless subjects in slavish imitation of Westerners they saw in photographs and the Western visitors they saw roaming their street”( BB, 430).

This state of separation and perplexity is depicted in a quite different tone in

The Museum of Innocence. Unlike The Black Book that solely presents the

223 Leyla Yücel, An Eperimental Analysis: The Problem of Liminality in Orhan Pamuk’s The Black Book and The New Life, Unpublished dissertation (Belgium: Ghent University, 2013).

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confusion encountered by the male protagonist, The Museum of Innocence offers more colorful issues of perplexity encountered either by its male or female character. The Museum of Innocence sets in the second half of the 1970s through the end of the coup d’ ètat of 1980. At this time “Turkey’s social and political status was solidified.”224 The foreseeable integration of Turkey into the Western world is depicted in the lifestyle, particularly the fetishism of commodities involving foreign objects, such as Jenny Colon bags, Chevrolet cars, the Hilton hotels, and Turkish soda. In this period of time Turkey started to import other foreign objects into Turkish homes which Pamuk described as catastrophic because these foreign objects is far removed from the homely social realities of

Turkey:

the Istanbul bourgeoisie had trampled over one another to be the first to own electric shaver, a can opener, a carving knife, and any number of strange and frightening inventions, lacerating their hands and faces as they struggled how to use them (MoI, 125).

Snow, on the other hand, offers more complex issues resulted from the state’s denial of the Ottoman identity. One of the central issues in Snow besides

Ka’s identity crisis is the wave of suicidal issue done by the headscarf- wearing girls in Kars. The headscarf issue that becomes a subject of much discussion and confusion, especially in the European countries is a major issue in this novel. In

Dillon’s words “Women and the veil is a topic of great contemporary currency and political urgency. From the controversial headscarf ban in French schools to

Pamuk’s Snow the veil is a potent symbol of political Islam and the ‘clash of

224 Irmak Ertuna, “The Mystery of the Object and Anthropological Materialism: Orhan Pamuk’s Museum of Innocence and André Breton’s Nadja” Journal of Modern Literature 33 (3) (2009): 99- 111, 105.

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civilizations”. 225 This ‘political’ issue is motivated by a wide range of reasons, including unbearable beating from the husband, and also a gossip about virginity.

The true reason of the suicidal epidemic remains unclear as each suicide is covered by its own motive just like Ka’s clandestine motive of coming to Kars, which is covered by his agenda to report on the election and the suicidal girls.

The suicide wave in Kars is ironic as these young girls are taught in Islamic faith that rejects suicide. Kadife, the headscarf leader explains that suicide against the Islamic faith by telling Ka that it is written in the twenty-ninth verse of the sura al- Nisa of the Quran. Kadife argues that although the suicidal girls “might have sinned” by taking their own life, the love she feels for those girls still remains in her heart. Kadife is a character that betrays the western stereotyping of a Muslim who is blindly committed to their belief and does not acknowledge reason and logic.

However, these girls prefer to remove their life instead of removing their headscarf following the government’s policy to ban them from universities and schools if they persist to wear their headscarf.226 They take such action following

225 Sheilla Dillon. “Taking the Veil” The Classical Review, 55. 2 (2005) : 682-4

226 Headscarf banning was passed in 1980 under the auspices of military regime. In 1984, the Higher Education Council issued other decree stated that students were” allowed to attend classes wearing turban, which is considered as ‘modern clothing’. Following this decree, the number of students wearing turban on campuses increased. To avoid the growing number of turban girls, the secularist under the Higher Education Council issued another decree in December 1986 to annul the 1984 decree. The policy stated that all students should wear ‘modern clothing’ on campus. The universities nationwide responded to this decree by forbidding the students to enter classes unless they removed their headscarves. This decree was taken as an attempt to totally banish the Islamic symbol in public space. In Atatürk’s framework, veils was considered as the symbol of backwardness, barbarism and uncivilized. See, Alev çivnar Modernity, Islam, and Secularism in Turkey (Minnesota and London: 2005) and Soner Cagaptay Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey Who is Turk? (London and New York: 2006) for a comprehensive study on the clothing reformation in the early years of Turkey Republic.

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the state’s decree that debars them from putting on their headscarves at school.

The things that frightened Ka is the way these girls “had killed themselves: abruptly, without ritual or warning, in the midst of their daily routine.” (Snow,

13). In this novel, Pamuk offers a different point of view by presenting various backgrounds on the headscarf girls’ reason to commit suicide. One of those reasons is as a reaction against the nationwide ban on displaying religious symbols and costumes in educational institutions.

Among those suicidal issues, the one that Ka found so overwhelming is the suicide by the ‘headscarf’ girl, Teslime, a pious girl who prefers ‘removing’ her life to her headscarf as she feels her life has no meaning once she removes her headscarf. “Despite her parents’ expressed wish that she remove her head scarf, the girl refused, thus ensuring that she herself would be removed, by the police and on many occasions, from the halls of the Institute of Education” (Snow, 16).

Before committing suicide, Teslime spends her last evening watching Mariana, a

Mexican soap opera famous in the late 70s, and:

After making tea and serving it to her parents, she went to her room and readied herself for her prayers, washing her mouth, her feet, and her hands. When she had finished her ablutions, she knelt down on her prayer rug and lost herself for some time in thought, and then in prayer, before tying her head scarf to the lamp hook from which she hanged herself (Snow, 16-17).

It seems that Teslime’s decision to take her own life is the most shocking amongst the suicidal wave in Kars as nobody expects such religious-devoted as

Teslime will ever “take her own life” (Snow, 16). Her decision to wear the Islamic turban is presented as an individual choice; hence, her decision to commit suicide

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is a modern protest against Turkey’s state-led modernization project rather than a result of traditional influences such as social pressures or domestic violence. The suicide of these women thus, is a form of expression to show their pride in defending their beliefs. As Kadife argues, the girls commit suicide not out of their unhappiness, but to show their pride instead. “The main reason women commit suicide is to save their pride. [ …] A woman doesn’t commit suicide because she’s lost her pride, she does it to show her pride” (Snow, 397). It is a form of expression- of the fact she is worth more than her miserable circumstances.

Women have become the site of bargaining in which their consent is silenced.

Their state of belief is sacrificed on the altar of modernization within the agenda of Westernization. One of Westernization’s agenda is to unveil Turkish women. In the perspective of Westernization, veils were considered as “a mark of the oppressive Ottoman-Islamic rule” it is a backwardness symbol that symbolizes

“barbarism, uncivilized, degrading conditions”.227 Unveiling is then an ultimate end to liberate women from the backwardness. However, the so called liberation leads a wave of suicides on the headscarf-wearing girls. They suffer from the pressure as the state wants them to detach themselves from their roots:

Their mothers and fathers brought them up as they are. So did the religious instruction they received during their state education. Then suddenly after being told all their lives to keep their heads covered, these girls were told,’ The state wants you to take off your scarves off (Snow, 113).

227 Alev Civnar, Modernity, Islam, and Secularism in Turkey (Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press 2005): 62-63.

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Hence, the above discussion reveals that the separation from the ’bed’228 or the native land (the Ottoman cultural legacies) and the meeting with the new cultural identity (the Westernization agenda that based on Western secularism).

This separation unavoidably brings profound sadness to the life of Turkish people.

This radical separation from their cultural root leads them to suffer from insecurity, hopelessness, and perplexity that haunting their life. The oscillation of the characters in this discussion will be further discussed in the next subheadings to emphasize the state of melancholy they encounter as a result of their separation from their cultural roots and the fixed identity imposed by the Republican agenda under the sovereignty of Atatürk.

2.1 The Melancholy of Separation from the Cultural Roots

The separation from Ottoman caused quite a complicated period of negotiation. The transition period from the multi- lingual, hybrid and heterogeneous Ottoman Islam to the targeted monolingual and homogenized nation- state was a mismatch between the Islamic grounded society taking its power from its colonialism, monarchy, and cosmopolitanism (hybridity) and the

Republican nation-state established upon a state-imposed secularism and westernization.229 This mismatch resulted in a dislocated identity that brings profound sadness for Turkish people and the character is depicted in Pamuk’s novels.

228 Please refer to page 22-23 for the discussion of human’s separation which is symbolized by a reed torn from its bed in order to get a flute.

229 Leyla Yücel, an Experimental Analysis: The Problem of "Liminality" in Orhan Pamuk’s The Black Book and The New Life, Unpublished Dissertation, (Belgium: Ghent University, 2013), 29.

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Celal’s lamentation over the loss of their identity and the modernization that undermines their cultural roots or Galip’s references to ‘helpless pain’ of people who live in a novel rootless identity can be taken as Pamuk’s criticism or objection toward modernization that abandons Turkey’s traditional values and identity. This agony of missing the root of identity can be observed more in the chapter “Bedii Usta’s Children” the sixth chapter of The Black Book dedicated to examining the transformation of fashion and clothing in the early Westernization projects in early 1923s.230 In this chapter, Pamuk talked about ‘undisputed’ master of Turkey’s mannequins Bedii Usta. He was ordered by Abdülhamit to build mannequins for Turkey first naval museum under supervision of Prince Osman

Selalatin. Unfortunately, the Sheikh al-Islam was furious discovering the

‘magnificent creations’ in the museum that impeccably resemble human beings.

As a result, the mannequins “were swiftly removed from view and banister were erected between the galleons” (BB, 60). 231

Twenty years later, things begin to change in Bedii Usta’s life along with

Ataturk’s Westernization project that brought a wave of novelty in Turkish outward appearance. This changing includes abolishing Ottoman’s clothing, be it

230 Ataturk’s policy on men clothing ordered all citizens to discard their fezes and replace it with Western hat whereas for women he ordered the removal of headscarf.

231 Traditional Islam has different perspective on arts and painting. In Islamic tradition, replicating God’s creation perfectly means to compete with God Almighty. Three dimensional art objects such as mannequins is an act of idolatry, therefore it is prohibited in Muslim tradition. This perspective is depicted in Pamuk’s international big hit, My Name is Red, where he uses the art of miniatures as a feature to contrast Eastern and Western artistic traits, and the “irreconcilable religious and cultural differences that lie beneath them”. See Üner Daglier, “Orhan Pamuk on the Turkish Modernization Project” Humanitas XXV. 1&2 (2012): 146-167, 154.

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fez and turban, replacing them with Western-clothing and adopting clean-shaven face for man. 232

In the great westernizing wave of the early years of the Republic, when gentlemen threw aside their fezzes to don panama hats and ladies discarded their scarves in favor of low-slung high heels, mannequins began to appear in the display windows of the finest clothing stores along Beyoglu Avenue. These however, were brought in from abroad, and when he first set yes upon these foreign mannequins, Bedii Usta was sure that the day he’d awaited for so long was upon him (BB, 60).

Bedii Usta takes the sample of his works to department stores to sell his mannequins, but all of these grand stores fail him. They defy buying his works as his mannequins do not look like the European models. The mastery of Bedii

Usta’s mannequins lays on its total resemblance of the real Turks. However, one of the shopkeepers tells Bedii Usta that customers desire a totally different thing, a new style of fashion in order to be a new person. The customers want:

a coat worn by a new beautiful creature from a distant unknown land, so he can convince himself that he, too, can change, become someone new, just by putting on this coat. Turks no longer wanted to be Turks, they wanted to be something else altogether (BB, 61).

This fact tears apart Bedii Usta who wants “to ensure that the mannequins in shops windows were based on our own people” and his ambition to do so “was prevented by a powerful cabal, who were themselves the victims of an international conspiracy dating back two hundred years”233 (BB, 187). “These historical power did not want to give our people chance to be themselves” (BB,

189). Broken-hearted, Bedii Usta works to produce mannequins that

232 See Arus Yumul “Fashioning the Turkish Body Politic” Turkey’s Engagement with Modernity Conflict and Change in the Twentieth Century, eds. Celia Kerslake, Kerem Öktem, and Philip Robins (New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2010): 349-369, 350-355.

233 The Westernization movement was spearheaded by Sultan Mahmud the Second (reigning 1808- 1839). It was the prototype of the founding of Turkish republic in 1923 led by Atatürk.

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accommodates the dream of his fellow Turks- the dream of becoming somebody else. He also tries to locate whom:

These people were imitating, whom they had taken as their role models for change. […] They were discarding their old ways, faster than eyes could see; they embraced a whole new set of gestures. Their stock of little everyday gesture was “life’s greatest treasure”, but slowly and inexorably, as if in obedience to secret and invisible master, they were changing, disappearing, and a whole new set of gestures taking their place (BB, 63).

He finally discovers that it is the Western movies which destroy the expressions, gestures and bodily movements of their people (BB, 63). Rüya’s ex- husband also believes that movies and televisions bring negative effect for

Turkish people as the movies makes them “so entranced by the streets and clothes and women they’d seen on the silver screen that they’d been unable to go on living as before” (BB, 128). He further says that those movies are made “to erode

[their] collective memory with movie music.[that] will rip away [their] memories,

[their] past, [their] history, leaving [them] with nothing to share but [their] misfortune”( BB, 127).

Yet, Bedii Usta convinces his son that: “. . . a nation could change its way of life, its history, its technology, its art, literature, and culture, but it would never have a real chance to change its gestures” (BB, 62). For this reason, he decides to keep on making “his sons” (BB, 60) and to hide them in his basement until they are rediscovered again. His efforts, however fail to compete with the imported

Western style mannequins and he was “reeling back into the darkness of his basement atelier and spend fifteen years producing more than one hundred fifty mannequins until the day he died” (BB, 61).

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These mannequins’ issues represent the mourning of Turkey’s lost identity as an impact of Westernization’s policies imposed by the state-led modernist. The

‘gesture’ here is a metaphor that stands as their source of identity (their Ottoman’s past) which is cut from their essence and replaced with a whole new set of new

‘gesture’- a new cultural identity imposed by the elite Westernization’s project.

Similar melancholy envelops the Crown Prince, Osman Celalatin Efendi.

Pamuk dedicated one chapter entitled The Story of the Crown Prince in order to recount the Prince’s melancholy of the anguish of loosing identity that takes him into a deep lamentation and solitude. For him, the most fundamental thing to solve concerning Turkish identity is the question of his people “How to be oneself?”

(BB, 419). The only way to save his people and his country from “destruction, enslavement, and defeat” (BB, 419), is to solve and locate the proper answer to this mystery. In Osman Celalatin’s perspective, ”it was because they had failed to find a way to be themselves that the whole peoples had been dragged into slavery, the whole races into degeneracy, and entire nation into nothingness, nothingness”

(BB, 419-20). The crown Prince believes that “ all peoples who are unable to be themselves, all civilizations that imitate other civilizations, all those nations who find happiness in other people’s stories were doomed to be crushed, destroyed, and forgotten” (BB,429). To save his country and his people from the curse of identity crisis, the Prince withdraws himself from the rest of the world and lives in an austere solitude, to discover his true self before the opportunity to rule his country and cure his people from the agony of identity predicament.

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The Black Book shows that the imposed new cultural costume brings certain melancholy to the characters as they encounter a dilemmatic condition of losing their roots and gaining new identity that completely different from their native identity. This longing of the authentic self which is banished and ripped away due to blatant imitation of another culture becomes the heart of Pamuk’s oeuvres and he immortalizes the anguish of losing ‘memories’ as the locus in his novels.234 He then elaborates this collective feeling of losing memories in Istanbul Memories and the Cities235, a memoir centered on the concept of hüzün, an Arabic world for collective melancholy which is left untranslated in Pamuk’s Istanbul Memories and the Cities. This gloomy feeling is a result of “the pain they feel for everything that has been lost” 236 Pamuk examines hüzün as a response to loss and grief in the

Islamic tradition and from among the many meanings of the term, he highlights two: hüzün as a spiritual, sublime feeling and hüzün as the manifestation of an illness. “Imbued still with the honor accorded to it in Sufi literature, hüzün gives

234 The longing of their cultural roots that take its first form in The Black Book, is examined deeper in The Silent House. In this novel Pamuk presents the effect of Atatürk’s Westernization on each individual in the novel. This novel presents the confusion of embracing new cultural identity as part of Western country by abandoning their cultural roots; including the changing of their traditional outfit, alphabet, time and calendar.

235 Istanbul a memories and the City is Pamuk memoir after his ‘first political novel’ Snow. This book has no plot, no characters, no conversation, nor the labyrinthine of neither characters’ identity quest, nor East-West oscillation as we can find in his other works. This book genuinely recounts on the description of old Istanbul and homage to writers range from Western and Eastern writers that contribute to shape Pamuk’s hüzün. Hüzün, is Arabic word for collective melancholy, which left un translated in English- according to Pamuk is a word he derives from Arabic word zenettul huzn which indicates in the Quran as the “year of mourning” for Muhammad’s wife Khadija and his uncle. As depicted in Turkish literature- hüzün typically has had social function. It expresses a certain kind of melancholy felt nationwide, rather than personal feeling of loss and grief, it emphasizes on the communal myths and discourses which binds the society. See Orhan Pamuk, Istanbul a Memories and the City, trans. Maureen Freely (New York: Vintage International, 2007): 90-107.

236 Orhan Pamuk Istanbul: Memories and the City, trans. Maureen Freely (New York: Vintage International, 2006), 103.

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the resignation of an air of dignity, but it also explains their choice to embrace failure, indecision, defeat, and poverty so philosophically and with such pride.”237

This melancholy of losing what they once had been echoing in all Pamuk’s oeuvres, and it first manifested in The Black Book. This shows how the imposed modernization by Atatürk has affected the life of the characters in Pamuk’s novels. This novel presents the criticism toward the westernization’s agendas in

Turkey. It recounts the longing of each character to their origin as they are harshly cut from where they belong. Therefore, the characters in this novel wail for the other part of their self. Pamuk’s The Black Book recounts the agony of being painfully detached from the unity with the native land.

However, The Black Book merely presents the longing for the identity origin that seems to speak the author’s criticism toward the imposed Westernization agenda. Yet the author offers no solution to the identity issues suffered by the characters, he merely presents the effects of the imposed modernity to the life of his characters.238 In Snow, this longing for the cultural roots still echoes and the

237 Orhan Pamuk Istanbul: Memories and the City, trans. Maureen Freely (New York: Vintage International, 2006), 91-104.

238 Daglier’s research articles shown that although Pamuk does not offer his solution in The Black Book, he offers his favor in My Name is Red. Here, he shows that Westernization agenda in the Ottoman and the Turkish Republic would come to no avail due to Islamic deep-cultural background. Master Enishte Efendi, once he visits Venize on his duty to deliver a diplomatic letter from the Sultan, is deeply overwhelmed with European culture and civilization. He then convinces the Ottoman Sultan to fund project to make an Occidental style painting and give it to Venetian Doge. His project however, comes fruitless as he suffers from violent death by an Islamic fundamentalist who does not want to betray the . See Üner Daglier, “Orhan Pamuk on the Turkish Modernization Project: Is It a Farewell to the West?” Humanitas 24. 1&2 (2012): 146- 167, 148-9.

Enishte Efendi’s yearning for Westernization is once depicted in Pamuk’s The White Castle and The Silent House. In The White Castle, Hoja, the Ottoman scholars, who long for Western civilization forces his slave (the Venetian scholars given by the pasha as a gift) to teach him everything he wants to know about Western sciences and civilizations. In the end, Hoja forsakes

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pain is pretty intense, especially in the depiction of the neglected old buildings laden with historical accounts that contribute to the richness of the cultural past legacy. More contemporary issues such as the rise of political Islam and the complexity of identity construction portrayed in Snow make this tale even richer.

The issues of identity construction in Snow are presented in the ‘clash’ between the Ottoman legacy and the imposed modernization. Snow covers the past nostalgia of Turkey’s fundamental identity in its contemporary identity issues. The disputes that take place in Kars is a result of the conflict between fundamentalist who wants to stay and remain within their Islamic identity and secularist who wishes to abolish all elements of Ottoman Islam’s legacies. Once wielded an “enormous power under the Ottoman Empire for centuries”,239 Turkey underwent profound changing by the imposed Westernization led by Turkish national hero’s Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The issue of identity fixedness based on the Kemalist secularism worth discussing here is Sunay Zaim who embodies the

Kemalist secularist group.

Sunay Zaim represents nationalism concept taking on Western model especially French. Sunay is an actor and director of Sunay Zaim Theatrical

Company who believes he belongs to Western-elite and has a duty to enlighten the marginalized people in Turkey’s small town. Sunay is the total imitation of his own country and swaps his place with his uncanny resemblance, the Venetian slave, to live his dream life in the West as one of the Frankish in Venezia. While his Venetian slave stays in Istanbul and lives as Hoja because he believes that after living in Istanbul and exploring the relation with Hoja and the Eastern culture will not be able to return to Venize as he used to be: “I knew that if I should return to Venice I would not be able to pick up my life where I had left it” (Pamuk, White 32). In The Silent House, Dr Selaahattin lives in reclusion in order to write his encyclopedia of sciences that will enlighten his fellow Turks on Western science and civilization.

239 David N. Coury, “Torn Country”: Turkey and the West in Orhan Pamuk’s Snow” Critique 50. 4 (2009): 340-49, 344.

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Kemalist reformers believing that to promote social change; all he needs to do is imitating the West through arts projects. Sunay starts his life as a student at Kuleli

Military Academy however, “he had been expelled in his final year for slipping over to Istanbul in a rowboat in perform various Beyoğlu theaters” (Snow, 190).

Sunay is a man of iron-willed, being fallen several times in his life he eventually manages to have his own theater company that he takes on tour to introduce modernization and teach modernity to his fellow marginalized Turks. He dedicates ten years on Anatolia tour as he wants to bring “culture to its teahouses”, and he wants to liberate his “poor brothers” from the curse of overwhelming despair that makes them “ sit in the houses; day after day they go there and do nothing” (Snow, 194). His agenda is because he “wanted to help

[his] unhappy friends out of their misery and despair (Snow, 195).

The theater/ military coup, he stages upon Kars is proposed by performing

My Fatherland or My Headscarf, a famous play in the mid-thirties that goes hand in hand with ”westernizing state officials eager to free women from the scarf and other forms of religious coercion” (Snow, 147). The play shows a covered woman who liberates herself for independence by removing her scarf and flaunting her hair. Funda Eser, Sunay’ wife who acts as the covered girl emphasizes:

that when the angry girl tore the scarf off her head, she was not just making statement about people or about national dress, she was talking about our souls, because the scarf, the fez, the turban, and the headdress were symbol of reactionary darkness in our souls, from which we should liberate ourselves and run to join the modern nations of the West (Snow, 151-2).

As the closing remark of the scene, Funda burns her headscarf on stage that provokes the anger from the religious boys at the back rows. They angrily shout

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“So why not take everything off and run to Europe stark naked?” (Snow, 152).

This central scene depicting new identity for Turkish women imposed by the secularist Republic raise a conflict amongst Turkish’s citizen. In addition, this play also reveals Turkey’s divided-spirit, between the secularist and the Islamist.

The secularist believes that cutting themselves from the Islamist promising freedom, yet the Islamist sees that this ‘freedom’ is meaningless, since they will sacrifice their cultural roots and the soul of their tradition on the altar of modernity.

As the audience gets furious with the play, the army takes over the stage and the coup takes place during the play. The coup is designed by Sunay with the assistance of his friend, Colonel Osman Nuri çolak, and Sunay’s friend for more than thirty years since their study in Kuleli Military Academy. Colonel Osman

Nuri and Sunay plan their ultimate coup by which they hope to defeat the Islamic party from the upcoming election by staging his own martyrdom in his version of

The Spanish Tragedy.240 Adopting Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy, Sunay wants to have Kadife, the leader of headscarf girls to play the heroine by promising Blue’s release as an exchange for her role to unveil on stage. Sunay also uses Kadife as his tool to gain a myth as a martyr for modern art. He announces his own death on the stage beforehand by writing a news article in which he summarizes the play describes his death on stage. He visits Serdar Bey, the owner of the Border City Gazette and dictates the journalist to write down his death on stage:

240 The Spanish Tragedy is a play written by Kyd.

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DEATH ON STAGE. ILLUSTRIOUS ACTOR SUNAY ZAIM SHOT DEAD DURING YESTERDAY’S PERFORMANCE... The death of the great Turkish actor Sunay Zaim was for the audience more shattering than life itself. Although the people of Kars were fully aware that the play was about a person liberating herself from tradition and religious oppression, they were still unable to accept that Sunay Zaim was really dying... and never will they forget that he sacrificed his life for Art (Snow, 336-7).

Eventually, Sunay indeed died in this play. The gun he gives to Kadife as the final act of the play is loaded. When Kadife pulls the trigger after she has removed her headscarf, Sunay does really fall and the audiences respond as if he is really shot. By his megalomaniac desire to die on stage, Sunay succeeds to bring what he believes, as modern art to Kars citizen and to promote Atatürk’s agenda that the unveiling is the passport for women to embrace modernization.241

Sunay spends his theatrical time to bring modernity to Turkey based on his belief in Republican’s formula to imitate all things related to the West as the sole key to enter the portal of modernity. .

However, Kadife seems to have her own wish, therefore she uses her role as her means to defend her fellow women’s right within Islam and also her personal point of views on the orthodox interpretation of Quran. At the beginning she agrees to bare her head to ‘buy’ Blue’s freedom from Sunay. Following the news about Blue and his new mistress, Hande, who are died on the raid by special operation, Kadife realizes that this role will secure her own role as a woman of her own. In her debates with Sunay, Kadife insists that she will not go to hell,

241 Leila Ahmed argues that in a Muslim country that works to be a member of Western world, the men sacrifices their women on the altar of the West civilization based on European colonialism of “Islam is oppressor and the West is the liberator. For more details explanation see Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of Modern Debate (New Haven and London: Yale University Press 1992), 165.

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even after she kills herself and Sunay because as she tells Sunay although the

Quran forbids suicides “but this does not prevent God in his greatness from finding it in his heart to pardon the suicide girls and spare them from going to hell after all” (Snow, 402).

Prior to Sunay Zaim’s military coup242 which is blanketed in the play at the

National Theater, the disputes over the suicide epidemic in Kars take place as the government’s effort to stop the act comes to no avail. The Departement of

Religious Affairs’ preliminary effort that has plastered the city with the poster declared: “Human beings are God’s masterpiece and SUICIDE IS

BLASPHEMY” (Snow, 14) comes fruitless, those who belong to political Islam is getting more and more furious. They demand the government to uplift the headscarf banning from the universities, but as the government provides no response, these people run anti- Atatürk movement in the city of Kars. The murder of the local Director of the Institute of Education at The New Life Pastry shop shows the picture of Kars at the current moment. The clash between Islamist and secularist occur as they have different point of view. The former wants to preserve the right of women to wear the veil, the latter insists to unveil women.

This clash betrays the soul of the heterogenic Kars that used to live side by side in

242 Göknar emphasizes that the coup can be read as a symptom Republican national’s conspiracy of secular modernity. It is a form of paranoia mode of thinking that considers Islamic and ethnic Kurdish as a threat to the secular state. The coups in fact always appear in all Pamuk’s novels except in My Name is Red. Pamuk presents the coups as a historical event that represents secular state/military intervention into everyday life. The Turkish military, as the protector of Kemal’s ideals, is entitled to interfere in Turkish politics whenever the secular ideals of Republic come under a threat. See Erdağ Göknar. “Melodrama of Conspiracy, Burlesques of Coup: Snow (2002)” in Orhan Pamuk Secularism and Blasphemy: The Politics of the Turkish Novel, (London: Rouledge, 2013): 184-204.

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harmony. Serday Bey, the owner of the local newspaper in Kars recalls the past life in Kars:

In the old days we were all brothers. But in the last few years everyone started saying, I’m an Azerri, I’m a Kurd, I’m a Terekemian. Of course we have people here from all nations. The Terekemians, whom we also call the Karakalpaks, are the Azeris’ brothers. As for the Kurds, whom we prefer to think of as a tribe: In the old days, they didn’t even know they were Kurds. And it was that way through the Ottoman period: None of the people who chose to stay went around beating their chests and crying, ‘We are the Ottomans!’(Snow, 25-6).

Unlike Snow that deals intimately with historical and political background over the disputes and conflicts of the headscarf banning and the political Islam that start to rise in the time span when Snow was written, The Museum of

Innocence is not set in a heavy milieu of political background. Yet Pamuk still presents the political environment in the dangerous life in 1970s- 1980s, a period marked by violence between right and left wing political group that “busy killing each other” (MoI, 33). Yet, this political backdrop seems removed from Kemal’s life due to his neglicence to the world outside. The only thing that makes him care is that the political life shortens his visit to Füsun. As he recalls the ‘martial law’ that ‘imposed with its ten o’ clock curfews’: “ Even now, all these years later, whenever I read in the papers of military’s displeasure with the state of the nation, the evil of military coups I remembered most vividly is that of rushing home denied my due ration of Füsun” (MoI, 295). For him, the military coup d ètat in

1980 is only a thief that steals his romance at Füsun’s house. Although he remains indifferent to politics, Kemal nevertheless enters a political realm through his encounter with Füsun whose social class is lower in contrast to his fiancée, Sibel,

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a wealthy- proper lady from his class. A circumstance that his mother believes is impossible for him to strive because he mistook what he believes as love. As his mother warns him that “In a country where men and women can’t be together socially, where they can’t see each other or even have a conversation, there’s no such a thing called love” (MoI, 450). Love after, all is “finding balance of equals,” Sibel said (MoI, 219).

Kemal’s sailing to a path destined for profound happiness resulted from successful business life and future marital bliss changes abruptly upon a reunion with Füsun, a-18 year old distant relative in a fashion boutique where she works.

Kemal’s encounter with Füsun initiates an entry into an unknown realm for him.

Being engaged to a proper lady from his class, Kemal obsession to Füsun definitely creates in- between realm for himself leading into an isolated life either from his upper status-circle friends or Füsun’s middle life status.

Kemal’s inability to end his relationships with Sibel who gives herself to him before their marriage, a taboo that only “European women or those legendary women who were said to wander the streets of Istanbul” (MoI, 51) leads him loosing Füsun who disappears following his engagement party. Füsun’s departure takes Kemal into the dark of desolation and madness. His soul sinks into a labyrinthine agony of despair and his life is consumed by Füsun’s. He wails every day upon loosing Füsun and her ghost occupied all spaces in his head and heart.

Kemal’s state of agony as a result of his separation from Füsun influences his social life. He is not solely dragging himself from the circle of his elite society, but he also becomes an ill-tempered man. He gets angry easily, especially when

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he cannot overcome his yearning for Füsun: “[…] when that longing went unfilled

I would yearn to pick a fight with someone, anyone to whom I could attribute this damning, furious resentment” (MoI, 159).

He puts his company in jeopardy out of his jealousy to Turgay Bey, his family business partner, who flirts with Füsun long before he encounters an intimate relationship with her. Upon receiving news that Turgay Bey wishes to withdraw from a contract that they jointly bid and win following his disappointment for not being invited to Kemal’s engagement party; Kemal drives from Istanbul to Turgay’s company in Bahçevlier. Instead of managing to rescue his company’s future from losing one of its best partners, Kemal ends his company’s partnership with Turgay Bey, out his anger and jealousy towards his affair with Füsun. His decision worsens his relation with his brothers and everyone else who apparently are aware of “his being indifferent to the rest of the world” (MoI, 172).

His future with Sibel, his fiancée, gets worse as his melancholy of loosing

Füsun steals his desires and his ability to make love to Sibel. Sibel who trusts him enough to have sex before their marriage attempts to cure Kemal from his acute

‘nameless malady’. She believes that Kemal’s affair with Füsun is just an obsession out of pre-marital fear and she’s sure that his troubled fiancée apes La

Dolce Vita- “to have some fun with dancers, bar girls, or German models before got married” (MoI, 219). “This thing you thought was love- it was just a passing obsession,” she said. “I’ll look after you. I’ll rescue you from this nonsense you got mixed up in” (MoI, 192).

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They decide to live in a Bosphorus yali, a lifestyle considered as daring in the early adaptation of Western lifestyle. Society considers their decision as very

‘European and very civilized’ but at the same time dangerous if they happen not to continue their engagement to marriage.They believe that the pleasure of living in yali will be a curative for Kemal’s love pain. Despite lavishing Kemal with admirable understanding during the summer they spend in their yali243 to cleanse his mind from Füsun’s ghost, she is unable to resurrect her fiancée: “For months now we’ve been waiting for your illness to pass. But after all this waiting, there are no signs of recovery- and instead you seem to greet your illness with open arms. It’s very painful to see Kemal” (MoI, 219).

Having failed to rescue Kemal from his wounded heart, Sibel takes an initiative to break off their doomed engagement. “A week later, Sibel returned her engagement ring to me, via Zaim” (MoI, 223). A very brave act as she and Kemal already live in Bosphorus yali after their engagement.

In summarizing the focus of examination in this sub- heading, it can be pointed out that the detachment or separation from cultural roots brings a certain kind of melancholy, leading to confusion, chaotic and exilic life for the life of

Turkish people in the three novels in this study. However, as previously analyzed

243 A mansion located in the waterside particularly on the Bosphorus strait in Istanbul. This is sort of secondary residence is a place where a family can spend some time to enjoy the practical purpose such as hunting, fishing, or enjoying temporary nature. Yali is also used to denote the 620 waterside residences that sprinkle along the Bosphorus.

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in chapter three, separation or disconnectedness from the Beloved is a precondition that will lead to transformation.244

Although the state of separation is regarded as a ‘fall’ or disconnectedness, it is also an essential and dynamic process. In the perspective of metaphysical realities whose nature is cyclic, descent is a requisite for the possibility of ascent to the perfect state.245 Thus, separation does not solely involve fragmentation, but it also bears unity. The discussion in the following sub-heading will show how the state of separation leading to transformation or constituting the dynamic and the possibility of ascent mentioned.

3. A Dynamic Self: an Amalgam of Re-Union between the Old and New

Cultural Identity.

Our identity is at once plural and partial. Sometimes we feel that we straddle two cultures; at other time, that we fall between two stools . . . Salman Rushdie

Prior to embark to the last analysis of the final stage, it is worth to recall that in Sufi tradition everything is always coming in pairs. As it has explained in chapter one and chapter three,246 in the state of re- union the self has transformed into the state of intellectual penetration from the state of innocence. Although

244 For a detailed review of the state separation that will lead to transformation, see Chapter 3, subheading 2.1 The Pain of Separation, 75-77.

245 Lalita Sinha, Unveiling the Garden of Love. Mystical Symbolism in Layla Majnun& Gita Govinda (Indiana: World Wisdom, 2008), 115.

246 Please refers to chapter one page 25-26 and chapter three page 88-89 for more discussion on this issue.

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tension still exists in this state, yet it is not causing similar distress as the Self has undergone transformation. It is also worth noting here that the union does not always reach its ultimate end since the Self is always in a constant flux of complex change and transformation.

Turkey’s identity quest started to take shape ever since the fall of the

Ottoman Empire, where Atatürk re- built new nation- state that used Westernizing reforms as the basis of the new regime.247 Atatürk considered Westernization as a prerequisite to join the big family of the Western world. As discussed in the preceding analysis, Atatürk put into practice several measurements to make the country modern and Western- meant he created fixated new ego to form an authentic self.

As a result of the rejection of their entire cultural heritage, the characters of

Pamuk’s novels in this study are suffering from separation of their motherland.

They long for their lost origin and wail day by day from the separation of it. Their loss of cultural origin, which is replaced by a new form of cultural identity, leads them to yearn for their motherland that occupies the state of exile. The characters in the three novels of this study are suffering from the problem of a liminal identity crisis, which mainly emanates from a series of negative experiences as a result of the transition from empire to republic in the post-World War I period.

In the Black Book, the separation of the motherland caused the characters wandering in completely new and strange world that leads them longing even more for their lost origin. Living in a country where they no longer recognized

247 Meliz Ergin, East West Entanglements: Pamuk , Özdamar, Derrida, Unpublished Dissertation (Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 2009), 17.

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their ‘essence’ brings darkness in their life. It is also influencing the way they interpret the meaning of life around them. The characters do not have other choice but to live in confusion over the lost meaning and memory of their life that come out of imitating other people’s life.

The radical changes aimed at reforming the life style, the forced banishment of the indigenous culture and the influences of all these elements on the contemporary identity problem of Turkey make the life of the characters unbearably perplexed. Belkis, Rüya and Galip’s classmate, have to suffer greatly as she continues living by copying other’s life until the day her husband’s die: “I continued to suffer from this illness until my husband’s death. I still suffer from it though I no longer see it as an illness” (BB, 203). However, after all agony of losing her true self and replacing it with other’s people’s self, Belkis eventually manages the ‘fate’ that to be oneself in the world is not possible:

I finally accepted that no one in this world can ever hope to be themselves. The overwhelming regret I felt was but another variation of the same disease, and so was my new passion: to relieve the life I had shared with Nihat, relive it exactly but now as myself. One dark midnight, as I warned myself that regret could ruin what time has left for me. […] the terror and misery I had thought to be my past and my future became a fate I shared with everyone, and a fate I had no need to dwell on. For by now I knew beyond the shadow of a doubt that none of us can ever hope to be ourselves (BB, 203-4). Unlike Belkis who bitterly embraces the fact that she cannot be herself,

Galip succeeds to discover his new potential and to be himself after he successfully lives as Celâl. In his predicament of losing Rüya and Celâl, Galip reads all Celâl’s columns as the key to locate Rüya and Celâl’s hideout. When he read all of Celâl’s columns he convinces himself that he can write the way Celâl

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does. Eventually, when Galip manages to write as Celâl he discovers that he becomes Celâl through reading and writing his columns. “Yes, yes, I am myself!

Yes, I’m myself” (BB, 438).

Different fate is written for the Crown Prince Osman Selahattin who is described as a bookworm who reading all sorts of books from Eastern and

Western literatures. Unlike Galip who finally reunited with what he seek and born as new persona, the prince rejecting all external influences from the entire books he has read. The Prince believes that to become himself, he should get rid of all the voices, egos and extensions of himself. To be a real leader, he wishes to purify himself:

As I wished to be a real sultan, and not a shadow, it was now clear to me that I should resolve to be myself and not someone else; where upon I decided to free my mind of books- not just the ones I had read over the previous six years but everything I’d ever read in my life. To be myself and not someone else, it was incumbent on me to free myself from all those books, all those writers, all those stories, all those voices (BB, 425).

After spending approximately twenty three years of solitude in his hunting lodge; cutting himself off from the outside influences; burning all the books he has read; and “had his lodge cleansed of all smells and rid of all familiar objects and articles of clothing…cutting off all links with his never- played white piano, and having the walls of the lodge painted white” (BBi 436), the prince’s struggles to “liberate millions” of his people from their spiritual crisis comes to no avail.

All his attempts to save his people from the pain of identity crisis do not bear its fruit but ends in his demise.

Similar melancholy is experienced by Saim, Rüya’s ex- husband. He tells

Galip that the more he shifts from one imitation to another the more he feels

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miserably painful. He cannot purse the happiness he used to have “after becoming a new person, and then another and another and another, there were less hope of returning to the happiness they had known as the people they had at the beginning” (BB, 129). He realized that he cannot manage to become another person solely through distributing the leftist manifestos of unknown lands;

“hemmed in by signs they’d never managed to decipher- the letters, manifestos, pictures, faces, and guns- this man and his wife had been forced to admit that they had lost their way” (BB, 129).

In the three novels in this study, Pamuk examines the so called identity construction in favor of his credo that identity is not a fixed agenda. Pamuk presents his characters’ quest by showing that they have more than one fixed- soul. In their search for their true self, Pamuk’s characters are examined to have more than one single heart. Their soul is forever developing and oscillating within the dynamic of the old and the new self as well as a totally different pole. This current takes place as a result of the soul’s interaction with others and external factor that makes up one’s life. The result upon the separation from their root and the meeting with the new cultural identity bring such ambiguous identity that neither belongs to the East nor to the West. As shown in the discussion, the identity will keep unfolding along with its interaction with other and external influences.

As Galip says “I’m both myself and the other” therefore the result of the new cultural costume that replaces the cultural origin leading to the state of confusions and helplessness. The characters suffer from losing their fundamental

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self and live a lonely and empty life by imitating others. Upon their separation with all dear things they had in the past the characters in The Black Book conform to the loss of their origin. They finally realize that they will not get their ‘old’ self by living as other ‘imposed’ self. Galip is eventually living as Celâl and launching himself into a literary career by writing under Celâl’s name. Whereas

Belkis who fears that having spent half her life trying to be someone else, she is now condemned to spend the next half “being someone who regretted all those years she had not spent being herself” (BB, 204), she conforms to the bittersweet collective melancholy she shares with everyone. As painful as it tastes for her, she relieves herself because she realizes that she shares similar fate with the men who “are haunted day and night by the ghosts of the ‘true selves’ they longed to become (BB, 204).

In Snow, the characters still oscillate between their old and new cultural identity, but in this novel the concept of fixity that Pamuk tries to confront in is the rise of Ottoman Islam in the life and identity of Turkish people. This fixity including women’s clothing and the removal of Islam that is consider as the biggest obstacle to climb the altar of modernity. 248 Snow offers a wide range of possibility and the dynamics of identity construction in Turkey’s identity quest. It shows the richness of motives and the complexities of identity searching.249

248 The problem is that Turkey had been governed under Islamic principle cultural heritance for six centuries therefore total rejection of religion was almost impossible. This is the reason why “Turkish modernity could not have been a purely imitative and cosmic appropriation from the West” but rather it had to be “an innovative, hybrid adaptation tailored to the particularities of local sociopolitical practices and Islamic frames of references”. See Alex Çivnar, Modernity, Islam, and Secularities in Turkey (Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), 16.

249 Just like himself who started his adult life studying architecture in Istanbul Technical University in order to fill his family’s expectation and dropped out in second year and started a

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From the presentation of every character in this novel, Pamuk reminds us that fixity in identity formation is absurd. Identity is a result of endless interaction with others and it “incorporates profound changes, together with contribution from elsewhere”.250 The government or any other power does not have authority to fixate, impose, and control the identity quest as the internal and external factors that make up indentify is inevitably uncontrollable. Imposing one fix identity and banishing cultural origin will lead the nation to nowhere but a clash between themselves.

Kadife’s decision to veil herself and the headscarf-wearing girl who choose to remove their own life are a form of protest against political authority and familial or social pressures. This protest suggests that even enthusiastically

Islamic women in Snow are individuated moderns. The issues that Pamuk covers in Snow suggest that Islam promise a space for discussion and logic. Kadife’s argument on the dilemmatic position on the issue on headscarf-wearing girls that commit suicide proves that the stereotyping of Islam as backward and anti- new life as writer, Pamuk presents his characters live through the dynamics of identity construction where the Self is in a constant flux of changing. Pamuk comes from a family of engineers, officers, historian, and businessmen. His father sent him to American college in Istanbul hoping that oneday he would make a man of positive science. He dreamt to be a painter therefore he studied architecture in Istanbul Technical University but decided to leave as he felt an urge to be a writer.

His own identity searching influences the characterization in his novels. He inserts some personal details of himself in the characters he invented. He presented his characters’ search on the meaning of their life and sometimes they change their profession to fill their longing finding their true self. This changing is examined in details journey of Osman, his hero in The new Life. In this novel Osman abandons his school to pursue a new life as the promise of the book he currently reads. Or Galip in The Black Book who discovers his true self by switching his profession from a lawyer to a writer. See Emre GÖKALP, “Pride and Anger: Orhan Pamuk’S Nobel Prize and Discourse of Nationalism” Anadolu University Journal of Social Sciences 10. 3 (2010), 19.

250 Amin Maalouf, In The Name of Identity ( New York: Penguin, 2003), 23.

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modern is challenged. She argues, “It’s certainly true that the Nisa verse of the glorious Quran proclaims that we shouldn’t kill ourselves. But this does not prevent God in his greatness from finding in his heart to pardon the suicide girls and spare them from going to hell” (Snow, 402). Kadife demonstrates her individual understanding251 of religion based on the complex encounters on the headscarf- banning in Kars and also proves that space for reasoning is a feasible thing to attain in Islam:

“In other words, you’ve found a way to twist the Quran to suit your purposes.” “In fact, the contrary is true,” said Kadife. “It happens that a few young women in Kars killed themselves because they were forbidden to cover their heads as they wished. A surely as the world is God’s creation, he can see their suffering. So long as I feel the love of God in my heart, there’s no place for me in Kars, so I’m going to do as they did and end my life” (Snow, 402).

Kadife herself before transforming into the leader of headscarf girl is also an atheist and an Istanbul model who ‘flaunt her leg and hair’. Kadife’s true reason to get involved with the headscarf girls and veil herself is the ‘handsome hero with midnight blue eyes’ Blue. Kadife very true reason to cover herself is Blue,

Islamist fundamentalist who has an affair with her sister İpek. As İpek says, “her only real motivation to associating with the headscarf was to get closer to Blue”

(Snow, 361). At the same time, for Kadife, putting on her headscarf is her way to construct her identity. Her veil is an emergence of her subjectivity and it says that

251 Islam recognizes the role of interpretation to derive principles and rules of law from evidence found in the sacred text which becomes central issue in Islam. Leila Ahmed writes “that the role of interpretation of Islam is precisely what orthodoxy is most concerned to conceal and erase from the consciousness of Muslim.” See Leila Akhmed, Women and Gender in Islam (New Haven and London: Yale UP, 1992), 94.

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veiling is not a symbol of Islamic oppression, but rather as a means to celebrate women’s individuality and free choice.252

Similar tone of the fluid identity of Pamuk’s character in Snow is Blue. This handsome casanova with “midnight blue eyes” is depicted against ‘imitating the

West’ and distancing himself from Western culture. In fact, Blue is the sole creature in the secret meeting in Hotel Asia who ever visits Europe. On his youth

Blue was an atheist and it was the speech of Khomeini that influenced him deeply and brought him back to Islam. As he confesses in his execution:

In my youth I rebelled against him by becoming a godless leftist, and when I was at university I tagged along with other young militants and stoned the sailor coming off the American aircraft carriers. […] Because of the hated I felt for the West, I admired the revolution in Iran. I returned to Islam. When Ayatollah Khomeini said, ‘The most important thing today is no pray but to protect Islamic faith,’ I believed him. I took inspiration from Frantz Fanon’s work on violence, from the pilgrimages Seyyeid Kutub made in protest against oppression, from the same man’s ideas on changing places (Snow, 321).

The Black Book and The Museum of Innocence are apparently not dealing with social and political issues as much as Snow. In Snow, The above issues of identity construction presented in the ‘clash’ between the Ottoman legacy and the imposed modernization shows that Snow covers the past nostalgia of Turkey’s

252 A novel that recounts the emergence of headscarf as an antithetical to the West’s reading on it as a symbol of women’s subservience to men can be found in The Butterfly Mosque. A memoir written by Gwendolyn Willow Wilson, once an American atheist, converts into Islam upon the remedy of her severe illness. Somehow, she manages to hide her conversion for year as she scared of her family’s response.

Taking a job offering to teach English in Egypt following her graduation at Boston University, she started to acknowledge her conversion and perform a prayer as a Muslim. However, she still found that telling ‘the world’ she is a Muslim was a little bit complicated for her, and then she decided to put on a headscarf. “I ran up the flag, so to speak, by putting on ”. The way I wore my scarf, and the colors I chose, made it clear I was not crying out for help or seeking support (Wilson:106- 108). She took refuge on headscarf to save her from the society (her Muslim and non-Muslim friends) response toward her conversion. See Gwendolyn. W. Wilson, The Butterfly Mosque (New York: Group West, 2010).

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fundamental identity in its contemporary identity issues. Snow offers complex issues on Turkey’s contemporary identity’s construction in its struggle between

Islam and modernization. The meeting at Hotel Asia upon Blue’s request to send news for the West about the coup in Kars shows how the Turks struggle and construct their identity by defining their distinctive self on its contrary to Western identity. Blue is depicted as the one against ‘imitating the West’. He hopes that their joint statement will be published in German Frankfurter Rundschau by the help of Hans Hansen, an imaginary journalist that Ka created who in fact is a salesperson in Frankfurt from whom Ka bought his grey winter coat.

The representatives from members of societies in Kars gather at a secret meeting to draft a collective statement to the West denouncing the revolution and military coup in Kars. This political meeting is attended by Fazil, a young religious school boy, as the representative of , a liberal ex-

Communists represented by Turgut Bey, Islam fundamentalist with Blue,

Kemalist Republicanism by Serday Bey, and even an Islamic feminist by Kadife.

At the meeting, these diverse groups whose political and ideological perspectives are different start to warmly engage in an argument over the wording of their collective statement. Blue extremely opposes when a tittle of the first draft of their joint statement is selected as “Announcement to the people of Europe about the

Events in Kars” (Snow, 270). Blue shows his strong resistance of this title:

“We’re not speaking to Europe,” he said,”we‘re speaking to all humanity. Our friends should not be surprised to learn we have been unable to publish our statement—not just in Kars and Istanbul but also in Frankfurt.The people of Europe are not our friends, they’re our enemies. And it’s not because we’re their enemies, it’s because they instinctively despise us” (Snow, 271).

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Turget Bey, İpek’s and Kadife’s father, responds Blue’s: “But we all know what Europe has come to mean. Europe is our future and the future of our humanity” (Snow, 271). Blue, who does not want the West to be the master of all and despises how the West always pokes their nose on the affairs of others, adamantly discards Turgut Bey’s view. He reacts: “Europe’s not my future,” said

Blue with a smile. “As long as I live I shall never imitate them or hate myself for being unlike them” (Snow, 271).

As the debate over the wording leads to violence, Turgut Bey challenges the audiences to speak their mind if they are provided with “two lines of space” from

German newspaper. ”If a German newspaper gave you personally two lines of space, what would you say to the West?” (Snow, 273). The challenge invites each person to speak up resulting in a mix of thoughts and opinions over the meaning of Turkey, Europe, the West, and humanity, as well as the “concept of nation and identity”. A young boy from the Kurdish association argues: “I’ve always dreamed of the day when I’d have a chance to share my ideas with the world-and so has everyone else in this room. We’re not stupid, we’re just poor! And we have a right to want to insist on this distinction”; “All I want is to step out of their shadow. But the truth is, we all live under a shadow”; We will never be the

Europeans!...They may try to roll over us with their tanks and spray us with bullets and kills us all, but they can’t change our souls”; You can take possession of my body but not my souls.”; Nomatter how hard our friends here try to draw a line between themselves and the lowlifes who ape the ways of the West, I still sense a certain note of apology ”I’m sorry I’m not a Westerner.”; If the European

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are right and our only future and only hope is to be more like them, it’s foolish to waste time talking about what makes us who we are”; “I’m proud of the things in me that the Europeans find childish, cruel, and primitive. If the Europeans are beautiful, I want to be ugly; if they are intelligent, I prefer to be stupid; if they are modern, let me stay pure” (Snow, 274-279).

These statements to gain a collective purpose to be sent to the Western which are created based on each person’s personal experience provide the meeting with “the atmosphere festive and intimate” (Snow, 277). A feeling of intimacy that later Fazil describes to Ka: “It was as if we were all brothers suddenly, as if we were closer to one another than we’d ever been before” (Snow, 274).

In The Museum of Innocence, Kemal’s life life is distressed upon losing

Füsun. He is desolated from the rest of the world just like ‘nightingale departed from the rose’. 253 He begins to collect mementos of the affair following his separation from Fusun, holes up in his mother’s apartment where his affair takes place, and he surrounds himself with things Füsun has touched –and caresses himself with them like a “nurse salving a wound”.254 Kemal’s collections also embody what Pamuk calls hüzün in his memoirs Istanbul Memory of the Cities.

Hüzün, that defined as melancholy carries a theological understanding of the

"place of loss and grief", it sustains notes of elegy and nostalgia:

hüzün rises out of the pain they feel for all that which has been lost, but it is also what compels them to invent new defeats and new ways to express their impoverishment [...]. Hüzün does not just paralyse the inhabitants of

253 Attar, The Conference of the Birds, trans.Afham Darbandi and Dick Davis (London: Penguin, 1994), 14.

254 For the discussion on how Kemal squirrels the objects that related to Füsun, see page 46-47.

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Istanbul; it also gives them poetic licence to be paralysed (Pamuk, 2005, 92- 3).

The state of melancholy where Kemal snuggles provides him with a creative spark for a poetic act. Istanbul with all its objects and moment of beauty becomes

‘galaxy of sign’ that reminds Kemal of Füsun. Thus Kemal fetishistic collection not solely of the objects that Füsun has come in contact with, or that remind him of the times he has spent with her. These chronicles of objects included cigarette butts that had touched Füsun lips and were stubbed in different styles, earrings that were once on her ears, theatre tickets and restaurant menus, where she had accompanied him and thousands of such small and unimportant objects but life giving things for him. Once Füsun has died, Kemal’s obsession with collecting objects intensified. He then amasses an enormous collection related to his dead beloved and to the era in which his love affair takes place. All these objects become his talisman and curative ailment to endure his suffering from losing

Füsun and the guilt he feels for not having appreciated her the way she deserves.

“Anthropologist of his own experience” (MoI, 30), Kemal creates the

Museum of Innocence as discussed in Chapter 3 page 93-94, as the repository of that experience with each display conveying not just memories, but also emotions:

“Because so many languages describe the condition I was in as “heartbreak,” let the broken porcelain heart I display here suffice to convey my plight at the moment to all who visit my museum” (MoI, 53); “Here I display Füsun’s white panties with her childish white socks and her dirty white sneakers, without comment, to evoke our spells of sad silence”(MoI, 100).

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White panties, white socks and dirty sneakers, the pieces he has “broken off” of her, reveal an objectified Füsun who never appears as a subject in the book. Like most of Pamuk’s female characters, Füsun never appears as a subject, she is one- dimensional that comes into existence through Kemal’s description.

Only when she maneuvers her unhappy ending, she speaks and acts as herself. In most of the novel, Kemal is the sole person who can see Füsun, yet does not understand her at all; he only depits Füsun in the way he wants to see her. He himself acknowledges this when he states that “like most Turkish men of my world who entered into this predicament, I never paused to wonder what might be going on in the mind of the woman with whom I was madly in love, and what her dreams might be; I only fantasized about her” ( MoI, 253).

Kemal who immortalizes the melancholy of his ruin and painful love story into a museum255 is not merely display his love for Füsun, but also all the objects in the era that orchestrating their love affair. Kemal is obviously the new version of Majnun256 in Pamuk’s works. The extreme suffering Kemal endures as a result of his separation from Füsun transforms him from a lovesick into an

255 In a reality Pamuk established "Museum of Innocence" on April 28. 2012, based on the museum described in the book. The museum is located exactly as stated in the novel, in Çukurcuma neighbourhood of Beyoğlu, Istanbul. It displays a collection, indicative of everyday life and culture of Turkish life during the period of 1975 to 2000, in which the novel is set. The museum hosts 83 exhibits to correspond to the 83 chapters in the novel which are installed at the second floor of the museum. In the first floor, the visitors will find a display of 4213 cigarette butts that Füsun smoked for eight years in the novel. These cigarette butts are completed with the date of retrieval. In addition, the catalog titled The Innocence of Things is published in Turkish and it was released in English in autumn 2012. See www.orhanpamuk.net.

256 Majnun is the prime example of the travellers who discovers his true Self upon a devastating separation from his Beloved, Layla. Majnun is Nizami’s twelfth-century Persian romance hero who becomes unhinged when separated from his beloved Layla. He gains the nickname Majnun (his real name is Qays) literally means madman as his common sense is entire consumed by the Beloved and he cares nothing but re-union with the Beloved. His hopeless love purged him of egotism and worldly desires and transformed him into a great poet and ascetic. See Nizami, The Story of Layla and Majnun, trans&ed. Rudolf Gelpke (New York: Omega Publication, 1997).

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“ethnographer of his own life and society.” He then builds a mausoleum dedicated to his Beloved. The museum he installs is not solely narrating the journey of his love story, but it is also picturing Istanbul in the era where his elegy takes place.

Hence, Kemal turns to be a collector of objects upon his separation and re- union with Füsun. At the beginning he collects itemss that function as curative objects to heal his wounded heart. He collects the stuffs that belong to Füsun or everything that reminds him of every single moment he spends on his effort to win Füsun. His efforts including spurns the trendy restaurants and cafes of his elite peers, going instead to Füsun family’s shabby home to sit, night after night for approximately eight years of his visit. Kemal explains that “According to my notes, during the 409 weeks that my story will now describe, I went there for supper 1,593 times” (MoI, 393).

He dwells and experiences the life of middle class neighborhood that never takes him as one of its family members, but a stranger who has a psychological problem: “everyone in the neighborhood had been aware of Kemal’s Bey comings and goings- they knew he was rich, and not quite right in the head” (MoI, 522). He isolates himself from his old friends and family because as Zaim tells him

“Society has written [him] off” (MoI, 411). A conversation that makes Kemal feels estranged from his own circle- from the world he once knew “Suddenly I felt as if Zaim was regarding me from a great distance. […] Suddenly I, too, was seeing Zaim, and my entire past, from a point very far away. Yes, I’d cut myself off from my entire crowd, and all my friends” (MoI, 418-9). Kemal, an elite

Westernized class, educated abroad but estranged from his neighborhoods like

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Beyoğlu, Şişli and Nişantaşi, choosing instead to prowl the streets of poor neighborhoods like Vefa, Seyrek, Fatih, and Kocamustafapaşa: “I felt as if I could see the very essence of life in these poor neighborhoods, with their empty lots, their muddy cobblestone streets, their cars, rubbish bins, and sidewalks, and the children playing with a half-inflated football under the streetlamps” (MoI, 212).

As a pariah in both worlds, his old bourgeois friends, Füsun middle’s class milieu, all ridicule his obsessive love for Füsun: “From [Zaim] words it was clear that already Istanbul society- or at least the people in our own circle- had begun to make jokes about my obsession. But I had already guessed this” (MoI, 216). In the end of his wander, Kemal’s museum is not merely a mausoleum to immortalize

Füsun, but also a museum that:

not bad imitations of Western art but their own life. Instead of displaying the Occidentalist fantasies of our rich, our museum should show us our own lives. […] As visitors admire the objects of Füsun and Kemal, with due reverence, they will understand that, like the tales of Leyla and Mecnun or Hüsn and Aşk, this is not simply a story of lovers, but of the entire realm, that is, of Istanbul (MoI, 524).

The foregoing discussion over the meaning of Europe for the Turkish people shows Pamuk’s examination on the tension between sameness and difference in the relation between Turkish and European identities. Turkey is divided into an ambiguous position; on the one hand they desire to mimic the West on the other hand they fear of becoming an inauthentic copy of the West.257 As Konuk puts it,

257 Meliz Ergin. East-West Entanglements: Pamuk, Özdamar, Derrida, Unpublished Dissertation (Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 2009), 24.

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“the modernization reforms promoted sameness and difference with Western

Europe but simultaneously maintained a notion of national particularity.”258

Turkey’s in-between place is particularly can be seen in Snow and The

Museum of Innocence. Ka is an exile either in Frankfurt amongst the European that considers him as a Turk or in Kars between his fellow Turks who take him as a Western intelligentsia as he belongs to an upper class family and grows up in an elite neighborhood in Nişantaş, Istanbul.259 Kemal has lost his upper bourgeois friends since his entry to Füsun’s world separates him from the rest of his elite community. And yet he never acquires a place in Füsun’s middle class.

Ka and Kemal’s position is like the position of Turkey following its radical

Westernization underwent in the early twentieth century. The exilic life of the characters represented by Ka and Kemal, who are pariahs in the two different realms, is a metaphor of Turkey’s difficulty to situate themselves in a distinct

Eastern identity or Western identity. For Middle Eastern countries, Turkey is

258 Konuk, Kader. “Erich Auerbach and the Humanist Reform to the Turkish Education System.” Comparative Literature Studies 45. 1 (2008): 74-89.

259 Ka who is literally thorn between Frankfurt and Turkey can be read as an allusion of Pamuk’s own position in Turkey. His social status background as a member of wealthy Westernized family from Nişantaş is taken to accuse him as a secular by the religious group in Turkey. This religious group turns a blind eye on his observation on the Muslim’s world. Yet, in his surrounding he is accused of taking side with the religious group for the way he critiques the military. Even the Nobel Prize for literature he won in 2006 turned him into an object of love and hate in Turkey.

Many Turkish people believe that Pamuk won the award due to his belittlement of the Turkish nation. Pamuk was prosecuted in 2006 for ‘insulting Turkishness’ on his comments regarding the mass killings of Armenians in the first decades of 20th century and Kurds during the 1990’s. This was the cause why Pamuk was blamed for stoking an international campaign against Turkey in return for an international award like the Nobel Prize. Therefore, despite the fact that he is the first-ever Turkish citizen winning the Nobel Price, Turkish people and general media responded with a mix feeling of pride, cynicism, and anger. See Emre Gökalp, “Pride and Anger: Orhan Pamuk’s Nobel Price and Disccourses of Nationalism.” Anadolu University Journal of Social Sciences 10.3 (2010):171-189, 172.

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considered to be part of Western culture, whereas for European nations, Turkey is in Europe when they define their geographical terms, but when the European countries define their cultural identity, Turkey cultural heritage prevent her for being accepted as European but it does not prevent her to be part of European.260

However, “since its emergence into power in the 14th Century, Turkey expanded in the exepense of Europe. It controlled and administrated one-fourth to one-third

European continent from the 14-19C.”261 Therefore, Turkey was in Europe when the modern state of Europe is “conventionally said to have emerged from the fithteen century onwards.”262 In the late 16C Queen Elizabeth I established relations with the Ottoman Empire to expand the trade and the Sultan could balance the Hapsburg in the east so Spain’s pressure upon England could be relieved. In addition, Ottoman Empire’s role within European balance system was acknowledged by British parliament and Catherine the Great of Russia in the late

18C. Hence, Turkey and Europe have always been in mutual contact and they are never being isolated from one another.263

Nonetheless, Turkey’s wish to be one of the full members of the European

Union apparently is not as simple as how Hoja exchanges his place with his

Venetian slave simply by writing an autobiographical story about them. By doing so, they learn about each other lives and eventually swaps places.264 In the real

260 See Nuri Yurdusev, “Turkey’s Engagement with Europe” Turkey’s Engagement with Modernity Conflict and Change in the Twentieth Century, eds. Celia Kerslake, Kerem Öktem, and Philip Robins (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010): 277-299, 286-287. 261 Ibid. 278. 262 Ibid. 278 263 Ibid. 78 264 See Orhan Pamuk, The White Castle, trans.Victoria Holbrook (New York: Vintage International, 1990).

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world, there is always an upside down of whether Turkey deserves the EU membership regardless of her physical presence in European continent and her long engagement with Europe. The tension over the meaning of Europe for

Turkey will be one of the other self that will forever encourage them to redefine and reconstruct their identity.

4. Conclusion The preceding discussion reveals that the quest of Turkey’s identity in the three novels in this study undergoes the stages of the mystical path in Sufism.

The characters in the three novels meet new cultural identity based on Western secularism. This meeting leads to the confusion in the life of the characters as the new identity imposed by the state leader is totally different from their cultural origin.

The new established identity that the secularist agenda wanted to internalize included the unwanted partial presence of the Ottoman Islam which includes the law system, traditional clothing, calendar and clock system, rejecting physical heritages such as the shutdown of dervish’s lodges; the old capital Istanbul, and

Ottoman language. This break from the other’s self (Ottoman culture) brings certain melancholy that leads into perplexity in the life of Turkish’s people as suffered by the characters in the three novels under study.

This new imposed cultural identity harshly cut the origin of Turkey and replaced with the new cultural costume. Following the initial union between the old cultural costume (the Ottoman cultural identity) and the new outfit (Western secularist identity), the characters in the three novels in this study suffer from the

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separation of their fatherland. The separation from the cultural origin resulted in a state of perplexity to the people. Galip, Belkis, and Bedii Usta have to suffer from the melancholy of losing their true “gesture” and the perplexity of imitating other

“gesture” of foreign people from foreign land. These characters are perplexed between two distinctive entities, their cultural origin that fading away from their life and the new imposed cultural costume that corrupting all part of their life.

As a result of the separation from the fatherland’s cultural legacies and their encounter with new fixate ego imposed by Atatürk, the characters in the three novels in this study shift into new form of identity following their journey to embark on constructing their identity. In the end of their struggle, they manage to survive from the agony of losing their authentic self and to overcome the disputes and conflicts raised from the clash between their old and new imposed self.

However, the amalgam of the old and new identity is still ambiguous. They still long for their old-self (their cultural origin) but not as much as in the beginning of their quest because they eventually realize that they have to embrace new things in their journey to construct their identity. Failing to accept external influences and development will take them nowhere but painful solitude as encountered by the crown prince Osman Celalattin who eventually died in his lonely, solitary life because he envies “the stones of empty desserts, for they are only themselves, and for the same reason [he] envies the rocks of the mountains where no man has set foot, and the trees in valleys no man has ever seen” (BB,

436).

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The predicament in Pamuk’s characters shows the multilayered of identity crisis underwent by Turkish people. As a result of the detachment from their identity, their outward outlook transforms them into Western yet their inward mentality remains Eastern. The tension between the Islamist who wants to stay

‘pure’ and the Secularist who yearns to distance Turkey from the Islamic legacy tears Pamuk’s characters and the whole nation are forever struggling over the definition of their identity. The result of their initial meeting with new Western culture imposed by the Secularist elite and their separation from the Ottoman traditions is more complicated than the Secularist or the Islamist elite could imagine. It is not just a matter of taking off their ‘clothes’ and putting on a new imported outfit from different land, and adopting their way of life then they shift into new person. In real life, the fixed identity that the Secularist elite adopt for all Turkish people brings an intense conflict between them and the Islamist. Blood have been shed on the ‘fighting’ over the ‘correct’ identity for Turkey. 265

265 The Hat Revolution in 1925 had taken so many lives that refused the new policy of replacing the fez with the Western-styled hat. The Hat Law of 1925 forbade any other kind of headgear but the Western hat. Violating to this law by insisting wearing fez would be considered as violation toward the government. During the two and half month following the endorsement of the Hat Law, 808 people were arrested for violating the law and 57 people were executed for instigating resistant movement against the Law. See Camilla T. Nereid, “Kemalism on The Catwalk: The Turkish Hat Law of 1925” Journal of Social History Spring (2011): 707- 728, 707.

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

One castle, a hundred thousand doors, Windows without number- Wherever I look, there the Beloved confronts me- Yunus Emre266

A. Concluding Remarks

This study is focused on the problem of Turkey’s identity quest, aimed to bring the concept of Sufi framework of identity formation to bear upon The Black

Book, Snow, and The Museum of Innocence. In drawing his identity concept,

Pamuk adopts tradition and modernity; the longing of the fallen Empire vis- á- vis the Republic; and from the long-standing contact between East and West tradition as the most common setting and issue. His work, therefore offers a rich layer of identity constructions that made up from different entities.

Based on the foregoing discussion, it may be concluded that Pamuk’s The

Black Book, Snow, and The Museum of Innocence bear Sufi framework of meaning. The discussion in Chapter 3 shows that the three novels under study breathe Sufi framework of meaning in terms of the symbols that Pamuk employed. All of the symbols; night/ darkness, raki, mirror, and the scent of the beloved’s belonging that keep recurring in Pamuk’s three novels in this study are the common symbols in Sufi tradition that symbolize a union or invitation for

266 (1238- 1320) was a medieval Turkish minstrel, a poet, and mystic who exercised a powerful influence on Turkish literature. See Annemarie Schimmel. As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam (New York: Columbia UPP, 1982), 207

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union with the Beloved. In Pamuk’s three novels under study, these symbols signify the journey of the characters toward the union with their Beloved.

The personal love quest symbolized by the search of the lost Beloved in the three novels under study obviously is Sufi metaphor used by Pamuk that leading to a higher quest of love to discover the true self or the real love. This personal love quest will metaphorically lead a person toward a purer love through several stages that a lover must pass through is a principle in Sufi framework.

In the fourth chapter, the personal quest of finding their real selves intertwined with the national predicament in Turkey’s identity quest. Pamuk examines the so called identity construction in the three novels under study based on his positive view on “schizophrenic placelessness”. 267 A place that Turkey occupies as its feet standing between two dominant believe systems: Eastern and

Western traditions. He presents his characters in the possession of more than one- fixed soul. In their search for their true selves, Pamuk’s characters are examined to have more than a single spirit. Their soul is forever developing within the dynamics of the old and the new self which eventually leads to a new identity.

This current takes place as a result of the soul interaction with others and the external factors that make up one’s life. Thus, Pamuk’s concept of identity formation breathes similar air with the concept of identity formation within Sufi framework. As mentioned in the second chapter, the ‘I’ will keep unfolding as long as the self is still breathing. The Self is not created in a finished identity, therefore, it will forever live in the process of change.

267 Martin Stokes. ““Beloved Istanbul”: Realism and Transnational Imaginary in Turkish Popular Culture” in Mass Mediations: New Approaches to the Popular Culture in the Middle East and Beyond, ed. Walter Armbrust (Los Angeles: California UP, 2000): 224-242.

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The stages of identity quest in the three novels in this study reveal that

Turkey’s identity formation get through several stages prior to their transformation of their contemporary identity that reveal the stages of Sufi framework of identity formation. In the very beginning they have their cultural root, the Ottoman Islam. Following the fall of the Empire, Turkey encountered initial union with new cultural identity imposed by the new born Republic. This initial union led to the separation from their authentic self as the Republic felt the urge to write a new history by tearing off all the legacies of Ottoman Islam. The exclusion of Ottoman Islam that is considered as the biggest obstacle to climb the altar of modernity brings profound changes in all dimensions of social, political, and religious life for Turkish people.268 This change raises confusion and perplexity in the life of Turkish as shown in The Black Book, Snow, and The

Museum of Innocence. In these novels, the ruins and memories of fallen empire and the denial of its cultural legacies provide the characters, no other choice but to suffer from identity crisis because they have to live in the imitation of other’s culture that is completely different for their own.

In Snow the more radical result of the imposed-identity emerges and leads to the dispute between the Islamist that want to maintain their Islamic culture and the secularist that wish to abolish all Islamic traditions in order to be the member of

Western civilization. The fixity of women’s clothing in which the state debars the

268 The problem is that Turkey had been governed under Islamic principle cultural heritance for six centuries therefore total rejection was almost impossible. This is the reason why “Turkish modernity could not have been a purely imitative and cosmic appropriation from the West’ but rather it had to be “an innovative, hybrid adaptation tailored to the particularities of local sociopolitical practices and Islamic frames of references”. See Alev Çivnar, Modernity, Islam, and Secularism in Turkey (Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), 16.

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headscarf-wearing girls from the class leads to violence between the secularist and the fundamentalist. Another issue covers here is the oscillation between religious and secularism. Almost all of the characters in Snow embark a transformation from the East and the West dominant believe system. Their identity is shifted from one radically different pole to another; from atheist to religious and vice versa. This oscillation, including the transformation undergoes by some characters in their identity quest,269 which is clearly favoring the concept that identity is not a fixed definition but a continous re-deconstructing and re-defining act.

The anxiety of the characters in the three novels that lament over the detachment from their real selves and the meeting with the new fixate self brings the characters to shift to the more fashionable cultural identity yet at the same time their soul is somehow divided between East and West. However, the lamentation and anguish of the characters for being cut off from their root transform them into a new dynamic soul. The new soul in the end of the re-union between the authentic self and the other imposed self in the characters in The

Black Book, Snow, and The Museum of Innocence reveals two things in the identity quest. The first thing suggests that refusing influences from external surrounding is impossible in identity formation. The story of the Prince who wants to be himself because to govern his people, he needs to be himself and not

‘the authors he has read and the novel characters he identifies himself with, shows

269 In Erdâg Göknar, Melodramas of Conspiracy, Burlesques of Coup: Snow (2002) this oscillation is considered as the way Pamuk ridicules every ideological position for its hypocrisy. Göknar emphasizes that Snow is a satirical novel laden with jokes, parodies. The truth is not as what it seems in Kars. The veiled Kadife used to be an atheist and her pre-marital life with Blue is betraying the Islamic way in which she discovers her transformation. With her secular sister İpek, she has an affair with Blue who is also involved with her friend, Hande. Blue is murdered by the secularist tipped off by Ka as Ka is assassinated by the follower of Blue.

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that to construct the whole self will not be possible without encounter with the other. Celâl narrates this thesis by asking:

Had the Prince not watched the streets of Istanbul change before his eyes, the better to imitate the ghost city of a foreign land that did not even exist? Had he not seen his wretched, luckless subjects change their very clothing, in slavish imitation of Westerners they saw in photographs . . . ?Had he not seen the miserable inhabitants of the city’s poor neighborhoods gather around the stoves of coffeehouses, not to tell the stories that had been passed down to them by their fathers but to edify one another stories written by second-class columnists . . . so that the heroes looked to be Muslim? (BB 430).

The second thing shows that in their identity quest, one’s identity is also determined by his encounter with the others and by interacting concrete experience of others. The picture of a snowflake that Ka maps his collection of nineteenth poems he writes during his visit in Kars reveals this thesis. The three axes of the snowflake are labeled ‘Imagination’, ‘Memory’ and ‘Logic’; at the centre of the structure is the poem ‘I, Ka’, the center at which these three axes meet. Earlier in the novel, Ka recounts that in ‘I, Ka’ “he mapped out a vision of himself and his place in the world, his special fears, his distinctive attributes, his uniqueness” (Snow, 215). Consequently, Ka asserts his belief in the value of the snowflake as a means of coming to terms with selfhood and with the way in which the individual connects to his environment. He is convinced that

“everything that made him the man he was could be indicated on the same set of crystalline axes. It was in short a snowflake that mapped out the spiritual course of every person who had ever lived” (Snow, 376). Concurrently, he discovers that:

Once a six- pronged snowflake crystallizes, it takes between eight and ten minutes for it to fall through the sky, lose its original shape, and vanish; when, with further inquiry, he discovered that the form of each snowflake is determined by the temperature, the direction and strength of the wind, the

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altitude of the cloud, and any number and of other mysterious forces, Ka believes that snowflakes have much in common with people (Snow, 366-7).

Thus the snowflake offers a necessarily vague representation of both the self and the creation of the self that influenced by either internal or external factors from his surroundings. This six pronged snowflake is Pamuk’s metaphor alluding to the ideological foundation for Mustafa Kemal’s reform program became known as Kemalism. Its main points are enumerated in the “six arrows” of Kemalism known as republicanism, nationalism, populism, reformism, statism, and secularism.270 These six ideological reform programs will not be able to avoid an encounter with external factors; therefore it will be hard to blindly implement them. Imposing one particular entity on Turkey’s national identity construction will only lead to ‘civil war’ among the Turks and limit the opportunity to earn the richness of endless possibilities in identity formation. In The Black Book, Pamuk satirizes the Islamist and Secularist’s insistence to construct Turkey’s national idenity based on one perspective in Galip’s conversation with Turkan Soray.271

She asked Galip the difference between Atatürk and Muhammed, the two iconic symbols of the Secularist and Islamist respectively, whom the followers are ready to do anything in order to live based on these two most celebrated figures’

‘teaching’.

The new soul, in the end of the re-union between the authentic self and the other imposed self in the characters in The Black Book, Snow, and The Museum of

270 Meliz Ergin, East-West’s Entanglements: Pamuk, Özdamar, Derrida, Unpublished Dissertation, (Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 2009), 17.

271 See Orhan Pamuk, The Black Book, trans. Maureen Freely ( London: Faber and Faber, 2006), 148.

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Innocence reveals that Turkey is divided between the traces of the ghostly presence of a lost great empire and the new cultural costume imposed by the

Republican. Their soul has an ambiguous sense of identity which is uncanny in nature; it is neither belongs to their Otoman’s past nor the new Republic, instead an amalgam of the two. Thus Turkey’s national identity formation will keep unfolding as the two components in Turkey’s life; the secularist and the Islamist will always have different point of view in defining and constructing Turkey’s national identity. Their interest to earn a full membership of European Union will be another factor for Turkey to continue negotiating the meaning of their identity formation.

B. Ideas for Further Research

This study is focused on identity formation in the three novels in question.

One of the many aspects which is not addressed in this study is the role of women in the three novels. Rarely does Pamuk present female characters in his novels to have the power to ‘narrate’ themselves. Although Pamuk provides that privilege to Kadife in Snow, mostly the female characters in his novels remain silence. This lacuna can be developed by other researchers interested in the issue of woman. As the Indonesian translation of some of Pamuk’s tales is available in Indonesia,272 comparative studies on the issue of translating ideology may also emerge.

272 So far Pamuk’s The White Castle (1985), The New Life (1994), My Name is Red (1998), Snow (2004), and Istanbul, Memories and the Cities (2004) are available in Indonesian version, published by Serambi.

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APPENDICES Orhan Pamuk’s Awards

 1979 Milliyet Press Novel Contest Award (Turkey) for his novel Karanlık ve Işık (co-winner)  1983 Orhan Kemal Novel Prize (Turkey) for his novel Cevdet Bey and His Sons  1984 Madarali Novel Prize (Turkey) for his novel The House of Silence  1990 Independent Foreign Fiction Prize (United Kingdom) for his novel The White Castle  1991 Prix de la Découverte Européenne (France) for the French edition of Sessiz Ev : La Maison de Silence  1991 Antalya Golden Orange Film Festival (Turkey) Best Original Screenplay Secret Face  1995 Prix France Culture (France) for his novel Kara Kitap : Le Livre Noir  2002 Prix du Meilleur Livre Etranger (France) for his novel My Name Is Red : Mon Nom est Rouge  2002 Premio Grinzane Cavour (Italy) for his novel My Name Is Red  2003 International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award (Ireland) for his novel My Name Is Red  2005 Peace Prize of the German Book Trade (Germany)  2005 Prix Médicis Etranger (France) for his novel Snow : La Neige  2005 Ricarda-Huch Prize  2006 Nobel Prize in Literature (Sweden)  2006 Washington University's Distinguished Humanist Award (United States)  2006 Puterbaugh Award (United States)  2008 Ovid Award (Romania)

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Doctorates (Honoray Degrees) &Honours

 2007 Free University of Berlin, Department of Philosophy and Humanities  2007 Tilburg University  2007 Boğaziçi University, Department of Western Languages and Literatures  2007 Georgetown University  Madrid University  2003 American University of  2008 Membership of the American Academy for Arts and Literature  2008 Membership of the Chinese Academy for Social Sciences

Orhan Pamuk’s Oeuvres

 The White Castle, translated by Victoria Holbrook, Manchester (UK): Carcanet Press Limited, 1990;, 1991; New York: George Braziller, 1991 [original title: Beyaz Kale]

 The Black Book, translated by Güneli Gün, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1994 [original title: Kara Kitap]. (A new translation by Maureen Freely was published in 2006)

 The New Life, translated by Güneli Gün, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1997 [original title: Yeni Hayat]

 My Name is Red, translated by Erdağ M. Göknar, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001 [original title: Benim Adım Kırmızı].

 Snow, translated by Maureen Freely, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004 [original title: Kar]

 Istanbul: Memories and the City, translated by Maureen Freely, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005 [original title: İstanbul: Hatıralar ve Şehir]

 Other Colors: Essays and a Story, translated by Maureen Freely, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007 [original title: Öteki Renkler][65]

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 The Museum of Innocence, translated by Maureen Freely, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, was released on Oct 20, 2009 [original title: Masumiyet Müzesi]

 The Naive and Sentimental Novelist, Harvard University Press, 2010

 The Silent House, translated by Robert Finn, New york: Alfred A. Knopf, 2012 [original title: Sessiz Ev]

 Kafamdi Bir Tuhaflık” (Peculiarity in my Mind) available on January 2014 Published by Yapı Kredi Publications. No official English title for the book has been announced yet.

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