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Measuring Engagement Elicited by Eye Contact in Human-Robot Interaction

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Measuring Engagement Elicited by Eye Contact in Human-Robot Interaction Measuring engagement elicited by eye contact in Human-Robot Interaction Kompatsiari K., Ciardo F., De Tommaso D., Wykowska A., Member, IEEE Abstract— The present study aimed at investigating how eye interactions, people are often not aware that their brains contact established by a humanoid robot affects engagement in employ certain mechanisms and processes. However, thanks human-robot interaction (HRI). To this end, we combined to the careful design of experimental paradigms inspired by explicit subjective evaluations with implicit measures, i.e. research in cognitive psychology or cognitive/social reaction times and eye tracking. More specifically, we employed neuroscience that target and focus on specific mechanisms, we a gaze cueing paradigm in HRI protocol involving the iCub can collect objective implicit metrics and draw conclusions robot. Critically, before moving its gaze, iCub either established about what specific cognitive processes are at stake [15-17]. eye contact or not with the user. We investigated the patterns of Typically, psychologists use performance measures (reaction fixations of participants’ gaze on the robot’s face, joint attention times, error rates) to study mechanisms of perception, and the subjective ratings of engagement as a function of eye cognition, and behavior, and also the social aspects thereof: for contact or no eye contact. We found that eye contact affected example, joint attention [e.g., 15-22 , or visuo-spatial implicit measures of engagement, i.e. longer fixation times on the ] robot’s face during eye contact, and joint attention elicited only perspective taking [23-24]. As such, these measures have after the robot established eye contact. On the contrary, explicit informed researchers about the respective cognitive processes measures of engagement with the robot did not vary across with high reliability, and without the necessity of participants conditions. Our results highlight the value of combining explicit being aware of the processes under investigation. In addition with implicit measures in an HRI protocol in order to unveil to performance measures, researchers have also widely used underlying human cognitive mechanisms, which might be at other implicit measures – behavioral (e.g., eye tracking or stake during the interactions. These mechanisms could be motion capture) or neurophysiological/neuroimaging: for crucial for establishing an effective and engaging HRI, and could example, electroencephalogram (EEG), Galvanic skin potentially provide guidelines to the robotics community with response (GSR) or functional magnetic resonance imaging respect to better robot design. (fMRI). Those measures provide a valuable source of information regarding neural and physiological correlates of behavior. I. INTRODUCTION B. Joint attention as a measure of engagement in HRI A. Measuring engagement in HRI One implicit measure of engagement with an interaction Engagement with a robot partner is the most crucial factor partner is joint attention (JA). JA occurs when two agents in successful and natural human-robot interaction (HRI). direct their focus of attention to the same object or event in Therefore, it is imperative to address the issue of engagement the environment. This fundamental mechanism of social in HRI research. As stated in [1, p.1]: “Engagement is a category of user experience characterized by attributes of cognition is a basis for many other complex processes challenge, positive affect, endurability, aesthetic and sensory involved in social interactions. In fact, an impaired ability to appeal, attention, feedback, variety/novelty, interactivity, and engage in JA has been reported in the case of individuals perceived user control”. Studies that have examined the aspect diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder [25]. In human- of engagement in HRI used both explicit [e.g., 2-5] and computer interaction (HCI) and HRI research, JA has been implicit measures [6-13]. Explicit measures and postulated to be a marker of engagement [6, 26]. For instance, questionnaires – while providing valuable hints regarding the Anzalone et al. used JA among other dynamic metrics phenomenon of interest, suffer from several limitations. First, (synchrony, imitation) to evaluate engagement in HRI [6]. they rely on explicit reports, meaning that participants need to Peters et al [26] defined the level of engagement between a be able to consciously assess their inner states. However, many user and virtual agent by measuring JA- i.e. how much the mechanisms of social cognition are implicit and automatic, user has been looking at objects looked at or pointed by the and thus not necessarily accessible to conscious awareness. virtual agent. Moreover, Kasari et al. [27] showed that JA Furthermore, explicit measures are dependent on introspective mediated interventions increased engagement of toddlers abilities and interpretation of the questions and can be prone to during interaction with caregivers. various biases, such as social desirability effect [14]. Finally, Researchers in cognitive psychology have operationalized explicit responses are not sufficiently informative with respect JA in the form of the gaze cueing paradigm [18-19]. This is a to specific cognitive mechanisms involved. In natural *The project has received funding from the European Research Council adjunct professor in Engineering Psychology, University of Technology, (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation Luleå University of Technology. Corresponding authors: A.W., phone: +39 programme (grant awarded to AW, titled “InStance: Intentional Stance for 020 8172 242, email: [email protected], K.K., email: Social Attunement”. Grant agreement No: 715058). [email protected]. All authors are with the Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, 16145. K.K is affiliated with Ludwig-Maximilians-universität (DE).. A.W. is an classical attentional task in which participants are typically theoretical interest, but it has also implications for robot presented with a face on the computer screen. The face design. If eye contact attracts attention to the face of the robot initially has either eye closed or directed straight ahead. to the point that it creates delays in disengagement, it might Subsequently, the direction of the gaze is shifted to one of the be a positive factor for social interaction and engagement, but sides of the screen the gazed-at or a different location. might impair performance in other tasks where reallocation of Participants’ task is to determine either target’s identity or attentional focus is critical. simply respond to its presence. When participants “engage” II. METHODS in JA with the “gazer” they attend to where the gazer shifts his/her eyes. Therefore, detection/discrimination of any target A. Participants at the gazed-at location is faster and more accurate than at the In total, twenty-four healthy adults (mean age = 25.25 ± other locations, this effect is known as the cueing effect 4.01, 9 female, 2 left-handed) took part in the experiment. All (GCE). Recent studies showed that the GCE can be elicited in had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. Participants naturalistic and ecologically valid paradigms and that it is received an honorarium of 15 euros for taking part in the reflected, apart from performance measures, also in EEG [28- experiment. They were all naive with respect to the purpose of 30], fMRI [31-33], and eye tracking [34-35] measures. this study, and they were debriefed about the aim of the Here, we would like to specifically focus on eye tracking experiment at the end of the experimental session. The as an implicit measure of engagement [6-7, 12], as eye experiment was conducted at the Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia movements are particularly informative with respect to (Genoa, Italy). Written consent was taken from each attentional processes [36]. In the context of social interaction, participant before the experimental session. The study was eye movements not only are informative with respect to the approved by the local ethical committee (Comitato Etico individual’s attentional focus, but they are also signaling to Regione Liguria). others where attention is oriented. As such, they are one of the most important social signals with which we convey our inner B. Stimuli and Apparatus mental states. The experiment was performed in an isolated and noise- C. Aim of study and related work attenuated room. Participants were seated opposite of iCub, at In this study, we aimed at examining whether eye contact the other side of a desk, while their eyes were aligned with established by the iCub robot [37-38] would influence iCub’s eyes. The target stimuli were letters V or T (3° 32' engagement in HRI, measured by two implicit objective high, 4° 5' wide) and they were presented at two screens (27 markers: JA (by means of the GCE) and patterns of fixations inches), laterally positioned on the desk (75 cm apart, centre- on the face of the robot during eye-contact. Eye contact is one to-centre). The screens were tilted back (by approximately of the most important social signals communicating the 12° from the vertical position) and were rotated to the right intention to engage in an interaction. Eye contact between (right screen) or left (left screen) by 76°. iCub’s gaze was humans has been shown to affect various cognitive processes directed to five different Cartesian coordinates: resting– such as attention or memory, and also physiological states, for towards a point between
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