DOCSLIB.ORG

Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture Virgin Soil Epidemics as a Factor in the Aboriginal Depopulation in America Author(s): Alfred W. Crosby Source: The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 33, No. 2 (Apr., 1976), pp. 289-299 Published by: Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1922166 Accessed: 09-10-2015 14:48 UTC Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/ info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The William and Mary Quarterly. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Fri, 09 Oct 2015 14:48:51 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Notes and Documcnts Virgin Soil Epidemics as a Factor in the Aboriginal Depopulation in America Alfred W. Crosby URING the last few decades historianshave demonstratedin- creasing concern with the influence of disease in history, par- ticularly the history of the New World. For example, the latest generation of Americanists chiefly blames diseases imported from the Old World for the disparity between the number of American aborigines in I492 new estimates of which soar as high as one hundred million or ap- proximatelyone-sixth of the human race at that time and the few million pure Indians and Eskimos alive at the end of the nineteenth century.There is no doubt that chronic disease was an important factor in the precipitous decline, and it is highly probable that the greatest killer was epidemic di- sease, especially as manifested in virgin soil epidemics.' Virgin soil epidemics are those in which the populationsat risk have had no previous contact with the diseases that strike them and are therefore immunologicallyalmost defenseless. The importanceof virgin soil epidemics in American history is strongly indicated by evidence that a number of dangerousmaladies smallpox, measles, malaria, yellow fever, and undoubt- edly several more were unknown in the pre-ColumbianNew World.2 In Mr. Crosby is a member of The National Humanities Institute, New Haven, Connecticut, and of the Department of History, Washington State University. He wishes to thank Dauril Alden, Frederick Dunn, Wilbur Jacobs, and William McNeill for their suggestions. 1 Henry F. Dobyns, ''EstimatingAboriginal American Population: An Appraisal of Techniques with a New Hemispheric Estimate," Current Anthropology, VII (i966), 395-449, is an excellent place to begin an examination of this theory. 2 Percy M. Ashburn, The Ranks of Death. A Medical History of the Conquest of America, ed. Frank D. Ashburn (New York, I947); Sherburne F. Cook, "The Significance of Disease in the Extinction of the New England Indians," Human Biology, XLV (I973), 485-508; Alfred W. Crosby,Jr., The Columbian Exchange. Biological and CulturalConsequences of 1492 (Westport, Conn., 1972), 3I-63; Henry F. Dobyns, "An Outline of Andean Epidemic History to I720,"' Bulletin of the History of Medicine, XXXVII (i963), 493-5I5; Frederick L. Dunn, "On the Antiquity of Malaria in the Western Hemisphere," Hum. Bio., XXXVII (i965), 385-393; Robert F. Fortuine, "The Health of the Eskimos, as Portrayed in the Earliest Written Accounts," Bull. Hist. Med., XLV (I97I), 98-II4. This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Fri, 09 Oct 2015 14:48:51 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 290 WILLIAM AND MARY QUARTERLY theory, the initial appearanceof these diseases is as certain to have set off deadly epidemics as dropping lighted matches into tinder is certain to cause fires. The thesis that epidemics have been chiefly responsiblefor the awesome diminution in the number of native Americansis based on more than theory. The early chronicles of America are full of reports of horrendousepidemics and steep populationdeclines, confirmedin many cases by recent quantitative analysesof Spanish tribute recordsand other sources.3The evidence provided by the documents of British and French America is not as definitely supportive of the thesis because the conquerors of those areas did not establish permanent settlements and begin to keep continuous records until the seventeenth century, by which time at least some of the worst epidemics of imported diseases had probably already taken place. Furthermore, the British tended to drive the Indians away, rather than ensnaring them as slaves and peons, as the Spaniardsdid, with the result that many of the most important events of aboriginal history in British America occurred beyond the range of direct observation by literate witnesses. Even so, the surviving records for North America do contain references brief, vague, but plentiful to deadly epidemics among the Indians, of which we shall cite a few of the allegedly worst. In i6i6-i6i9 an epidemic, possibly of bubonic or pneumonic plague, swept coastal New England from Cape Cod to Maine, killing as many as nine out of every ten it touched.4 During the i63os and into the next decade, smallpox, the most fatal of all the recurrentIndian killers, whipsawed back and forth through the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes region, eliminating half the people of the Huron and Iroquois confederations.5In I738 smallpox destroyed half the Cherokees, and in I759 nearly half the Catawbas.6During the American Revolution it attacked the Piegan tribe and killed half its members.7 It ravaged the plains tribes shortly before they were taken under United States jurisdictionby the Louisiana Purchase, killing two-thirds of the Omahas and perhaps half the population between the Missouri River and New Mexico.8 In the I820S fever devastatedthe people of the Columbia River area, erasing 3 Wilbur R. Jacobs, "The Tip of an Iceberg: Pre-Columbian Indian Demography and Some Implications for Revisionism," William and Mary Quar- terly, 3d Ser., XXXI (I974), I23-I32, is a good brief introduction to the subject which cites most of the recent works. 4 Cook, "The Significanceof Disease," Hum. Bio., XLV (I973), 487-49I, 497. 5John Duffy, "Smallpox and the Indians of the American Colonies," Bull. Hist. Med., XXV (I95i), 328; Wilcomb E. Washburn, The Indian in America (New York, I975), I05. 6 Duffy, "Smallpox and the Indians of the American Colonies," Bull. Hist. Med., XXV (I95'), 335, 338. Washburn, Indian in America, Ios. 8 E. Wagner Stearn and Allen E. Stearn, The Effect of Smallpox on the Destiny of the Amerindian (Boston, I945), 74-76. This content downloaded from 128.103.149.52 on Fri, 09 Oct 2015 14:48:51 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VIRGIN SOIL EPIDEMICS 29I perhaps four-fifths of them.9 In i837 smallpox returned to the plains and destroyed about half of the aborigines there.' Unfortunately, the documentation of these epidemics, as of the many others of the period, is slight, usually hearsay, sometimes dated years after the events described, and often colored by emotion. Skepticismis eminently justified and is unlikely to be dispelled by the discoveryof great quantitiesof first-hand reports on epidemics among the North American Indians. We must depend on analysis of what little we now know, and we must supplement that little by examination of recent epidemics among native Americans. Let us begin by asking why the American aborigines offered so little resistance to imported epidemic diseases. Their susceptibilityhas long been attributed to special weakness on their part, an explanation that dates from the period of colonization, received the stamp of authority from such natural historians as the Comte de Buffon, and today acquires the color of authenticityfrom the science of genetics." In its latest version, the hypothesis of genetic weakness holds that during the pre-Columbianmillennia the New World Indians had no occasion to build up immunities to such diseases as smallpox and measles. Those aborigines who were especially lacking in defenses against these maladies were not winnowed out before they passedon their vulnerabilities to their offspring. Although there is no way to test this hypothesis for pre-Columbian times, medical data on living American ab- origines do not sustain it, and the scientific community inclines toward the view that native Americans have no special susceptibility to Old World diseases that cannot be attributedto environmentalinfluences, and probably never did have."2 9James Mooney, The Aboriginal Population of America North of Mexico, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, LXXX, No. 7 (Washington, D. C., I928), '4. 10 Stearn and Stearn, Effect of Smallpox, 8i-85; Henry R. Schoolcraft, Information Respecting the History, Condition and Prospectsof the Indian Tribes of the United States, Pt. III (Philadelphia, i853), 254. " Henry Steele Commager and Elmo Giordanetti, eds., Was America a Mis- take. An Eighteenth-CenturyControversy (New York, i967), passim. 2 John F. Marchand, "Tribal Epidemics in the Yukon," Journal of the Ameri- can Medical Association, CXXIII (I943), I020; Maurice L. Sievers, "Disease Patterns Among Southwestern Indians," Public Health Reports, LXXXI (i966), I075-io83; Jacob A. Brody et al., "Measles Vaccine Field Trials in Alaska,"Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc., CLXXXIX (i964), 339-342; Willard R. Centerwall, "A Recent Experience with Measles in a 'Virgin-Soil' Population," in Biomedical Challenges Presented by the American Indian, Pan-American Sanitary Bureau, Scientific Publication, No. i65 (Washington, D. C., i968), 77-79; James V. Neel et al., "Notes on the Effect of Measles and Measles Vaccine in a Virgin-Soil Population of South American Indians," AmericanJournal of Epidemiology, XCI (I970), 4i8- 429; interviews with Dr.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Pandemics: a Very Short Introduction VERY SHORT INTRODUCTIONS Are for Anyone Wanting a Stimulating and Accessible Way Into a New Subject
    Pandemics: A Very Short Introduction VERY SHORT INTRODUCTIONS are for anyone wanting a stimulating and accessible way into a new subject. They are written by experts, and have been translated into more than 40 different languages. The series began in 1995, and now covers a wide variety of topics in every discipline. The VSI library now contains over 450 volumes—a Very Short Introduction to everything from Indian philosophy to psychology and American history and relativity—and continues to grow in every subject area. Very Short Introductions available now: ACCOUNTING Christopher Nobes ANAESTHESIA Aidan O’Donnell ADOLESCENCE Peter K. Smith ANARCHISM Colin Ward ADVERTISING Winston Fletcher ANCIENT ASSYRIA Karen Radner AFRICAN AMERICAN RELIGION ANCIENT EGYPT Ian Shaw Eddie S. Glaude Jr ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART AND AFRICAN HISTORY John Parker and ARCHITECTURE Christina Riggs Richard Rathbone ANCIENT GREECE Paul Cartledge AFRICAN RELIGIONS Jacob K. Olupona THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST AGNOSTICISM Robin Le Poidevin Amanda H. Podany AGRICULTURE Paul Brassley and ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY Julia Annas Richard Soffe ANCIENT WARFARE ALEXANDER THE GREAT Harry Sidebottom Hugh Bowden ANGELS David Albert Jones ALGEBRA Peter M. Higgins ANGLICANISM Mark Chapman AMERICAN HISTORY Paul S. Boyer THE ANGLO-SAXON AGE AMERICAN IMMIGRATION John Blair David A. Gerber THE ANIMAL KINGDOM AMERICAN LEGAL HISTORY Peter Holland G. Edward White ANIMAL RIGHTS David DeGrazia AMERICAN POLITICAL HISTORY THE ANTARCTIC Klaus Dodds Donald Critchlow ANTISEMITISM Steven Beller AMERICAN POLITICAL PARTIES ANXIETY Daniel Freeman and AND ELECTIONS L. Sandy Maisel Jason Freeman AMERICAN POLITICS THE APOCRYPHAL GOSPELS Richard M. Valelly Paul Foster THE AMERICAN PRESIDENCY ARCHAEOLOGY Paul Bahn Charles O.
    [Show full text]
  • The Columbian Exchange Shmoop.Com (Adapted)
    The Columbian Exchange Shmoop.com (adapted) Columbus: Discovery, Ecology and Conquest In 1492, Christopher Columbus and his crew washed ashore in the Bahamas, "discovering" the New World and claiming ownership of it for the Spanish monarchy. The Taino Indians Columbus encountered—whose homeland he claimed for Spain—must have thought he was mad, suffering delusions of grandeur. But, as we know, Columbus's arrival was indeed the first act in a centuries-long drama of colonization and conquest in which Europeans and their descendants largely displaced the Taino and their fellow Native Americans while remaking the Western Hemisphere in their own image. How and why were the European colonists able to achieve such total dominance in far-off continents? Did the Europeans' power lie in their technological superiority, especially in weapons of war? Or was the European advantage ideological, rooted in the aggressive expansionism of crusading Christianity or the profit motive of entrepreneurial conquistadors? Was it simply a matter of the Europeans proving more brutally committed to a genocidal fight to the finish? While a case can be made for the significance of any of these factors—or all of them—in truth the single most important factor in facilitating the European conquest of the Americas may be found, surprisingly, in a realm beyond simple human control: ecology. Unequal Exchange: Food for Disease Columbus's ships, and those of the innumerable Europeans who followed him to America, short-circuited millions of years of divergent evolution in the two hemispheres by rapidly introducing Old World plants, animals, and micro- organisms into New World environments, and vice versa.
    [Show full text]
  • A Great Desolation
    A GREAT DESOLATION: YELLOW FEVER, SMALLPOX AND INFLUENZA IN AMERICAN HISTORY By Stephanie S. Steffano-Davis A Thesis/Project Presented to The Faculty of Humboldt State University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Social Science Emphasis in American History May, 2006 ABSTRACT A Great Desolation: Smallpox, Influenza and Yellow Fever in American History By Stephanie Steffano-Davis This historiography addresses the impact of smallpox, influenza and yellow fever on selected events in American history. The consequences of the interactions between people and the microscopic world are very great, and there is a growing body of interdisciplinary literature examining connections between history and the spread of deadly infectious diseases. In order to understand the correlations between disease and history, a basic explanation of some aspects of virology, immunology, and epidemiology as they relate to selected disease epidemics is included. Events of particular attention include Philadelphia’s yellow fever epidemic in 1793, smallpox epidemics as they affected the American Revolution and Native American peoples, and the influenza pandemic of 1918. The study of the impact of epidemics on politics, war and social life is appropriate in American history and world history courses. A lesson plan on the topic of smallpox and Manifest Destiny, using Lakota winter counts as primary source documents, is appended. Deadly epidemics are raging now and worse may be yet to come; therefore, the study of their effects in the past may better prepare students to face the future. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Jack Barielles, Delores McBroome, Gayle Olson-Raymer, and Rod Sievers for their inspiration and guidance throughout these years of study.
    [Show full text]
  • Alyson J. Fink
    PSYCHOLOGICAL CONQUEST: PILGRIMS, INDIANS AND THE PLAGUE OF 1616-1618 A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAW AI'I IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN mSTORY MAY 2008 By Alyson J. Fink Thesis Committee: Richard C. Rath, Chairperson Marcus Daniel Margot A. Henriksen Richard L. Rapson We certify that we have read this thesis and that, in our opinion, it is satisfactory in scope and quality as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in History. THESIS COMMITIEE ~J;~e K~ • ii ABSTRACT In New England effects of the plague of 1616 to 1618 were felt by the Wampanoags, Massachusetts and Nausets on Cape Cod. On the other hand, the Narragansetts were not affiicted by the same plague. Thus they are a strong exemplar of how an Indian nation, not affected by disease and the psychological implications of it, reacted to settlement. This example, when contrasted with that of the Wampanoags and Massachusetts proves that one nation with no experience of death caused by disease reacted aggressively towards other nations and the Pilgrims, while nations fearful after the epidemic reacted amicably towards the Pilgrims. Therefore showing that the plague produced short-term rates of population decline which then caused significant psychological effects to develop and shape human interaction. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ............................................................................................... .iii List of Tables ...........................................................................................v
    [Show full text]
  • Willamette Valley Voices: Connecting Generations a Publication of the Willamette Heritage Center
    Willamette Valley Voices: Connecting Generations A publication of the Willamette Heritage Center Editor and Executive Director: Bob H. Reinhardt Editorial Assistant: Kelly Lawton Jones Editorial board: Mike Balyo, Chemeketa Community College Jennifer Jopp, Willamette University John Rector, Western Oregon University John Scott, Corban University © 2017 Willamette Heritage Center www.willametteheritage.org Willamette Valley Voices: Connecting Generations is published by the Willa- mette Heritage Center, 1313 Mill Street SE, Salem, OR 97301. Nothing in the journal may be reprinted in whole or part without written permission from the publisher. Direct inquiries to Willamette Heritage Center, 1313 Mill Street SE, Salem, OR 97301 or email [email protected]. IN THIS ISSUE After a three year hiatus, the Willamette Heritage Center is pleased to again publish Willamette Valley Voices: Connecting Generations, a journal of scholarly writing pertaining to history and heritage in Oregon’s Mid-Willa- mette Valley. Articles are written by scholars, students, heritage profession- als, and historians - professional and amateur. Editions are themed to orient authors and readers to varied and important topics in Mid-Valley history. This issue is published in conjunction with the Willamette Heritage Cen- ter’s 2017 Winter Heritage Invitational Exhibit, Nature and Community. Both the exhibit and this issue explore the myriad relationships between Mid-Willamette Valley communities and the natural worlds they inhabit. Nature – more specifically: plants, animals, and other nonhuman elements of the natural world – has played a variety of roles in the region’s history: as the background for developments in politics, society, and culture; as a source of identity for different groups of people; as an object upon which humans have acted; and as a force of its own, limiting and shaping human activity.
    [Show full text]
  • David Childs, April Eddie, and Jarrod Druery, Teaching the History Of
    Social Studies Teaching and Learning Volume 1, Issue 2 December 2020 An open-source peer-reviewed journal of the Co-editors: Kimberlee Sharp, Morehead State University Caroline Sheffield, University of Louisville Peer Reviewers: Joshua Kenna, University of Tennessee David Childs, Northern Kentucky University Jeremiah Clabough, University of Alabama – Birmingham James Akenson, Tennessee Technological University John Bickford, Eastern Illinois University Natalie Keefer, University of Louisiana – Lafayette Dean Vesperman, University of Wisconsin – River Falls Scott Roberts, Central Michigan University Ricky Mullins, Eastern Kentucky University Charles Elfer, Clayton State University Sean M. Lennon, Valdosta State University Sandra Riegle, Morehead State University Jeffrey Byford, University of Memphis Volume 1, Issue 2 Social Studies Teaching and Learning Table of Contents Christopher T. Dague and Jessica A. Orcutt, How Museums Can Serve Teachers’ and 83 Students’ Needs During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Beyond: A Self- Determination Perspective David Childs, April Eddie, and Jarrod Druery, Teaching the History of Native American 93 Pandemics to Highlight the Effects of Racial Discrimination in Indigenous Communities Rebecca Macon Bidwell, Lewis Hine as a Change Agent: Discussing the Fight against 110 Child Labor as a Model for Taking Civic Action Ricky Mullins, But I’m a Social Studies Educator, So I Must Stay Connected: A 122 Theoretical Examination of Technology Use During the Pandemic Volume 1, Issue 2 Social Studies Teaching and Learning 94 Teaching the History of Native American Pandemics to Highlight the Effects of Racial Discrimination in Indigenous Communities David Childsa, April Eddiea, and Jarrod Druerya aNorthern Kentucky University Abstract As experts and politicians debate the best approaches to combatting the coronavirus, low income communities of color and Native Americans continue to experience the worse effects of the pandemic.
    [Show full text]
  • Epidemic Disease and the Plains Cree, 1670-1880
    INVISIBLE DEMONS : EPIDEMIC DISEASE AND THE PLAINS CREE, 1670-1880. A Thesis Submitted to the College of Graduate Studies and Research In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Masters of Arts In the Department of History University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon By Rebecca Lee Barbara Brain Fall 2002 ©Copyright Rebecca Lee Barbara Brain, 2002 . All rights reserved. PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Masters of Arts Degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection . I further agree that permission for copying of this thesis in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which my thesis work was done . It is understood that any copying, publication, or use of this thesis or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission . It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis . Requests for permission to copy or to make other use of material in this thesis in whole or part should be addressed to: Head of the Department of History University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5A5 i ABSTRACT It is evident from the past forty years of research, debate and literature that the New World was far more populated in 1492 than was previously thought .
    [Show full text]
  • A Haunted Land: Epidemics, Indians, and the Contagion of Colonialism in North America, Pre-Contact to 1621”
    Intervals - Episode 1 Season 1: Intervals of Public Health Lecture Title: “A Haunted Land: Epidemics, Indians, and the Contagion of Colonialism in North America, Pre-Contact to 1621” Q+A Taping Date: March 29, 2021 Upload Date: April 1, 2021 Guest Lecturer: Josh Irvin Host: Christopher Brick MarCom Participants: Kariann Yokota (Chair) Preferred Citation Format Josh Irvin, “A Haunted Land: Epidemics, Indians, and the Contagion of Colonialism in North America, Pre- contact to 1621,” and Q+A interview with Christopher Brick and Kariann Yokota, Intervals, podcast audio, April 7, 2021, https://rebrand.ly/fjbpz5t Initial Verbatim Transcript - May Contain Typos Introduction CHRISTOPHER BRICK: Hi there, I’m Christopher Brick, and welcome to Episode 1 of Intervals – So, when you’re a historian and people learn this important biographical detail about you, I have found in my own professional life it’s not uncommon to be asked a question so often it’s become almost predictable: “So what do you think about Guns, Germs, and Steel?” It’s true. Students ask about it. Dad-book enthusiasts ask about it. And in a 2019 interview with The Guardian, Malcolm Gladwell called it the 1 book that he considered the most underrated out there, even though it also won a Pulitzer for non- fiction –- so Gladwell paired these flattering comments as well with a revealing critique of the historical humanities, noting somewhat infamously that: “the problem – or at least the limitation of history is that it is written by historians… so along comes someone who knows a lot about geology and geography, and history looks completely different.” Well, this episode is anchored by a terrific young historian, Josh Irvin, and we at the Intervals pod feel strongly the content is better for it.
    [Show full text]
  • Subsistence Strategy and Demographic Impact of Virgin Soil Disease Epidemics
    Subsistence Strategy and Demographic Impact of Virgin Soil Disease Epidemics WILLIAM MORGAN University of Winnipeg Introduction It has long been acknowledged that New World Indian populations were devastated in terms of demographics by the introduction of Old World communicable diseases immediately subsequent to European contact. The term "virgin soil populations" was coined by Alfred Crosby in the 1970s to refer to the fact that New World populations had no previous contact with these diseases, no immunity (variously conceived) to them and therefore had a catastrophic mortality rate in response. Pertinent literature from the North American Subarctic and from highland regions of Mesoamerica and the Andes indicates local and regional mortality rates in virgin soil populations in these areas to be from 30% to close to 100% in some cases. By way of example, it is today accepted that the population of Mesoamer­ ica stood at time of European contact in 1520 at 16 million and was re­ duced by 1600 to two million. The contact figure for the Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador distribution of the Inca Empire is widely estimated at 12 to 16 million persons. By the time of the 1575 Toledo census, this figure was reduced to less than one million. Some of this overwhelming mortality is attributable to warfare and some to abuses associated with the colonial mining industry. However, Old World communicable diseases were the pre­ dominant cause of death. Particularly devastating were some of the initial disease epidemics immediately after contact of Old and New World people (Brian Evans, personal communication). Marshall Hurlich (1983:158) records overwhelming mortality rates due to early epidemic disease among many northern Algonquian groups for which data are available.
    [Show full text]
  • Exploring Disease in Africa: AIDS Sleeping Sickness Small Pox
    Exploring Disease in Africa Appendix Exploring Disease in Africa: AIDS Sleeping Sickness Small Pox A curriculum for advanced high school +College students African Studies Center Boston University Email: [email protected] Copyright © 2010 by Melissa Graboyes 1 Exploring Disease in Africa Appendix APPENDIX 2 Exploring Disease in Africa Appendix Stanley George Browne Stanley Browne was a physician, leprologist, missionary, and near thirty-year resident of the Belgian Congo. He was a committed missionary for the British Missionary Society, but served concurrently as a representative of the repressive Belgian colonial government. While Browne was busy doing the work of a medical missionary in the interior of Africa—rising at 6 am and working until past midnight, by his own account—he had little time to reflect on the inconsistencies of his actions. Like most people, Stanley Browne had multiple identities, or at least multiple titles. While he was most certainly a doctor and missionary, he was also an official representative of the Belgian colonial government. Missionaries were allowed into the Congo with the expectation that they would provide services in exchange for the right to proselytize. In the case of medical missions, they were responsible for the public health of large swaths of the country. Keeping sleeping sickness under control was one of the primary tasks, since it had been nearly eradicated during a forty-year campaign that ended around 1940. The Belgian Congo differed from its neighbors, especially British East Africa, in the amount of control it exercised over its vast territory. The fact that sleeping sickness had been controlled was an impressive accomplishment, but it came only through severely oppressive techniques.
    [Show full text]
  • Epizootics and Livestock Disasters
    Grace, D. and McDermott, J. 2011. Livestock epidemic. IN: Wisner, B., Gaillard, J.C. and Kelman, I. 2011. Routledge handbook of hazards and disaster risk reduction. London, UK: Routledge. 31 Livestock Epidemic Delia Grace and John McDermott (ILRI) INTRODUCTION Since the widespread domestication of animals in the Neolithic era, 10,000-15,000 years before the Common Era (CE), human livelihoods have been inextricably linked with the livestock they keep. Domesticated animals must have been among the most valued assets of ancient humans: walking factories that provided food, fertiliser, power, clothing, building materials, tools and utensils, fuel, power and adornments. Inevitably, the innovations of crop cultivation and food storage that allowed people to settle and live in high numbers and densities also increased the number of animals kept, density of livestock population and the intimacy of human-animal interactions. Pathogens responded, undergoing intense genomic change to seize these dramatically expanded opportunities. Epidemics of highly contagious and lethal disease emerged, as livestock and people reached the critical population sizes needed for acute infections to persist. Diseases also jumped species from animal to humans: the lethal gift of livestock. This chapter discusses which livestock epidemics are likely to constitute a disaster and why. 1 LIVESTOCK EPIDEMICS AS DISASTERS When Animal Epidemics Constitute Disasters: Livestock Plagues Epidemics are usually defined as occurrence of a certain disease above expected levels in a population. A few cases of a rare disease may constitute an epidemic, as may the gradual increase of chronic or benign disease; epidemics may also be non-contagious (e.g. bovine spongiform encephalopathy commonly known as ‘mad cow disease’).
    [Show full text]
  • Pestilence and Headcolds: Encountering Illness in Colonial Mexico
    Pestilence and Headcolds Sherry Fields CHAPTER ONE Pestilence and Headcolds Was there ever a time in humanity's history that did not include disease? The ancient Greeks 1 mark the beginning of pestilence and other torments of the flesh by the fable of Pandora's box, whereas the Judeo-Christian tradition explains that disease and death became part of the human condition when Eve successfully tempted Adam into tasting the forbidden fruit. Today we know that the diseases of humanity evolved in tandem with its civilizations. Beginning roughly 11,000 years ago, various peoples began the slow process of domesticating animals and plants, ultimately setting the stage for the development of what Jared Diamond has aptly called "guns, germs, and steel." This transition from hunter-gatherers to farmers set off a long chain of events in the evolution of humanity. The cultivation of crops and herd animals allowed for surplus food production, which led to a sedentary lifestyle, a growing population in more densely packed living conditions, and non-food-producing specialists. These specialists, in turn, evolved into roles we now associate with civilized societies: political elites, bureaucrats, priests, artisans, and scribes. Travel, trade, and warfare, all impossible without domesticated animals serving as land transport and carriers of goods, soon followed, intermingling humans as never before. Infectious diseases arose right alongside this sequence of civilizing advancements. Those farmers and herdsmen who were the first to raise large quantities of crops and animals also unintentionally produced large numbers of human predators: rats, roaches, houseflies, mosquitoes, worms, fungi, and bacteria. The resulting "diseases of civilization"—smallpox, measles, typhus, and the flu—began, researchers now tell us, in the close physical relationship the Old World's peoples had with their herds of cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and pigs.
    [Show full text]