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Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 201 – 210
IRLA2014. The Effects of Irrigation and Drainage on Rural and Urban Landscapes, Patras, Greece Evaluation of the effects of irrigation and drainage practices on the landscape of Lake Pamvotis, Ioannina: implications for landscape management in the context of sustainability.
Ekaterini P. Chiotelli*
Management Authority of Lake Pamvotis, Ioannina, 66-68 Mar. Kotopouli str, 45445, Ioannina, Greece
Abstract
In order to achieve the maintenance of the so called natural heritage and sustainable development, it is necessary to apply landscape management for the conservation of natural sources. Although water is a renewable source, it is not inexhaustible, neither of continuous quality. Good quality water reserves decline globally due to wasteful consumption or mismanagement and thus water is becoming a source in demand among the several consumers (agriculture, industry, civil systems etc). In Greece, about 70-80% of water is used for agricultural purposes. Irrigation and drainage brought about significant changes in the landscape of Ioannina basin. A brief review and evaluation of irrigation and drainage practices in the basin of Ioannina makes obvious that there is a need to address issues related to water use and management in the context of sustainability, climate change and water deficiency. Therefore, the present paper aims to provide an overview of the challenges involved in applying landscape management regarding the use and management of water and discuss solutions, proposals or recommendations in the context of sustainability of the lake ecosystem and generally the protected area. Emphasis is given to the integration of ecosystem services in landscape management.
© 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (©http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. ). Peer-review-review under responsibilityresponsibility ofof Technological Data Research Educational and Consulting Institute of Epirus, Hydroconcept R&D (www.hydroconcept.gr)
Keywords: Landscape management; sustainability; water resources; ecosystem services, integrated management of water resources.
1. Introduction
Research globally shows an accelerated degradation of the environment and the landscape mainly due to overexploitation of natural resources by humans. Water, an important element of the landscape, is a characteristic example, as it is threatened by pollution, overexploitation, and climate change, thus in many areas water deficiency problems or declined quality, are apparent. Landscape is a finite resource, which must therefore be managed
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +0030-6946851050; fax: +0030-2651031867. E-mail address: [email protected].
2210-7843 © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of Data Research and Consulting doi: 10.1016/j.aaspro.2015.03.024 202 Ekaterini P. Chiotelli / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 201 – 210
appropriately to maintain its momentum for the next generations. Sustainable landscape management therefore, is a necessity in order to maintain ecosystem functions and services and consequently the integrity of resources and human prosperity. Although there is a growing interest on sustainable landscape management, many issues still remain to be resolved in order to integrate the concept of sustainability into everyday landscape planning, management and decision making. The present paper argues that addressing environmental problems or extending landscape management to a larger scale, as landscape ecology proposes, provides a holistic and integrated basis to promote sustainability. Wetlands are a major feature of the landscape in almost all parts of the world (Mitsch, 2000) Wetland landscapes though, are reflections of their watershed, meaning that they are depended and affected by whatever happens in their watershed, therefore it is scientifically more appropriate to be managed at their basin level. That is also the essence of WFD, the EU Water Framework Directive (Directive 2000/60 / EC, 2000). Vital functions, that are crucial in maintaining ecological balance but are also valuable to people in various ways, are performed in wetland landscapes, such as flood control, sediment retention, absorption of nutrients and biodiversity support, replenishment of water supplies, carbon dioxide absorption, heat storage and release (Gerakis and Koutrakis, 1996; Mitsch, 2000). Careful management is required in order to maintain wetlands functions and values. The biota (that is, the organisms and the communities that are formed) of the wetlands, including lake and river systems, is very closely dependent on the water regime, which indeed is the most important characteristic of each wetland (Gerakis et al., 2007). Approaches to quantify and value ecosystem services have been developed during the latest years (Groot et al., 2010). Wetlands are fragile ecosystems that suffering extensive degradation in Greece, especially where anthropogenic pressure is intense and land use changes are extensive (Chiotelli, 2011). Simultaneously, climate is changing globally and locally. Climate change affects water resources and therefore intensifies water crisis caused from mismanagement. In the Mediterranean, for example, an area might receive the same rainfall compared with the past, but the distribution of rainfall will be different, resulting in alternating periods of extended drought with periods of heavy rainfall, a distribution that does not favor the enrichment of natural water reservoirs. Mediterranean countries are threatened by summer drought, creating the conditions for dangerous forest fires. Changed and intensified patterns of flooding, for instance flash floods are expected. Fresh water cycle will be among the systems most affected by climate change (Fragou and Kallis, 2010). The EU water framework directive, adopted in 2000, impels to improve water quality and quantity. As it is stated “Water supports life. It is a crucial resource for humanity, generating and sustaining economic and social prosperity. It is also at the core of natural ecosystems and climate regulation”. The EU water framework takes a pioneering approach to protecting water based on natural geographical formations: the so called “river basins”. It sets out a precise timetable, with 2015 as the deadline, for getting all European waters into acceptable condition. Europe's water is under pressure. Economic activities, population growth and urbanisation are increasing pressures on freshwater throughout Europe. Unless stronger action is taken, 47% of EU surface waters will not have good ecological status by 2015. About 25% of groundwater has poor chemical status due to human activities. The chemical status of 40% of surface waters is unknown, showing that monitoring is inadequate in many Member States (http://bookshop.europa.eu/en/the-eu-water- framework-directive-pbKH0414216/). According to WFD, action is needed to protect water in qualitative and quantitative terms. At the operational level, the challenge is to translate the agreed principles into concrete action.
2. Study area
The basin of Ioannina is located in the center of Epirus and is surrounded by high mountains. In the center of the basin, lake "Pamvotis" is located, with a small inhabited island at north east. Lake belongs to the European network of Protected Areas (NATURA 2000), because of its important habitats and rare species of flora and fauna. Lake Pamvotis was formed during the Miocene to the Pliocene period and is a relatively small urban lake situated in Ioannina, the biggest city of Epirus Region. It has an average depth of 4m (max 8,5m) and covers approximately 22sq km. However, in spite of its small size it has a long history and is of great importance as ecosystem and landscape. Despite intense human activity, the lake’s ecosystem preserves great biodiversity. Deriving from natural springs and streams, the waters of Lake Pamvotis support a rich ecosystem that includes a large number of fish, birds and amphibians species. The lakeshore vegetation and the extensive reedbeds provide shelter to the lake’s fish and avifauna. The total volume of water varies between 80 and 120 mil m3. However, Lake Pamvotis watershed, due to the growing trend of urban development, is experiencing rapid habitat loss and fragmentation, water quality degradation and water balance disturbance as well as pollution. Ekaterini P. Chiotelli / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 201 – 210 203
3. Methods-research process
Research process included case study selection-the basin of Ioannina, literature review on water management, wetland functions and values, sustainability issues and local practices (concerning water management). Then, good management practices implemented internationally were explored and field visits were carried out at the study area, followed by data collection concerning Lake Pamvotis. Afterwards, revision/ adaptation of available information and good management practices internationally applied were examined. Finally, specific proposals for sustainable management practices in the basin of Ioannina are presented, with emphasis in the preservation of water resources.
4. Review and evaluation of irrigation and drainage practices in the basin of Ioannina
This section investigates the most important drainage and irrigation practices in the basin of Ioannina that brought significant changes in the landscape of Ioannina basin. These were:
4.1 Draining of lake Lapsista and land reclamation
The range of the lake has been significantly decreased, compared to recent past, when it was a single wetland ecosystem with the neighboring Lake Lapsista, which was drained out between 1954 and 1958, in order to extend agriculture area and tackle malaria. A comprehensive plan developed at that period for the development of agriculture - farming in the basin of Ioannina (Maris, 2000). This project involved the drainage of Lapsista Lake (which covered about 10 sq km) and the yield of dried land in agriculture, the "upgrading" of land in traditional marshy areas such as Lapsista, Kastritsa, Bafra and other riparian areas and finally the irrigation of farming areas from the lake. There has been a small increase in agricultural production, but it cannot justify the negative effects of this project to the Lake’s ecosystem and the quality of life for people leaving around it. Katsikis (1992) states that the existence of each lake had a direct relationship to the existence and proper function of the other. The surface of Lake Lapsista fluctuated with the changing seasons. It was smaller in size and shallower than the lake of Ioannina. Sometimes heavy rainfall led to a rise in the water level of the two lakes and they were becoming united. After the draining of Lapsista Lake, problems with the quality of Pamvotis water appeared. As long as the two lakes were communicating, through ground water and surface water, the water was recycled and remained clean; it was functioning as a self-cleaning system. The ecosystem functions and values were also decreased (deteriorated) as the vital space of wetland ecosystem was reduced. Many fish species were proliferated in Lapsista and then were moving in Pamvotis. Moreover the wetland ecosystem provided shelter and food for many waterfowl and wading birds, amphibians, reptiles, small mammals, insects and supported rich flora. The local community was directly dependent and enjoyed multiple benefits of the ecosystem. The rich fishery provided a good income for professional fishermen and a pleasant activity for amateurs. The hunting value of ecosystem also attracted a large number of hunters. Wet meadows around the lakes allowed grazing and watering for livestock. The inhabitants of the basin were using lakes water to irrigate the adjacent fields and it was also used as the city’s water supply. The ecosystem preserved great recreational, cultural, scientific and educational value.
4.2 Construction of embankments / dikes around Lake Pamvotis
The most important were: The embankment Perama – Amfithea: Due to the need to increase land for agricultural production in the basin of Ioannina, the embankment of Perama - Amfithea was constructed, which contributed to the drying out of about 600 acres of land and also to the cutoff of the connection of the lake to the springs of Mitsikeli (that now flow to Lapsista moat and then to Kalama River). More specifically, the clay core formed within the embankment, decreased or 204 Ekaterini P. Chiotelli / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 201 – 210
completely cut the feeding of the lake with clean water from the springs. (Loukatos and Lagoudaki, 2001). The embankment Anatolis-Katsikas: The embankment Anatolis-Katsikas, was constructed between 1969 and 1974, also in order to increase land for agricultural production.
a b
Fig. 1a,b The once unique ecosystem of lakes Lapsista - Pamvotis (Kolettas, 2000)
Construction of embankments delimited arbitrarily the lake and resulted in loss of the shallow areas of the lake and temporarily flooded areas (wet meadows) in its perimeter. Wet meadows though, contribute greatly to floods’ control, self-cleaning system of the lake and are important habitats for many biodiversity species.
Fig. 2 Artificial enrichment of lake by spring’s water Ekaterini P. Chiotelli / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 201 – 210 205
4.3 Extensive network of drainage canals
Initially the drainage of the plateau of Ioannina was occurred through sinkholes (Figure 3a). After drying of Lapsista Lake the overflow of Pamvotis Lake is sent to Kalama River, through a constructed canal. Consequently, the lake level is regulated by a sluice gate. In addition, an extensive network of drainage canals was constructed in order to drain areas close to the lake. The most important were: Lapsista trench, with 17.100 m. length, starting from Lake Pamvotis near Perama area. Lapsista tunnel, with 4.200 m. length, which channels trench water to the tributary of Kalama river called Veltsistiko. Koutseliou trench with 6.500 m. length, channeling water of the area east of Kastritsa hill to the lake. Lagkatsa and Kosmira trenches with lengths 6.810 and 2.900 m., leading the water of Bafra-Pedini area (SW Lake) to Lagkatsa tunnel (1,036 m length), which then channel the water to the lake. These trenches drain Lagkatsa and Bizaniou area (total area 132 km2). Katsika pumping station, which channels water from a low area called Anatoli to the lake. Stormwater that is leaded to drainage canals, also transfers pollutants from the leaching of streets, untreated wastewater from farming activities and fertilizers from agricultural activities. In addition, illegal sewer connections to drainage canals also transfer organic loads to the lake. a b
Fig. 3 a) Sinkhole at Mpizani (Management Authority of Lake Pamvotis files) b) Sprinkler Irrigation in Ioannina basin (Management Authority of Lake Pamvotis files)
4.4 Irrigation practices
Today, 70% of irrigation needs in Ioannina basin is covered by the lake and 30% by the springs. Irrigation methods that are used are mainly sprinkler irrigation (field crops) and surface irrigation (tree crops) and less the microirrigation (micro-sprinklers, driplines, emitters) (Figure 3b). Another problem is the numerous illegal private drillings from aquifers or wells and large water losses at the obsolete irrigation network.
4.5 Degradation of water quality
The period of intensive agricultural production is accompanied by intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides, which contribute to the degradation of water quality. Another factor of deterioration of lake water is waste from farming, which spread around the lake and release of untreated waste. Moreover, although there is a biological treatment, part of sewage of the city is still ending up into the lake. All these factors favor the degradation of water quality of the lake. As a result, the lake loses its rejuvenating power and its possibility of water enrichment. It is characteristic that the physical recycling of the water reaches 10 months ((Loukatos and Lagoudaki, 2001). So, eutrophication is increasingly intensified and the ecosystem struggles to absorb pollutants and react by finding a new balance that will ensure its preservation. 206 Ekaterini P. Chiotelli / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 201 – 210
a b
Fig. 4 a,b Eutrophication (Management Authority of Lake Pamvotis files)
5. Challenges regarding water management in the basin of Ioannina
Epirus region is considered a rich area in water availability. It is one of the richest areas of Greece in rainfall (receives three times more water from the Dodecanese islands) and is characterized by good time distribution as, much of the precipitation falls during summer when the plants need it more. However, during summer, water shortages are observed in some areas of Ioannina and in neighboring villages, primarily caused by an increase in demand due to seasonal population growth (as many people who come from Epirus and live outside Epirus region are visiting their villages and simultaneously many tourists visit the region). During the same period there is a need for systematic irrigation of crops. Agricultural activities (irrigation and livestock) consume the largest proportion of water; consequently savings in agricultural water is essential to sustainable management of water resources in the basin of Ioannina and generally in Epirus. Main characteristics of poor irrigation water management are the large water losses at the obsolete irrigation network, the lack of an effective cost accounting system of irrigation water, and the illegal private drillings from aquifers or wells, or legally operating drillings that pumping higher than their license provides. Also, the shrinkage/reduction of natural areas caused by the growing trend of urban development and accompanied by clearing of vegetation in order to create new settlements, roads, commercial, leisure activities etc. increases runoff, decreases water retained to enrich underground aquifers and threatens biodiversity. As Iatrou et al. (2004) states, the current practice regarding water management is summarized in water allocation between the two main uses, drinking water supply and irrigation. Different organization is responsible for each use. The responsible organization for the management of irrigation water in Greece is the Local Organization of Land Reclamation (L.O.L.R.). In many places, mostly in large irrigated areas, there are also the General Organizations of Land Reclamation (G.O.L.R.). The responsible organization for drinking water supply in Greece is the Municipal Company of water supply and drainage. This endangers the amount of water inside the lake as arising deficits are covered directly or indirectly by water of the lake. Harmonization and co-ordination between different organizations that are engaged to water management is necessary. Until recently, water management considered an endeavor to manage water to meet human needs. Consequently ecosystems needs have largely been neglected, with disastrous results to the ecosystem of the lake. Many interventions that were undertaken in the lake watershed/basin, had a negative impact on the ecosystem of the lake on a long-term basis. Today the main problems that set at risk water resources in the basin of Ioannina are: pollution of surface water that implies increasing eutrophication, lack of control mechanisms (e.g. drilling, point pollution), overexploitation, lack of management policy, lack of citizens’ awareness.
6. Implications for landscape management in the context of sustainability
All the above indicate that there is a need to address issues related to water use and management in the context of sustainability, climate change and water deficiency. Moreover we need to shift from resource users to resource managers. Comprehensive planning involves a broad range of choices related to all the functions of an area. Ekaterini P. Chiotelli / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 201 – 210 207
Landscape evaluation and assessment is an essential "tool" to inform landscape management decisions. Particularly, recording, analysis and assessment of the landscape is the first step to its protection, as the need to protect a landscape or an area is arising from the recognition of its value (ecological, aesthetic, cultural, and historical), the uniqueness or sensitivity to human interventions. Next step is the decision making for landscape management or land use decisions and appropriate planning, in order for human interventions to have the least social, economic and environmental cost. (Chiotelli, 2011). The Water Framework Directive could provide directions and promotes: Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), "a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems". Water’s many different uses—for agriculture, for healthy ecosystems, for people and livelihoods—demands coordinated action. As Fragou and Kallis (2010) refer that the main difference in Integrated Management of Water Resources (compared with management of water resources) is that it manages water demand as well as water supply, and there is emphasis not only to maintain water quantity balance, but also water quality, natural ecosystems condition and land uses control. It includes environmental, economic, social, technical, and political aspects of water management. It brings together fresh water, wastewater, storm water, and solid waste, and enables better management of water quantity and quality. Setting up of water-management systems based on natural river basin districts(http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/pdf/WFD_brochure_en.pdf,http://ec.europa.eu/environment/pubs/pdf/f actsheets/water_scarcity/en.pdf). Lake Pamvotis watershed could be a first level and Kalamas basin the next level. What happens to the basin/watershed affects the condition of water bodies. This approach recognizes the interaction of land and water resources. That means land uses are limited and depended on water bodies. On the other hand, land uses affect the quantity and quality of water bodies and thus the landscape. So the common management of land and water resources will ensure the protection of both. Active involvement of interested parties and consultation of the public. Implement the Managerial plan for water in the water district of Epirus (GR05).
7. How can we interpret implications to action or how can we practice sustainability in the basin of Ioannina?
The ongoing intensification of water use threatens the balance of lakes’ and rivers’ sensitive ecosystems. There is a need to surpass conventional concepts of development and shift to sustainable development. However, as Benson and Roe (2007) refer, there is still much sustainability–speak and little action. There is much that can be done though to the direction of sustainability, climate change and water deficiency. What is important is to adopt a coordinated framework at a long term basis and not to implement short term fragmented measures. More specifically it is proposed to: Apply planning process: Planning and design are essential in any viable solution by directly conserving, protecting or managing landscapes and habitats. Planners set policy and make plans to organize land use to meet multiple goals (Ahern et. al., 2006, Steiner, 2008). 208 Ekaterini P. Chiotelli / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 201 – 210
Fig. 5 We can’t expect flood control, when new housing is built in floodplain areas. (Management Authority of Lake Pamvotis files)
Preserve ecosystem functions. It is needed to protect the integrity and resilience of resources and the biophysical components that affect them. Apply integrated management of water resources. We shall bring together water supply, sanitation, storm and waste water management and integrate these with land use planning and economic development. That means that integrated water management, is bringing different water management issues into one framework. Therefore it presupposes cooperation and coordination among agents associated to the management of water resources in Ioannina (Directorate of water resources of Decentralized Administration of Epirus – Western Macedonia, Management Authority of Lake Pamvotis, Local Organization of Land Reclamation, Municipal Company of water supply and drainage, e.t.c.). As it is suggested by Kagalou and Leonardos (2009), future conservation efforts should focus on a new holistic management philosophy taking into consideration the catchment’s management. Specific measures could involve rational management of irrigation water by using modern technology, minimization of water losses, completion and upgrading of wastewater treatments. Also, promotion of quantitative management of groundwater water should be emphasized. As Nanou-Giannarou (2001) states, groundwater and surface waters are the main water supplies used by man for thousands of years. Ensuring good status of groundwater requires early action and stable long-term planning of protection measures, due to the natural delay in the formation and renewal. Involve local people in local action: for example organize campaigns to inform and educate producers towards new crops, minimization of chemicals use, new techniques and modern methods of irrigation, in order to change gradually the mindset of farmers. Awareness activities and community education can also lead to changing consumer behavior or water savings and can promote active involvement in sustainable management issues. Adopt a clear legal framework with centralized control. Apply mitigation measures such as restoration of wetland areas or Green infrastructure.
Ekaterini P. Chiotelli / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 201 – 210 209
Fig. 6 GIS can support management and monitoring of environmentally significant areas. This map presents the initial evaluation of flood risk in GR05. The pink areas wave the greatest potential for floods.
8. Conclusions
Wetlands in the past were not recognized as valuable and that fact led to their degradation or drainage. Water management practices until recently have been focused on people needs and ignored ecosystem needs. Today ignorance is not justified and sustainable management at the landscape level should be implemented in order to reconcile environmental protection with economic growth. Of course this is not an easy task as it includes complicated issues and dynamic procedures that need to be comprehended and managed properly. In order to achieve such an endeavor, cooperation is required between all stakeholders (local government, Educational-Research institutions, Management Authority of Lake Pamvotis, NGOs, general public, e.t.c.). Moreover, a coordinated framework at a long term basis is required. Landscape professionals do have a significant contribution to make, at this new broader scale of basin management, so they should be involved and cooperate with biologists, planners, ecologists, e.t.c., in wetland planning and management. Finally, regarding Lake Pamvotis, the Management Authority of Lake Pamvotis can play a key role in sustainable management of the basin. The gaining experience in the ten years of its operation on sustainable management issues, awareness and sensitization activities, monitoring of habitats and species, can contribute greatly to sustainable development of the basin.
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