Religion and the Founding Fathers

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RELIGION has always been important inAmerica. During tihe colo- deny citizenship and voting rights to Jews, although they were al- nial and Revolutionary eras, religion permeated the lives of Ameri- lowed to practice their religion, but usually not publicly. Not until cans. Blue laws kept the Sabbath holy and consumption lawxs the 19th centurv did states extend full citizenship to Jews. limited the actions of everyone. Christianitv was one of the few Quakers-banished, whipped, fined, imprisoned, and occasion- links that boundAmerican society together from Maine to (ieorgia. ally executited in early New England-found a refuge in William The Bible, in addition to being the divine word of (iod that would Penn's experiment. Discrimination against Quakers, even in Penn- guide people through life's journey to the n fied during and after the Revolution, espe- as a textbook for history, a source book t those who steadfastly practiced pacifism. primer for mothers to teach their childrei ibatants-both British and American-felt read, and a window through which to vit Quakers were not on their side, they mtist understand human nature. With the high c inemies. I)uring the war, Quakers were dis- rate, especially among infants, childbear ranchised, and Americans rounded Utip women, and seafarers. Americans stoically r ealthy Quakers thought to be dangerous signed themselves to the will of God. Bt nd transported them to safe areas away cause religion and morality were seen as from the fighting and their homes. Only necessary components of stable society, slowly after the war were Quaker voting colonial and Revolutionary government rights restored. supported religion. Clergymen wcrc Religion played a significant role in the among the most influential members of coming of the American Revolution. In the community and many) of them actively New York, the demand by some for an participated in government. American Anglican bishopric raised fears of heightened ecclesiastical controls simi- jamnes ladclison. Portraitty Gilbert .Stlart. 182 1. (National Galle X?of A rt) lar to the civil controls being mandated by Parliament. American animosity and fear of Although colonists often emigrated to th atholics increased. especially when Parlia- New World to escape religious persecution nt passed the Quebec Act in 1-774.The Act intolerance, many new Americans readily nded southward the borders of the cap- criminated against others on the basis of rel Catholic French territory to the Ohio River Ironically, the liberal religious traditions en ranteed the free Exercise of the Religion of in the charters and fundamental laws of Rh h of Rome." The Declaration of Indepen- Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, and the e Quebec Act as one of the charges against very much like the declarations of indulgences promtulgated by the king and Parliamnent. Ironically, because of America's desperate Charles II and James II that were so bitterly denounced bx the need foir support in its struggle for independence, Congress allied Anglican clergy and members of Parliament. Like a magnet. hoxw- itself with (Catholic France, andc His (Christian Majesty Louis XVI was ever, these liberal policies attracted dissenters to these religiousl regularly toasted in America as a true friend of the new republic. benevolent colonies. The American Revolution led to a significant separation between The first 12 American colonies were founded during the l-th church and state. Increasingly, religion was thought to be a matter century. Much of the fear and hatred of Catholics in England dur- of personal opinion that should not be dictated by government. Of ing this time found its way across the Atlantic. The four imperial the nine states thllat had established religions during the colonial wars between Protestant (ireat Britain and (Catholic France and period, three separated church and state in their new constitu- Spain intensified American animosity toward (Catholics. ()nly in tions-New fYork, North (Carolina, and Virginia. In the remaining six Maryland did Catholics find a welcome haven in Britain's New states, concessions were made allowinlg public support of more than World. one clhurch. Often in New England, this concession was nominal Jews. although discriminated against in every colony. were toler- because public fuinds vwould be given to only one church in a town, ated and prospered in Newport, Philadelphia. and (Charlestonl. and that alway's happened to be the (Congregational church be- After the Revolution, even the most tolerant states continued to caulse of its dlominance in every New England (cnionanela m parle -)

RELIGIOUS RECORDS AS DOCUMENTARY SOURCES I,LPO .T1" aTT_riNI*.

THE COMPLMISSION'S MEETINGS FOLLOW THE FISCAL YEAR OF OCTOBER 1 TO SEPTEMBER 30. CONSEQUENRLY, THE FIRST MEETING OF THE FISCAL YEAR IS IN NOVEMBER AND THE SECOND IS IN MAY. couraged to re sh, with appopriEa cm June 1 (for the November meeting) als appearing in anlioni. l4qtils Annotation, submitting materl or ior, Proposals addressing the following top priorities: related to it may be directed to tdietEdto *The NHPRC will provide the American public with wide- NHPRC, National Arehives and Recotds A spread access to the papers of the founders of our dem- 700 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW. RO' 11 Dc 204o01z-6l0 4 ocratic republic and its institutions by ensuring the nhrcnartgw(cSal) Ww wM timely completion of eight projects now in progress to (World Wide Web). 0 ' publish the papers of George Washington, John Adams, Matoerial accepor bliain wil - Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, form to styk nd tot and papers that document the Ratification of the Consti- thors will be cu od tution, the First Federal Congress, and the early The editori in rbite in i grammtubin4mn. de ozea Supreme Court the vieft C i r o ie Nat *The NHPRC will promote broad public participation in and RcrsMnIiw&ttced ~4 historical documentation by collaborating with State His- challen e t thosI torical Records Advisory Boards to plan and carry out jointly funded programs to strengthen the nation's NsPRCMsn-oW C:fA archival infrastructure and expand the range of records United Stateai t D. h R that are protected and accessible U.S. Houe ofesent es; nlas *The NHPRC will enable the nation's archivists, records Marvin F. "Bud" Mss, tesetitf Xi managers, and documentary editors to overcome the ob- the United States;r Cles TCrn, stacles and take advantage of the opportunities posed Associaio for Documnay Editig t X by electronic technologies by continuing to provide leadership in funding research and development on ap- representing the U.S. Senate; Maryl i praising, preserving, disseminating, and providing access senting thhe Aei Histria to important documentary sources in electronic form Eaton, re of Att OCTOBER 1 (for the May meeting) Barbara J. Fields, representing the O Ameriant Historianis; Brent D. Glass, ril Proposals not addressing the above priorities, but focusing on an activity authorized in the NHPRC statute as American Assoiation for State and Loa follows: Goldberg, rep estig the Der *collecting, describing, preserving, compiling, and publishing Margaret P G :npSoreresentihog th (including microfilming and other forms of reproduction) David I. Souer, retorceeating rthe U.s' of documentary sources significant to the history of the United States *conducting institutes, training and educational courses, and Rey C. 7hsaeg.rereeningtheNao fellowships related to the activities of the Commission * disseminating inbformation about documentary sources through guides, directories, and other technical publications *-or,more specifically, documentary editing and publishing; archival preservation and processing of records for ac- cess; developing or updating descriptive systems; creation and development of archival and records management programs: development of standards, tools, and tech- niques to advance the work of archivists, records man- Manageint ad Progam Aayst, Mary A., OIW Di-: agers, and documentary editors; and promotion of the rector for Communications and Outreach; !aDaW Mie: use of records by teachers, students, and the public grove, Historian and Editor,r An niafl-a;Mi.chael; T:z Meier, Program Offlcer;u ,eau:reteco::or ,OntaP- APPLICATION GUIDELINES AND FORMS MAY BE REQUESTED FROM NHPRC, NATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATION, gram Assisat; Cassandra. Scott Staff A :... 700 PENNSYLVANIA AVENUE NW, ROOM 111, WASHINGTON, DC A. Stokes, Prograrm Officer.: ' 20408-0001, 202-501-5610 (VOICE), 202-501-5601 (FAx), [email protected] (E-MAIL), OR BY ACCESSING OUR WEB SITE ISSN 0160-8460 AT www.nara.gov/nara/nhprc/

Annotanion Vol 30 1 March 2002 - I

Important Documentary Sources odist Church in America; a project to arrange and describe papers involving pioneers in religious radio broadcasting; a project to de- Relating to the History of the velop a records management program and to arrange and describe records relating to the Buddhist churches of America; a project to United States collect and make accessible historical records on conservative Judaism inAmerica; and a project to conduct workshops across the The separation of church and state is a fun- country on basic archival techniques for persons designated as the damental precept of this nation, articulated archivists of their religious orders. in the First Amendment to our Constitu- Church and synagogue records of ceremonies surrounding births, tion. Throughout our history, religious marriages, and deaths constitute an important source for historians groups and those who defined themselves and genealogists, and in some cases have proven to be the only primarily by their religious beliefs have also means of establishing an individual's entitlement to benefits such as helped to shape the American story. social security.Accordingly, a number of states have utilized NHPRC Some areas of what now constitutes the regrant funding, matched by state money, to award small grants to United States of America were originally preserve such records. settled by those seeking the freedom to be- This issue of Annzotation presents articles on a number of such lieve and worship as they Dreferred: other projects.There is a discussion of religion and the Founding Fathers. areas were developed by those for whom imperial and religious drawn in part from materials published by several of the NHPRC- agendas were intertwined. As a consequence, those seeking to sponsored documentary editing projects. Other articles describe learn about the early experiences of European settlers or their con- projects focusing upon Lucretia Mott (a Quaker), Catholic social re- tacts with the Native American populations must rely heavily upon formers, a major figure in the Pentecostal movement, and early accounts recorded by missionaries, among others. 19th-century Cherokee and Moravian spirituality. There are ac- In the 19th century; the movement to abolish slavery was driven counts of NHPRC projects to preserve the records of Georgetown to a great extent by religious belief and by those identified with Visitation Monastery and to locate, accession and process the pa- specific churches. Religious groups and organizations influenced pers of the first women ordained as Episcopalian priests.And there the development of communities, provided relief for the poor and is an article on an African missionary, his American family, and their destitute, and founded many of our health and educational institu- links with South Africa. tions. I hope you enjoy this issue. Historians of the 20th century, a time often dismissed as particu- larly secular, have written at length about the radio broadcasts of Father Charles Coughlin, the aid given by religious welfare societies 0~ I to those fleeing Hitler's Germany, the questions raised during the 1928 and 1960 U.S. Presidential campaigns as to whether a Catholic could be elected President, and the leadership by some Baptist min- The March 2002 issue of Annotation begins with John P isters within the civil rights movement. Each successive wave of immigration has injected new ideas, cul- Kaminski's Religion and the Founding Fathers," based in large tures, and, often, religions into the American consciousness. How part upon documentary editions supported by the NHPRC.The Americans of so many faiths have engaged one another in shaping other articles in this issue appear in the following order: a society based on religious pluralism is, in itself, a fascinating area Beverly Wilson Palmer, Lucretia Coffin Mott and the Power of of study for many historians. the Spirit" Thus, in fulfilling its mission to support a wide range of activities Joseph M.Turrini, Catholic Social Reform and the New Deal: to preserve, publish, and encourage the use of documentary The Papers of Monsignor John A. Ryan and Bishop Francis J. Haas" sources relating to the history of the United States, the National His- Roger G. Robins, Documenting Life in the Margins: David J. du torical Publications and Records Commission has made grants in- Plessis, Fuller Theological Seminary, and the Safety Net of Collec- volving the records of religious organizations, or focusing upon an individual or group affiliated with such an organization. However, it tive Memorv" has done so only if the organization is a nonprofit institution, the Rowena McClinton, Earlv 19th-Century Cherokee and Mora- records are of importance to understanding American history, and vian Spirituality Converges at Springplace, Georgia" the records addressed will be accessible to all on an equal basis. Sister Mada-anne Gell,VHM, "Preserving the Records of George- The NHPRC has supported a number of documentary editions of town Visitation Monastery" the papers of such individuals as Francis Asbury (Methodist), David Claire McCurdv, Leslie Reyman. and Letitia Campbell. Process- Avery (Congregationalist), John Ireland (Catholic), Isaac Backus ing the Papers of Women Religious Figures: The Archives of (Baptist), Howard Thurman (interdenominational), and Martin Women in Theological Scholarship Project" Luther King, Jr. (Baptist). It has sponsored editions documenting David Anthomi and RobLrt Edgar,"Religion and the Black both the activities of Jesuit missionaries on the frontier and the crc- ation of the Harmony Society. (South) Atlantic" Among its records access projects, the Commission has sup- ported a project to process papers relating to the German Meth-

Ann,aotr,n Vo .301 Morch 2002 RELIGION AND TIIE FO INDIN(G FATItERS matters ecclesiastical as well as civil," an obvious exclusion of (Continuedfrorn page I) Catholics from holding office. During and after the war, the states ceded their western lands to town. However, as the 18th century ended, most states in which Congress. On July 13, 1787-when the Constitutional Convention tax revenues supported churches passed legislation increasing the was meeting in Philadelphia-Congress, meeting in NewYork City, flexibility individuals had of earmarking their taxes for the support adopted the Northwest Ordinance, which provided for the territo- of their own minister. rial government of the national domain north and west of the Ohio Virginia disestablished the Anglican church merely by not specif- River and for its transition to statehood on an equal basis with the ically retaining the church-state relationship The last provision of original states.The Ordinance included an abbreviated bill of rights the Virginia Declaration of Rights (adopted in June 1776) provided guaranteeing religious freedom in the first article. "No person de- "That religion, or the duty which we owe to our CREATOR, and the meaning himself in a peaceable and orderly manner shall ever be manner of discharging it, can be directed only by reason and con- molested on account of his mode of worship or religious senti- viction, not by force or violence, and therefore all men are equally ments in the said territory."The third article acknowledged the ne- entitled to the free exercise of religion, according to the dictates of cessity of "Religion, morality and knowledge" in promoting "good conscience; and that it is the mutual duty of all to practice Christ- government and the happiness of mankind" and provided that ian forbearance, love, and charity, towards each other." But when "schools and the means of education shall forever be encour- ratricK rienry, Eomunu lrenuleton, ano menic ars later, the first Federal Congress reenacted joined with Anglican ministers in an effort iance. public financial support for all Christian de asingly the Founding Fathers abandoned tions (in essence creating a multiple esta ional Christian religion and became what ment), James Madison revived Tho> Ild be called deists. Many of these converts Jefferson's bill for religious freedom, which p iblicly maintained their original religious af- vided for the complete separation of churc iliations, choosing to avoid the censures that and state. A convention of Presbyterian min prominent deists like Jefferson, Franklin, isters advocated the bill "as the best safe- and Paine regularly received. Deists aban- guard short of a constitutional one, for doned the belief in the divinity of Jesus, their religious rights.:' Jefferson's bill, the trinity, any notion of predestination, adopted in January 1786, stated "that the the Bible as the divinely inspired word of opinions of men are not the object of civil God, and state-sponsored religion. Rather, government, nor under its jurisdiction." deists believed in one God, a benevolent Madison happily reported to Jefferson that initiator of all events.The word of God was the act "extinguished for ever the ambi- not to be found in the Bible, but in nature tious hope of making laws for the human and the Creation. 2 mind:' When the delegates to the Federal Con-

Johbi Jay! Portrait by Corieliuts Tiebout after ention of 1787 drafted a new Constitution Gilbert Stuart.(Neu, Yobrk Public Library) r the United States, they omitted any specific rences to God or religion. Federalists, how- In other state constitutions, like New Yorl often asserted that the Constitution was plicit provision was made that "the free inspired. Dr. Benjamin Rush in the Pennsyl- and employment of religious profession an ing Convention in December 1787 sug- hand of God" was nasassuredlv etmnloved in WIHItUL Ui31YllllIdtlUoIl oL pJICIUlUItC, M111j IU1 CVCl 1 ICIiC- o-...... -...... o.. dsv;s|-...... j....l..v , ..... after be allowed within this State to all mankind." Complete reli- drafting the Constitution as it was in dividing the Red Sea or in ful- gious liberty was limited, however. According to the New York minating the Ten Commandments from Mount Sinai. Rush urged constitution,"the liberty of conscience hereby granted, shall not be Antifederalists to differentiate between the inclinations of their so construed, as to excuse acts of licentiousness, or justify practices constituents and the dictates of their consciences. Listen, Rush ad- inconsistent with the peace or safety of this State." Such a libertar- monished, to the latter. "It is the voice of God speaking" to their ian position alienated Congregationalists in Vermont, who felt un- hearts. Antifederalists condemned "this new species of DIVINE safe under New York's rule because their "religious rights and RIGHT." They "regretted that so imperfect a work should have been 4 privilidges would be in danger from a Union with a Government" ascribed to God:' whose constitution tolerated all religions and excluded the estab- Many Americans agreed with the freemen of Paxton, Massachu- lishment of any.3 In 1777 the Vermonters declared their independ- setts, that the Constitution, by its failure to explicitly guarantee the ence not only from Great Britain, but also from New York. freedom of religion, was "Subversive of Liberty and Extreamly dan- Five state constitutions prohibited ministers from holding civil gerous to the Civil and Religious rights of the People."> Speaking or military positions.The clergy, it was argued, should attend to the for Antifederalists, Patrick Henry argued in the Virginia ratifying important job of tending to their flocks. Eleven states retained a re- Convention that the 'sacred and lovely thing Religion, ought not to ligious test for officeholding, usually requiring belief in God, the rest on the ingenuity of logical deduction."Without an explicit pro- Protestant religion, the divine inspiration of the Bible, and in life in tection, religion "will be prostituted to the lowest purposes of " (6 the hereafter. Only the constitutions of NewYork and Virginia omit- human policy. Federalists, however, argued that the Constitution ted a religious test for officeholding. In New York, Huguenot-de- would create a Federal government of strictly enumerated powers scended John Jay argued unsuccessfully in the provincial that would never be capable of violating religious liberty. Accord- convention for a prohibition against Catholic officeholding. In Feb- ing to James Madison in the Virginia Convention, there was "not a ruary 1788, however, the New York legislature approved an act re- shadow of right in the General Government to intermeddle with quiring officeholders to renotunce all foreign authorities, "in all religion-Its least interference with it would (contitned on page 19)

4 Amororaon Vol 301 March 2002 cretii P

The reputation of Lucretia Coffin Mo Lucretia M.lott. Carte de lisite today rests generally on her leadership photographby Frederick Gute- khtust Philadelphia, 1860s. the woman's rights and antislavery mov Courtesy of Friends Histori- ments, and specifically on her leadership i cal Library Svarthimore Col- lege. the 1848 Seneca Falls Woman's Rights Co vention.Yet too often overlooked is the si nificance of religion in her life. The pow of the spirit governed all Lucretia Mott's a tions: her Quaker heritage gave meanir and context to every aspect of her lift Mott's belief that ever)' human being mu be open to the promptings of the spirit f eled her demand for equality for Africa Americans and for women. In Selected Li ters of Lucretia Coffin Mott (University ( Illinois Press, 2002), sponsored by ti NHPRC, Mott's tireless commitment equal rights and the central role of religic in these lifelong efforts is clearly demo strated. Born in 1793 to Quaker parents, at age I Lucretia Coffin was sent to a coeducation Quaker school in Dutchess County; Ne York. Here the young student met Jam, Mott, whom she married in 1811 when ti couple established permanent residence i Philadelphia. James sold cotton and wo but later, as a protest against the slav driven cotton culture in the South, focust milv on woli trIadinu RIetween 1Rl?2 ar 1828, Lucretia bore six children, of whom movements of the age." (It is no coincidence The Hicksite/Orthodox division did not five, four daughters and a son, lived to adult- that the largest group signing the 18.18 Dec- end Mott's differences with her fellow hood. She began to speak at Quaker meetings laration of Sentiments at Seneca Falls con- Hicksites."Oh how our Discipline needs re- 2 in 1818, and in 1821 she was recognized as sisted of Quakers or former Quakers. ) vising-& stripping of its objectionable fea- a minister in the Society of Friends in Phila- During the 1820s a conflict between the tures," she wrote the Irish Quakers Richard delphia. stricter, more conservative Quakcrs and the and HannahWebb in 1842."i1 know not how The Quaker tradition enabled women to tolerant, less orthodox followers of Elias far yours may differ from ours. but I know take public positions on a variety of social Hicks (known as the Hicksites) c:'sed the we have far too many disownable offences. problems. Recognized as a minister in 1821 Motts to break with their original meeting. Still with all our faults, I know of no reli- and in the 1830s as clerk of the Philadel- Already in an 1822 letter to her husband's gious association I would prefer to it." In- phiaWomen's Yearly Meeting, Mott enjoyed grandfather, Lucretia had asked why a deed, Lucretia Mott remained a Hicksite the privilege of speaking in her own meet- Quaker should he disowned (i .e. removed Quaker throughout her life. Yet she often ing as well as traveling widely to minister to from membership) for marrying outside of spoke outside Quaker meetings. and her other meetings.The historian Susan Mosher meeting. In 1827 first James anmd then Lu- sermons show her full commitment to lib- Stuard cogently expresses the religious cretia Mott followed the Hick-'itc branch eral religious issues stichI as the inhercet legacy Mott and other Quaker women in- (Lucretia insisted it was tl, (5 iliodox goodness of all humans and the importatnce herited: "Women among the Friends may be Quakers who left the fold) whicl. X ,loused of good works. credited with helping to arouse righteous free interpretation of the Bible aled r:-liance Addressing the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery indignation against the whole corpus of re- on inward authority, as opposcd to tlIh guid- Society in November 1869, Mott stated ohow ceived scholarly thought and the mental ance of historic (.hristian authoritv. More- faith led to action, to her participation in constructs by which thinkers arrived at over, Hicks' strong condemniation of siavery antislavery activities in the 1820s. She re- their conclusions. By rejecting the very en- resonated with the Motts' antislaveirv be- called how she had felt herself obliged "to deavor of formulating orthodox doctrines liefs. absta;n from the products of the slave's

Pr ot-l Vo ,30 1 Morchi 2002 the hope that all religions would eventually >'@ '4 t ' -- abandon theological differences and unite 6 f-z- f', C u >.-tzbi IN JANUARY 2002,ETH UNI- under one supreme power. Mott emphasized her activism and her VERSITY OF ILLINOIS PRESS continued faith in humankind in this 1867 PUBLISHED SELECTED LmmRS sermon at the Brooklyn Unitarian Church:

OF LUCRETIA COFFINMorr I believe that such proving all things, such trying all things, and holding fast EDITED BY BEVERLY WILSON only to that which is good, is the great PALMER, WITH HOLLY BYERS religious duty of our age.... Our own conscience and the Divine Spirits's OCHOA SERVING ASASSOCIATE teaching are always harmonious and this Divine illumination is as freely EDITOR AND CAROL FAULK- given to man as his reason, or as are many of his natural powers. NER AS EDmNG FELLOW. SUP-

PORTED BY A GRANT FROM Impelled by an "incorruptible spirit which searcheth all things," until the end of her life THE NATIONAL HISTORICAL Lucretia Mott continued to advocate wo- PUBLICATlONS AND RECORDS man's rights, peace, temperance, rights for the freedpeople and freedom of conscience. COMMISSION, THS WORK IS A This clear sense of her religious calling VOLUME IN THE SERIES WO- made her a natural leader and a major force in 19th-century American reform move- MEN IN AMERICAN HISTORY, ments. + EDITED BY ANNE FIROR ScOTr, NANCY A. HEwITT, BEVERLYWILSON PALMERIS TIlLE EDITOR OF.S'LLECTED LEEfIERSOF L cRETIA COFFIl lIoT, THE I.iLL('CTEDPAPI:RS OFtTHuADIt s' AND STEPHANIE SHAW. STEI-E\S,AND) THE SEIECyoD LETTERS01' (C114ARLES5 NER.

U >2-- {-Lt & 4 b Yi Notes labor." Although she was "somewhat pre- any compromise which shall continue the ' "Women's Witnessing," Witness for Change. pared" to speak out against the slave trade unequal, cruel war on the rights and liber- Quaker Women over Three Centuries. eds. Eliza- in meeting, she described the "unexpected" ties of millions of our unoffending fellow- beth Brown and Susan Mosher Stuard (New call in moving and personal language: "It beings."As prospects for abolishing slavery Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1989), p. 14. was a trial to be obliged to appear need- increased, in 1864 Lucretia wrote her sister 2 Letter of 20 April 1869. Selected Letters of lessly peculiar. It was like parting with the Martha, quoting Corinthians:"The AntiS. sen- Lucretia Coffin Mott, eds. Beverly Wilson Palmer, Holly Byers Ochoa, and Carol Faulkner (Urbana: right hand or the right eye, but when I left timent is spreadg - not by battles with car- University of Illinois Press, 2002), p. 415. See Ju- the meeting I yielded to the obligation, and nal weapons but the mighty 'armor of dith Wellman, "The Seneca Falls Women's Rights then, for forty years from that time, what- righteousness on the right hand & on the Convention:A Study of Social Networks'," Journal ever I did I did under the conviction that it left'- It is no evidence of inconsistency, to of Women's History 3 (Spring 1991), p. 27 Nancy Hewitt, "Feminist Friends: Agrarian Quakers and was wrong to partake of the products of be glad when the right is uppermost in the "4 the Emergence of Woman's Rights in America," the labor of slavery. For Mott, faith was army-even if yr. depend[enc]e. is not on Feminist Studies 12 (Spring 1986), p.29. pointless unless connected to action. the arm of flesh."' After the war the always 3 Letter of 25 February 1842, Selected Letters, What sort of action was appropriate optimistic activist helped found the Penn- p. 106. when the end was admirable but the means sylvania Peace Society. 4 Proceedings of the Annual .Aeeting of tbe Penns,'lvania Anti-Slavery Societj 17 Novem- reprehensible? The Civil War personally Mott's distress over sectarian religion, ex- ber 1869, published in the NationalAnti-Sla'erj, challenged the religious beliefs of Lucretia pressed more formally in her frequent ser- Standard, 27 November 1869, p.1. Mott, who as a Quaker espoused nonvio- mons, also appears in numerous letters Letters of 6 July 1861 and 25 January 1864, lence yet had worked so assiduously to through the years. To Elizabeth Cady Stan- Selected Letters, pp. 312,339. 6 Letter of 23 March 1841, Selected Letters, abolish slavery. This peace-loving woman ton, for example, Lucretia wrote of her con- p.90. On the Free Religioutis Association, see letters protested the Civil War's violence, but not cern: "It is lamentable, that the simple & of 20 May 1867 and 22 May [1874] to Octavius B. without some misgivings. In July 1861, she benign religion of Jesus should be so en- Frothingham, Selected Letters, pp. 387-88, wrote a public letter disputing newspaper cumbered with the creeds & dogmas of 489-90. See also Margaret Hope Bacon, Valiant coverage of a recent speech she had given sects - Its primitive beauty obscured by Friend: The Life of Lucretia MAott, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Friends General Conference, in Boston that imputed that she supported these gloomy appendages of man:'As a life- 1999), pp.220-21,239. the war. She protested that "instead of the long critic of sects and creeds, in the late "When the Heart is Attuned to Prayer," Lucre- whole armor of God, we have the battle of 1860s she became active in the Free Reli- tia Mott: Her Complete Speeches and Sermons, the warrior, which is ever with confused gious Association, an organization dedicated ed. Dana Greene (New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1980), p. 302. For an informal expression of noise and garments rolled in blood." Still, to freeing all sects from dependence on Bib- Mott's beliefs, see, for example, letter to Richard D. she continued, "terrible as war ever must lical authority), and the divinity of Christ. In and Hannah Webb, 2 April 1841, Selected Letters, be, let us hope that it may not be stayed by addresses to their meetings, Mott expressed pp.91-92.

6 ArnoDtinon Vo 301 March 2002 Catholic Social Reform and the New Deal _Ae Ya<&ewf o_cWofiX _W'fawz 5 §a aer2 OJz9lO/ c/a~ Ja

ON OCTOBER 8, 1936, Monsignor John A. Ryan urged millions of to process the Ryan and Haas Papers. The grant also provided listeners to his nationally broadcast radio speech to reject the funds to process the papers of Catholic labor leaders Philip advice of fellow Catholic cleric Father Charles Coughlin and Murray and John Brophy, and the Congress of Industrial Organi- vote for President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the upcoming elec- zations Records. tion.The Democratic National Committee had prodded a reluc- John A. Ryan was the most prolific, well known, and impor- tant Ryan to step into the fray of national politics because it tant Catholic social reform advocate and theorist in America be- feared that Catholic voters might be swayed by Coughlin's tween the time of his first published book in 1906, A Living weekly insistence that FDR was a communist who no longer de- Wage, and his death in 1945. His economic and political phi- served the support of Catholics. Coughlin, the famous radio losophies were initially grounded in his experiences as the eld- priest and demagogue of the 1930s who was on his way to est child in a large Irish-Catholic farm family. Born in Minnesota being an ignoble anti-Semite, had recently turned violently in 1869, he witnessed firsthand the difficult plight of small farm- against Roosevelt. ers and supported the populist movement as a young man. Ryan's speech, "Roosevelt Safeguards America," was the most Ryan entered the St. Paul Seminary in 1892, the year Populist public and prominent moment in his long and illustrious career Party Presidential candidate James Weaver amassed just over as a social justice advocate and theorist. Ryan created and nur- one million popular votes. Ryan commented angrily in his jour- tured a strain of Catholic progressivism that insisted that Father FrancisJ Haas (center), with Minnesota Governor Floyd Olson Catholic clergy should be active in social reform movements (left) and Federal conciliator E H. Dunnigan at the conclusion of the Minneapolis truckers'strike, 1934. Photograph courtesy,of the Minnesota like the labor movement and the New Deal. Indeed, it might HistoricalSociety and the Minneapolis Tribune. Wen DeC salU tnat KyanII was tIle IOU of Catholic economic and politic spires Catholics today. The intellectual center of this C; was on the campus of The Cat (CUA), where Ryan taught and sei Action Department of the Nationa most of his productive career. The a number of CUA faculty and stuc form philosophy Ryan expressed ings, teaching, and occasional poli Perhaps the most nationally pr progressive in the Ryan tradition was Bishop Francis J. Haas. A stu- dent at CUA in the early 1920s who was profoundly influenced by Ryan, Haas played a pivotal role in Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal as a public representa- tive on several Government boards in the 1930s and as one of the nal following the Populist Party's defeat that the "time busiest and most respected labor servers and hypocrites are rewarded while honest pa- arbitrators in the country. triots are the object of mercenary ridicule. When will The papers of MonsignorJohn A. the eyes of the masses be opened?" Pope Leos XIII's Ryan and Bishop Francis J. Haas 1891 encyclical, Rerum Novarum, provided a solid are housed at the Department of religious basis and intellectual foundation for a phi- Archives, Manuscript, and Mu- losophy grounded in Ryan's personal experiences and seum Collections at The Catholic family background. University of America (CUA Ar- Ryan never wavered from his support of an eco- chives). A recent National Histor- nomic system based squarely on the sanctity of private ical Publications and Records property and capitalism, but one that also distributed Commission grant provided the Monsignor John A. Ryan, ca. 1935. Photograph from The CUA Archives with the resources Catholic University of America Archives.

Annororion Vol 30 1 March 2002 wealth and power more equitably. Excessive individual greed, ment industry and foretold his lifetime involvement in labor re- Ryan argued, created a morally and economically unhealthy lations and support of the collective bargaining process. misdistribution of wealth.These were radical ideas for many in Haas vigorously championed labor unions as an essential the Catholic Church, and they sometimes led Ryan into con- component of a just, democratic society. He maintained in a frontations with other clergy. Ryan's support for a Child Labor 1933 speech that "every worker has a duty to himself and to his Amendment in the 1920s, for example, resulted in a dramatic fellow men to join his union and to be proud of membership ... clash with the powerful archbishop of Boston, Cardinal William Given two men of equal ability, one a union man and the other O'Connell. O'Connell complained about Ryan's support of the non-union, unquestionably the union man is the better. He rec- Child Labor Amendment to Archbishop Michael Curly, Ryan's su- ognizes his obligations to himself, his family, and his country." perior. O'Connell insisted that Ryan needed to be rebuked and Haas gained national prominence as a public servant after re- stopped from his "public activities and irresponsible communi- turning to CUA as a professor and administrator in the 1930s. He cations." served as a public representative on a number of New Deal Although the Child Labor Amendment was not ratified, the agencies, including the National Recovery Administration, the idea of child labor legislation, and many of Ryan's other eco- National Labor Board, the first short-lived National Labor Rela- nomic remedies for the vagaries of free market capitalism, even- tions Board, and the Works Progress Administration. tually surfaced within mainstream political thought. In 1919 But Haas kept busiest as an independent itinerant labor arbi- Ryan wrote the postwar Program of Social Reconstruction, is- trator and mediator. He flew and rode the train, often at a mo- sued by the bishops of the National Catholic Welfare Council ment's notice, throughout the country to mediate labor impasses. (NCWC).This Bishop's Program, as it came to be called, argued Private industry, unions, the National Labor Board, the National forcefully for increased government activism to create a more Mediation Board, and the Mediation and Conciliation Services just distribution of wealth and power in a reconstructed Department of the U.S. Department of Labor all utilized his keen post-World War I period. Many of the ideas Ryan expressed in arbitration services routinely from the mid-1930s through the the Bishop's Program emerged a decade and a half later during mid-1940s. He arbitrated and mediated well over a thousand labor Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidential years in New Deal agencies conflicts. such as the National Recovery Administration and the National Haas was directly involved in settling some of the most im- Labor Board. portant, confrontational, and violent labor battles in American Ryan was both personally and politically close to the popular history. He arbitrated the Minneapolis truckers' strike in 1934, a four-term president. In 1937 Ryan became the first Catholic conflict that left two strikers dead, and difficult and trying priest to give the invocation at a Presidential inauguration. A strikes at Allis-Chalmers in Wisconsin in 1939 and 1941. The genuine friendship and respect appears in the correspondence strikes at Allis-Chalmers pitted the militant left-wing United between the two men. Roosevelt congratulated Ryan and em- Autpmobile Workers Union Local #248 against an equally obsti- phasized his tenacity and longevity in social reform struggles in nate management team.The 1941 Allis-Chalmers strike seriously a 1942 letter to Ryan: "But in these troubled times it is reassur- threatened America's wartime production. ing to hear so clear a call to duty and to know that you are still Haas' public service work extended to civil rights. President on the firing line.We need more men of your vision and courage." Roosevelt named him the first chair of the Fair Employment Ryan's political support and personal relationship with Roosevelt Practices Committee in 1943. In 1947,4 years after Haas had been garnered him the nickname, The Right Reverend New Dealer." advanced to the episcopacy and transferred to the Diocese of Although politically active at times, Ryan was first and fore- Grand Rapids, President Harry Truman appointed Haas to the most a Catholic economist and intellectual, so it is not surpris- President's Committee on Civil Rights. Hass remained the Bishop ing that his papers focus heavily on this component of his life. of Grand Rapids until he died in 1953. His output of articles, books, commentaries, reviews, and public The Francis J. Haas Papers concentrate heavily on his role as speeches is impressive and well documented throughout the 42 a public servant. Two-thirds of the collections's 64 linear feet linear feet that comprise his personal papers. The Ryan Papers document his work as an arbitrator and his work on Govern- also contain extensive correspondence that covers primarily .nient agencies.These include the National RecoveryAdministra- the last 20 years (1925-1945) of his life; subject files that he ac- tion, Works Progress Administration, Wisconsin Labor Relations cumulated and maintained as references for his writings and Board, National Labor Board, National Labor Relations Board, Fair speeches; teaching notebooks; and a journal he kept as a semi- Employment Practices Commission, the President's Commission nary student in the 1890s.This thin journal is the only available on Civil Rights, and the National Resources Planning Board. source that provides a glimpse into Ryan as a young, radical Pop- Haas' religious and professional activities are also documented ulist Party sympathizer. Finally, the Ryan Papers include a num- in the collection. The Haas Papers include, for example, a large ber of audio recordings of speeches and talks.Among the audio run of sermons dating back to his earliest days as a priest in the recordings is a copy of Ryan's 1936 speech in behalf of Roosevelt. 1910s, and research notes, drafts, and galley proofs for Man and Monsignor Francis J. Haas' clerical and public life was firmly Society, a well-received sociology text written by Haas in 1930 grounded in the Catholic social reform tradition created and (revised and republished in 1952). nurtured by Ryan at CUA. Born in Racine, Wisconsin, in 1889, The activist Catholic social reform tradition encouraged by Haas was ordained as a priest in 1913 and worked as a parish Ryan continues today among many Catholic clerics and lay peo- priest at Holy Rosary Parish in Milwaukee until he began gradu- ple. Priests supporting Justice for Janitors campaigns in Los An- ate studies at CUA in 1919. geles and a newspaper strike in Detroit, Michigan, in the 1990s Ryan and the social reform milieu he helped create at CUA carry on the social reform vision to which Ryan and Haas dedi- deeply impacted Haas' intellectual development. The young cated their lives. priest's published dissertation, Shop Collective Bargaining:A The CUA Archives holds some of the most important collec- Study of Wage Determination in the Men's Garment Industry tions documenting the social reform impulse in the Catholic (1922), examined collective bargaining agreements in the gar- Church. The Francis J. Haas Papers and the (continued on page 19)

8 Annotation Vol. 30 1 March 2002 : a7 :- ,' ' r

E IN tHE if Th i Seminr of Collective Memory : :

ternecine warfare. But even when Pente- costals exchanged insults, they were at least talking. Between themselves and mainline David duii Plessis, tlhe grand old man of Pente- Protestants, however, they had raised a ver- cost, ca. 1984. (David dui Plessis Center Fuller itable Iron Curtain guarded by a reinforced Theological Semninary) barbed wire fence. As for Roman Catholics, they existed mainly as mythical villains, a cross between rank apostates and minions of the Anti-Christ. Into this crossfire stepped David du Plessis. He would spend the better part of his life cultivating harmony within a factious movement and building bridges of ment, it would be a while before they began understanding between it and a larger reli- & 4 t//£/N2C are the safety net of collec- to contemplate archives. gious world that it instinctively viewed in tive memory Unfortunately, that net comes Young David du Plessis thrived in this so- oppositional terms. in wildly variable mesh and is rife with gap- ciety of outsiders. By age 15 he had earned Du Plessis began his career as a mediator ing seams. Individuals and movements his stripes as a fearless street-corner by facilitating exchanges among those he aligned with prosperous and socially estab- preacher-an important rite of passage knew best, his fellow Pentecostals. In so- lished institutions stand a very good chance within the spiritual-warrior culture of early ciological terms, the schismatic mode had of having the documentary evidence of Pentecostalism-and in the decade follow- perhaps served the movement well. It guar- their nature and existence preserved. The ing he emerged as the man to watch among anteed local control, adaptability, clear problem is that much of what is truly form- South Africa's Apostolics. Bolstered by his boundaries, sharp identity, and high com- ative in society occurs, as we say, "outside natural talent, the patronage of his organi- mitment. But factiousness cut both ways, the box:' driven by some creative dynamo zation's president. and the endorsement of and weakened as well as empowered the standing beyond the protective canopy of the famous British faith healer, Smith Wig- movement. Pentecostalism could capitalize our existing social framework. The non-, glesworth, he reached the Apostolic Faith on the social and cultural potential that its trans-, and anti-institutional impulses have Mission's second highest office, General Se- remarkable growth had afforded only if a nowhere exercised more influence than in cretar), while still in his thirties. spirit of collaboration prevailed among the American religion. Consequently, the docu- Du Plessis' boundless energy and vision- welter of bodies and "anti-bodies" it had mentary record has nowhere been more ary ambition, however, would not let him spawned. ravished by time's forgetfulness than in that rest content. By the time he reached the Du Plessis' extensive contacts, along with domain. General Secretary's office he already had his administrative, interpersonal, and linguis- David J. du Plessis spent the better part of his eye on a global ministry. Extensive trav- tic skills, made him one of the few Pente- his life, by choice or compulsion, outside els in Europe and the United States had in- costals then qualified for the delicate the box. Born in South Africa in 1905, his creasingly drawn him into the circuits of diplomacy that such a task entailed. Formal parents were expelled from the Dutch Re- international Pentecostalism, and in 1947 unity, or course, was never a consideration formed Church a decade later for their in- he resigned his post in South Africa and for this diverse and rapidly evolving religious volvement with a small but vibrant sect, the transferred his base of operations first to family. But Du Plessis did help orchestrate Apostolic Faith Mission.The "Apostolics," as Switzerland, and then to the United States. conversations that culminated in Pente- they were called, had recently sprung from Meanwhile, the worldwide Pentecostal costalWorld Conferences in 1947 and 1949. a dynamic international religious movement, movement had been alternating between Out of those meetings grew a series of tri- Pentecostalism, which had started in Amer- exponential and explosive growth. As one ennial conferences that continues to this day. ica at the turn of the century and then rap- might expect from a movement congenitally Hard on the heels of these conferences, idly globalized. hostile to organization, however, numerical Du Plessis' career took the fateful turn that Pentecostals claimed to have revived the growth and geographical expansion only would later define him for posterity. The supernatural wonders, charismatic gifts, and compounded the problem of disunity.True, mid-century had witnessed an explosion of ecclesiastical order of earliest Christianity. some of the largest bodies, such as the As- interest in Pentecostalism among mainline In practice, that meant ecstatic worship, a semblies of God, the International Church Protestants and Roman Catholics. At 50 years valorization of supernatural phenomena of the Foursquare Gospel, the Church of God of age, it had just been "discovered." like faith healing and glossolalia, and a in Christ, and the Church of God (Cleveland, Two interrelated developments helped fierce rejection of all existing religious or- Tennessee), had evolved into virtual "de- bring this about. First, scholarly authors like ganizations. Indeed, many Pentecostals re- nominations," but the movement as a whole Lesslie Newbigin and Henry van Dusen began jected organization as such, since all order remained a collectivity of coalitions augment- to write about the movement, and popular- was expected to emanate directly from the ed by hundreds of independent ministries. ized their findings for mass circulation Holy Spirit, not human agency. Finally, Pen- Intra-Pentecostal relations ran the gamut weeklies like Life and Time magazines.This tecostalism was deeply millenarian. Not since from warm fraternity to closet rivalry to in- alerted the public to the fact that, while no

Annotarion Vo 301 March 2002 9 one was looking, Pentecostalism had grown God. Now, the denomination asked him to gued to broaden the definition of evangeli- into a burgeoning "Third Force" -alongside stop jeopardizing its reputation by consort- calism to include Pentecostals, and his Protestantism and Roman Catholicism-in ing with Modernists. When he refused, it views prevailed when Pentecostals were in- American Christianity. Second, a nascent terminated his standing. Other Pentecostals cluded as charter members of the National "Charismatic" movement had begun to also drew back from Du Plessis. He was Association of Evangelicals. spread within the mainline denominations even ostracized from the Pentecostal World In subsequent years Fuller's reputation as and the Roman Catholic Church. Often in- Conference, which he had helped to start. a sympathetic place for young Pentecostals spired by Pentecostal parachurch groups But Du Plessis persisted, continuing to to get an education grew. By the 1980s, Pen- like the Full Gospel Businessmen's Fellow- reconnoiter the religious terra incognito. tecostal scholars like Russell Spittler and ship International, the new movement had Slowly but surely, even his detractors began Cecil Robeck had joined the faculty and Catholics and middle-class Protestants rais- to come around. Additional venues, like the risen to positions of influence. ing their hands, strumming acoustic guitars, Society for Pentecostal Studies, emerged for Fuller Theological Seminary and David and speaking in tongues. the kind of interdenominational exchange du Plessis shared one further point of sym- With Pentecostals on the newsstand and he championed. Pentecostal distrust of Charis- metry. If Du Plessis had a collection in need Episcopalians speaking in tongues, ecu- matics began to thaw. A new generation of of a home, Fuller was an institution in need menicists everywhere scrambled to catch Pentecostals, better educated, more irenic, of an archives.The young and forward-looking up. Real, live, old-line Pentecostals were in and eager to engage the world, worked its seminary had devoted little attention and great demand, and David du Plessis was one way into positions of leadership. By the fewer resources to its documentary legacy ot the Jew ready to talk. IThe Spitner,Associate Dean or ine movement could not have found School of Theology and one of a more congenial ambassador. the new generation of Pente- For the next 30 years he would costals who saw in Du Plessis interpret Pentecostalism for the the best instincts of their tradi- mainstream, and try at least to tion, began working behind the interpret the mainstream for scenes to bring the aging patri- Pentecostals. An invitation to arch to Fuller. He was joined in the 1952 World Missionary Con- that effort by Fuller's president, ference led to his attendance at David Hubbard, who had him- the 1954 World Council of self been raised in a Pentecostal Churches. His continuing involve- home.At a meeting of Christian ment with the WCC opened up leaders held at Stanford Univer- contacts with Roman Catholics. sity, Hubbard met with Du Those encounters produced an Plessis and extended an offer A invitation to attend the Second Center for the Study of Christ- billn< piiritua it.I Wt)UZr U tsIU Z/zc .4h vatican uoouncll as an orucial OD- lti zJllttilllty WOUUI( IC CnLAU- Dii Plessis, right, uwith Dean Russell Spittlier; left, and project arcbhivist Kate lished at Fuller in Du Plessis' server. In 1972, a series of McGiCnn. ceenter at the 1995 grand opening of the post-NHRPC grant Du Roman Catholic/Pentecostal di- Plessis Ceniter (David dii Plessis Center Fuller Theological Sermin ary) name. Du Plessis would relocate alogues were launched that to Fuller, where he would serve would continue for the better part of two 1980s, Du Plessis had come full circle. Now as a consultant and where his extensive decades. David du Plessis had become the celebrated as the grand old man of moder- personal papers would form the basis of a world's first "Ecumenical Pentecostal." ate Pentecostalism, even the Assemblies of new archive, managed by the Center. It was During these pivotal years, Du Plessis' God welcomed him back, reinstating his a match made in heaven, and in 1985 the professional fortunes moved. simultane- credentials. Center was inaugurated. ously, in opposite directions.As his star rose Throughout his lifetime, du Plessis had That's when the trouble began. The in the ecumenical and charismatic world it been a voluminous correspondent and a David J. du Plessis Center for the Study of plummeted-for precisely that reason- prodigious collector of documents. His was Christian Spirituality set sail in a giddy tail- among old-line Pentecostals. The main bod- a well-recorded life. Du Plessis had a collec- wind of enthusiasm, fanfare, and hefty fi- ies of organized Pentecostalism had, to be tion in need of a home. nancial pledges from the "Friends of David." sure, made their own overtures to the Fuller Theological Seminary was born in But it scarcely made it out of port before it broader religious world. But that had taken 1947, the year Du Plessis left South Africa. was becalmed. Only about 10 percent of the form of membership in the National As- Like Du Plessis, Fuller stood out as an ecu- the pledge-paper endowment materialized sociation of Evangelicals (NAE), where they menically minded maverick in a sectarian in legal tender, and when Du Plessis himself made common cause with moderate funda- world. In effect, it tried to do for evangeli- passed away in 1987, contributions dropped mentalists and evangelicals for whom calism what Du Plessis sought to do for further still. Roman Catholics and WCC "liberals" were Pentecostalism. From its inception, the sem- The Center faced a daunting dilemma. It still anathema. Du Plessis, for his part, noted inary had assembled a distinguished faculty had in its possession Du Plessis' valuable that his "liberals" had proved far more open that steered fellow evangelicals away from documentation of one of the largest and to Pentecostal gifts-witness the Charis- cultural insularity and militant antimod- most dynamic movements of the 20th cen- matic movement-than had the conserva- ernism and toward "neo-evangelicalism," a tury. It had also begun to assemble vital tive evangelicals of the NAE. rigorous but charitable orthodoxy commit- archival records related to Fuller Theologi- Ecumenical activism came at a price. ted to academic excellence, social relevance, cal Seminary and its founding sponsor, the Since immigrating to America, Du Plessis and religious toleration. Moreover, Fuller's renowned radio personality Charles E. Fuller, had held ordination with the Assemblies of founding president, Harold Ockenga, ar- who was in his own (contiinted on page 19)

10 Annoraron Vol 301 March 2002 adrly 19TH-CENTURY CHEROKEE ald MORAVIAN Z•piriUla/ity CONVERGES AT SPRINGPLACE, GEORGIA

('/I ()r/tollo/r) ,/lrillq/,/aYr __/)i?rfly, located at the Moravian Archives in Winston-Salem. North Carolina, is a handwritten manu- script recorded in an archaic writing convention called German script. Working with the diary involves entering two worlds that were as different from each other as they arc from 21st-century America. The Moravian Church, or the Unity of the Brethren, pre- dated the Protestant Reformation and had a historv of persecution for its stances on nonviolence and objections to the machinery of church and state.The other world, that of the Cherokees, emerged Field fw Grain from centuries-old Mississippian tradition that imbued the physical world with spiritual meaning.Their very rocks and streams held life ol unquenchable by the secular Anglo world that would displace the Cherokees in the 1838-39 forced removal. The Gambold Diary opens a window to a bygone era whlere two )Sp'l)Jgplace,Geoigiac. (Colrtesl' (i' the .Iornit'ian Historical Society, ta¥tza'retb, Pelnlsyll'ania. distinct cultures interacted and reveals divergent spiritual aspects of Moravian and Cherokee convergence on the southern American landscape. Culling ethnographic material from these eyewitness ac- human beings throughout the wxxorld.To the Moravians, His blood counts divulges these interchanges, often unfolding profound mis- provided the means. understandings and mutual perplexity. Divergent beliefs about The Moravians maintained an uneasy peace within the confines blood provide a good example. of Lutheran orthodoxy when thev became obsessed with "Blood One Cherokee guest at the Moravian's Springplace mission.The Theology," a set of beliefs that made them questionable to Luther- Bird, questioned the missionaries about the mystical properties of ans. So in addition to their unpopular stances on nonviolence, the blood, thereby setting the stage for mutual doubts about each established church. and political participation, Moravians brought other's spiritual soundness. The Bird had attended the Passion to North America distinctive ways of worshipping that already had Liturgy, which Cherokee students interpreted for him.Through his caused a furor in Europe. youthful translators, he told the missionaries that he had already In the 1 '740s, during the "Sifting Period," their leader, Count Nicholas learned a great deal about the birth, life, sufferings, death, resurrec- Ludwig xon Zinzendorf, cultivated in his followers an obsession tion, and ascension of the dear Lord, and he wanted to hear more." with blood that accentuated the very imagery of blood. Members Consequentl)y the Cherokee pupils told him the "Old Testament sought to keep Christ's death and suffering on the cross always be- story of the creation of the world, the first man and his fall, the un- fore them; His wounds and blood signified the total sacrifice God happiness that came to all humans as a result of this, and the ne- had made for human kind. Members were to feel joy for His obla- cessity of the Redeemer." The Cherokee students at Springplace tion by uniting with Christ in a child-like way .This Lebenssgeffibl, or concluded by emphasizing the "love of God for His poor fallen hu- joyful feeling for life, appealed to the sensual and emotional nature mans:' Pupils explained, "We humans have to prevail on Him alone of the communicants. So, during the time when Europe and British to have mercy on us, to suffer in our place, to atone for our sins, North America experienced the Age of Reason or Enlightenment, and to pay with His blood." Following this Bible lesson, "The Bird Moravians embraced the opposite: antirationalism. Zinzendorf dis- sat in deep thought." Finall)y, the old chief asked "if Jesus shed all of couraged members from using their own brains, their reason. Com- His blood." Then he raised the crucial question: "'Did His blood fall municants did not need reason because they were only children in onto all the earth?" the arms of Christ, whlo banished all their cares and doubts. Self- To the Moravians, blood represented Christ's mystical substance named groups of little fools, little worms, baby chicks,"who could that could pardon sins and make the human heart pure and divine. feel at home in the Sidehole and crawl in deep" formed throughout The Savior's blood alone was powerful enough to atone for the sin- the "sifting" period. fulness of human beings: it erased former and present wrongs. Additionally, Moravian practices pertaining to the wounds of Therefore, a person who exhibited a contrite heart was not ulti- Jesus epitomizcd extreme and heightened lustful longings for His mately accountable for his or her behavior The Savior had completed body. (Christian Renatus, the son of Zinzendorf, built a "side wound" what no earthly being could do: grant mercy and forgiveness for all on the wall of the church at Herrnhut. Saxony, whereby the con-

Annoratron Vo 30 1 March 2002 gregation experienced the Savior's blood by marching through it. When Cherokee visitors entered the Springplace Mission, lo- Therefore, the Sidehole became symbolic of their wound theology. cated on the federal road connecting Augusta, Georgia, with Nash- In the early 19th century, Moravians had not completely aban- ville,Tennessee, they received a religious education, whether the)' doned their obsession with blood and the wounds of Jesus, espe- wanted one or not. Parents of students and other visitors came often. cially the stab wound in His side. The Gambolds, both descendants A Cherokee student, Dawzizi, son of The Tiger and Oodeisaski of from the Bethlehem congregation where "Blood" or "Wound" the- Big Spring, near the Springplace Mission, explained to his father, ology had its most profound effect in British North America, cen- and another Cherokee,The Little Broom, and his wife, who all ate a tered their evangelical work among the Cherokees on the shedding noonday meal at the mission, about the important and necessary of the Savior's blood and wliy lowly humans could never be grate- truths of the crucifixion. The Tiger, his father, listened thoughtfully, ful enough for His ultimate bloody sacrifice on the cross.Transpar- but The Little Broom laughed really loud in an Indian manner, as if ent pictures and living tableaus were part of worship services that it signified something new and strange. depicted the mutilations and agonies of Jesus. In the missionary houses and on the walls of the mission school The (.herokee view of blood signified a vastly different mindset were paintings of the crucifixion. These represented not just the from the Moravians, a fact that intensified their mutual incompre- death of a person, but the death of God. Again the side hole was hension.When the Moravian missionaries arrived in the Cherokee the focal point. Perhaps those representations evoked a sense of Nation, they encountered a people who valued order and believed blasphemy for visiting Cherokees.The Moravians lamented the fact things should stay in their place. Cherokees attached special mean- that the centerpiece of Christianity, the crucifixion, held little awe ings to anomalies because these occurred along the interstices of for the Cherokees. Some Cherokees politely listened to these sto- their categorical system. Substances that belonged inside the body ries, but showed little genuine interest. Native American scholar but were expelled received particular attention, and thus blood, Gregory Dowd noted that Indians probably found the Europeans' breath, and saliva possessed mystical properties that healed or in- treatment of their God rather appalling: Here were a people who duced death. admitted to having killed their God." The Moravians also consumed For healing purposes, the blowing or spraying of a special pre- the body and blood of their God, which to the Cherokees was pared concoction over a feverish body by post-menopausal women taboo.The Cherokees placed blood and flesh in opposite categories, was common. Since these women no longer possessed hidden and they considered animals that ate flesh to be abominations. forces broughlt about by their menses, they lacked the powers to Perhaps as intriguing as the profound differences between Cher- harm or cause death. But their long experience with blood had im- okee and Moravian beliefs is the respect both Cherokees and Mora- bued them with extraordinary spiritual power. Therefore, post- vians exhibited for each other. Although the Cherokees had little menopausal women took care of warriors' wounds and attended to interest in adopting Moravian Christianity and expressed mostly younger women while they secluded themselves during menstrua- skepticism about the Moravians' most penetrating beliefs, Moravian tion and following childbirth. Menstrual periods for Cherokees rep- missionaries and the community at Salem consistently extended resented a time of exquisite bodily awareness and heightened spiritual hospitality to Cherokees, treated them with respect, educated their power. children, and performed any number of services for them. Likewise substantial ancestral meanings emanated from menstrual Similarly, the Cherokees were cognizant of the missionaries' com- blood. The ancient myth of Stoneclad, the wicked stone-skinned mitment to their fellow human beings, and they looked to the monster, portrays hIow his advances terrified a Cherokee village. Moravians for ways to adapt peacefully to an ever-changing world A Cherokee shaman could stop him only when Stoneclad came in that was far more intolerant of diversity than were the Moravians. contact with the seventh woman whose menstrual cycle had "just In a period of hardening racial attitudes, demands for Indian re- begun:' moval, a fraudulent treaty, and ultimately dispossession, a conscien- Women's blood also signified creation. Women embodied the tious religious group, the Moravians, applied principles of peace very essence of birth, and it was their blood that held the future of and exemplified human understanding. the human race. In "Windigo Goes South: Stoneclad among the According to Moravian historian Jon Sensbach,"peoples of color" Cherokees," anthropologist Raymond Fogelson proposes that Stone- from all over the world have historically reached out to Moravians, clad represented the masculine world in antithesis to the feminine and they have helped form the modern Moravian Church. Mora- realm. vian characteristics of humility and simplicity gave the Gambolds a Historian Gregory Dowd suggests that women, as "keepers of the sense of transnationalism and therefore access to the Cherokee village, as cultivators, stood in greater opposition to the monster people. As careful observers of Cherokee culture, the missionaries than did men, who operated as hunters in nature:" When men provide an important link to the past, and this edition of the Gam- shed blood, it meant death; women's bleeding connoted life. bold Diary enhances our understanding of disparate worlds. Simul- According to Cherokee myth, Selu, the first woman, had given taneously, it suggests that there was an alternative to the racism and her sons instructions on how to grow corn. Believing her a witch, dispossession that characterized the interactions of Cherokees and they killed her and dragged her body around the circle. Wherever most Americans of European descent. Dissimilar worlds did indeed her blood spilled, corn grew.They took her around only twice; con- meet at Springplace, and individuals challenged each other's most sequently, Cherokees work her corn twice. Her boys had only cleared intellectual beliefs, but then human beings sat down together at seven spots, and that was why corn is grown just in a few places. "our table," unser Tisch, where there was room for all.These diaries Cherokees found little practical value in blood as a means to ab- perhaps make the Moravian concept of community plausible, not solve them of the sins that they did not believe they had commit- just for the past, but also for the future. ': ted. Furthermore, most adult Cherokees had little interest in adopting Moravian beliefs or in converting the Moravians to theirs, since they did not accept the notion of the universality of religious ROWENA Mi,CLINION IS EI)ITOR/Ai THOR OF rHE MIiORAxiANSPRINGPLACE Ml5MON AMONG THE belief. Christianity probably seemed so mysterious to many Chero- CHEROKEES,180$-1821," ENLDORSEDBN IIE NHPRC.THIs I)OLMLENTARYEDITING EDITIONA kees that they remained uncertain whether religion and western TRANSLATIONANDOANNOTATIONOF IiE GEILMANSCRIII' DIARIES()i JOIiN ANI)ANNA RO,1NA GAMBOLD medicine even applied to them. (180S-1821), il.L BEPI :BiISiHED)BY THE UNIVERSITYOF NEBRASKA PRESSIN 2003

12 Annororon Vol 301 March 2002

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a - - - 9* * 9 (9), a hoO!/. °29, /974, eleven Episcopal women known as 'bishop to the women,' consecrated by her sisters' strong need to the "Philadelphia Eleven" were "irregularly" ordained to the priest- be taken seriously and by her own remarkable pastoral gifts:'2 hood by three retired bishops at the Church of the Advocate in Hiatt says that the Philadelphia ordination was intended to make innercity Philadelphia.This controversial ordination was not author- it more trouble not to ordain women than to ordain them. "In ret- ized by the Episcopal hierarchy. Gathered from the fringes of soci- rospect, to have been ordained irregularly' is the only way for ety, women, African Americans, and supporters of human rights and women to have done it," reflects Hiatt.' Our ordination was on our women's ordination, the crowd of 2,000 waited in expectation. As terms, not the church's terms, it was not accepted as a gift from the 3 the laying on of hands was carried out, the crowd burst into cheers. church but taken as a right from God." However, not everyone in the Anglican Communion was over- A number of AWTS collections contain materials related to the joyed.The ordination set into motion a series of events that would Philadelphia Eleven, the ordination of women in the Episcopal transform the official policies of the Episcopal Church-but after Church, and the ecumenical impact of the event. In addition to the CQ---PFIat U -Anf- 1rt--r Fl--z,-Al Pn-r- ~the-- an iIICItense struggle. It was n -l WilUv - dj)LI-- , tIl--t kIl- vention in 1976 that the I the Patricia Wilson-Kastner voted to officially open th iatricia Donohue Papers, and and episcopate to women, national Association of Wom- ing first attempted to decla nisters Collection. Eleven's ordinations invalid Among the AWTS collections having prohibited the new at form a useful contrast to ordained priests from exei hose of the 1970s struggle cising their priestly func- for ordination of the Phila- tions. delphia Eleven is the rec- ords of the International PhiladelphiaElev,en Otrdlina- Association of Women Min- tion Services, Church of the isters (IAWM), the world's Adtvocate, Philadelphia. PA, Jua, 29, 1974. Photographfromn oldest organization for or- the Archivtes of Wormen in The dained women. Organized in ological Scholarship, The Burk Librar.Y Union Theological Se 919 in St. Louis as The In- inary national Association of Wom- eachers, it is the only national Several of the Philadelphi nominational professional have published recollections n of clergy that has ever ex- ordinations. The Suzanne E ited States. Until the 197()s, the Carter Heyward Papers, began to organize more ac- National Historical Publications and Records Commission- tively within mainline Protestant denominations, the IAWM funded Archives of Women in Theological Scholarship (AWTS) was the primary source of support for isolated women ministers. Project of UtJnion Theological Seminary's Burke Library, are richly An April 1923 issue of the organization's periodical, The WoVbman's informative about the weeks and months leading up to the ordina- Pulpit, explains the IAWM's mission: tions, the service itself, and the ensuing controversy. The original purpose was to bring women who preach into It was Philadelphia Eleven ordinand Carter Hey ard whose face fellowship with each other, and this has been most happily ac- made the cover of MAs. magazine as "Woman of the Year" Upon being complished in many, many instances.... Another purpose denied her priestly rights, Heyward remarked "When you admit . . . was to secure equal opportunity for women in the ecclesiastical world. Our Association can hon- women into the mysteries-into the holy places-of a society, you estly claim the obtaining of the license for women to preach have posed to men's traditional superiority the ultimate threat.You in the Methodist Episcopal Church as a direct result of its have invaded the last refuge. And they fight back.... we didn't an- work.... [Furthermore,] Through the publicity man of one de- ticipate the level of the anger We didn't dream, I suppose, that we nomination . . . thousands of items concerning women's preaching have been published. None of us had intendled this would seem such a threat."1 publicity but'it has fallen out to the furtherance of the Gospel,' Suzanne Hiatt was the chief architect of the Episcopal women's as all such notions accustom people to the idea and this breaks ordination movement. A close friend commented, "Without Sue down prejudice, our greatest hindrance. Hiatt, there would have been no Philadelphia ordination, and per- The third purpose as stated in our constitution is to en- haps no ordination of women in the Episcopal Church for many courage young women whom God has called to preach.' years to come. If modern church history does not disregard the Additional materials related to the IAWM are found in the papers lives and well-being of women, Sue Hiatt will be remembered as the of Barbara Brown Zikmund, who researched the group and acted as

Annorr on Vol 3C 1 Morch 2002 lections. Within this group, 12 have been arranged and described, with finding aids for each collection.The processed collections in- clude those of

+ CATHOLIC RELIGIOUS EDUCATOR MARY BoYs

+ BAPTIST ECUIMENICAL LEFADERJOAN BROWN CAMPBELL

* CATHOI.IC ETIlCIST CHRISTINE GIJDORF

* EPISCOPAL PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN CARTER HEYWARD

* EPISCOPAL PRIEST AND SCHOLAR StiTZANNE HIATT

+ THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF WOMEN MINISTERS. AN INTERNA- TIONAL ECUMENICAI ORGANIZATION

* EPISCOPAL PRIEST ANDI) SCHOLAR PATRICIA WILSON KASTNER

+ WRITER AND REPORI'ER PATRICIA KONS rTAM

+ THE RE-IMAGINING COMMITNITY,A NATIONAL ECI MENICAL ORGANIZATION

* BAPTIST BIBLICAL SCHOLAR PHYLLIlS TRIBLE

* EPISCOPALIAN PROFESSOR OF PSYCHIATRY AND RELIGION ANN ULANOV

+ AND SEMINARY PRESIDENT AND UNITEI) CHURCH OF CHRIST HISTORIAN BARBARA BROW'N ZIKMUtND. CarterHeyu,ard and Suzanne Hiatt,Philadelphia Eleven Ordination Ser- vices, Church of the Adt,ocate. Philadelphia. PA, July 29, 1974. Photo- ion of Jeannette Piccard. Philadel- graphfrom theArchives of Women in Theological Scholarship. The Burke Elev,en OrdinationServices, Church Librar)y Union Theological Seminarl-y be Advocate, Philadelphia,PA, July 1974.Photograph from theArchives f Women in Theological Scholar- its archivist, and those of Joan Brown Campbell. a member of IAWM. ship, The Burke Librar)y Uiion The- What is theAWTS Project? The Archives of Women inTheological ological Seminarl Scholarship (AWTS) Project at t nionTheological Seminary, funded by the NHPRC from June 2000 through November 2001, has as its mission to collect and make available for research precisely the Themes addressed in these kinds of collections mentioned above-to serve as the living collections include feminist memory/documentary repository for materials pertaining to Chris- interpretation of the Bible; tian women's contributions to, and movements for, progressive re- the Jewish-Christian dialogue; ligious and social change by identifying, preserving and making the interconnection between available for use the movements' permanently valuable records." psychiatry and religion; the ef- The primary objective of the AWTS is to collect and provide fort to establish Christian unity physical and intellectual access to the personal papers and unpub- owards justice and peace; the lished scholarly works of leading women in theological scholarship lationship between ethics, reli- and the records of related organizations.As a result of the Project, n, and development; theological descriptions of the collections will be available to the research tion; the ecumenical dialogue public through the AWTS web site, http.l//u'ui,tts.coluhtbia. Episcopalians, Roman Catholics, edu/pr-ojects./AWTS/indelx.html, and through the Research Libraries and Methodists; the ordination of women; and the Information Network (RLIN). status of women in religion as a whole. Why is such a documentation strategy needed? There is nothing Accessioning and processing of additional recently accessioned like the Archives of Women in Theological Scholarship available in collections will continue through 2005 under the Burke Library's the United States to researchers or the church at large-not in newly received Lilly Endowment grant to revitalize the Library + repositories of women's history, in seminaries, nor in denomina- tional archives. The context of the AWTS is partially rooted in the legacy of historical events such as the secular women's movement. CL\IRE M ( 1 RI), LLSLIE REYMIAN,ANi) LLETIILACAMPBFI.I ARE IlIE SIAFF (OFTIlE ARC HIVE OF The story of Christian women's contributions to progressive reli- WOMEN IN ITHFEI.((I(, AIl S HOLALRSHIP(AWTS) PRotE( T (F THF BIURKE LIBRAR'I FTNIONTIIE(O- gious and social change must also be documented. The AWTS will I(;l('AI Si:MINAR;, NERAYORK C[T. provide an effective opportunity to redress an imbalance in archival collections, not only of the lack of records concerning the lives of women, but of progressive Christian women whose lives Notes have yet to be chronicled. The documentation strategy project of the AWTS began dutiring Frances Moore "Carter Hesward one year after the ordination " Charlotte Ob- serve: 301)Jls 195. Carter Heyward Papers,Archives of Women inTheological Schol- the 199'-98 academic yearThe first year was made financially pos- arship (AWTS),The Birke Library, I nion Thecological Seminar. sible through funding from the E. James Rhodes and Leona M. Car- 2 "The Reverend Dr Suztnne R. Hiatt/primus inter pares." Forward,The 1994 Kel- penter Foundation, an allocation from the Friends of the Burke logg Lecture Planning Committee, 6 May 1994. Stizanne Hiatt Papers, AWTS,The Burke Library, a donation from the Chair of the UtJnion Theological Semi- Libvarx, tinion Theological Seminary 3 Stizanne Hiatt Interviexv Philadelphia Eleven Papers, AWTS, The Burke Library, nary Board of Directors, and gifts from several philanthropists. tInion Theological Seminary The second and third years, generously funded by the NHPRC, 4 The io,bnan'.s Ptllpit, April 1923, p. . International Association of Wbmen Minis- have resutilted in the survey, appraisal, and accessioning of 22 col- ters Papers, AWTS,The Durke Library, ULnion Theological Seminary.

16 Arnorarion Vol 30 1 March 2002 RELIGION and the BLACK (SOUTH) vJt 3 ATLANTIC I / a //

Cele family reunion, Lynchburg. VA, May 2000. Joyce Cele andJoyce Williams, twuo persons men- tioned in the text, are in the middle of the sec- ond rout From the collection of Robert Edgar

Madikane Cele posed in Zulu regalia. Photo- graph from Natalie Curtis, Songs and Tales from the Dark Continent (Neu, York: G.Schirmer, 1920).

U/6fu 6ff 6e,UV'rulut - tt1- - meeting point for peoples and ideas in the Africans looked for an understanding of church that had broken awav from the Wes- African diaspora for centuries. For example, European conquest and intrusions into leyan Methodists. since the late-19th century, groups of their ways of life and culture. Desiring al- A common denominator for all the African Americans and Africans in South ternatives to the control of Christian mis- African American denominations was how Africa have developed close ties with each sions by European missionaries, many they interpreted and applied their slave ex- other in a diverse range of areas: politics, Africans were inspired by the accomplish- perience in the United States to the African economics and business, literature, music, ments of African Americans and the auton- mission field.To them, the suffering they en- theatre, the arts, and religion. These rela- omy of their churches. African American dured as slaves was part of a providential tionships are especially intriguing because theologians, searching for an explanation plan to expose them to civilization and most African Americans trace their ancestry for the brutalities of the Atlantic slave trade Christianity.They had a special responsibil- to West and Central Africa, not southern and slavery, found one answer through stak- ity to return to Africa to civilize and uplift Africa, and because there has not been a ing out African fields for their evangelical the continent. Thus, when Baptist mission- large-scale migration of blacks from south- endeavors. ary Charles Morris, a Howard University ern Africa to the United States. Instead, Among the initial religious contributions graduate, reached Zululand in 1900. he African South Africans and African Ameri- of African Americans to black South wrote a piece for the Cleveland Gazette cans found common ground in their shared Africans were the musical performances of (March 31, 1900) arguing that "the Ameri- experiences with white domination and Orpheus McAdoo's Jubilee Singers. They can Negro had been marvelously preserved segregation in industrializing societies. toured South Africa on three extended vis- and Christianized for a purpose, and that he As we began researching our documen- its between 1890 and 1898, appearing was destined to play a star part in the great tary collection project to uncover these before hundreds of black and white audi- drama of the world's development." In par- linkages (see uww.founders.howuard.edu/ ences. Their concerts, featuring spirituals ticular,African Americans had to bring their reference/bob-edgar-site/index.htmnl), we and folk songs, left indelible impressions on professional skills and entrepreneurial abil- affirmed the critical role that religion African composers and choirs and their ities to guide the Zulus on the correct path played in shaping interactions between performance styles that are still evident to progress and civilization. African Americans and black South Africans today. Africans also welcomed AfricanAmerican in the late-19th and early 20th centuries. Black South Africans also drew inspiration missionaries because they offered a possi- Both groups sought spiritual answers and from the Jubilee Singers because of their ac- ble avenue for attaining higher education, explanations about the nature and reasons complishments and the way they carried which was closed to black South Africans for white domination. themselves as equals to whites. Imvo Za- until the opening of Fort Hare College in

Annoration Vol 30 1 March 2002 7 1916.The Baptists and AME clergy were the which he dressed in Zulu garb, played mu- snuck off the ocean liner in Durban harbor primary sponsors for at least several hun- sical instruments, sang Zulu songs, and re- at the last moment. However, her mother dred African students in the United States, galed audiences with tales of growing up eventually prevailed on her to immigrate who found places at historically black insti- hunting "tigers" and other wild beasts. The with her husband and daughter in 1962 and tutions such as Wilberforce,Tuskegee, Fisk, underlying theme of the play was how mis- join her in Lynchburg. She lives there today. Hampton, Morehouse, and Lincoln. sion Christianity could elevate uncivilized Once Joyce Cele reestablished contact The first large group of South Africans to Africans. with her aunt, they organized a reunion in enroll at an American college was a South After graduating from Hampton, Cele was May 2000 that brought together four gener- African choir left stranded in Ohio after a featured speaker on the lecture circuit. ations of Celes. A year later, four of the Celes their manager mismanaged their finances. On one occasion he shared a platform at a made a homecoming journey to Amatata, AME ministers came to their rescue, and Chatauqua gathering with two of his he- where their host was a grandson of John placed the choir members at the AME's roes, Booker T Washington and Robert Dube, and where they worshipped at the Wilberforce College in Ohio, where one of Russa Moton. On a New England tour in late Congregational church the Celes had founded their instructors was WE.B. du Bois. After 1913, Cele spoke at Harvard, where he de- over a century before.The reunion was joy- they educated him about conditions in cried the brutality of American football and ous and emotional as the participants, South Africa, he sustained a lifelong inter- revealed his plan to "introduce" a milder African Americans andAfricans, marveled at est in South Africa's political situation. form of the game as well as basketball and the strange turn of events that reunited Prominent African clergy played a key baseball to his African compatriots. them. Perhaps, they wondered, it was all role in selecting students to go overseas. During his years at Hampton, Cele also simply part of a Providential Design. + Presbyterian minister Pambani Jeremiah fell in love with one of his classmates,Julia Mzimba recruited students (most of whom Smith, from southern Virginia. After marry- ended up at Lincoln College in Pennsyl- ing in 1913, they journeyed to Cele's home vania) from the eastern Cape, while Rev. to establish a mission station atAmatata in a DAVID ANTHONY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA CRIIZ, AND John L. Dube performed a similar role in Zu- rural African reserve about 30 miles from ROBERT EDGAR, HOWARD UNIVERSIT.Y, ARE CO-DIRECTORS OF luland. Dube was one of the earliest South Durban. As we uncovered the story of AFRICAN-AMERICAN HISTORICAL LINKAGES WITH SOtrH AFRICA, Africans trained in the United States.Taking Madikane's marriage to Julia, we wondered CA. 1890-1965, AN NHPRC-suPPORTED PROJECT BASED AT advantage of his associations with Ameri- what subsequently happened to the cou- HOWARD UNIVERSITY IN WASHINGTON, DC. can Congregational missionaries in Zulu- ple. We learned something of their lives land, he attended Oberlin College in the through their letters published in the mid-1880s and returned to Brooklyn a Hampton journal, Southern Workman, but decade later for theological training. after the First World War, we came across An admirer of Booker T. Washington's only a few references to them in docu- philosophy of self-help and industrial edu- ments. However, one South African govern- cation, Dube transplanted the Tuskegee ment document related that when Madikane model to SouthAfrica and founded Ohlange died in the early 1940s, his widow subse- Institute in 1901 near Durban. Before re- quently made plans to resettle in America turning to South Africa, he penned "A Zulu's with several of her children. Message to Afro-Americans":' appealing for With this slender lead, we turned to the African American missionaries to establish Internet for some detective work. We a mission presence in South Africa: "If the tapped a database compiling all the names Afro-American church was awakened to the and telephone numbers in the United realization of its religious responsibility and States and typed in the family name, Cele. its duty to Africa many missionaries ... About a dozen Celes were listed, but as we would not only preach the Gospel on Sun- began calling them, we learned that most of day but ... on six days of the week would them had arrived in the United States for teach our people how to handle a plow, studies in the 1990s. However, one contact, build a house, raise sugar cane, tea and cof- Joyce Cele of Los Angeles, turned out to be fee." the daughter of Eddison Cele, who had BookerTWashington's influence can also come back to the United States with his be seen in the career of one of Dube's pro- mother to Virginia in 1948. teges, Madikane Qandiyane Cele, whose fam- Joyce Cele knew the stories about her ily and the Dube's were among the earliest Zulu grandfather, but she had lost touch Zulu Christian converts. At Dube's encour- with the rest of the family after her grand- agement, Cele attended Slater Industrial mother Julia died in 1973 and her father a School in North Carolina before moving in year later. Our contact spurred Joyce into 1907 to Hampton Institute, where he took action. She searched property records and the trade's course in wheelwrighting and family documents and eventually tracked blacksmithing. down a daughter of Madikane and Julia Cele was also a popular attraction as a living in Lynchburg, Virginia. It turned out stage performer and public speaker. Playing that her aunt, Joyce Williams, had her own on the curiosity of Americans with '"primi- fascinating tale.When Julia planned to leave tive" and "uncivilized" societies, he staged a South Africa in 1948 with Eddison and play, "For Unkulunkulu's [God's] Sake," in Joyce, Joyce could not bear to leave and

18 Annorotanon Vol. 30 1 March 2002 RELIGION AND THE FOUNDING FATHERS at CUA. These Catholic reform sources are supplemented by a (Continuedfrompacge 4) strong core of related labor union collections, like the Philip Murray Papers, the John Brophy Papers, and the Terence Pow- be a most flagrant usurpation." Furthermore, with the "multiplicity derly Papers, also held at the CUAArchives.The NHPRC grant to of sects" throughout America, Madison asserted that no one sect process the John A. Ryan Papers, Francis J. Haas Papers, Philip "could oppress and persecute the rest."' Murray Papers,John Brophy Papers, and the Congress of Indus- Antifederalists demanded Throughout the ratification debate, trial Organizations Records has helped the CtTA Archives pro- that freedom of religion be protected. A majority of ratifying con- vide increased access to a strong component of its holdings that ventions recommended that an amendment guaranteeing religious document the social reform activities of the Catholic Church freedom be added to the Constitution. In recommending a bill of and organized labor in the United States. 4+ rights in the first Federal Congress on June 8, 1789, Madison pro-

posed that "the civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of JOSEPtI M.Tt RRINI IS PROJECT ARCHIVlS'T, DFPjARTIMENT OF ARCHIxEES, NNIA'S( RIPI S, ANI)D -I religious belief or worship, nor shall any national religion be es- SEl M COLLECTIONS,TiEF CATHOIEC UNIFRSITX (IF AMERICA, IN vWASHIN(GION, DC tablished, nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience be in any manner or on any pretext infringed." He also proposed that "no state shall violate the equal rights of conscience."8

The prohibition on states was removed by the Senate, while the DOCUMENTING LIFE IN THE MARGINS restrictions on the Federal Government were combined and recast (Conitnued fron page 10) into what came to be the First Amendment: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the right a figure of signal importance in the history of American radio, free exercise thereof." The exact meaning of this prohibition has the rise of mass media, and the emergence of Southern California not been easy to ascertain. Perhaps President Thomas Jefferson in- as a disseminator of America's cultural and religious fare.AIll of this terpreted it best in his response to the Baptist Association of Dan- was at risk. bury, Connecticut, on January 1, 1802. "Believing with you that In 1990, Spittler turned to the NHPRC for help. His grant-writing religion is a matter which lies solely between man and his God, that fortunes offer sobering but instructive lessons for any institution he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the facing a similar predicament. Between 1990 and early 1993, Spittler legislative powers of government reach actions only, and not opin- twice submitted extensively researched, well-considered, time-con- ions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole suming proposals. Both bounced back. Instead of surrendering, American people which declared that their legislature should however, he dug in. Aided by useful counsels from NHPRC staff, 'make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibit- the New Testament scholar, writer, administrator, and religious his- ing the free exercise thereof,' thus building a wall of separation be- torian now jumped on the steep learning curve of archival science 9 tween church and state:' * and its funding peculiarities. The two "starter" proposals taught Spittler the importance of JOHN P KAMINEKI IS (CO-EDIIOR, xITH GASPARE J. SALADINO, (OF THE Do,li IEl4X4IRi HI)tORY O)f working locally. NHPRC ftunding, he realized, was not merely a THE R41oc.-i4TIOv OF THE CO'T,sTruTlos transaction between the Du Plessis center and a faceless agency in Washington. Rather, it was a collaborative effort between Federal, Notes state, and local networks. In particular, he turned to the State His- I Madison to Jefferson, Richmond, January 22, 1786, Robert A. Rutland et al., eds., torical Records Advisory Board, not as a committee of impersonal The Papers ofJames Madison (Chicago: 1'973),VIII: 473. "judges" but as colleagues and consultants. He found the board 2 Ibid., 474. 3 Egbert Benson to John Jay, Poughkeepsie, July 6, 1779. Henry PJohnston, ed., The members eager to help; one even came to assess the institution's Correspondenceand Public PapersofJohn Jay (4 vols., NewYork, 1890-93),I:211-12. archival needs and make recommendations. Finally, the early pro- 4 Merrill Jensen,John P Kaminski, and Gaspare J Saladino, eds., The Docuenetary posals revealed the importance of interpreting a project for its re- History of the Ratification of the Constitution (16 vols. to date, Madison,Wi 196- ), viewers. Archives often seek support for the preservation of II: 593, 95. Hereafter cited as DHRC. 5 DHRC,V: 1003. records pertaining to individuals or movements that are virtually 6 DHRC, X: 1213. unknown to the public at large, including that share of the public DHRC, X 1223-24. reviewing its proposal. To address that reality, Spittler recruited a 8 Helen E Veit. Kenneth R. Bowling, and Charlene Bangs Bicktord, eds., Creating the known authority-one of America's leading religious historians- Bill of Rights: The Documentary Record from the FirstFederal Congress (Baltimore: to explain the unknou'n: the nature and importance of the Du 1991), 12-13. 9 Merrill D Peterson, ed., ThomasJefferson: Writings (NewYork 1i984), 510. Plessis materials and the urgent need to preserve them. The third time was indeed a charm. In late 1993, Spittler submit- ted the proposal that brought the Center the support it so desper- ately needed. The Center hired its first full-time archivist, Kate MeGinn, and took an important step toward professionalism. The CATHOLIC SOCIAL REFORM AND THE NEW DEAL years since that time have seen the archives grow toward its (Continuedfrom page 8) dreams. Fuller is currently undergoing a reorganization of its library and archives that may well mandate a more ambitious plan of John A. Ryan Papers are complemented by other collections, archival preservation. As the archive, now under the direction of such as the National Catholic Welfare Council (NCWC) Records Dr. Cecil M. Robeck, Jr., both widens and tightens its net, and as it and the Monsignor George Higgins Papers. Monsignor Higgins is matches increased documentary retention with broader access, it the retired director of the Social Action Department of the will more ably meet its responsibility as a curator of collective NCWC, an organization that Ryan founded in 1920 and headed memory. -. until his death in 1945.

Higgins' work in the labor movement for the last 50 years rep- ROGER G. ROBINS Is ARCHIVIS'T OF THE DAXII) D0 PLESSIS CENIER AT FtLLER THEOLO(IICAL SEiI- resents the continuation of the Catholic social reform impulse NARY IN PASAI)ENA, CA.

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Associate Justices of the Supreme Court Hugo Black, Felix Frankfuitrter, and Willia,m 0. Douglas (left to right) u,ith Mon- signorJohn A. Ryan (secondfrom the left) at his -Oth birthday testi- monial dinner MIa,l 25, 1939. Photographfrom The Catholic University of Armerica Archives. A related story begins on page 7