Food Safety and Security of Sago Starch in Rural Papua
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FOOD SAFETY AND SECURITY OF SAGO STARCH IN RURAL PAPUA NEW GUINEA A Thesis submitted by Andrew Russell GREENHILL B.Sc. Hons (University of Tasmania) in November 2006 for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the discipline of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville. Suaviter in modo, fortiter in re ii ELECTRONIC COPY I, the undersigned, the author of this work, declare that the electronic copy of this thesis provided to the James Cook University Library, is an accurate copy of the print thesis submitted, within the limits of the technology available. _______________________________ _______________ Signature Date STATEMENT ON ACCESS OF THESIS I, the undersigned, the author of this work, understand that James Cook University will make this thesis available for use within the University Library and, via the Australian Digital Theses Network, for use elsewhere. I understand that, as unpublished work a thesis has significant protection under the Copyright Act and I do not wish to place any further restriction on access to this work. A R Greenhill November 2006 STATEMENT OF SOURCES I declare that this thesis is my own work and has not been submitted in any form for another degree or diploma at any university of other institution of tertiary education. Information derived from the published or unpublished work of others has been acknowledged in the text and a list of references given. A R Greenhill November 2006 iii STATEMENT ON THE CONTRIBUTION OF OTHERS Financial support for the duration of this project was obtained through a research grant from the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), and from a stipend provided by the School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences. Project costs were met through the ACIAR funding. The work was completed under the supervision of A/Prof Warren Shipton, Dr Jeffrey Warner, A/Prof Leigh Owens, and Barry Blaney. The ACIAR project was in collaboration with researchers at the Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries Animal Research Institute at Yeerongpilly, The University of Technology in Lae, and the University of Papua New Guinea in Port Moresby. Statistical knowledge was gained through attendance at a generic skills program organised by the James Cook University Graduate Research School. Further statistical support was provided by A/Prof Leigh Owens. Elizabeth Kopel from the University of Papua New Guinea helped develop the sociological survey. I acknowledge the research assistance of Ms Sarah Bidgood, Mr Andreas Kuptz and Ms Nicole Seleno in conducting some of the bench work investigating the storage and preservation methods of sago starch. Kathleen Buick assisted with proofreading. A considerable portion of this work was conducted using the infrastructure of the Animal Research Institute in Yeerongpilly. Some work was also conducted at Griffith University. Approximately 15 fungal isolates were sent to the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures in the Netherlands for identification. Six sago samples were sent to the Royal Perth Hospital for vitamin analysis, and three samples were analysed for metal content at the Advanced Analytical Centre at James Cook University A R Greenhill November 2006 DECLARATION OF ETHICS Relevant research reported in this thesis received approval of the Papua New Guinea Medical Research Advisory Council (MRAC number 05/25) and the James Cook University Ethics Review Committee (Human ethics number H2167). A R Greenhill November 2006 iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of this thesis is testament to what can be achieved in a supportive environment that values knowledge and education. Many people have contributed to the provision of this supportive environment, but none more than my principle supervisor, A/Prof Warren Shipton. Since well before this research began, Warren has dedicated considerable time to the project. Without Warren’s knowledge, enthusiasm, scientific rigour, pearls of wisdom, encouragement and timely dry humour, one fears this thesis would never have seen the light of day. I am forever indebted to Warren for his support throughout the project. No research project conducted in the Western Province of PNG could reach its full potential without the support of Dr Jeffrey Warner. Jeff’s experience and obvious love for all things Western Province have been indispensable to this project. But Jeff’s support has gone well beyond logistical knowledge. I thank Jeff for the initial opportunity to work in PNG, for imparting his enthusiasm for the beautiful country to me, for his ideas about the project, for his guidance, for his belief in my ability, and for his ongoing friendship. Thankyou also Linda Warner, particularly for her cultural assistance. I am also very appreciative of the support of Barry Blaney at the Animal Research Institute in Yeerongpilly. Barry has invested considerable time and interest into this project. Without his patience, support and friendly amicable nature this project would be bereft of some of the most interesting and important work. I am appreciative of the financial support I received in the form of a School of Veterinary and Biomedical Science scholarship for 18 months. Without that support completion of the thesis would have been considerably more difficult. Individually, there are many people, past and present, within the School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences that have helped throughout this project. Indeed, there is barely a person who hasn’t helped in some way, ranging from entertaining (or otherwise, i.e. asinine) lunchtime conversations, to sourcing chemicals, to assistance with techniques. In particular, thankyou Leigh Owens for assistance with statistics, and Sarah Bidgood, Andreas Kuptz and Nicole Seleno for their assistance in the laboratory. The technical staff within the school have provided constant support, particularly the ‘micro techies’ and Juli. The office staff have been wonderfully helpful, patient, and understanding of my form filling-out ability (or lack thereof). Many thanks Scott for sheep blood, and Sharon for her wonderful phlebotomy skills. Thankyou Kathleen Buick for proof reading. I would like to acknowledge the positive influence of two past staff members, namely A/Prof. Robert Hirst and the late A/ Prof. Bruce Copeman. I thank Robert for his encouragement and support, particularly in my early days at JCU. And I thank Bruce for being a wonderful role model (the standards of whom I will never attain, but it is good to have goals). I am grateful for the assistance provided by Cathy and fellow staff at the Townsville Hospital in identification of selected bacterial isolates. v There are many people in Brisbane that have helped make my time there more productive and more enjoyable. I would like to thank the staff members at the ARI who have assisted me, in particular Mary Fletcher, Sam Murray and Ian Brock. Thankyou also to Brian, Alan, Keith, Madeline, Lisa, Adam, Peter, Stephen and Patrick. The assistance of Renee at Griffith University is also much appreciated. Many thanks to Paul, Nomes, Mia (and now Xavier) for their hospitality, and also Beck, Glen and Lucy for their friendship. Many friendships have been forged throughout the duration of this project. Thanks to all the fellow students within the school for their support and camaraderie. In particular, thanks to office mates past and present for valued friendship. Many people in PNG have helped facilitate this project. In particular, I am appreciative of the help and friendship of Daniel Pelowa, who has made me welcome, and assisted in communication and logistics throughout the Western Province. I acknowledge the input into the broader ACIAR project by our collaborators at UNPG (Elizabeth) and UniTech (Aisak, Betty and Dele). Their input was essential to the project’s success. Thankyou also to ACIAR for funding the project, and specifically Greg Johnson, who was instrumental in ensuring the project was funded. It is difficult to complete such a monumental task without assistance from family and friends. Thankyou to my family for a lifetime of great support. To a large degree, it was their guidance through life that put me in a position to embark on the project. In particular, I would like to pass on my gratitude to my mother, who in her admirably unassuming way has been such a positive influence on my life, and played a very important role in the education of her children. In addition to family, there are a number of friends that deserve special mention, but I will resist listing names for fear of accidentally excluding someone. But to all those people who have expressed interest in the project (if you are reading this you have presumably expressed some interest), provided me with an enjoyable social outlet, and been understanding of my at times antisocial behaviour due to work commitments, I am very grateful. As is traditional, I have saved the best for last. And Suzie, you are the best! I am eternally grateful for the love and support you have given me throughout the project. There is no doubt that without your support this thesis would have taken considerably longer to complete, and been nowhere near as tolerable. I am appreciative of the personal sacrifice you have made to help me. I know at the time it hasn’t always been fun, but I hope we can look back on the past three and a half years as a time of great achievement for both of us. Thankyou. vi ABSTRACT Sago starch is an important source of dietary carbohydrate in lowland and coastal areas of Papua New Guinea (PNG). There have been sporadic reports of severe haemolytic illness resulting from sago starch consumption, termed sago haemolytic disease (SHD), with most reports coming from the Western Province. Despite the occurrence of SHD, and a high likelihood of less severe foodborne illness resulting from consumption of indigenous foods in general in PNG, there have been no detailed studies of the microbiology of sago starch.