The mighty River Brahmaputra: Aqua faunal diversity

Preamble Water and soil are identified as the two essential components which support the vary foundation of any civilization. Water is nature’s such gift which supports immense and diversified life forms ranging from tiny micro organisms to large sized animals. Though the open water of lakes and rivers have received man’s attention for activities like navigation, recreation, water supply and fisheries, their ecological values have often been overlooked. Ward (1989) and Boon (1992) forwarded concept of complex relationship between river systems and the fisheries they sustain and also the important processes in large rivers. Aquatic ecosystems, once considered as a neglected ecosystem throughout the globe though it possess more productivity than the terrestrial systems. Now they have been gaining more attention due to their diverse and tremendous economic as well as aesthetic benefits to mankind. Aquatic ecosystems are critical components of the global environment. In addition to being essential contributors to biodiversity and ecological productivity, they also provide a variety of services for human populations. The interaction of geomorphology and hydrological dynamics of an aquatic system is important for the population dynamics. It is equally important for the habitat quality mainly food availability, current velocity, temperature etc. These factors play a vital role in determining the growth and reproductive success of a population. However, aquatic systems have been increasingly threatened, directly and indirectly, by human activities. In addition to the challenges posed by land-use change, environmental pollution, and water diversion, aquatic systems are expected to soon begin experiencing the added stress of global climate change. It is often said that though the first two world wars were for oil but the third world war might be for the water and countries wealth will be compared with respect to aquatic systems only. The hydrological patterns determine the structure and function of most of the aquatic communities. And high diversity of hydraulic conditions offers highest diversity of fauna (Statzner & Higler, 1986). The water current and the

geomorphology of the aquatic systems influence the fish diversity of the system. However the quality of edges (bank of the aquatic body) and bed of the aquatic system are also responsible for diversity of fish fauna (Schiemer et al., 1995). It provides shelter for fish as well as other organisms which may further serve as food for fishes. The hydrological significance of tropical water bodies has often been overlooked by acute needs of human requirements such as progressive industrialization, enhanced food production, domestic use and recreation. The contemporary issues like vulnerability, implementation of new fisheries practices, development of land water interface and growing contamination of the limited water resources have raised concern among present day aquatic life scientists (Menon et al. 2000). India is well-known as land of rivers, has a total 14 major rivers each having catchment area of 20,000 km2 and above. Again it has 44 medium rivers with a catchment area between 2000 and 20,000 km2. It also has 53 small rivers each with 2000 km2 or fewer catchment areas which generally originates from coastal mountains (Nath, 1999). Among the major rivers, three (Brahmaputra, Ganga and the Indus river systems) are international in distribution (CBPCWP, 1982). Nevertheless favourable conditions for fish development are linked to biological and physical factors. Location of spawning sites is influenced by bathymetry, substrate type and diversity of adult fish habitats as well as mechanisms conditioning the primary production of the region. However, physical processes (shelf-slope density front and associated current, continental water inflows, winter mixing and stratification of the water column) influence the final distribution patterns of fish eggs and larvae (Alemany et al., 2006; Sabates et al., 2007). As the recruitment success of species depends on physical processes, the management of fish populations cannot be considered independently of their environment (Parsons & Harrison, 2000), and as such, habitat protection is a vital part of ecosystem-based approaches to fisheries management. Though it is assumed that the natural fish stock has drastically depleted and some of the available fish species are rarely encountered over the years are totally missing but sufficient statistics to establish the same is wanting. The literature

available concentrates only on the systematic description of the ichthyofauna, but the information regarding associated issues for better understanding of the problem is almost nil. Estimates of the fish production are highly relevant for understanding ecosystem functioning (Elliott & Hemingway, 2002) and as a precursor to ecosystem (energy budget) modeling. They also allow the predicting of potential yields for fishery species (Cowley & Whitfield, 2002). This is particularly important because of the increased focus on both commercial and recreational fisheries in determining whether the current management regime is adequate to ensure long-term sustainability of the aquatic resources. Further information about impact of hydrobiology, increasing rate of deforestation, erosion along with siltation, extensive use of chemicals in the form of pesticide, herbicide and fertilizer, uncontrolled exercise of fishing gears, living standard of the communities mostly depending on the aquatic resources for living on fishery resources are lacking particularly in this region of the globe.

The “sustainability” has been the burning issue for all natural resources. The aquatic resources are also under the same fire. The fishery and aquaculture productions are facing the threat of negative growth with positive growth of population to feed and their adverse activities. The fishery and aquaculture sector is striving hard to become sustainable. Considering the scenario of Indian aquaculture sector only, it is now facing a challenge to find out the direction to bring back industries past growth rate to compete in world aquaculture scenario.

Importance of a detailed study of the problems and prospects of the river Brahmaputra cannot be ignored for the development of sustainable management strategies. Long term exploitation and suitable, sustainable protection strategies to the aquatic jewels of this river call for the knowledge of aquatic germplasm along with their diversity and present status. The study is a step to add a little bit knowledge to this field to help the decision makers to take appropriate strategy to overcome the problems.

Freshwater biodiversity constitutes a vitally important component of the planet, with a species richness that is relatively higher compared to both terrestrial and marine ecosystems (Gleick, 1996). South and Southeast Asia is one of the most speciose areas on the planet containing 20% of all known freshwater vertebrate species and 25% of known aquatic plants (Balian et al, 2008). The Eastern Himalaya region is part of two larger biodiversity hotspots: the Indo-Burma and the Himalaya Hotspots. The high biodiversity of the region is attributed to the recent geological history (the collision of Indian, Chinese and Burmese plates) and the Himalayan orogeny which played an important role in the speciation and evolution of groups inhabiting mountain streams (Kottelat, 1989)

The Brahmaputra- Topography, geology and climate

The Brahmaputra river system draining from the north slopes of the Central and Eastern Himalaya is one of the very braided rivers of the world, which flows through China (Tibet), India (Arunachal Pradesh and Assam) and Bangladesh (Rao, 1979). The Brahmaputra river system lies between the latitude 230N and 320N and longitude 800E and 97030∕ E. It is the largest river system of Indian sub-continent and comprises 5,80,000 km2 up to its confluence with the Ganga at Gualundo in Bangladesh and thus forms a major part of the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin (Phukan, 2006). With the voluminous discharge at the mouth with the flow of 19,830 m3 sec-1 Brahmaputra ranks fourth in the world in terms of average discharge (Goswami, 1985). The Tsangpo river of China, flows through the state of Arunachal, India for 278 km, where it is called Dihang or Siang, The Dihang meets its principal tributaries, the Lohit and the Dibang almost together in the Eastern part of Assam near Kobo in the west of Saikhowa ghat, Assam and from this trijunction the river is known as the Brahmaputra. The Braided River Brahmaputra flows for 640 km through the state of Assam entirely through an alluvial valley. Brahmaputra is not only regarded as a river, it becomes the lifeline for the people residing in its bank. It receives 47 tributaries on its both southern and northern banks. The rier system is the principal water source of Assam and obviously, the principal source of capture fisheries in the state. Needless to say that, the river system is rich in diversity of aqua

fauna. Despite of the importance of the river system, there is practically no information about the fauna of Brahmaputra, except fishes of some areas that too not in detail. The Brahmaputra valley is narrow, the average width is only about 80km from foothill to foothill and the river itself occupies 6-9km. The river is considerably fast in Tibet and Arunachal Pradesh, but between Kobo and Dibrugarh the gradient of river is reduced. After Dibrugarh the river flattened with an average gradient of 0.13m/km i.e. throughout its course of about 640km within Indian territory. The climate of the Brahmaputra basin is being governed by several dominant factors such as orography, the alternating pressure cells of NE India and Bay of Bengal, the predominant maritime tropical air mass (mT), the roving periodic western disturbances and the local mountain and valley winds (Borthakur, 2004). Hot and wet summer and mild to moderately cold dry winter are the specific characteristics of the climate of the basin. The range of temperature during summer period varies from 13.0-29.50C (minimum) and 20.5-38.20C (maximum). The annual average rainfall is as high as 3900 mm in the extreme northwest and extreme northeast hilly tracks of the state. The rainfall in the Brahmaputra valley from 2000 to 3900 mm (Khanikar and Deka, 2013). There is however significant seasonal variation in rainfall pattern of different parts of the basin. During winter season the rainfall varies from 90-130mm in the north-eastern part of Assam, whereas 40-60 mm in the lower part and 60-90 mm in the southern part of the state. During monsoon season, the Brahmaputra valley receives a maximum of 2500 mm in the extreme north eastern part and 3100mm in extreme western part, whereas in Central Assam the rainfall is less than 1300 mm during the season (Khanikar, 2001). However, in recent years there is considerable variation in the rainfall pattern of the state in different seasons. As such, the climate of this basin is subtropical. Nearly 80% of the rain occurs during the monsoon months (May-October). There are basically three seasons winter (November –February), summer (March-May) and monsoon (June – October). But there is no sharp demarcation between summer and monsoon.

Characteristics of riparian ecotone

The riparian zone of Brahmaputra is highly unstable and subjected to bank erosion on one side or both. The fast flowing section of the rier is characterized by rocky substratum and relatively stable bank. The soil is alluvial with high percentage of sand and low nitrogen and phosphorus. The soil manly composed of sand (65- 74%), followed by silt and clay (Biswas & Barua, 2000).

Ichthyofaunal diversity

It is essential that a fishery be understood as a composite of three interactive components: (i) fish stocks; (ii) habitat; and (iii) people (Nielsen, 1993). If one of these components is missing, there is no fishery. River fisheries are non-portable. Persons with individual and community linked to river fisheries can suffer profound social and economic stress if the foundation for their identities (i.e, the river and its resources) is taken from them (Baird, 1994; Brown et al., 1996).

India is fortunate to have vast and varied fish germplasm resources consisting about 11% of the total fish biodiversity of 20,000 species of the world (Mahanta, et al. 2003). The North East region shares its fish fauna predominately with that of the Indo- Gangetic fauna and to a small extent with Burmese and South China fish fauna (Yadav & Chandra, 1994). A total of 2844 fish species are reported from Indian waters. Out of which 1563 are marine and 877 species are freshwater. There are a total of 2553 species of native fishes belonging to 99 genera, 255 families and 40 orders are reported from Indian waters while a total of 291 species were exotic, introduced to Indian waters from different parts of the world for their certain specific culture advantages .

Table : Fish biodiversity of India Category of Ecosystem No. of Fish species Fishes Native Freshwater 877 Brackish 113 water Marine water 1563 Total 2553 Exotic 291 Grand Total 2844 Source: Annual Report, 2012-13, NBFGR Recent study on biodiversity of the NE region has reported availability of 296 fish species belonging to 110 genera under 35 families out of which 160 fish species have been described as endemic to this region (Vishwanath, et al., 2008). This accounts for about 33.75% of total fish species inhabiting the fresh water resources of India (Borah and Bania, 2014).

The present study on Brahmaputra reveals the presence of a total of 222 species of fishes belonging to 105 genera under 37 families and 12 orders. These constitute as much as 75% of the total 296 species reported from the North Eastern Region of India and 25.31% of approximately 877 species of freshwater fish species of India. The ichthyo-faunistic resources of the Brahmaputra drainage system including all its diverse habitats present a combination of both torrential (hill stream) and plain water forms as well as cold and warm water species. Majority of the species belong to the order Cypriniformes (114 species), followed by Siluriformes (57 species) and Perciformis (29 specie). Out of the 222 fish species found in the state around 210 species are reported to have food value. However, only 50 species are found to have considerable commercial importance as food fish, in addition to which 24 species have importance as sport fish, and around 150 species have potential ornamental value, out of the total fish species, 40 numbers of fishes are found to be endemic to the state. Recent reports on catch statistics indicate that there has been drastic reduction in the abundance and change in distribution range of fishes of the state due to habitat modification, over exploitation and other anthropogenic causes

(Bhattacharyya, et al . 2000; Goswami, 2000). Out of the species reported from from Brahmaputra drainage system, commercially important fish species like Indian Major Carps, several minor carps, cat fishes, hill stream and sport fishes like chocolate and golden mahseer are endemic to this region. This region is inhabited by a good number of fish species that are recognized as threatened and needs urgent attention for conservation.

Table - Ichthyofauna of Brahmaputra drainage system with conservation ststus

Fish taxa / species Conservation and endemic status* ORDER : OSTEOGLOSSIFORMES Family : (1) Notopeteridae 1. Chitala Chitala (Ham-Buch) En 2.Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) LR-nt ORDER : II ANGUILLIFORMES Family : (2) Anguillidae 3.Anuilla begalensis bengalensis (Gray) NE Family : (3) Moringuidae 4. Moringua hodgarti (Chaudhuri) NE Family : (4) Ophichthidae 5. Pisodonophis bora (Ham-Buch) NE ORDER : III CLUPEIFORMES Family : (5) Clupeidae 6. Gudusia chapra (Ham-Buch) LR-Ic 7. G. variegata (Day) NE, Endemic 8. Hilsa (Tenualosa) ilisha (Ham-Buch) NE 9. Gonialosa manmina (Ham-Buch) NE

Family : (6)pristigasteridae 10. Ilisha melastoma (Schneider) NE 11. Ilisha megaloptera (Swainson) NE Family : (7) Engrauliadae 12. Setipinna phasa (Ham-Buch) NE ORDER : IV. CYPRINIFORMES Family : (8) Cyprinidae 13.Chela cachius (Ham-Buch) NE 14. C. Labuca (Ham - Buch) LR-Ic 15.Salmostoma bacaila (Ham-Buch) LR-Ic 16. S. clupeoides (Bloch) NE 17. S Phulo (Ham-Buch) NE 18. Securicola gora (Ham-Buch) NE 19. Amblypharyngodon mola LR-Ic (Ham-Buch) 20. Aspidoparia jaya (Ham-Buch) Vu 21. A. morar (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 22. Barilius barila (Ham-Buch) Vu 23. B. barna (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 24. B. bendelists (Ham-Buch) NE 25. B. dogarsinghi (Hora) EN, Endemic 26. B. shacra (Ham-Buch) LR-nt, Endemic 27. B. tileo (Bam-Buch) LR-nt, Endemic 28. B. Vagra (Ham-Buch) Vu 29.Bengala elanga (Ham-Buch) NE 30. Brachydanio. rerio (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 31. Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland) LR-nt, Endemic 32. D. dangila (Ham-Buch) NE 33. D. devario (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 34. D. regina (Fowler) NE

35. Esomus danricus (Ham-Buch) LR-Ic 36. Parluciosoma daniconius LR-nt (Ham-Buch) 37. Raiamas bola (Ham-Buch) Vu 38. Rasbora rasbora (Ham-Buch) NE 39. Catla catla (Hum-Buch) Vu 40. Chagunius chagunio (Ham-Buch) NE 41. Cirrhinus mrigala (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 42. C. reba (Ham-Buch) Vu #43. Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes) 44. Cyprinion semiplotum (McClelland) Vu 45. Cyprinus carpio var. communis (Linnaeus) 46. Labeo angra (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 47. L. bata (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 48. L. boga (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 49. L. calbasu Ham-Buch) LR-nt 50. L. dero (Ham-Buch) Vu 51. L. dyocheilus (McClelland) Vu 52. L. gonius (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 53. L. nandina (Ham-Buch) NE 54. L. Pangusia (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 55. L. rohita (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 56. Neolissochilus hexagonolepis NE, Endemic (McClelland) 57. N.hexastichus (McClelland) NE 58. Oreichthys cosuatis (Hum-Buch) NE 59. Osteobrama cotio cotio(Hum-Buch) LR-nt 60. O.cotio cunma (Day) Vu

61. Puntius chola (Hum-Buch) Vu, Endemic 62. P. clavatus(McClelland) EN, Endemic 63. P. Conchonius (Ham-Buch) Vu 64. P. Filamentosus (Valenciennes) NE 65. P. fraseri (Hora & Misra) NE 66. P. gelius (Ham-Buch) NE # 67. P. gonionotus (Bleeker) 68. P. guganio (Ham-Buch) LR-Ic 69. P. phutunio (Ham-Buch) LR-Ic 70.P. Sarnan Sarana (Ham-Buch) Vu 71. P. Shalynius Yazdani & Talukdar Vu, Endemic 72. P. sophore (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 73. P. terio (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 74. P. ticto (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 75. Tor mosal (Ham-Buch) NE 76. T.progenius (McClelland) NE, Endemic 77. T. Putitora (Ham-Buch) EN 78. T. tor (Ham-Buch) EN # 79. Hypothalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes) # 80. Aristichthys nobilis (Richadson) 81. Crossocheilus barrmamicus Hora NE 82. C. latius latius (Ham - Buch) NE, Endemic 83. Garra annandalei (Hora) NE 84. G. gotyla (Gray) Vu 85. G. Kempi (Hora) Vu, Endemic 86. G. lamta (Ham-Buch) Vu 87. G. lissorhynchu (Mc Clelland) LR-Ic, Endemic 88. G. naganesis (Hora) Vu, Endemic 89. G. Nasuta (McClelland) NE, Endemic

90. G. rupecola (McClelland) Vu, Endemic 91. Schizothoraichthys progastus LR-nt (McClelland) 92. Schizothorax richardsonii (Gray) NE 93. Psilorhynchus balitora (Ham-Buch) NE 94. P. gracilis Rainboth NE 95. P.homaloptera (Hora & Mukerji) Vu, Endemic 96. P. sucatio (Ham-Buch) En Family : (10) Balitoridae 97. Aborichthys elongatus (Hora) En 98. A. Kempi (Chaudhuri) Vu, Endemic 99. Acanthocobitis botia (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 100. A Pavonaceous (McClelland) NE 101. Balitora brucei Gray LR-nt 102. Nemacheilus corica (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 103. N. moreh (Sykes) NE 104. Schistura beavani (Gunther) NE 105. S. Kanjupkhulensis (Hora) Vu, Endemic 106. S. manipurensis (Chaudhuri) EN, Endemic 107. S montanus (McClelland) NE 108. S. multifasciatus (Day) EN 109. S. Savona (Ham-Buch) NE 110. S. Scaturiginia (McClelland) Vu 111. S. Sikamaienisis (Hora) EN, Endemic 112. S. reticulofasciatus NE (Singh, Sen & Banarescu) 113. S. Vinciguerrae (Hora) EN Family : (11) Cobitidae 114. Acantopsis chirorhynchus(Bleeker) NE 115. Botia berdmorei (Blyth) EN, Endemic

116. B. dario (Ham-Buch) NE 117. B. histrionica Blyth NE 118. B. rostrata (Gunther) NE 119. Lepidocephalus annandalei LR-nt, Endemic (Chaudhuri) 120. L. berdmorei (Blyth) EN 121. L. caudofurcatus (Tilak & Hussain) NE 122. L goalparensis (Pillai & Yazdani) NE, Endemic 123. L guntea (Ham-Buch) NE 124. L. irrorata (Hora) Vu, Endemic 125. Neoeucirrhichthys maydelli NE, Endemic Banarescu 126. Somileptes gongota (Ham-Buch) LR-nt ORDER : V. SILURIFORES Family : (12) Bagridae 127. Aorichthys aor(Ham-Buch) NE 128. A seenghal (Sykes) NE 129. Batasio batasio (Ham-Buch) NE 130. B tengana (Ham-Buch) NE 131. Mystus bleekeri (Day) Vu 132. M cavaslus (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 133. M. menoda (Ham-Buch) NE, Endemic 134. M. montanus (Jerdon) Vu 135. M. tengara (Ham-Buch) NE 136. M. Vittatus (Bloch) Vu 137. M. dibrugarensis (Chaudhuri) 138. Ram Chandramara (Ham-Buch) NE 139. Rita rita NE Family : (13) Siluridae 139. Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch) EN

140. O, Pabda (Ham-Buch) EN 141. O, Pabo (Ham-Buch) NE 142. Silurus berdmore (Blyth) NE, Endemic 143. Wallago attu (Scheidner) LR-nt Family : (14) Schibeidae 144. Ailia coila (Ham-Buch) VU 145. A punctata (Day) VU 146. Clupisoma garua (Ham-Buch) VU 147. Eutropiilchthys murius (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 148. E. Vacha (Ham-Buch) EN 149.Pseudotropus atherinoides (Bloch) EN 150. Silonia silondia (Ham-Buch) LR-nt Family : (15) Pangasidae 151. Pangasius pangasius (Ham-Buch) CR Family : (16) Amblyciptidae 152. Amblyceps mangois (Bam-Buch) LR-nt, Endemic Family : (17) Sisoridae 153. Bagarius bagarius (Ham-Buch) Vu 154. B. yarelli Sykes NE 155. Conta conta (Ham-Buch) NE, Endemic 156. Erethistes pussilus NE (Muller & Troscheel) 157. Erethistoides montana Montana NE (Hora) 158. Gagata cenia (Ham-Buch) NE 159. G. gagata (Ham-Buch) NE 160. G. sexualis Tilak NE 161. Glyptothorax Cavia (Hum-Buch) EN, Endemic 162. G. Platypogonoides (Bleeker) NE, Endemic 163. G. Striatus (McClelland) Vu, Endemic

164. G. telchitta (Ham-Buch) NE, Endemic 165. G. trilineatus Blyth NE, Endemic 166. Hara Hara (Ham-Buch) NE 167. H. jerdoni (Day) NE 168. Laguvia ribeiroi (Hora) NE 169. L. Shawi (Hora) NE 170. Nangra assamensis Sen & Biswas NE 171. Nangra nangra (Ham-Buch) NE 172. N.punctatum (Ham-Buch) NE 173. N. viridescens (Ham Buch) NE 174. Pseudoecheneis sulcatus VU (McClelland) 175. Sisor rhabdophorus (Ham-Buch) En Family : (18) Claridae. 176. Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus) Vu #177. C. gariepinus (Burcheel) Family : (19) Heteropneustidae 178. Heteropneustes fossils (Bloch) Vu Family : (20) Chacidae 179. Chaca chaca (Ham-Buch) EN Family : (21) Olyridae 180. Olyra horai (Prasad & Mukerji) NE 181. O. longicaudata (McClelland) NE, Endemic ORDER : VII. BELONIFORMES Family : (22) Belonidae 182. Xenentodon cancila (Ham-Buch) LR-nt ORDER:VIII. CYPRINIDONTIFORMES Family : (23) Aplocheilidae 183. Aplocheilus pachax (Ham-Buch) Vu Family : (24) Syngnathidae

184. Microphis deocata (Ham-Buch) NE ORDER:IX SYNBRANCHIFORMES Family : (25) Synbranchidae 185. Monopterus albus (Zuiew) NE 186. M cuchia (Ham-Buch) LR-nt 187. Chanda nama (Ham-Buch) NE 188. Pseudambassis baculis (Ham-Buch) LR-Ic 189. P. lala (Ham-Buch) NE 190. P. ranga (Ham-Buch) NE Family : (27) Sciaenidae 191. Johnius coitor (Ham-Buch) NE 192. Pama pama (Ham-Buch) NE Family : (28) Nandidae 193. Badis badis (Ham-Buch) NE B. assamensis Ahl NE,endemic 194. Nandus nandus (Ham-Buch) LR-nt Family : (28) Cichlidae #195.Oreochromis mossambicus (peter) Family : (30) Mugilidae 196. Rhinomugil cosrsula (Ham-Buch) NE 197. Sicamugil cascasia (Ham-Buch) Vu Family : (31) Gobiidae 198. Glossogobius giuris (Ham-Buch) NE 199. Apocryptus bato (Ham-Buch) NE Family : (32) Anabantidae 200. Anabas testudineus (Bloch) Vu Family : (33) Belontidae 201. Trichogaster fasciatus (Schneider) LR-nt 202. T. labiosus (Day) Vu 203. T. lalia (Ham-Buch) NE

# 204. T.sota (Ham-Buch) NE 205. Ctenops nobilis (McClelland) NE

Family : (34) Channidae 206. Channa baraca (Ham-Buch) NE 207. C. marulius (Ham-Buch) LRnt

208. C. orientalis (Bloch & Schneider) Vu

209. C. punctaus (Bloch) LRnt 210. C. stewarti (Playfair) NE, Endemic

211. C. striatus (Bloch) LRnt

C. aurantimaculata ( LRnt, endemic (Musikasinthorn) C. bleheri Vierke LRnt C. gachua(Ham-Buch) LRnt

ORDER : XI. MASTA CEMBELLIFORMES Family : (35) Mastacembelidae

212. Macrognathus aral (Bloch & LR-nt Schneider) 213. M. Pancalus (Ham-Buch) NE

214. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacpede) Family : (36) Chaudhriidae 215. Pilaia indica (Yazdani) EN, Endemic

216. Chaudhuria. Khajuria (Talwar,

Yazdani & (Kundu) ORDER : XII TETRAODONTIFORES Family : (37) Tetradontidae 222. Tetraodon cutcutia (Ham-Buch) LR-nt

= exotic species

As far as the current conservation status of the recorded fish species is concerned, it is found that about one third of the species, i.e., 41 species in vulnerable (VU) category, 40 species enlisted in lower risk near threatened (LR-nt) category, 22 in (EN) category whereas 9 species belong to lower risk least concern (LR-lc) and 1 in critically endangered (CR) category. Majority of the species (93) are yet in not evaluated (NE) category.

Species like Amblypharyngodon mola, Aspidoparia jaya, Cirrhinus reba, Devario devario, Puntius sophore, Wallago attu, Chanda nama, Heteropneutes fossilis, Channa punctata, Mastacembellus spp and Xenentodon cancila were recorded throughout the year. On the other hand, Catla catla, Cirrhinus mrigala, Labeo rohita, Puntius sarana sarana, Notopterus chitala, Gudusia chapra, Bengala elanga, Nandus nandus, Badis badis, Channa barca, Devario dangilla, Botia dario, Ompok spp were occasional while genera like Anguilla bengalensis, Labeo calbau, Ailia coila, Chaca chaca, Sisor rhabdophorus are rarely encountered. However, Amblyceps apangi, A. arunachalensis and A. magnois are not residential fauna and are available only in the flood season.

Among the riverine fauna in the wetlands, Indian Major Carps (IMC), giant catfishes and featherbacks were frequently encountered while residential forms including air- breathing forms and ornamental species like Botia, Barilius, Chanda, Danio, Glossogobius, Tetraodon along with Channa barca, Channa aurantimaculata were also found almost throughout the year in some specific wetlands. Another important aspect to be noticed is that most of the states of North East have their own state fish. Though Assam has vast resources and diversity of icthyospecies, the state does not have any declared state fish. It is proposed to declare Chitala chitala, the prized fish of Brahmaputra drainage system to be declared the state fish of Assam.

Table: Principal genera recorded in Brahmaputra drainage system Total no of Family Genera No species recorded Notopteridae Chitala, Notopterus 2 2 Anguillidae Anguilla 1 1 Moringuidae Moringua 1 1

Ophichthidae Pisodonophis 1 1

Clupeidae Gudusia, Hilsa,Gonialosa 3 4 Pristigasteridae Ilisha 1 2 Engrauliada Setipina 1 1 Chela, Salmostoma,, Securicola, Amblypharyngodon, aspidoparia, Barilius, Bengala, . Brachydanio, Danio, Esomus, Parluciosoma, Rasbora, Raimas, Catla, Chagunius, Cirrhinus, Ctenopharyngodon, Cyprinidae 31 80 Cyprinion, Cyprinus, Labeo,Neolissocheilus, Oreichthys, Ostreobrama, Puntius, Tor, Hypothalmichthys, Aristichthys , Crossocheilus, Garra , Schizothoraichthys, Schizothorax Psilorhynchidae Psilorhynchus 1 4 Aborichthys, Acanthocobitis, Balioridae 5 17 Balitora, Nemacheilus, Schistura Acantopsis, Lepidocephalus, Botia, Cobitidae 5 13 Neoeucirrhichthys, Somileptes Aorichthys (Sperata), Batasio, Bagridae 5 13 Mystus, Rama, Rita Siluridae Ompok, Wallago, Silirus 3 5 Ailia, Pseudeutropius, Schilbeidae 5 7 Eutropiichthys, Clupisoma, Silonia

Pangasidae Pangasius 1 1

Amblycipitidae Amblyceps 1 1 Bagarius, Conta, Erethistes, Hara, Erethistoides , Gagata Sisoridae 11 23 Glyptothorax, Laguvia, Nangra, Pseudoecheneis, Sisor Claridae Clarius 1 2 Heteropneustidae Heteropneustes 1 1 Chacidae Chaca 1 1 Olyridae Olyra 1 2 Belonidae Xenentedon 1 1 Aplocheilidae Aplocheilus 1 1 Syngnathidae Microphis 1 1

Symbranchidae Monopterus 1 2 Ambassidae Chanda, Pseudambassis 2 4 Sciaenidae Johnius, Pama 2 2

Nandidae Badis, Nandus 2 3

Cichlidae Oreochromis 1 1

Mugilidae Rhinomugil, Sicamugil 2 2 Gobiidae Glossogobius, Apocryptus 2 2 Anabantidae Anabas 1 1 Belontiidae Trichogaster, Ctenops 1 5 Channidae Channa 1 9 Mastacembelidae Macrognathus, Mastacembelus 2 3 Chaudhuriidae Pilaia , Chaudhuria. 2 2 Tetraodontidae Tetraodon 1 1

Among the families, cyprinids were found to be most dominant group with 80 species followed by Balionidae (17 spp), cobitidae and bagridae with 13 species each and channidae with 9 species.

Invasive species

The alien fish species viz. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Cyprinus carpio, Clariasgariepinus and Oreochromis mossambicus have been identified in the present study because of their occurrence in natural water bodies of Brahmaputra drainage system. These allien species entered accidentally into the drainage system during heavy flood. Like other exotic fishes, the Chichlid fish Oreochromis mossambicus is often cultured in the culture ponds and it is not surprising to find them in natural water bodies. Major fish habitats of Brahmaputra The unique pattern of topography of Brahmaputra provides different type of fish habitat. Depending on this five major habitats were identified. Biswas and Baruah (2002) also reported similar habitats from the upper stretches of Brahmaputra. These are-

SL No Type of habitat Special characteristics Species available 1 Open river Main stretch of river, Chitala, Pangasius, Silonia, herbours large sized fish Bagarius, Sperata etc 2 Fast flowing Have shallow stony bed and Garra, Barillius, Danio etc river harbour small sized stream fish 3 Sluggish pools Sluggish and dipper part of Labeo pangusia,Tor spp, Raimas river bola etc 4 Confluences Junction of main river and Carnivorous fish and turtles, and river tributary. dolphin as well meandering 5 Flood plain Weed infested, connected Channa, Clarius, Trychogaster spp wetlands or with parent river through Botia etc beels connecting channels

The distribution of fish diversity is mainly governed by the current flow of the aquatic system. Among the various habitats, the pools and meanders are comparatively rich in fish biomass, more than the rapids and run (open river) which indicates that the faster current has a negative impact on fish biomass while transparency has a positive effect (Biswas, 2010). Qualitatively and quantitatively river meanderings and confluences are very rich from fisheries point of view. Depending upon the river gradient and the amount of rainfall in the catchment area, the water discharge as well as current velocity fluctuates. When the river is in spate between May and October, the most noticeable physical changes are increased current velocity and turbidity. The channel diversion of the Brahmaputra River not only changes the geomorphology of the surrounding area, but also species composition in the down stream of the river. As for example certain upland fish species (Labeo pangusia, Sisor rhabdophorus, Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis) hitherto unavailable in the upsteams of Brahmaputra are now frequently caught in and around Dibru Saikhowa national park.

Again depending on the availability of species around the year, the fishes of Brahmaputra can be divided into different categories.

Category Availability Sample Species available Category-I Found throughout the year Wallago, Notopterus etc Category-II In premonsoon and Basicaly minnows and loaches viz. monsoon Esomus, Salmostoma etc Category- Postmonsoon and winter Migratory species like Tor sp, III Chitala etc Category- Dry season when water Barillius, Danio, Nemacheilus etc IV level is minimum

Table- Freshwater Prawn available in the Brahmaputra Family Species Availability

Palaemonidae Macobrachium assamensis ++ M. altifrons altifrons + M. birmanium birmanicum +++ M. birmanicum choprai +++ M.dayanum + M. rosenbergii M. naso + M. kempi + M. lamarrei lamarrei + +++ = Abundant, ++ = Normal, + = Rare

Besides these two mammalian species viz Platanista gangetica gangetica and Lutra lutra has also been reported from the river system. Important fish Landing Centres of Brahmaputra The Brahmaputra has as many as 42 landing sites on both the banks. Dholaghat, Guijan ghat, Dibrugarh Dehingmukh, Disangmukh, Kokilamukh, Nimatighat, Biswanath ghat, Jogighopa, Dhekiajuli, Tezpur, Uzan bazaar (Guwahati) Chunari ghat,chunari kamakhyabari, Tulsibari, Joleswar ghat of Goalpara and Dhubri ghat, Bura buri are the major fish landing centres of the Brahmaputra. Monthly fish yield of the main fish landing centre of depicted higher production in post monsoon months. As a whole winter and pre monsoon months were favourable fishing seasons in wetlands. In River, fishing intensity was always high at the advent of pre monsoon rain and also during receding floods. Fishing activities were reported to be throughout the year. Commercially important species No doubt, people prefer to have variety of fish species in their food. Still all the species are not commercially valuable. Some of the commercially important fish species were recorded during the field visits to landing sites. These are-

Major carps - Labeo rohita, Catla catla, Cirhhinus mrigala. Minor carps - Labeo gonius, L. Calbasu, L. Bata, L. Dero and Cirhhinus reba. Major catfishes - Wallago attu, Sperata aor, S. Seenghala, Rita rita, Pangasius pangasius etc Minor catfishes - Mystus tengara, M. cavasius, M. bleekeri, Ompok pavo, O. pabda, Eutrophiichthys vacha, Clupisoma garua,Ailia coilia etc Kniefefishes - Notopterus notopterus, Chitala chitala, Airbreathing fishes - Murrels (like Channa marlius, C. barca,C. Striatus, C. Punctata), Claius batrachus, Heteropneustes fossilis and Anabas testudineus Miscellaneous fishes - Barillius sp, Ambylopharyngodon mola Aspidoporia morar, Puntius spp etc In landing centres the price of most of the important fishes ranges between Rs.100-150/- only. Price of Chitala chitala is recorded Rs. 100 only in lower part of Brahmaputra (Goalpara, Dhuburi). The prices become high when it comes to market due to the involvement of middleman in the marketing channel.

Flood pulse in river Brahmaputra

Historically, riverine flooding was considered to be a nuisance. Flooding was thought to negatively impact flora and fauna, and be potentially hazardous to humans (Hildrew, 1998). Recent studies, however, have demonstrated that flood is a specific characteristic of a riverine ecosystem (Junk et. al., 1989; Benke, 2001). Further, a regular annual flood is of particular advantage to aquatic systems along large floodplain rivers. Aquatic fauna, in general, are adapted to this annual flood pulse, and many of them colonize the floodplains at rising and high water levels because of increasing breeding and feeding opportunities under flooded condition. In floodplain rivers, the recession of the annual flood delivers high levels of dissolved organic carbon and detritus to the main channel.

Variation in water level in Brahmaputra influence whole system. Rising water levels not only increase the wetted surface of the channel and eventually of the floodplain, but at the same time influence the exchange between groundwater and surface water either by allowing an up-welling of groundwater or by forcing a down- welling of the surface water into the aquifer vertically and laterally. The hyporheic zone serves as an interface between groundwater and surface water. Similarly, floodplains act as interfaces for the interchange between the river mainstreams and their tributaries or surface runoff from rainwater. The flow direction of the interfaces is influenced by the fourth dimension, time, such that the recent and the past hydrological situations become decisive: elevated water levels can cause blocking or even backflow of the tributaries and groundwater outflows. Frequent changes in the flow direction occur in floodplain channels that connect water bodies that receive rain and river water, depending on the respective water level. High levels of river water block the tributaries after the rainy season; therefore, a large part of the inundation occurs after cessation of the rainfall (Hamilton et al., 1996) Dynamics of water flow, nutrient status of floodplain habitats and characteristics of macrophytes are very important for the early life history stages of riverine fishes (Biswas, 1998; Biswas and Boruah, 2000). Unpredictable flooding and decoupling of the flood pulse from the temperature pulse leads to low temperatures during floods and high temperature that triggers spawning of some fish species during low water level (Humphries et al. 1999, Low Flow Recruitment Hypothesis). Large rivers derive most of their animal biomass from within the floodplains. Without the flood pulse, production within the river ecosystem is drastically reduced, and community composition and energy pathways are radically changed. Similarly, disturbances also play a critical role in organizing communities and ecosystems. Disturbances in rivers include erosion and abrasion, siltation and burial, desiccation and extremes of water quality. Further, the recent erosion of river Brahmaputra from the different locations including Majuli contributed siltation of a large portion of the beels present nearby.

In the Brahmaputra river system also, the species composition altered seasonally depending on the intensity of flood. River–floodplain systems are among the most dynamic and complex habitats. The migratory behaviour of major groups

of fishes and the annual flood between May and August has a tremendous effect on fish migration and auto-stocking of the floodplain lakes.

In River Brahmaputra, fishing intensity was always high at the advent of pre monsoon rain and also during receding floods, as stated. During the first monsoon flood, the giant catfishes, viz. Aorichthys spp, Silonia silondia, Pangasius pangasius migrate to the upstream for spawning. The carps too breed during the first part of monsoon (April-July). The catch composition showed variation in different year in the same landing centre as reported by the local fisher during field visits. Of course cyclic changes in the recovery of individual species have also been noticed. Ompok. Spp, Labeo gonius, Tor spp. exhibited wide annual variation.

The intensity of fishing in Brahmaputra is closely associated with the flood regime of the river. The riverine fishes march into new areas, creeks, channels, flood plain lakes and other water bodies at the time of high flood. However, as the flood subsides, the fish return to the main river. This is why there is high intensity of fishing just before and after the flood. During the peak season, usually at the time of receding flood in August-September, the fish catch intensity ranged between 0.3-0.85 kg/ha/hr. The average fish production in the river has been estimated to be about 3.1 kg/km/yr (Bania, 2013).

Factors contributing multiplicity of catch and shrinkage of riverine habitat

Frequent changes of channel courses and bank erosion with high rate of siltation have been identified as a major threat to the riverine biota of Brahmaputra as they have a great bearing on the faunal composition of the river. Siltation is a major factor attributing to the dynamism of the associated beels. Excess floodplain siltation alters habitats, causing species decline or disappearance. As the river continuously widens with every passing year due to severe bank erosion, the average depth of the river is found continuously decreased and the river becomes braided in many areas. As a result shallow channels sometime totally dried up during summer. Heavy siltation not only raised the river bed of Brahmaputra every year but also blocked mouth of channel of beels, preventing auto-stocking of fish and auto-removal of

floating macrophytes during monsoon months resulting in wetlands and species extermination. Excessive siltation of the connecting channels of beels (wetlands) severely affects their recharge during the rainy season. Consequently, riverine fish species can not enter and depletion of fish stocks has become inevitable. A sharp decline in the catch of Indian Major Carps is a pointer to the loss of spawning grounds in the Brahmaputra as well in almost all the major tributaries (Boruah and Biswas, 2002; 2010).

Deforestation in the catchment of Brahmaputra indirectly accelerates siltation as well as influences the freshwater biota. Removing trees reduced shade on the creek, allowing the sun to warm the water resulting depletion of dissolved oxygen. Also, the bare soil exposed from removing the tree can erode, increases the amount of dissolved the suspended solids in the water. This also leads to a decrease in DO concentration (Biswas, 2010)

Indiscriminate killing of fish by using pesticides and other illegal devices is a major threat to the already depleted fishery resources of the river Brahmaputra and the floodplain lakes associated to it. Over exploitation of resources mainly fish from the wetlands coupled with conversion of low-lying land of beels for agricultural purposes have already threatened the wetland habitat. The unjustifiable killing of fishes by using pesticides and explosives in the channels and tributaries of the river is also a major threat to riverine ecosystem. The use of explosives and poison for killing fishes destroy the biota and the water quality as well. Jeng or katal fishing, a process of collecting large number of fishes at a time encircling a specifed area of a beel with the help of mosquito net during dry months is very common in shallow part of river and tributaries and even in the beels which is also responsible for depletion of fish production in the basin.

Another cause of great concern is the shrinkage of wetland area due to excessive anthropogenic activities. Conversion of wetland for human settlement and agricultural developments, road constructions, direct deforestation in wetlands, unsustainable levels of grazing and fishing activities dredge disposal causing

substantial economic and ecological losses in the long term. Other degrading factors include excessive eutrophication due to nutrient & organic matter loading. All these unplanned shortsighted anthropogenic activities have resulted in rendering the eco- system integrity of beel in peril. Pollution from human industry and agriculture is an additional impact on fish stocks. Synthetic agrochemicals have been widely used in the tea gardens (located on the bank) not only to increase the green tea leaf production but also to ensure protection from different kind of pest attack. These chemicals ultimately causes aquatic pollution when drain to the adjoining rivulets. Biswas (2001) have also reported that habitat degradation, wanton fishing of brood and juveniles and lake of proper fishing policy have lead to the gradual depletion of the population of a good number of species which were fairly common in this part of the country not very long ago.

Impact of construction of dam The ecological effects of regulated flow below dams have been a subject of interest of various authors (Richter, 1996 et al). Flow regulation often dramatically alters the regime of alluvial rivers both through confined water-release scenarios and through substantial reductions in transported sediment below dams. Channel beds and banks may undergo a wide range of adjustments to regulation. Large dam creates 73% of negative impacts on fish biodiversity resulting from obstructing rivers (Church, 1995). The impact of dam on downstream fish ecology and diversity in Indian subcontinent are scanty and needs in depth study for maintain the downstream fish diversity (Craig, 2000). The reservoir traps the nutrient coming from upstream watershade of the basin. Further, the sediments, which are flushed by a dam authority to maintain the storage capacity a dam reservoir often deposits few kilometers downsteam of the dam. Construct of dam in the up streams of Arunachal Pradesh may have various adverse effects on river Brahmaputra. However, activities like deposition of soil, riparian forest destruction, mainstream diversion, gravel collection, establishment of stone crusher in the river bed during the construction phase of the dam may also pose adverse effect on the fish fauna of the river. After

completion of the dam, the deposition of flushing sediments often reduces the deep water parts of a river and the river become homogenized in its depth and bed substrate. Those fishes which live in the cold water region of the river, i.e. immediate downstream the dam have greater chances of being washed out from their home by the sudden and fast water released during power generation. Further, change in natural flow the connectivity of the river to the floodplain wetlands is very important for various fish species which use those habits for breeding or for nourishing the juveniles. Loss of the connectivity may adversely the affect those species in the river basin. Again, the winter minimum discharge of about 400 cumec of water will be reduced to 6 cumec for the 20 hours of storage time while it will increase to 2400 cumec for the rest 4 hour of a day. Fishes of the downstream may not be able to adapt to this diurnal fluctuation of flow. Moreover, the adjoining floodplain wetland may also dry-up rapidly in the winter as the ground water table will fall down due to reduced flow pattern of the river. Thus it is highly necessary to maintain a minimum flow of water constantly throughout the hours of a day especially in the winter season when the contribution of water of the feeder channels became negligible (Bakalial et al, 2014)

However, the Lower Mecow Hydropower project coming up in the upper reaches of River Lohit in Arunachal Pradesh is expected to generate 1700MW power which is in the upstream of Dibru-Saikhowa National Park. This will create more pressure in the aqua fauna of the downstream i.e in the park area altering the water cover and changing the flood pulse.

Fish production from a river is dependent on length of the river, catchment area and, for specific sections of rivers, the position of the segment along the river continuum. In tropical and temperate rivers, fish yields per unit surface area are considerably greater in rivers with flood pulses and floodplains than in nearby impoundments where flood pulses are reduced or absent (Hess et al., 1982). However, the anthropogenic factors have a negative impact on the aqua diversity of freshwater ecosystem. One more anthropogenic activity identified is unabated sand extraction from the river bed. The collection of sand is beneficial up to certain extent

as it helps in checking siltation of river bed. But it should be always planned so that the breeding ground of fishes should not be drastically altered. Further, unplanned sand mining may cause bank erosion which again alter/ shrink the riverine fish habitat. Further, felling of trees in the riparian zone is another detrimental factor for degradation of the habitat.

ANTHROPOGENIC NATURAL FACTORS FACTORS

Siltation of river bed and High turbidity Deforestation connecting channel to Increased population wetlands pressure Reduced primary production Siltation of Aggradation Increased Encroachment agriculture land of river fish of floodplain and loss of Reduced demand areas production productivity Reduction of fish cover and unstable habitat Depletion of Unabated killing of Extensive use fish habitat juveniles and of brooders agrochemicals Prevention of auto stocking in Depletion of wetland spawning ground Low recruitment for spawning ground replenishing of stock Aquatic pollution

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

Fig : Schematic diagram of impact of natural and anthropogenic factors on freshwater biodiversity in River Brahmaputra

Future strategies

Freshwater biodiversity and freshwater ecosystems of River Brahmaputra are seriously jeopardized by human activities throughout basin. This is undoubtedly a consequence of the fast growing human populations that needs economic security for survival. So care should be taken to avoid depletion or degradation of riverine

environment. In this regard careful planning and designing of ecologically sound management plan is the only option. The aqua faunal diversity of the entire region is under severe threat and calls for critical management actions before it becomes irremediable. From the detail study some measures are suggested for conservation of the aqua resources of Brahmaputra. Some of them are-  Creation of consciousness among the fishers regarding the importance of aqua faunal diversity and their proper utilization.  The checklist of aqua fauna of the river should be updated regularly which will help in formulation and proper implementation of sustainable development programmes.

 Application of ecohydrological tools to restore the aquatic habitats of the river

 Ecological modeling of River Brahmaputra in respect to flood to build a strong database.

 Application of advanced tools like remote sensing and GIS to set up appropriate model to predict and assess the prized fish stock from both economic and conservation point of view.

 Prevention of river bank erosion through phytoremediation techniques viz. plantation of vetivera in sloping of the bank along with engineering tools (geo-fabrication) should be encouraged.

 Fishers should be diverted towards culture fishery specially cage culture in river to decrease the stress on the wild stock.

 Training should be provided for rejuvenation of endangered fish species like Tor sp. of the river.

 Recovery plan of species in the form of breeding units should be installed in selected suitable areas.

 Unauthorized collection and collection by illegal means, violation of fisheries laws etc. should be monitored by the concerned officials.

 Some stretches of the river which is the main fishing zones should be specifically identified for effective restoration measures.

 Generation of alternative livelihood with the available resources may add conservation attitude.

Ornamental fish industry- New avenue for livelihood in Brahmaputra basin and need for a public aquarium

The Brahmaputra river system and its associated floodplain wetlands (beels) in Assam are endowed with a good number of indigenous ornamental fishes. Fishes of the genera Channa, Anabus, Botia, Danio, Trichogaster, Esomus, Rasbora, Mystus, Nandus, Badis, Sisor, Chaca, etc. native to this part of the country have adorning the aquariums worldwide now a day. As such, rearing and marketing of indigenous ornamental fishes can be taken up as a means of amiable livelihood involving particularly the women folk of this region. However, presently most of the locally available potential ornamental fishes have been unauthorizedly collected by traders operating from outside the state. The entire demand of export of these fishes met through wild collection. Besides this, wild fish-stock of these ornamental fishes of this region dwindling very rapidly in recent times due to habitat degradation and growing human interventions on aquatic ecosystems.

In recent years a good deal of work has been carried out on ecology and fisheries of ornamental fishes in upper Assam (Bania, 2011; Biswas and Boruah, 2000; Biswas et al, 2004; Choudhury et al, 2005; Das and Biswas, 2005; Das et al, 2006; Das et al, 2007). A total of 148 species of potentially culturable ornamental fish species have already identified from the upper Brahmaputra basin. Again, there is vast scope for culture of indigenous ornamental fishes. Therefore, technology generation for captive breeding of some of the selected endemic ornamental varieties is the need of the hour. But to go for this, brood stock development of the same species is of utmost importance which is often neglected by all groups of people. It would definitely be the first step for the most viable alternative available to fulfill the export demand of these fishes and reducing the pressure on their natural fish stock of the region along with ensuring employment opportunities.

However, aquatic habitats of Bahmaputra basin are increasingly being affected by the human activities (Bania & Biswas, 2008) along with the natural factors. In most of the areas, people are directly or indirectly dependent on the

resources. Majority of the people in many places earn their livelihood from fishing in the water resources throughout the year.

However, there is an impending danger of drastic reduction in natural population of certain fish species if the present mode of exploitation continues unabated. The present practice of exporting native ornamental fishes based on natural collection alone is not a sustainable practice and may have serious implications in view of the fact that eight of the potential ornamental fish species of Assam have already been assessed to be threatened (Bhattacharyya et al, 2003). No attempt has been made so far for propagation of majority of fish species for sustainable trade. Rearing of ornamental fish species as well as captive breeding can be a suitable option of livelihood for the people of this region. For breeding purpose brooders of equal size, age and sex are of prime importance as dependence on wild collection for breeding is highly challenging and also risky for profitable production purpose unless the young ones selected from the nature and reared in captivity to make them brood stock. In view of these, focus on developing brood stock of threatened ornamental fishes like murrel (Channa aurantimaculata), restricted to certain pockets of Assam only which may generate additional employment opportunities for the people of this region.

The entire supply of Indian ornamental fish is primarily dependent on wild catch (85 per cent) and a few artificially bred varieties (15 per cent) of exotic fish. Increasing agribusiness opportunities of these live fishes in the world market could be a matter of concern for the sustainability of this natural wealth in the long run, since the supply is entirely dependent on wild catch. As stated Brahmaputra basin has vast resource of fish germplasm. Among the fishes identified till date, 148 species were found to have ornamental value. Air breathing fishes like Channa aurantimaculata is the prized species of murrel group which are endemic to this region. The market price of these species ranges from Rs. 250-300/kg. Both of these species are the wetland dwellers and their distribution is restricted in some pockets of the region only. The wetlands of Dibru-Saikhowa and its surrounding especially Maguri and Khamti Gohali beel are the most suitable

habitats for these species (Bania, 2011). Due to over exploitation and ecological degradation these species are not available frequently although earlier found as dominant species. According to CAMP (1998), the status of these species falls under threatened category. However, their propagation and culture has never been attempted. So, there is an urgent need to develop the brood stock as the first step to generate the technology for captive breeding of these indigenous threatened ornamental varieties for future sustainability which would be one of the most viable alternatives for the people solely dependent on the natural water bodies of Dibru Saikhowa for their earning. On the other hand contribute to sustainability of ornamental fish trade.

Keeping fishes indoor is a rewarding hobby enticing people of all ages, of all social and economic strata of the society. Household that owned an aquarium with fishes often develops an emotional attachment to them and recent findings also suggest its meditative role in certain disorders. Further keeping fishes as pets in an aquarium perhaps provide the best opportunity to avail the lifestyle a particular fish adopts in nature that often attracts people since time immemorial. For all these reasons and considering the wide range of benefits to the household and the society, ornamental fishes are rightly been called as ‘live jewel’. Information on natural fish stock, particularly their distribution pattern, habitat preferences, population structure, biodiversity status etc. are vey essential for undertaking programmes on sustainable utilization and effective conservation of available fish germplasm resources.

North East India particularly Brahmaputra basin of Assam is virtually a granary of freshwater ornamental fish species. In fact the region is abode of many endemic and rare varieties of fish having potential ornamental value. But it is very sad to mention that there is a lack of a public aquarium in the Brahmaputra basin. Keeping in view the prospective market and the livelihood it can be therefore, proposed to set up a public aquarium, first of its kind in Assam for live gene banking of indigenous ornamental fish at the bank of Brahmaputra at any convenient site where locally available ornamental fish species of the Brahmaputra basin will be displayed for visitors particularly for school and college students. This idea will

definitely help in establishment of a live gene bank for indigenous ornamental fish species of the Brahmaputra basin as well as raising awareness among different stakeholder for conservation of indigenous ornamental fish

As mentioned earlier keeping colourful and fancy fishes, popularly known as aquarium fishes or live jewel is one of the oldest and most popular hobbies of the world. However, freshwater ornamental fish for international trade are mostly procured from wild stock. More and more fishes have been domesticated and popularized for business purpose. Over 2500 species are traded globally and some 30-35 species of fresh water fish dominate in the international market. Not only the attractiveness and colour, but also the rarity is important in an export market. The wholesale value of the global ornamental fish trade is estimated to be US dollar 1bn while the retail value is USdollar 6bn. The entire industry including accessories and fish feed is estimated to be worth more than US dollar 14bn. The Indian ornamental fish sector is a small but vibrant segment, with potential for tremendous growth and large scale gainful employment generation. At present the ornamental fish export from India is dominated by the wild caught species, which cater to a small portion of the global market. 90% of the freshwater ornamental fish species exported from India is caught from North Eastern region particularly from the Brahmaputra drainage system. This has causes a gradual depletion of many rare and endemic species of the region. In fact, the pressure of exploitation is so intense that certain endemic species is on the verge of extinction. Under this backdrop, the concept of setting up of public aquarium is the need of the hour which will act as live gene bank for indigenous ornamental fish species of the region, which will not only help in conservation of fish diversity but also generate awareness about aquarium fish among the younger generation to take it as entrepreneurship. The aquarium is expected to attract tourists of all age group and help in revenue generation besides conservation of the native ornamental species

The collection of indigenous ornamental fish species should be done from throughout the Brahmaputra basin.

While thinking of public aquarium some technical pointed that should be taken care of are-

 Ornamental fishes should be collected from the Brahmaputra basin and acclimatized them in separate enclosures  The quarantine measure should be taken for a varying period depending on the species and life stages of the species to be stocked for rearing.  Adequate care should be taken for combination of species for stocking in aquarium  Standard method should be followed for maintenance of water quality and fish health  During installation of aquarium, provision should be made for adequate lighting arrangement, filtration, water recirculation etc.

Keeping of aquarium has emerged as the second most popular hobby in recent years, next to photography. Perhaps, China is the pioneer in adopting aquarium fish as hobby. The world’s first public aquarium was established in England in 1853, and now about 500 public aquarium exists throughout the world. The ever existing demand for aquarium fishes gradually paved the avenue towards global trade of ornamental fishes. The world trade of ornamental fish is valued at about US 427.29 million (FAO, 2001). India’s overall trade presently is over Rs. 150 million. About 80% of ornamental fishes from India to International market are exported via Kolkata Airport of which the lion’s share (more than 80%) is contributed from North East region.

The Brahmaputra is blessed with diverse types of water bodies in the form of hill streams, torrential streams, brooks, wetlands etc which harbours a great array of ornamental fish species. 167 species of fish has been reported from upper Brahmaputra basin while Das et al (2006) highlighted the indigenous ornamental fishes from rivers of upper Assam. Bania (2011) reported 108 species from the Dibru Saikhowa National Park out of which 84 species are ornamental in nature.

Expected social and economic benefits of ornament fish industry and public aquarium

 Will facilitate conservation and awareness on indigenous ornamental fish species  Documentation of potential ornamental fish species of the region  Will act as knowledge and recreational centre for the society  To impart firsthand experience on setting up of aquaria and maintenance  Revenue generation through opening to the visitors

Sustainable development of aquatic resources calls upon alternative livelihood options to minimize the pressure on the wild stock. Unless the minimum requirements of the low income group people who are solely dependent on the aquatic resources for their daily need are met, effective management of the same is not possible and protection and conservation measures may fail. In view of all these, development of ornamental fish sector is expected to ensure employment to the poor section of the society through promotion of small-scale cottage industry of ornamental fish. Hands on training on rearing and breeding technology of ornamental fish and other related maters viz packing, transportation etc will make the people self-sufficient to promote it as a small-scale industry. Discussion with the experts, local communities, fisher, Fishery department officials, fish traders and local conservationists during the study period, some important points came to notice which is hindering the development of this sector. These are  Very few people with an adequate educational background have ventured into the line  The initial capital costs are a bit high and here is a gap between investment and return  The risk factor involved  Entrepreneurs are still shortage of knowledge and facility for veterinary advice and medication in the event of disease outbreak  Lack of sufficient loan and subsidies for entrepreneurs

 Lack of infrastructure particularly non availability of low cost proper fish feed, raw material and other accessories in rural areas, far away from township and  Lack of information regarding customs, procedures, animal quarantine, wild life etc In spite of this entire hurdle, some species highly demanded in market for export came to light during survey. Moreover, local collector always has a problem of not getting the actual price due to the middleman. Table- List of some ornamental fish species of Brahmaputra drainage system having high export demand

Sl No Scientific Name Local Name Habitat preference

1 Gudusia Chapra Koroti River, Beel

2 Notopterus notopterus Kandui River, Beel

3 Chela laubuca Boriola Stream, River

4 Danio acquipinatus Darikona Stream, River

5 D. dangila Darikona Stream, River

6 Devario deario Darikona Stream, River

7 Esomus danricus Phul River, Beel dorikona

8 Puntius conchonius Puthi River, Beel

9 P. sophore Puthi River, Beel

10 P. ticto Kani puthi River, Beel

11 Raimas bola Korang River, Stream

12 Psylorinchus balitora Balitora Stream

13 Acanthobotis botia Botia Stream, River, Beel

14 Botia rostrata Botia Stream, River, Beel

15 Botia Dario Rani Stream, River, Beel

16 Mystus tengara Singora River, Beel

17 M. vittatus Singora River, Beel

18 Chaca chaca Kurkuri Beel

19 Nandus nandus Gedgedi River, Beel

20 Bads badis Kolia jora River, Beel

21 Badis assamensis Kolia jora River, Beel

22 Polyacanthus fasciatus Khalihona Beel

23 P. lalia Khalihona Beel

24 P. sota Khalihona Beel

25 Channa barca Naga Cheng Beel

26 C. aurantimaculata Phul Cheng Beel

27 Macrognathus aculeatus Tura River, Beel

28 Mastacembelus armaus Bami River, Beel

29 M. pancalus Bami River, Beel

30 Tetradon cutcutia Gangatoop River, Beel

Flood plains of Brahmaputra- Habitat shrinkage and the conservation needs

Assam is blessed with the two major river systems, the Barak and the Brahmaputra. Dotted with the tributaries of the major river, the mighty Brahmaputra and being in the high rainfall zone, the state of Assam possesses a mosaic of varying sizes of wetlands ranging from lentic to lotic habitats. Moreover, a large number of wetlands are created due to the frequent change of the river course basically for the mighty Brahmaputra and its tributaries. The change of many of the river courses forms a network just like blood vessels resulting in the formation of number of wetlands in its plains as in Dibru-Saikhowa area. More than thirty perennial as well as seasonal wetlands of various sizes with high biological diversity in respect to both flora and fauna have been documented from Dibru-Saikhowa National Park. These wetlands harbour a wide variety of aquafauna ranging from tiny rotifers, small fishes to the giant turtles inhabiting in its diverse habitats. Beel- the term used to coin the wetlands in Assam is unique in nature. They have a great role to play in preserving the earth’s fragile eco-system and are regarded as direct or indirect life supporting systems for millions of living beings having immense socio economic and cultural importance. They are crucial habitats for many types of plants and animals, represent one of the highest levels of species diversity and richness and provide many ecosystem services including flood control, improvement of water quality and play most important role in global carbon and methane cycles.

But their values are often overlooked. They are crucial habitats for many types of plants and animals and support a rich variety of waterfowl and aquatic organisms, represent one of the highest levels of species diversity and richness and provide many ecosystem services including flood control and improvement of water quality.

Wetlands are water bodies of diverse origin, size, shape, depth inundation pattern, ecological characteristics etc. which are under severe threat in the state now. Siltation is a major factor attributing to the dynamism of the associated beels. Excess floodplain siltation alters habitats, causing species decline or disappearance. Very

often these beels are found connected with the parent river through a connecting channel and often termed as open beel while those not connected to the river are termed as the closed beel. During monsoon season the flood water inundates the open beels and there is virtually no demarcation between river and the connected beels (Bania, 2011).

Diversity of Wetland

As per the recent report of National Wetland Atlas of Assam prepared under National Wetland Inventory and Assessment (NWIA, 2010) Project, Assam has wetland of 764372 ha area spreading over the twin valleys of the Brahmaputra and the Barak. A total of 5097 wetlands have been registered during the survey along with 6081 small wetlands having area less than 2.25 ha majority of which are tanks. The estimated total wetland area is around 9.74 percent of the geographic area. The major wetland types are River/Stream accounting for 84percent of the wetlands (637164ha), Lake/Ponds (51257ha), waterlogged (47141ha) and Ox-bow lakes (14173ha). There are two reservoir/barrarges mapped with 2833 ha area, which is the major man made wetland types.

Table - Wetland resources of Assam

Wetland Category No of Total wetland % of wetlands area (ha) wetland area

Inland Wetlands - Natural

Lakes/Ponds 1175 51275 6 .71

Ox-bow lakes/ Cut-off 873 14173 1 .85 meanders

Riverine wetlands 139 4258 0 .56

Waterlogged 2461 47141 6 .17

River/Stream 213 637164 83 .63

Inland Wetlands – Manmade

Reservoirs/Barrages 2 2833 0 .37

Tanks/Ponds 180 921 0.12

Waterlogged 54 544 0 .07

SubTotal 5097 758291 99.20

Wetlands (<2.25 ha) 6081 6081 0 .80

Total 11178 764372 100 .00

Table - District wise distribution of wetlands in Assam

District Number Area % of of (ha) district wetland Geographic area

Kokrajhar 434 24833 7.94

Dhuburi 580 56538 19.92

Goalpara 491 33221 18.21

Bongaigaon 268 22149 8.82

Barpeta 352 59038 18.19

Kamrup 842 43655 10.05

Nalbari 384 20140 8.92

Darrang 605 48983 14.07

Morigaon 465 28737 16.86

Nagaon 965 35695 9.32

Sonitpur 1229 83427 15.67

Lakhimpur 692 27307 11.99

Dhemaji 495 33468 10.34

Tinisukia 662 40626 10.72

Dibrugarh 751 72461 21.43

Sivasagar 789 12582 4.72

Jorhat 588 45979 16.13

Golaghat 548 43635 12.46

Karbi 206 5810 0.56 Anglong

N.C.Hills 59 6619 1.35

Cachar 257 10419 2.75

Karimganj 193 6450 3.57

Hailakandi 82 2600 1.96

Source: NWIA Report, 2011

Factors contributing to shrinkage of wetland

As stated earlier, most of the beels of Assam are located in the floodplains of the Brahmaputra, as such when the river continuously widens with every passing year due to severe bank erosion, the average depth of the river is found continuously decreased and the river becomes braided in many areas. As a result shallow channels sometime totally dried up during winter. Heavy siltation not only raised the river bed but also blocked connecting channel of beels, preventing auto- stocking of fish and auto-removal of floating macrophytes during monsoon months resulting in extermination of wetland species. Excessive siltation of the connecting channels of beels severely affects their recharge during the rainy season (Boruah and Biswas, 2010). Consequently, riverine fish species cannot enter and depletion of fish stocks has become inevitable. A sharp decline in the catch of Indian Major Carps (IMC) is stated to be due to the loss of spawning grounds of IMC in the Brahmaputra as well in almost all of its major tributaries. Very often siltation may result in complete degeneration of wetlands. Borkur beel of Dibrugarh is a recent example. Moreover, the flash flood of Dhemaji and Lakhimpur districts are reported to cover up the wetlands with heavy silt load carried by the rivers flowing through it.

Indiscriminate killing of fish by using pesticides and other illegal devices is a major threat to the already depleted fishery resources of the floodplain lakes. The use of explosives and poison for killing fishes destroy the biota and the water quality as well. Over exploitation of resources mainly fish from the wetlands coupled with conversion of low-lying land for agricultural purposes have already threatened the wetland habitat as seen in Maguri beel (Bania, 2011). Wanton killing of fishes by using pesticides and explosives in the mouth of channels is also detrimental to wetland ecosystem. Jeng or katal fishing, a process of collecting large number of fishes by encircling a specified area of a beel with the help of mosquito net during dry months is very common in most of the wetlands in upper Assam which is also responsible for depletion of brood stock of commercial species in the wetlands.

Another cause of great concern is the shrinkage of wetland area due to excessive anthropogenic activities. Conversion of wetland for human settlement and agricultural developments, road constructions, construction of bridge over the wetland and dam in the upstream of connected river, dumping of solid wastes, unsustainable levels of grazing and fishing activities will lead to substantial economic and ecological losses in the long term. The lake of boundary demarcation of the wetland habitats indirectly encourages the illegal encroachment as well as the insensitive approach to wetland values results in garbage dumping too. Other degrading factors include excessive eutrophication due to nutrient and organic matter loading. Many of the wetlands even in the forest area near the oil fields are used as the dumping ground for the untreated oil effluents and the municipal wastes converting them to uplands, causing pollution as well, as in case of Upper Dehing Reserve Forest under Digboi Forest Division. Efforts to clean up these areas has also been made by the Department of Forest, is no doubt a step in positive direction. The Merbeel of Dibrugarh is also affected by the wastes of Oil India Limited, Duliajan. Besides, construction of oil pipelines near the wetland area or over it has also been observed in many places of upper Assam including Maguri beel (Pers comm., Jainal Abedin). The site inspection report regarding oil and gas pipelines in upper Assam under the proposal for use of 114.267 ha of non forestland falling within 10kms from the boundary of Dibru-Saikhowa National Park and Borjan-Bherjan Padumani Wildlife Sanctuary for laying of crude oil pipeline by Oil India Ltd., prepared by M. D. Madhusudan and Prerna Singh Bindra and submitted to the Standing Committee of the National Board for Wildlife showed their concern that the EIA for this project was very generic and does not consider the specific ecological values of the Maguri- Motapung beel and the specific risks involved in aligning a crude oil and gas pipeline beneath the wetland, which is very rich ecologically. The report also stated that any risk of leakage/spillage in this stretch could have far-reaching impacts.

In-spite of all the protests against the construction of oil pipeline through the Maguri beel at Tinsukia, wildlife divison of Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF & CC) has given green signal to the Oil India Ltd. vide F. No. 6-47/2014 WL (31st Meeting) dated 03-12-2014. As per the order, the proposal

for use of 114.267 ha of non forestland falling within 10kms from the boundary of Dibru-Saikhowa National Park and Borjan-Bherjan Padumani Wildlife Sanctuary for laying of crude oil pipeline by Oil India Ltd. has been recommended. It also covers the Maguri beel, the rich diversified area (Pers comm. Jainal Abedin). The leakage of crude oil from the oil pipe line adversely affects the aquatic biota including the wild animals using the water body for their biological need. The open cast coal mining in Ledo area of Tinsukia district has also been reported to deteriorate the water quality of the existing water bodies of nearby area causing them almost unproductive. All these unplanned shortsighted anthropogenic activities have resulted in rendering the eco-system integrity of many of the beels of Assam in peril. Pollution from industry and agriculture is an additional impact on fish stocks. Assam has around 800 tea gardens leaving the gardens of small tea grower which form the bulk of tea industry in India. Almost all the gardens (leaving one or two in Margherita) use chemical pesticides and herbicides which are drained to the nearby beels with the rainwater. Biswas (2001) also reported that habitat degradation, wanton fishing of brood and juveniles and lack of proper fishing policy caused gradual depletion of the population of a good number of species which were fairly common in this part of the country not very long ago. Consequently, the aquatic biodiversity of the wetlands are already under severe threat and if immediate and effective conservation measures are not taken up, it is feared that many important aquatic species will be wiped out in near future.

Initiative by the Government

Government of Assam has declared the only Ramsar site of the state-Deepor beel as Wildlife Sanctuary in 2009. The Department of Forest and Environment has taken this initiative to assure complete protection of the habitat. At the same time, the proposal for inclusion of another four beels viz. Sone beel, Kaziranga, Dhirbeel and Bordoibam – Bilmukh in the Ramsar Convention bring hope for the wetland conservationists. Another 15 numbers of beels were selected for inclusion in the National Wetland Conservation Programme. They are- Chandubi, Sohla, Arimora Borbeel, Khaliamari (Golaghat), Mer beel (Dibrugarh), Jamging (Dhemaji), Harlani,

Khaliamari, Roumari, Goroimari, Lathimari (Nagaon), Hareswar (Dhuburi), Bhereki (Majuli), Joysagar Tank and Gourisagar tank (Sivasagar). The final decision is however awaited. Furthermore, the government has worked out the management initiatives to develop some of the wetlands including Deepor beel under Assam Project on Forest and Biodiversity Conservation.

Securing the future - The policy issues

The growing concern about the conservation of wetland biodiversity or biodiversity as a whole has led the search for more eco-friendly, sustainable and more effective as well as economic strategies. Identification of the key drivers of wetland change and adoption of suitable mitigation measures is the only way to combat the loss of wetland habitats. Therefore, probable natural and anthropogenic factors should be quantified and their adverse impacts should be shared with the common people to make them aware the needs of wetland conservation, thus making them a vital part of the conservation programme. It cannot be denied that the Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 issued by the Government of India (under the Environment protection Act, 1986) is not at all successful providing security to these threatened habitats which call for the need of revisiting the rule. This Rules has rarely been implemented in last couple of years to restore, classify and update the documentation of ecologically and economically important wetlands of the state which really needs protection (Das, 2014). The ‘Assam Hill Land and Ecological sites (Protection and Management) Act, 2006’ was also not effectively implemented for the state. Likewise, “Guwahati Water Bodies (Preservation and Conservation) Act, 2008” was a hope for conservation of the residual water bodies of Guwahati city, which again failed due to the poor implementation.

Role of Government and NGO’s

The nongovernmental organizations working in the field of wetland conservations in Assam is demanding special act for wetlands of Assam through formation of the State Authority of Wetlands highlighting the importance of riverine connectivity along with the Deepor beel Wetland Authority for conservation and management of the said unique water bodies. The issue has drawn the attention of

scientific community not only in national but also in global level. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)’s initiative for ecosystem for life - A India- Bangladesh Initiative has validated the fact including Deepor beel as their one of the study sites. Being a part of this programme through Aaranyak, the author raised the riverine connectivity and fisheries issues in various national and international platforms. Nevertheless, deep understanding on wetlands is the call of the hour to meet the need for clean and measurable values and services they provide basically to inform and evaluate option for a development scheme. A concerted effort of all the stakeholders including Department of Forest and Environment, Fishery, Irrigation, Revenue, Water Resource Management, Soil Conservation, Tourism, DRDA, PWD, technocrats, nongovernmental organizations along with the communities can only achieve the desired goal and development in true sense.

Need for community led Wetland Management Plan

At this summit, lack of ‘Wetland Management Plan’ is highly felt. The ownership issue of wetlands is not very much transparent in Assam and cannot be neglected while thinking of overall development. According to the available reports, only 430 numbers of beels are registered which can be leased out. The rest are still unregistered. The lease holder, in general uses the beel only for harvesting fish of their own interest without any investment and ranching. Thus, collection of a particular species may result in rapid declination of the said species. To prevent this type of monotony and to go for sustainable development of these habitats in the long run, one cannot refute the dearth of proper management plan in Assam. A community led multidisciplinal-multistakeholder wetland management plan owned by the community is the need of the day which can only revive our wetlands for longer duration with desired development. The successful implementation of this new concept in ground though seems very simple but needs constant effort with careful handling so as to deal with the sensitive issues of communities without harming the ethnicity.

Exit Protocol for ensuring sustainability

For long term sustainability of these flood plain wetlands of Brahmaputra, the local communities must be strengthened to run the management of the wetland after the completion of any development programme. Special care should be taken to prepare the local community to implement the desired activities necessary for enrichment of wetland resources. Distribution of benefits from wetland management should also be insured without any conflict in the locality.

Way forward

The growing concern about the conservation of wetland biodiversity has led the search for more eco-friendly, sustainable and more effective as well as economic strategies. Identification of the key drivers of wetland change and adoption of suitable mitigation measures is the only way to combat the loss of wetland habitats. Therefore, probable natural and anthropogenic factors should be quantified and their adverse impacts should be shared with the common people to make them aware the needs of wetland conservation, thus making them a vital part of the conservation programme (Bania, 2014).

The sustainable exploitation of wetland resources and developing efficient markets for the resultant produce is critical to durable enhancement of local livelihoods. Shifting of capture to culture fishery may also restore the already degraded wetland fisheries other than employment generation. Several other options are also available in this regard that may be relevant to Assam. This includes development of cottage industry like manufacturing of fishing gear, nets and bamboo products, development of short term fish culture including cage culture, captive breeding of aquarium fish, animal husbandry, involvement of womenfolk in handicraft business, apiculture, horticulture, cultivation of economically important wetland plants viz. Euryale ferox, Trapa natans, Vallisneria sp., production of organic manure, which acts for poverty reduction as well as conservation of wetland resources. But the task of exposing rural women of socio economically backward area (like Dibru Saikhowa) to new technologies that can help them to generate income and improve quality of life is really challenging and needs determined efforts by all the players..

Further, Assam has vast potential to develop the tourism industry with the available wetland resources of river Brahmaputa which will serve not only for employment generation but also for conservation of natural resources. Emphasis should be given for the development of a new concept of “geo-tourism”. Development of ornamental fishery and setting up of public aquaria in particular places of interest (for instance at Dibru Saikhwa or Deepor beel) with a good number of endemic fish species will surely add conservation attitude to the ecotourism sector besides providing revenue. More importantly, many beels like Maguri beel of Tinsukia district in upper Assam has already become a tourist attraction for its hundreds of residential and migratory birds.

A case study on Deepor Beel: The Ramsar site and the most prominent flood plain wetland of Brahmaputra The genesis Deepor Beel Wildlife Sanctuary and the Ramsar site of international importance recognized under the Ramsar Convention, 1971, located about 18 km southwest of Guwahati city between 90036∕ 39∕∕ E and 91041∕∕25∕∕ E longitude and 26005∕26∕∕ N and 2609∕26∕∕ N latitude and 55 m above the mean sea level is considered as one of the largest and prominent flood-plain lakes in the Brahmaputra valley in Ramcharani Mouza of Guwahati sub-division under Kamrup (Metropolitan) district. Deepor Beel included in the Directory of Asian Wetlands as a wetland type 14 is an open beel connected with a set of inflow and out flow channels. The main inlets of the beel are the Mara Bharalu and the Basishtha-Bahini rivers which carry the sewage as well as rain water from Guwahati city. The only outlet of the beel is Khanajan located towards the north-east having connection with the main river Brahmaputra. Another outlet, Kalmoni has now no existence due to the rampant construction over the channel.

Conservation History of Deepor Beel

1989: Preliminary notification of Deepor Beel Wildlife Sanctuary vide FRW 1∕89∕25, 12

January (Area - 4.1sq. km.)

1997: Formation of Deepor beel Management Authority by Government of Assam

2002: Declaration of Ramsar site (Area - 40 sq. km.)

2004: Declaration of Important Bird Area (IBA) by Birdlife International

2009: Final notification of Deepor Beel Wildlife Sanctuary vide FRM 140∕2005∕260, 21

February (Area - 4.1sq. km.)

Species Richness The beel, spread over an area of 40sq km (notified sanctuary area is 414 hectare but practically possessed area 412 hectare) is reported to support a number of IUCN red-listed species. It has both biological and environmental importance besides

being the only major rain water storage basin for Guwahati city. The beel also harbours around 61 species of fishes (Gogoi, 2014), regularly harvested by the local inhabitants for their livelihood. Because of the richness of avian fauna, Deepor Beel has also been selected as one of the Important Bird Area (IBA) by Birdlife International. A good number of tourists visit this wildlife sanctuary basically for boating and birding as well as to enjoy the scenic beauty of the wetland. The beel harbours rich fauna that includes 19 species of mammals 11 species of amphibian and 32 species of reptiles (11 species of lizard, 13 species of snake, 8 species of turtles). However, the beel is famous for its 230 species of avian fauna (14 are schedule-I, WPA, 1972) including about 70 species of migratory birds. The wetland provides critical habitat for 18 globally threatened bird species including the critically endangered white-rumped vulture, long-billed vulture, red headed vulture and endangered Great Adjutant Stork. Moreover, wild elephant, Chinese porcupines, sambar, barking deer are often seen around the beel area (Gogoi, 2014). The Rani Reserve Forest is the main catchment area of this wildlife sanctuary. The beel has also been playing crucial role in catering the biological need of elephant population of Rani and Garbhanga Reserve Forest with other important mammals of the area. Furthermore, the rich diversity of aquatic vegetation along with other micro and macro aqua fauna is not far behind in catching the attention of the ecologists. Threats encountered The cruel fact is that Deepor beel is gradually losing its rich ecosystem and biodiversity due to negligence and mismanagement. Concrete wall erected by various groups here and there are not only destroying the natural beauty of the beel but also blocking the corridors for movement of wild animals. Increased human settlement, urbanization, construction of roads and industries (brick kiln for instance) on the eastern and north eastern sides of the Deepor beel are identified as major threats to the water body. However, lack of demarcation of the beel area even after declaration of Wildlife Sanctuary is also actually encourages the encroachers. Garbage dumping in the periphery area (Boragaon) by the Guwahati Municipal Corporation is deteriorating the water quality as revealed from the mortality of fish from time to time. Besides, pollution due to construction of broad gauge line in the periphery

coupled with the high frequency of vehicular traffic in the area, disturb the tranquility of the entire area resulting lower number of migratory birds in Deepor beel in recent years. Local people are not adverse to the development of the beel, but not at the cost of losing their fishing rights in the beel. The livelihood issue is a major concern for the wildlife authority to take up management plans for improvement of the Ramsar site. Hope for future The Assam Science Technology and Environment Council (ASTEC) took the initiative for restoration of the beel by excavating the beel bed for enhancement of its water holding capacity (Kaushik, 2014). The Aaranyak group headed by Partha J Das is constantly urging to clean up the connected channels of the beel to protect the Guwahati city from the havoc of artificial flood problem as observed during last couple of years which reached its peak in 2014. Another most important issue to be redressed is the minimization of anthropogenic pressure on the beel area. The Forest department including Divisional Forest Officer, Guwahati Wildlife Division, D. D. Gogoi have shown their keen interest to divert the directly dependent local groups providing alternative livelihood through Eco-Development Committees and to bring about a management plan for Deepor beel. On the other hand, inclusion of raising plantation of single trees of suitable species around the beel to provide shelter for birds and removal of excess aquatic weeds to develop the beel, in the management plan is surely a step towards right direction. Finally, demarcation of the beel area, preventive steps for encroachment and settlement of the periphery area, complete ban on garbage dumping are the major concerns to save the residual ecosystem of Deepor beel.

Contribution of Brahmaputra towards hill fishery aquaculture

The diverse habitats of Brahmaputra basin harbour more than 35 percent of the total freshwater fishes of India. Moreover, the hill fishery resources of the region are still not explored properly. As such, the region is not developing as per the rest of the country which needs to be understood before the threshold limit. Lack of scientific interventions, virgin and terrible topography, shortage of skilled human resources etc. are attributed for this. The hill fishery resources are declining rapidly with the growing time due to habitat loss, alteration, siltation, deforestation, prevention of natural river flow, climate change coupled with lack of scientific technological intervention. Keeping all these in view, some candidate species suitable for hill fishery aqua culture is suggested. The first successful breeding of Silghoria (Labeo pangusia) and Nepura (Labeo dero) are also highlighted is this writeup. The efforts of establishing the first ever flow through golden mahseer hatchery and brood bank for entire northern India for propagation of mahseer has also been discussed.

This Brahmaputra valley falls under part of Eastern Himalayan zone characterized by varied agro climatic and geographical speciation in terms of topography, temperature, rainfall and soil. All types of physical formations from alluvial plains to tableland, low hills and fertile valleys are found in this zone. The eco climatic condition of the region with huge diversified plants and animal aboding this region making it one of the seventeenth biodiversity hotspots in the world. The different topographical conditions ranging from flood plains of Brahmaputra to hill streams forms huge cope for fishery development.

This region has more than 35 percent of nation’s total freshwater including glacial streams, rivers, beels and reservoirs. The eco climatic zone in this region of fresh water fisheries ranges from warm water drainage system to cold water condition. This results vast and varied fisheries resource abounds in the form of rivers, lakes, wetlands, reservoirs and vast flood plains giving the scope for a huge

diversity of fish germplasm. The hill fisheries resources and cold water fisheries are mostly concentrated in the foothills of Assam.

Some potential candidate species for hill aquaculture recorded from River Brahmaputra

A good number of fishes are available in the hill aqua resources. Still depending upon the demand and considering the suitability for production purpose, some of species available in Brahmaputra drainage system has been suggested for commercial culture which is expected to cover the market very easily with high return. These are -

Labeo pangusia

The high valued minor carp, Labeo pangusia (Hamilton) locally known as Silghoria belongs to the cyprinidae group with a wide distribution in the entire Himalayan region (India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Myanmar). This species commonly known as the rohu of the hilly region, prefers the deeper pools of upland rivers and streams with sand and boulder type bed as that of mahseer. The fish grows fairly big size (about 65cm) and highly tasty. Because of this the fish is highly preferred and rampantly caught which ultimately results with the depletion of this species in the wild stock. IUCN has categorized this endemic species as near threatened which calls for much conservation effort to sustain in its natural abode.

The species attains table size (approx 25cm) by the end of first year of age (Biswas, 1982). The maturity of L. pangusia starts from April onwards. Both the male and female attains maturity at 2nd year of life at 25-30cm length (Biswas, 2010). Spawning is reported from last part of May with the onset of monsoon rain which extends up to August. As far as feeding habit is concerned, it is detriphagus in nature and hence mostly depends on the periphyton and detritus of the river bed.

The culture of L. pangusia in the upland ponds of Assam and North East as well is not common due to lack of seedlings. As such, a trial has been carried out at Nameri Eco Camp, Patasali, Tezpur, Assam to breed the fish in captivity with synthetic hormones with the brood stock collected from River and reared for couple

of years in well aerated controlled ponds. The trial is successful in July, 2015 with production of more than 4 lakh spawns which created the record for 1st time successful breeding of the endemic species.

Labeo dero

The cyprinid, Labeo dero (Hamilton) or Bangana dero (Hamilton), another candidate species for culture fishery is highly priced as food fish. It has wide distribution in River Brahmaputra and its tributaries, Himalayan foot hills in India, Nepal, and China even in Bangladesh. Labeo dero is an important food and game fish. This minor carp of north eastern India is characterized by the presence of a groove along the snout, the snout being often covered by pores; the anterior dorsal convexity changes gradually to a concave profile, giving it an elegant slender appearance (Vishwanath, 2010). Its flesh is well flavored and highly esteemed as food. It attains a length of about 75 cm and can readily be caught with cast-nets.

Data on reproduction biology of Labeo dero is very rare due lack of study. The species prefers to inhabit in torrential hill-streams in shallow waters. Adults are reported to migrate to warmer regions of lakes and streams during winter. Since the fish is a torrential hill stream species, rapid decline in these habitats, dams and other human activities are the possible threats. IUCN has categorized this species as least concerned. Still, investigation is needed to determine whether or not this species is experiencing a decline, or is undergoing natural population fluctuations.

The first report of captive breeding of this species in Assam too is at the fish farm of Nameri Eco Camp, Tezpur. The first successful breeding was in the first part of July, 2015 which opens up the hope for restoration of the species in its habitat through commercial cultivation of the same in upland ponds.

Semiplotus semiplotus

The Assamese king fish (Raja mach), Semiplotus semiplotus belongs to cyprinidae family which is highly restricted to the Brahmaputra drainage in Nepal and North East India. It is mandatory to mention that this prized vulnerable species of eastern Himalaya is endemic to the region. This vulnerable species groups up to

the maximum length of 20cm. The species prefers the habitat with well vegetation, adequate covers and refuges with boulder substratum where water temperature varies from 14.27 to 25.78oC and possesses adequate dissolved oxygen. Semiplotus is herbivorous in nature and prefers plankton. Sexes can be identified with morphological observation. The length of firth maturity varies from 151-160mm in case of male whereas 146.22-151.51mm in case of female (Bagra, 2012).

Tor putitora

The cyprinid, Golden Mahseer (Tor putitora) is the most demanded sport fish among all groups of anglers. The species is distributed all along the Himalayas, Assam, J&K, Sikkim, Uttarakhand, H.P., Afghanistan, Bangladesh, China, Myanmar, Nepal and Pakistan. This species has an oblong compressed body covered with large cycloid scales having golden orange tinge. Body greenish dorsally, light pink laterally, silvery white ventrally. Tip of caudal fin is orange in colour. The fish remains omnivorous during larval stage, carnivorous during juvenile stage and herbivorous during adult stage. It mainly feeds on filamentous algae, insect larvae, small molluscs and algal coatings of rocks.

Males grow faster than females in first year and in subsequent years they grow same. In natural condition the fish attains 2.75m in length and 54 kg in weight. The male matures after 2 years whereas the female matures after 3 years of life. As far as breeding is concerned, it breeds basically in riverine condition. But reports have been available for breeding in captivity under pond condition if provided the facility of flow through system. It breeds three times in a year (January to February, May to June and July to October). Fecundity very low, ranges from 3500-8900 nos. ova/kg body weight. Eggs are lemon yellow or brownish golden in colour, 2.5- 3.5mm in diameter. It takes 94-136hrs for hatching at 17-240C.

Neolissochilus hexagonolepis

Another member of the Cyprinid group, Neolissochilus hexagonolepis or chocolate mahseer is an important food fish and sport fish as well. It inhabits in streams with fast flowing water mostly in high gradient and low gradient riffles and

pools (Menon, 1991). It prefers rocky and boulder areas with high flow. It is distributed in North eastern part of India including Assam, Manipur (Brahmaputra and Chindwin drainages), and Nagaland, Eastern Himalayas, West Bengal, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Malaya Archipelago. IUCN has categorized it as near threatened. Chocolate mahseer is a highly prized and esteemed food fish, which can be regarded as a candidate species for hill aquaculture as it breeds in captivity and reports are available for culture in ponds. The fish grows up to 60cm and weigh around 11kgs. It breeds from April to October with a peak in August to September in pools with running water. The male species is reported to breed at an early size of 9cm.

The species is in threat due to habitat loss, collection of sand and gravels, overexploitation, deforestation and upcoming dams as well. For all these the prized species is in declining in its population. Propagation of the species and ranching in the wild habitat can only enhance the wild population of Chocolate mahseer.

Factors contributing for degradation of hill fisheries

At the present day context, all aquatic environments are experiencing severe threats. The hill fishery resources are also not excluded from these threats. The threats could be anthropogenic or natural or in combination of both of these. The major contributory factors can be summarized as - overexploitation of resources, unsustainable fishing, degradation of natural habitat as well as alteration, siltation, mining activities, collection of boulder and sand from river, frequent change in courses of river coupled with regulation of river flow through construction of dams and embankments, loss of riparian vegetation, invasion of exotic species, impact of climate change, high flood etc. These threats need to be redressed at the earliest to restore the hill fisheries for future generation.

Conservation Initiatives

First ever successful breeding of hill stream fish, Silgharia (Labeo pangusia) and Nepura (Labeo dero) in captivity- A case study

An experimental breeding trial of high valued wild hill stream fish commonly known as Silgharia (Labeo pangusia) and Nepura (Labeo dero) were successfully conducted at Nameri Eco Camp by members of ABACA at Golden Mahseer Hatchery of Eco Camp, Sonitpur district of Assam. The breeding programme was successfully carried out under the aegis of Dr Atul Borgohain of Assam Agricultural University. The breeding trial commenced from 21st. June 2015 with subcutaneous infusion of gonadotropin injection and modulating the water level of the tank. In the evening of 11th July, 2015, male and female brooders of both the selected species of 2+ -3+ year age group were selected for breeding depending on their breeding readiness. The recorded length of the fishes varies from 35-50 cm and weigh between 1.3-1.8 kg. The brooders were injected with inducing agent Ovatide @ 0.5ml-1ml/kg body-weight in both male and female brooders. After the injection, the injected fishes were kept in breeding hapas overnight for their courtship and mating. In next day early morning hours i.e. on 12th of July, 2015, fertilized eggs of Labeo dero and Labeo pangusia were striped of the eggs which were mixed with milk of the male fish for the fertilization on breeding trays. Fertilized eggs were than kept in the breeding hapas. The breeding hapas were installed in the cemented cisterns of the golden Mahseer Hatchery brood tank. The fertilized eggs of Labeo dero were transparent white and round in shape. A total of 7,50,000-8,00,000 fertilized eggs were recorded during the breeding trial. The water quality parameters recorded during the breeding programme were water temperature: 30oC, pH: 7.5, total hardness: 250-300 ppm, total alkalinity: 200 ppm.

It may be mentioned that this was the first report of breeding of hill stream wild Silgharia and Nepura in artificial condition, reared in cemented brood tank. It may be mentioned that this was a huge step forward towards breeding of wild stocks of different cold water hill fish including Golden Mahseer which missed the flight this time due to vagaries of weather condition.

Establishment of first ever flow through hatchery and brood bank of Golden Mahseer- Initiative of ABACA- a group of Anglers

A group of concerned people had given birth of A(B)ACA in mid 90s. Since then, the members are hardly working for conservation related issues. As a part of their conservation effort the first ever flow through hatchery and brood bank of Golden Mahseer was established at Eco Camp, Nameri, Tezpur, Assam under the leadership of Atul Borgohain, Project Director, Golden Mahseer Breeding Project cum Prof and Head, Dept of Extension Education, CVSc, AAU, Khanapara. The project was sanctioned in 2009 with partial support from DCFR, Bhimtal. It is a pleasure to mention that more than 50% cost of the project was conceded by the members of ABACA only. As a result, in 2011 infrastructure development work was started. In the first phase a small cement pond of 35ft x 70ft x 3.5ft size along with a laboratory, Chowkider shed (9 ft high, wire fenced) and a Scientist transit camp were constructed. In second phase, i.e. is in 2012 a comparatively big cemented pond of 25ft x 40ft x 3.5ft size was constructed with flow through system and constant water supply along with a deep bore well capable of supplying 30,000Lt./hour. A 15,000Lt over head tank has also been constructed for smooth functioning of the Flow through system with sprinkling facility. 2 numbers of aerators have also been installed in the pond to maintain the dissolved oxygen level.

Initially around 300 nos of fingerlings of Golden mahseer collected from the wild habitats of Brahmaputra were stocked in the cemented ponds. Later on addition of around 100 nos of Labeo dero and Labeo pangusia and a few numbers of Chocolate mahseer collected from the wild has been done. Addition has also been made time to time to cover the natural mortality.

The artificial breeding of Tor putitora poses a bigger challenge for the scientist to develop a proper breeding protocol of Golden mahseer in captivity that too rearing them in cement cistern brood tanks. This might require more research strategy and high protein rich natural feed for breeding of Golden Mahseer in captivity.

The system is functioning well. The farm raised brooders are now 40-50 cm in length weighing around 3 kgs. For successful commercial breeding, farm raised brooders are of prime importance as natural collection may result in failure also. The brood stock management protocol of mahseer in upland ponds has already been standardized through the project. Male broods are frequently found in oozing condition.

The hill fishery resources constitute the major portion for Indian fisheries which are source for protein as well as livelihood for the hill community. To ensure their livelihood and to protect the rapidly dwindling hill fishery resources, it is of foremost importance to develop the breeding and culture technology of the high valued species. At the same time, to minimize the pressure on the natural hill fishery resources, the capture fishery need to be switched over to culture fishery for long term sustainability of resources. Along with the scientists all the other troupe like fish farmers, fisherman, NGOs, anglers, local community and other stakeholders need to join hands to sketch a roadmap for hill fisheries development in general and mahseer fishery development in particular for the grater cause of conservation of fisheries of mighty Brahmaputra.

Sport fishes and potentiality for promoting fish based ecotourism in Brahmaputra

Tourism as an Industry has attained immense significance in today’s world for the development and growth of a particular area and region. It is a social phenomenon with huge economic, social and cultured benefits. Tourism also promotes international understanding, national integration, and cultural bondage, international welfare, goodwill and friendship. Tourism is world’s largest export industry, it accounts for about 10 per cent of total world exports and more than 38 per cent of international trade in services. According to Ministry of Tourism government of India the annual foreign tourist arrival growth rate is 5.6 percent, and in 2009-10 approximately 5.11 million foreign tourists arrived in India, contributing to about $11.39 billions to the coffer. North East India is a ‘Goldmine’, so far as modern tourism is concerned. Tourism experts rightly said that “What is oil to Arab Countries; Tourism could be the largest foreign exchange earning source of the entire North East”. India more particularly North East India lies in the South East Asia region where tourism activity is predicted to grow more than 6.5 percent per year for next ten years. Average Japanese spend about $100 per head per year only on traveling as reported in a study by the University of Tsukuba, Japan. According to a report of Ministry of Tourism, Government of India the international share of tourist arriving in India 2.92 per cent in 2009-10, with foreign exchange earning growth rate of 14.4 percent, indicates the possibility to attract tourist to North East Region of the country through eco-tourism with the wild nature and the beauty of the region. This Brahmaputra alley does not have major industries, but have been bestowed with natural resources, majestic hills and snow peaked mountains, gurgling rivers and dense evergreen forests, varied endangered wild animals and fragile eco- system and most importantly a mosaic of ethnic people with rich culture variations and of course very hospitable and welcoming society. The major and mass tourism industry needs a lot of infrastructure and investments which is not forthcoming

immediately and as such the best approach for this region is to opt for eco and ethnic tourism (Baruah and Borgohain, 1999). The essential elements of a successful eco-tourism may be natural environment, optimum numbers of environment friendly visitors, activities not causing serious impact on eco-system and positive involvement of the local community. According to World Tourism Organization (WTO) “tourism that involves traveling to relatively undisturbed natural areas with specific objects of studying, admiring and enjoying the scenery and it’s wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural aspects (both of the past and present) found in the areas”. It differs from mass tourism or resort tourism by having very less impact on the environment and by needing much less infrastructure development. Important aspects of ecotourism include  Involvement of the local community for sustainable development of the area  Minimizing conflicts between resources of tourism and livelihood of the local inhabitants  Compatibility of tourism development with environment and socio-cultural life of the local people  Creating awareness among the people, the importance of conservation and preservation of culture and nature. Types of Eco-tourism  Cultural Tourism  Rural Tourism  Nature Tourism  Adventure Tourism Angling Tourism comprises of Adventure and Nature Tourism Angling Eco-tourism Angling or sport fishing is classified under eco-tourism as it has minimum adverse impact on the environment and also it helps in retaining the beautiful natural environment, help to preserve and protect the river system and its surroundings, help in the growth of fisheries resources through protection and preservation for its future

scope and aspiration of better fishing. High flood also creates home for large fish shawls, which are potential in terms of angling. Game and Sport Fishing, is one of the most fascinating outdoor physical activities which satisfies diverse tastes and pursuits. It is one of the major sources of recreation to millions of tourists around the world. There are about 20 millions anglers in USA, 3 million in Japan and 4 million in UK. Their numbers are increasing with each passing day. All the Western European countries as well as the countries like Japan, Korea have a very large number of sport fisherman, who move around the globe in pursuit of a good fishing sport spending millions of dollars making angling as one of the most lucrative tourism sector worldwide (Sehgal, 1987). Game fishing tourism is regarded as high end tourism as it involves huge cost per traveler. Around 40 species of indigenous and exotic fresh and salt water fishes ranging from carps, catfishes, trouts, murrels, featherbacks, perches, groupers, croakers, snapers, threadfins and the like belonging to various families that include some of the finest game fishes in the world inhabiting its streams and lakes, esturiess and bays of India (Tripathi, 2010). Out of these 24 species are enlisted from Brahmaputra drainage system which has high potentiality to develop this tourism sector. Table: Potential sport fishes of Brahmaputra drainage system

1 Tor putitora

2 T. tor

3 Labeo pangusia 4 L. calbasu 5 L. rohita 6 Aoricthyes singhala 7 A. aor 8 Clupisoma garua 9 Anguilla bengalensis

10 Chitala chitala 11 Catla catla 12 Cirrhinus mrigala 13 Rita rita 14 Wallago attu 15 Bagarius bagarius 16 Channa barca 17 C. aurantimaculata 18 C. marulius 19 C. striatus 20 Mastacembelus armatus 21 Mystus aor 22 M. seenghala 23 Ompok bimaculatus 24 Ompok pabda

Flood in Brahmaputra: Boon for sport fishing In a state like Assam, 4-5 times typical monsoon flood is common phenomenon. This flood water ensures availability of nutrient rich food supply to aquatic organisms including fish. The amount of available feed also increases with flood. Most of the fishes breed in the early monsoon i.e. April to June and along with the spreading flood water fish stock get distributed to a wider area opening the golden chance for the anglers. No doubt, flood act as catalyst for sport fishing accelerating the growth of fish. During monsoon, the flood water carries a large number of adult brooders to the connecting beels. In fact these beels are the spawning grounds for many of the riverine species which form the bulk of the sport fishery. As the flood recedes these fishes return to the main river. Major carps and giant catfish (Sperota, Bagarius, Pangasius, Silondia etc.) migrate to the upstream during monsoon/rainy season as do many other species presumably for spawning purpose.

The abundance of large sized fish species in a river stretch depend on adequate cover such as pools and deeply undercut banks, which these fish can use to avoid the predators. Increased frequency of flood substantiates the fact that water holding capacity of river is considerably reduced. Due to this large fish migrate upstream during flood but take reverse direction as flood recedes. Thus flood act as boon for both anglers as well as for the sport fishery. Flood also provides the opportunity to the adjacent wetlands to possess the aquatic mega fauna, river dolphin (Platanista gangetica gangetica) which enters the wetland area through the connecting channels. As it is well known that dolphin pray on fish, so where the dolphin resides, the density and diversity of fish is always high. If we look around Maguri beel of Tinsukia district of Upper Assam, the residential population of dolphin of river Dibru visits the adjacent Maguri beel during high flood (Bania, 2011). Both domestic and foreign tourists use to visit Dibru-Saikhowa National Park to enjoy the aesthetic beauty of this prized endangered aquatic mammal. It proves the potentiality to explore this industry in Dibru-Saikhowa. Many parts of Assam fall under flood prone areas. Flood damages not only the property but also the agricultural crops of the victims. In such a scenario, the concept of flood based ecotourism or more particularly fish based aqua-tourism comes to mind. It is a very new concept and not yet come to application. The validity of this concept is also not clear. But it is expected to provide monetary gain to the flood victims. At the same time there is a controversy among the specialists regarding the adaptability of this concept Near home, the average fishing trip for golden mahseer in Subansiri river of Arunachal Pradesh cost about Rs. 2600 per kg of which market price is only about Rs. 250/- per kg, calculated on an average of 4 fishing trip from Guwahati in 2014- 2015 (personnel comunication, Dr Atul Borgohain). This price is not inclusive of equipment and other accessories used by the anglers. According to Planning Commission, Government of India, an investment of Rs. 10 lakhs creates 78 jobs in tourist sector as against 45 jobs in agriculture and only 18 jobs in manufacturing sector. Although, the sport fishing tourism is not yet well developed in India the potential exist as tourism sector accounts for 2.7 percent of the total employment

providing 31 million jobs in India and tourist arrival is growing at an average of 5.6 percent contributing about 11.4 million dollar in 2009 -10. Recreational fishing is an important component of the tourism industry and an important component of regional economies around the world. When angling tourists reach threatened freshwater ecosystems, there is a risk of degrading the very fishery and landscapes that attracted them, thwarting long-term economic development prospects and reducing biodiversity. Following the emergence of catch- and release recreational fishing, we believe that angling can be legitimately considered a form of ecotourism that contributes positively to conservation, science, and local or regional economic development. With successful angling ecotourism projects, anglers and local populations can become viable constituencies for conservation. Angling or recreational fishing is one of the most popular outdoor activities in North America. In the United States, over 34 million people participated in recreational angling and 29.4 million recreational fishing licenses were issued in 2001. The revenues from fishing licenses support fish and wildlife management agencies at all levels of government, and the expenditures from recreational fishing contribute to local and regional economies, especially in regions where fisheries have been preserved in pristine or near-pristine conditions. Traditionally, the limit to viewing angling as a form of ecotourism has focused on the character of its environmental impacts without engaging with the question of whether or not those impacts are sustainable over the long term. Fishing is typically viewed as a consumptive activity that provides products – though the status of catch and release fishing is uncertain – and the implicit argument is that non-consumptive activities, which provide experiences, have lower impacts and therefore should uniquely qualify as ecotourism (Weaver, 2001). Without ignoring the poor status of over fished species, there exist many fish populations around the world that are healthy and can support small scale extraction in ways that will not diminish future population health. For the purposes of angling ecotourism, the emergence and widespread acceptance of catch-and-release recreational fishing has created an unprecedented opportunity. Valuable sport

fisheries in both saltwater and freshwater have recently been converted primarily to catch-and-release. Other advances in angler ethics also contribute to the potential sustainability of recreational fishing. The National Marine Fisheries Service Code of Angling Ethics, developed with the participation of both angling groups and conservationists, specifies limiting catch to the desired species and size and using techniques that minimize harm to fish when releasing them. Avoiding the use of non-native species as live bait and unwashed fishing gear in multiple waters can lower the risk of disease and invasive species being introduced into a river. More generally, several practices can reduce angler ‘efficiency’ (catch per unit effort), including the avoidance of bait, fishing from shore rather than boats, fly- fishing rather than spin-casting, and using barbless hooks. For example, the probability of capture in fly-fishing may be as low as one-fifth that of bait fishing. By reducing the number of fish caught per angler, a river’s carrying capacity can support a larger number of fishermen, thereby providing a greater economic opportunity for the region. With healthy populations and moderate levels of fishing, the inevitable impacts on fish populations may be minimal and sustainable for the natural ecosystems in which a recreational fishing ecotourism operation occurs. Beyond environmental sustainability, however, ecotourism’s concept of sustainable management includes economic and social considerations (Blamey, 2001; Honey, 2002). Minimizing negative impacts is an identifying aspect of sustainable tourism, while ecotourism is additionally expected to contribute positively to conservation and local economies (Honey and Rome, 2001). Properly managed and practiced, recreational fishing ecotourism has a great potential to contribute positively to conservation and local development efforts. With this in mind, recreational fishing ecotourism presents particular opportunities to enhance conservation activities and help in socio-economic development of local communities through new and alternative revenue streams. The eco tourism project produced tangible benefits to conservation through discouragement of poaching activities, increased knowledge about wildlife including

wild fish biology, support for local economic development through outfitter payments and transforming a local wild ecosystem to a globally visible. Targeted sites  Riverine areas including tributaries of Brahmaputra  Hill areas with fishery resources - Foothills  Wetland areas  Pond and artificial water reservoirs Sport fishing is viable with the kind of fishery resources which are extensively taken for sport fish like mahseer which is locally called as Junga pithia in Assam and other sporting fish are in plentiful. These areas also should have potential scope for this kind of fishing with friendly neighbourhood and comparatively undisturbed areas. Selected locations for sport fishing The Golden Mahseer angling is the most fascinating sport fishing in India including Brahmaputra. It is comparable with Salmon of the west and said to be more thrilling than salmon in its strength and size, as stated by the sport fishermen of the west. All along the foothills of the Himalayan river abounds this particular sport fish which is diminishing in its number and size, gradually due various reasons. Almost in the entire North Eastern Region most of the North bank rivers which flows southwardly viz. Tista, Sankus, Aie, Manas, Kamang (Jia Bhoreli), Subansiri, Siang, Dibang and Lohit and their tributaries forms some of the deep gorges and rapids which are the abode of the Golden Mahseer. The south bank rivers flowing northwardly to join the mighty Brahmaputra are- Noa-Dihing, Tirap, Buri-Dihing, Dhansiri, Kopili, Kulshi and their tributaries forming some of the meandering curves and deep pools with rocky bottoms, making it excellent Mahseer rivers as large numbers of Mahseers are still home to these rivers in the Brahmaputra catchment areas.. However, the best Mahseer streams are in Assam-Arunachal foothills – the river Noa Dihing upto Assam border (record catch of 2008 was 14 kg), Lohit (recorded catch was 18kg in 2009) from Parshuram Kund to Sadiya in Assam are excellent fishing stretches. Kamlang river (catch record of 2009 was 16kg),

Digarughat and stretch of Dibang before it forms Brahmaputra are well known for its Mahseer. The Siang river (2003 record was 22kg at Boleng) is a wonder river which forms the mighty Brahmaputra near the plains of Assam in Kabuchapori delta has innumerable Mahseer fishing records. Similarly, Subansiri (recorded catch of 2006 was 20kg), Kameng /Jia Bhoreli (record catch of 24 kg), Poma (Buroi) and Manas have excellent Golden Mahseer fishing spots. However, some of these rivers are fast degrading and may become devoid of this magnificent fish in near future due to human interference and development work like hydroelectric projects, road and township building unless steps for conservation are not taken at the earliest Borgohain & Bania, 2013 b). Discussion with the anglers from Assam Bhoreli Angling and Conservation Association (ABACA), Tezpur and local fisher and after ground alidation, some major spots of angling in Brahmaputra has been identified. These are-

1. Confluence of Kamlang with Lohit, Digaru with lohit and Dibang with Lohit 2. Near Kobo chapori 3. Near Khoawang and Dibrugarh town, Maijan ghat where the banks have wooden or rocky spar. 4. On south bank hilly banks of Hillghat area 5. Near Tezpur, Kaliabhumura bridge to 1km above upto confluence of river Jia Bhoreli. 6. Chandrapur to Buraburi hills in south bank of Brahmaputra 7. again on south bank from Chandrapur upto downstream of Kharghuli 8. On North bank, Rajaduar area in north Guwahati upto Saraighat bridge 9. On south bank, banks of Nilachal hills-1km below Bhorolumukh 10. On north bank, Sualkuchi area upto 2km stretch 11. Down stream of Goalparatown upto Pacharatna bridge on the south bank 12. Rocky banks of Dhubri town on north bank

In Assam every year flood brings miseries to the people but it also brings a many fold blessing for fishery resources. Assam has the largest potential for

recreational sports fishing for its large water bodies including wastelands, beels, ponds and of course the mighty Brahmaputra and its tributaries. It has a very large numbers of unorganized sports fishermen too. Need of the hour is to organize angling platforms in the form of clubs, angling associations, angling competitions etc. Angling rules and regulations may be formulated to suit the specific locality to make it a means of living for sustainable development of the area and the people. Criteria for development of angling eco-tourism platform in Brahmaputra basin  Policy and strategy formation at the regional as well as state level to develop sustainable eco-tourism through sport fisheries  Development of platform for game and sport fisheries. These includes- i. Strategies to improve the game fishery in selected areas to make an opportunity to promote eco-tourism (Mahanta and Tyagi, 2004). ii. Peoples’ participation in conservation of fish fauna including policy makers, administrators, scientists, students, NGOs as well as the local communities. iii. Stopping all illegal methods of killing fish by poisoning, netting, dynamiting and killing of brood fish; observing closed fishing season in all rivers. iv. Formation of angling clubs and NGOs for promotion of sport fisheries v. Creating basic infrastructure for promotion of eco-tourism vi. Imparting sport fisheries education amongst the local people to train as anglers guide.  Formation of sport fishing rules and regulation in the regional or State level – like size of catch, limiting numbers of anglers and catch, observing closed season as has been done in most of the advanced countries like USA, UK Canada, Australia etc. (Borgohain, 2000).  Awareness creation among the locals as well as the anglers for better understanding and cooperation for a healthy, sustainable eco-tourism development.  Mahseer hatcheries needed to be established by the Fishery Department and NGOs to replenish the declining fish stock in rivers and ponds (Sony, 2004).

 If local communities are significantly benefited through sport fishing, the people will naturally act as a conservator, “watch and ward” and try to reduce pressure on the river for their own sustenance and better income generation.  To reduce pressure on the natural water, commercial captive fish farms should be established for the local people in the vicinity of the sport fishing areas Advantage and need for sport fishing  With fast urbanization of the society, there is an urgent need for outdoor recreation and angling can be one of them.  It is already a source of recreation to people of all ages, sex and of course different socio-economic strata of the society in different countries.  Catching food fish is another important satisfaction as reported in USA as many as 35 percent anglers polled opinion said to be for eating good fish (however, sanctity of number and size be maintained)  A number of international medical authorities reported that “it is healthy for people to go fishing”.  Sport fishing are enriching the mankind as in pursuit of it billions of dollars are spent by the tourists and hundreds of companies are engaged in production of fishing equipments - earning billions and employing millions of people. Infrastructure development, human resource development, image building and tourism awareness has to be developed for long term eco-tourism sustenance. However, we should not forgot ‘its people and their culture which is so distinct from the rest of the country and world, must be preserve it and development should be as par with the adaptability of the local culture and tradition” (Das, 2000). Similarly fish needs clear and cold water to live, grow and reproduce. This in turn means that the water shed through which the stream flows must be in good shape. Anglers concern and support to wise land use and pollution prevention go a long way to ensure good fish habitat and therefore, good sport fishing in the year ahead (Lee Kernen, 1995).

Involvement of entrepreneurs/NGOs and linkages with government departments for promotion and popularization of fish based ecotourism in Brahmaputra Any business with lucrative output is readily accepted by the enterprising people throughout the world. There are hundreds of entrepreneurs in India who are extensively working on angling tourism in and around India creating huge wealth and potential knowledge on angling eco-tourism activities and helping millions of anglers of India and abroad for this eco-friendly business. In western countries, angling tourism is one of the most lucrative and sough after entrepreneurial activity. Near home angling tourism to some of the most remote and exotic destination costs huge amount per individual angler. However, this particular tourism is yet to be picked up by the numbers of entrepreneurs exclusively for angling tourism. In case of some of the successful NGOs which are NGOs and angling association with diehard members of anglers still are a very few in India. However, there is much scope for this kind of activities by the NGOs and entrepreneurs for sustainable development of the community, nature and individuals. Way ahead Angling or sport eco-tourism has immense potentiality, as far as Brahmaputra is concerned as it has a huge incomparable biodiversity – it is also included in one of the biodiversity hotspot of the world. The signifying huge water bodies which is a positive aspect of eco-tourism in the form of white water rafting, canoeing, camping, tracking and of course sport fisheries. With unique bio- geographical zone, undulating hills, exotic wildlife combined with the untapped natural abundance of the region, the prospect of eco-tourism is very bright (Das, 2000). This aspect should get priorities from policy makers more precisely from Departments of Forests and Wildlife, Fisheries, Revenue and should be coordinated by Tourism Department as normally sport fisheries alone may not be a subject of eco-tourism to sustain in the long run. At the same time while selecting the sport fish emphasis should also be paid to the indigenous species like murrels, wallogo, Chitala etc (Borgohain and Bania, 2013a). For promotion of game and sport fisheries tourism in Brahmaputra, need of the hour is -

 Identification of sport fishery areas  Policy formulation of sport fishery  Platform development  Identification of sport fishes  Promotion and development of entrepreneurship for eco-tourism  Supportive service and other ancillary service development for eco-tourism.  Improving the natural waters by restocking  Forming rules and regulation for anglers  Involvement of entrepreneurs/NGOs and linkages with government departments for promotion and popularization of fish based ecotourism  Formulation of syllabus for short course on sport fisheries and ecotourism  National and international publicity and awareness for sport fishing tourism through participation in ITB/WTM in western countries.  Formulate effective marketing strategies for promoting tourism.  Opening of the Angling material shops for easy availability to popularize the concept. A conceptual model for fish based aqua-tourism in Brahmaputra drainage system of Assam has been developed with the available resources.

Freshwater Resources of the Brahmaputra basin

River Rivulets Wetlands Ponds Fishing, Angling Swimming Boating Rafting

FISHES

Game fish Food fish Ornamental fish

Economic Sport Fishery Social equity development

Environmental benefit

Fig - Conceptual model for fish based aqua-tourism in Brahmaputra basin

Macrophyte diversity in flood plain wetlands of Brahmaputra

With the increasing use and abuse of the aquatic bodies, there is an urgent need for conservation of the diversity of economically important aquatic macrophytes before their extinction. Keeping this in view, a comprehensive study on the occurrence of macrophytes in floodplains of Brahmaputra, taking some prominent floodplain lake (beel) of the basin during the survey period has been carried out. The study pertains to the ecological habitat of usable macrophytes along with their flowering and fruitening season. These beels support a rich and diverse group of macrophytes used by the local inhabitants as food, for preparation of medicine and also as fodder. The study highlights the occurrence of a total of 76 species of macrophytes. Besides, an attempt has also been made to analyse the impact of human activities on the wetlands and cause of threats.

India is rich in its biodiversity having two biodiversity hotspots, one is

Eastern Himalaya and the other is Western Ghat. With the 47000 plant species and

6500 vertebrate animal species India becomes one among the top twelve mega biodiversity countries in the world. Being a part of this mega biodiversity area,

Brahmaputra basin is bestowed with numbers of flood plain lakes (wetlands) which are locally known as beels. Wetland systems are defined as lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Mitch and Gosselink 1986). The value of the world's wetlands is increasingly receiving due attention as they contribute to a healthy environment in many ways. Wetland ecosystems act as

important feeding and breeding areas for wildlife and provide a stopping place for aquatic birds of both migratory and residential forms It is interesting to note that though the wetlands cover only six percent of the earth’s surface (Mitsch &

Gosselink 1986), they offer habitats for about twenty percent of the earth’s total biological diversity (Gopal 1997). Along with other flora and fauna aquatic vegetation also support a lot to enrich the wetland biota, but little attention has so far been given to this area. However, sporadic works are reported from various parts of the country. But no detailed work has hitherto been carried out on the hydrophytes of

Brahmaputra, particularly for the wetlands. The present communication highlights a comprehensive account of the macrophytes of beels and suggests sustainable utilization of important macrophytes.

Cook (1996) and Gopal (1997) reported over 1200 of aquatic plant species from India. The present investigation revealed the occurrence of a total of 76 species of macrophytes belonging to 36 families and 55 genera. Among the recorded ones

Poaceae is the dominant families having seven species. It is followed by

Polygonaceae with five species and Nympheaceae, Lemnaceae and Hydrocharitaceae each having four species. The study shows that monocot species are more than the dicots and pterydophytes.

Ecologically five types of growth forms are found among the macrophytes.

They are anchored floating leaf (AFL), obligatory submerged (OS), free floating

(FF), anchored floating stem (AFS) and emergent plant (EP). It is found that emergent plants are more in number (42.10%), followed by anchored floating stem

(25%), obligatory submerged (15.79%), free floating (11.84%) and anchored floating leaf (5.26%).

Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms., Monochoria hastata (L.) Solms.,

Hygroryza aristata (Retz.) Nees ex W & A, Pistia stratiotes L., Salvinia cucullata

Roxb. ex Bory., Salvinia natans (L.) All., Trapa natans (L.) Roxb., Vallisneria spiralis L., Hydrilla verticillata L. f., Nymphoides indica (L.) O. Ktze., Ipomoea aquatica Forsk., Ottelia alismoides L. Pers. are commonly occurring macrophytes.

Some species like Trapa, Eichhornia, Salvinia etc used to form a dense mat which even prevents the penetration of light. Sometimes they grow in such a profuse manner that they are termed as weeds. But Trapa natans is economically very important for its food and medicinal value. Besides the high medicinal and aesthetic value of Sagittaria sagittifolia L., Nymphoides indica (L.) O. Ktze., Nymphaea pubescens Willd. etc. make them prized one.

Shrubs

------Wet meadow Amplitude ------of long Emergent plant (Polygonum) term Water level

------fluctuation Anchored Floating Stem (Nymphoides)

------Free Floating Plants / Anchored Floating Leaf ---- …………………… (Eichhornia, Pistia) (Nymphaea) ……Water....

………….. Submerged Aquatic plant ……… (Ottelia, Valisneria)

Fig - Vegetation types in wetlands with fluctuating water level (after Keddy,

1991)

Among the emergent plants Monochoria hastata (L.) Solms., Aeschynomene aspera L., Aeschynomene indica L. are commonly encountered. Like wise free floating viz. Pistia, Salvinia, Lemna minor L., anchored floating leaf viz. Sagittaria,

Nymphaea pubescens, anchored floating stem viz. Ludwigia adscendens (L.) Hara and obligatory submerged viz. Vallisneria, Hydrilla, Ceratophyllum demersum L. are common.

The macrophytes are observed to change their growth form from season to season due to their wide range of tolerance towards habitat. As for example

Eichhornia crassipes, Ipomoea aquatic, Marsilea minuta, M. quadrifolia, Sagittaria sagitifolia can exist in both aquatic and amphioxus conditions.

54.79% of the macrophytes are found to have medicinal properties. Some of these are also used by the locals in their traditional therapy system. Acorus calamus

L., Centella asiatica L., Commelina benghalensis L., Nymphoides indica are among them. Polygonum hydropiper L. and Spilanthes calva A. P. Cond. are used by the local residents as fish poisons. But now the easy availability of the chemical fish poisons restricts its use. When the chemical piscisides are having vital effects even to the non target aquatic organisms, these plants can be commercially used as piscisides after proper treatment.

Table: Aquatic Macrophytes recorded from the flood plains of Brahmaputra

Ecological Flowering and Family Botanical name habitat fruiting season Sagittaria sagittifolia L. AFL Oct-Mar Alismataceae S. guyanensis HB & K AFL Aug-Dec Altenanthera philoxeroides Griseb. AFS Oct-Jan Amaranthaceae A. sessilisL. AFS Oct-Feb Apiaceae Centella asiaticaL. EP Nov-Mar Aponogeton natans AFL May-August Aponogetaceae A. crispus Thumb AFL May-August Acorus calamusL. EP July-Sept Araceae Colocasia esculentaL. EP Sept-Nov Pistia stratiotesL. FF Jun-Nov Spilanthes calva A. P. Cond. EP Oct-Jan Asteraceae Eclipta albaL. EP Aug-Dec Enhydra fluctuans Lour. AFS Jan-May Aspidiaceae Cyclosorus gongyloides EP Nov-Feb Azollaceae Azolla pinnata R. Br. FF Winter

Brassicaceae Nasturtium officinale R. Br. AFS Nov-Mar

Ceratophyllaceae Ceratophyllum demersumL. OS Sept-Nov Commelina benghalensisL. AFS Jan-April Commelinaceae C. diffusa AFS Jan-April C. suffruticosa (Blume) Hassk. AFS Nov-Feb Ipomea aquatica Forsk. AFS Sept-Feb Convolvulaceae I. carnea Jacq. EP Sept-Feb Cyperus cephalotes Vahl. EP Nov-Mar Cyperaceae Cyperus corymbosus Rottb. EP July March Scirpus articulates L. EP Oct-Mar Ericaulaceae Eriocaulon cinereum R.Br. OS Aug- Mar Aeschynomene asperaL. EP July- Dec Fabaceae A. indicaL. EP Aug-Dec Elodea canadensis Michx. OS July-Oct Hydrocharitaceae Hydrilla verticillata L. f. OS Oct-Feb Ottelia alismoides (L) Pers. OS Aug-Jan

Vallisneria spiralisL. OS Dec-Aug Drymeria cordata (L.) Willd. Leguminaceae EP July- Aug ex Schult. Lemna minorL. FF May-July

L. paucicostata Hegelm FF May-July Lemnaceae Spirodela polyrhizaL. Schleid FF May-July Wolffia arrhiza (L)Wimm FF Feb-Apr Limnophyla heterophylla (Roxb) Limnocharitaceae OS May-oct Bent. Utricularia aurea Lour. OS Sept-Jan Lentibulariaceae U.inflexa var.Stellaris Tylor OS Oct-Feb Rotala rotundifolia (F. Ham. Lythraceae EP Aug-Oct ex Roxb.) Masilea quadrifolia (L.)Wild. EP Nov-Jan Marsileaceae M. minutaL. EP Nov-Jan Menyanthaceae Nymphoides indica (L.)O. Ktze. AFS Jun-Sept Mimosaceae Neptunia oleraceaLour EP July-Sept Muguminaceae Drymeria Cordata EP Dec-Mar Najadaceae Najaj minor All. OS Oct-Mar Euryale ferox Saliab AFL June- Sept Nelumbo nucifera Gaern AFS Jul-Dec Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea pubescens Willd. AFL July- Dec N. nouchalli Burm. F. AFS Aug-Oct Ludwigia adscendens (L.) Hara AFS Aug-Nov Onagraceae L. hyssopifolia (G. Don) AFS Aug- Nov Arundo donaxL. EP Sept-Mar Echinochloa colonumL. EP Aug-Mar Hygroryza aristata (Retz.) Nees AFS Oct-Apr ex W & A Poaceae Panicum paludosum Roxb. EP Jun-Oct Leersia hexandra Swartz AFS Aug-Dec Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex EP Nov-April Steud. Saccharum munja Roxb. EP Sept-Feb Polygonum barbatum (L.) Sens. EP Aug-Oct P. glabrum Willd. EP Dec-Mar Polygonaceae P. hydropiperL. EP Oct-Feb P. plebeium R. Brown EP Oct-Feb

P. strigosum.R. Br. EP Dec-April Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.)Solms FF Aug-Jan Pontederiaceae Monochoria hastata (L.)Solms. EP Mar-Dec M. vaginalis (Burm. f.) Prest. EP April-Nov Potamogeton nodosus Poir OS Oct-Apr Potamogetonaceae P. pectinatus L. OS Oct-Apr Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Pteridaceae EP Nov-Feb Brogn. Salvinia cucullata Roxb. Ex Bory FF Winter Salviniaceae S. natans (L.) All. FF Winter Trapa natans (L.) Roxb. AFS Sept-Dec Trapaceae Trapa bispinosa AFS Sept-Dec Typhaceae Typha elephantina Roxb. EP Oct-Feb

Abbreviations used: FF-Free floating; OS- Obligatory submerged; AFL- Anchored floating leaf; AFS Anchored floating stem; EP- Emerged plant.

Table: Family wise distribution of macrophytes

SL. No Family No of species 1 Alismataceae 2 2 Amaranthaceae 2 3 Apiaceae 1 4 Aponogetonaceae 2 5 Araceae 3 6 Asteraceae 3 7 Aspidiaceae 1 8 Azollaceae 1 9 Brassicaceae 1 10 Ceratophyllaceae 1 11 Commelinaceae 3 12 Convolvulaceae 2 13 Cyperaceae 3 14 Eriocaulaceae 1 15 Fabaceae 2 16 Hydrocharitaceae 4 17 Leguminaceae 1 18 Lemnaceae 4

19 Limnocharitaceae 1 20 Lentibulariaceae 2 21 Lythraceae 1 22 Marsileaceae 2 23 Menyanthaceae 1 24 Mimosaceae 1 25 Muguminaceae 1 26 Najadaceae 1 27 Nymphaeaceae 4 28 Onagraceae 2 29 Poaceae 7 30 Polygonaceae 5 31 Pontederiaceae 3 32 Potamogetonaceae 2 33 Pteridaceae 1 34 Salviniaceae 2 35 Trapaceae 1 36 Typhaceae 1 Total 76

Table: Distribution of macrophytes based on their ecological habitat

No of in % Types of growth forms species recoded Free Floating 9 11.84 Anchored Floating Leaf 4 5.26 Anchored Floating Stem 19 25.00 Obligatory submerged 12 15.79 Emergent plant 32 42.10

As with any natural habitat, wetlands are important in supporting species diversity and have a complex of wetland values. Biswas and Boruah (2000) reported

that the highly weed infested beels are excellent habitats for many colourful aquarium fishes.

It needs to be mentioned that due to high current existence of macrophytes from main stretch of Brahmaputra has not been recorded. During high flood the wetlands get the opportunity to connect with the parent river though the connecting channels through which different variety of ichthyofauna and other mega fauna including endangered cetacean species Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica gangetica) enter the wetlands to increases the pride of wetland biota. At the same time, the weed infested wetlands get cleared from the free floating macrophytes, basically from water hyacinth. It is observed to be flowing in the main river wherever there is a connecting channel nearby. Thus nature maintains the biological equilibrium of wetlands.

Threats

The growing dependence on wetlands during the last few decades has been a major concern. Rapid urbanization/new settlements accompanied by intensified commercial activities leads to pollution of wetlands by domestic and agricultural run- offs. The fact that wetland values are overlooked has resulted in threats to the wetlands. Agricultural encroachment of the shallow marginal areas of beels is another example of threatening of human intervention (Hassan & Bhattacharjee,

2001).

Heavy infestation with macrophytes is a characteristic feature of the beels of

Assam (Dutta, 2002). He also reported that the closed beels facilitate the dense growth of aquatic macrophytes providing a stable environment as compared to open

beel. Most of the highly weed infested beels serve as the feeding and breeding ground of many riverine species. The air breathing fishes including Clarias, Anabus, and murrels (Channa spp.) are the notable residential fish fauna of wetlands. Though, macrophytes are considered as fish cover, but profuse growth of macrophytes coupled with siltation as seen in the wetlands of Dibru Saikhowa leads to eutrophication. However, decomposition of aquatic macrophytes also plays an important role in soils nutrient dynamics. Such differences occur due to variation in water level, flood influx and current in a water body. Goswami et al., (1994) also reported accumulation of weed and silts are known to be the main factor for eutrophication. In the present study, the dense growth of water hyacinth was observed which are collected by the fisher to use in katal fishing.

Besides over fishing is another vital cause. The use of mosquito net for fishing not only hampers the fishes but also it destroys lots of macrophytes. Use of chemicals like 2, 4, D completely eradicates many hydrophytes. Euryale ferox Salisb. which was very common in this wetland until recently is now completely wiped out to these threats. The aquatic floras in the many of the wetlands are the worst hit by habitat degradation.

The study indicates the existence of a diverse group of macrophytes in beels of Brahmaputra basin and their exploitation has been done in an unsustainable manner. The free floating forms are found to be more than any other growth forms affecting productivity. A good number of macrophytes are found to have medicinal values whereas some others are used extensively as food and fodder so much so that these macrophytes play an important role in livelihood of local residents. Sustainable

utilization of these hydrophytes and commercial cultivation of some of them will be beneficial for all concerned. Awareness and training programme on culture of economically important hydrophytes like Trapa natans, Euryale ferox and

Vallisneria spiralis can boost the rural economy and help changing the livelihood pattern of the area. Declaration of some prominent beels as “aqua sanctuary” may also save the vulnerable plants as well as it will be helpful for tourism development.

Revenue generated from this sector may develop the socio-economic status of the surrounding people if managed properly.

Fishing gears of the Brahmaputra drainage system

There is paucity of reliable catch statistics as well as economic value of the freshwater fish diversity of the Indian rivers. Only some sporadic reports on the fish catch statistics are available from the Brahmaputra drainage system (Sengupta and Jacob, 1968; Biswas et al., 1995). The catch composition of fish from flood plain wetlands of Assam is very alarming in terms of reduced species availability, under size fish and declining production. Fish production of river or beel largely depends on the gears and devices applied for fishing (Lagler, 1978). The study for development of capture fishery without taking into consideration of fisher and the devices they use will not be fruitful. The earliest record of conventional fishing gear and their mode of operation in Assam was probably that of Day (1877) whose work was based on a survey conducted by F Buchannon-Hamilton during 1807-1813 (Boruah, 1999). As fishing is carried out almost throughout the year barring the ‘closed season’(1st May to 15th July) in some places only and fishing methods vary in different stretches of the river, major fishing devices and operational methods have been documented in this book that has been carried out between 2006 and 2013. Information on fisheries, size and span of gears, mesh size, size and type of fish species caught and fishing time were recorded following Gulland (1975). However, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Prior Informed Consent (PIC) technique has also been applied to validate the collected data. The catch per unit effort (CPUE) of the major gears was calculated following Biswas (1993).

Fishing: The age old practice and its need for documentation

Fishing is an ancient practice that dates back at least to the paleolithic period which began about 40,000 years ago. There are many techniques of fishing in Assam that form the livelihood for the fisher, some of which are unique and represent the culture too. The traditional wisdom of the fisher of Assam and the fishing crafts and gears designed by fisher explicitly show the traditional wisdom perpetuated through generations. Unfortunately, these practices which are in vogue in throughout rural Assam, are little documented and there is a danger of extinction of this knowledge.

Though these methods of fishing needs further investigation and proper validation, it is imperative to record the information that has passed on from their ancestors and may disappear in course of time.

Fishers may use fishing nets, traps, hooks as well as fishing rods and line to capture fish. The method of fishing in the in the river Brahmaputra are diverse and broadly 8 major categories of gears, mostly indigenous are used throughout the valley (Jhingran, 1991). Again, Boruah (1999) recorded 24 numbers of fishing gear from upper Brahmaputra basin. Recently, Baruah et al. (2010) reported 30 varieties of fishing traps from the Brahmaputra valley where as Bania (2011) and Bania and Biswas (2011) reported 34 fishing gears with five broad groups from upper Brahmaputra valley. Many of the gears reported are indigenous in nature but many of the gears are yet to be explored and reported. Moreover, the rich diverse fish fauna of the state of Assam is concentrated in major rivers, its tributaries, reservoirs, flood plain wetlands, etc., but the detailed study of fishing methods, may be traditional or not, with respect to their operation and rationale behind their use is lacking, therefore a endeavour has made to furnish the details about fishing knowledge of the Brahmaputra basin.

Fishing gear: Criteria for selection

Selection of fishing gear is a significant criterion to have a good catch. It is influenced by various factors such as topography of water body, nature of fish stock, behaviour of fish and the characteristics of the raw material from which the gears are fabricated (Sinha, 1994). In Assamese, the fishing nets are called as jal- which is broadly of two types- stationary or fixed and moving type. In case of stationary gears, the nets are kept fixed at a particular position. The upward or downward movement of nets helps to entangle fish that are strolling near the net. In moving types, nets are operated mostly from a boat. Besides, some gears are used in both lentic and lotic water systems, whereas some gears are specific to the wetlands or the shallow water bodies and still others are specific to deep, flowing waters. Along with the nets, a wide array of traps is commonly used in the shallow water bodies of the

Brahmaputra basin. All of these traps are made up of either bamboo slips or cane except the cylindrical nylon mosquito net trap. On the other hand nets are of plastic or nylon made. Traps are usually fixed at a convenient place for days and periodical checking is made for any trapped organisms which can be retrieved alive without any damage. Many of fishing methods are location specific, species specific, (targeting a particular species) and resources specific. Further, some gears are used in specific season while others are operated round the year. Evidences are in favour of fishing by traditional devices which will not give any ill effect to the ecosystem. Economically backward population of fisher can not afford the high cost fishing devices. So the traditional fishing practices can give livelihood for a large section of poor fisher (Prasad et al., 2013).

Fishing gears of Brahmaputra basin

Different types of fishing gears are used by the fisher operating in Brahmaputra basin depending upon the availability of water, depth and type of water body, size and type of the species intended to be caught and number of man power involved in the activity. These fishing gears are basically of four categories. These are:-

A. Nets; B. Traps; C. Hooks and lines; D. Unconventional methods

Again, the fishing nets used in the Brahmaputra basin are broadly of two types

a. Stationary or Fixed type

b. Moving type

A. Nets a. Stationary or fixed type: The types of fixed net operated in the Brahmaputra basin are briefly described below:-

Bagh jal (Funnel net): This funnel shaped net is operated in rainy months from March to October. The anterior or mouth part is too much broad (diameter 30-45m), gradually tapers at the posterior end forming a closed sac. The net is 40-45m long. But the mesh size of the net varies from anterior to posterior extremity. The mesh size is larger in extreme anterior part (3-3.5cm) than middle (2-2.5cm) and posterior end (0.5-1cm). The circumference of the mouth part is provided with thick a plastic rope which is extended in both the ends. The net is supported with 4 large sized bamboo poles- two at corner and rest two at the middle portion of the net. Another two pieces of bamboo is placed at the middle of the net which offer rigidity to the net and kept it open. This type of net is used only at night and requires 4-7 numbers of fisher for successful operation of the net. The net is set only against the water current and it is absolutely useless if there is no water current. The catch comprises of mainly large sized fishes. The fishing intensity or catch per unit effort (cpue) of the gear ranges from 4.2 to 11.8.

Bagh jal (Funnel net) Bhor jal (Dip net): It is a type of fixed lift net. It is hanged with 6 numbers of bamboo pools. At the time of operation two bamboo poles of one side are removed to dip the net under water. The net of this (submerged) side is made straight and rigid with the help of another piece of bamboo. After 2-3 hrs the net is lifted up to collect the trapped fishes and placed again in the same fashion. The length is 6-8m, width about 3-4m and mesh size ranges from 1.5-2.5cm. Two men are required to operate the net. The net is mostly used in winter season. Along with all kinds of medium and large sized fishes (Labeo spp, Wallago attu), turtles are also caught in this net.

Bhor jal (Dip net) operated in beel

Current jal (Gill net): This gill net is 10-50m in length whereas the width varied from 0.8-2m. The mesh size measures 3-6cm. The net is made up of nylon fibres which are quite invisible under water. That is why it is regarded as detrimental to not only fishes but also to other aquatic fauna. Two persons are required to operate the net. Though it is a fixed type net, no pole is required to fix it. In spite of that two floats are attached at both the ends of the upper line. Small sinkers are attached in an interval of about 1m. One person releases the net in the river from boat and leaves it for a minimum of 15 minutes and collects it from one end to remove the catch. Medium and even large sized fishes are trapped by this type of net. Among the catches Catla catla, Labeo spp, Ompok spp. are prominent ones. This is also a prohibited gear under Fisheries Act. The cpue was found within 8.9-12.5.

Current jal (Gill net) in operation

Dheki jal (Lift net): The triangular lift net is about 12-15m in two sides which is supported by bamboo poles, tied together in the base point through which the lift net is operated. The anterior or free portion of the net measures about 6-8m. Mesh size

ranges from 1-1.5 cm. A total of thirteen numbers of bamboo poles of unequal size are required to set the net in shallow part of a river or wetland. At the time of operation the nylon ropes of the bamboo poles are kept free to dip the net in water. After 20-30 minutes, the net is lifted up and again the nylon ropes are tied to keep the net in lifted condition to collect the catch. The catch comprises of diverse groups of fishes. A square type net locally called as “geoli” is attached at the base portion to keep the trapped fish alive. The size of geoli measures 0.8-1m in length and 0.7-0.8m in width. This lift net is used during receding flood mainly in August-September and also during pre monsoon rain (March-April). A single fisher can operate the net. The cpue was recorded as 1.2-5.8.

Dheki jal (Lift net) used in shallow river

Tongi jal (Lift net): This type of lift net is square in shape. The length and width measure about 2-3m2 with very small mesh size (0.2-0.4cm). Two pieces of split bamboo is crossed in such a way that all the four sides are equal in size. Now, the square net is tied to the four corners of the bamboo split with nylon ropes. One 4-5 m long bamboo pole is tied at the centre point where the bamboo splits crossed. The end point of the bamboo pole is pressed by toe to regulate the net. Another piece of thick plastic rope is connected at the apex or cross point to lift the net up and down. This rope must be at least 2m longer than the bamboo pole. The net is dipped in water; kept for 5-10 minutes under water and lifted again to collect the catch. The net is frequently used in monsoon for catching small sized barbs and cat fishes. Another type of lift net is also found to be operated, where all the structure as well as the working principle is same, but the rope for lifting the net is missing and it is lifted up

by the bamboo pole only. These nets are detachable and can be kept detached when not in use. This net is also operated by a single person.

Preparation of the Tongi jal

A tribal woman operating Tongi jal

Fisher with Tongi jal in River Brahmaputra during flood

Fansi jal (Gill net): Fansi jal is a fixed type of net. This net is used throughout the year. It is a small meshed net (2-3cm), usually tied to bamboo poles or tree branches on the river bank. The head and tail rope of the net are provided with floaters and sinkers respectively so that the net remain vertical in position and allowed to drift along with water current. The net is of varying size and usually placed in the open river or near the mouth of the channel of a wetland during evening hours. The catches are hauled in early morning. Small and medium sized fish which try to swim over are gilled in this net. Sometimes baby dolphin and snakes are also entangled in this net. This is a banned net but illegally operated under the cover of night.

Fisher putting Fansi jal Langi jal (Gill net): This type of gill net is fixed with the help of two bamboo poles. The ends of the upper line which is attached with floats are tied with the poles at the two ends. Small burned earthen petri dish or iron sinkers are attached at the base line. The size of the net measures 65-80 m having a width of 2-2.5m with a mesh size of 8-10 cm. The net is used throughout the year. Two persons are required to operate the net. The net can be checked after 1-2 hours to remove the catch or sometimes the net is kept overnight. Mostly large sized fishes are caught by this net.

Knitting of Langi jal

Langi jal in operation Ari langhi (Gill net): This type of gill net resembles the langhi jal both in shape, structure and mode of operation except in size. The length of the net measures 40- 60m, width 2-2.5m and mesh size from 3-5cm. The net is designed to catch medium sized fishes. This all season net is required two persons for its effective operation. Rou langhi (Gill net): This type of gill net is designed to catch large sized fishes specially Labeo rohita (rou), hence the name. The net measures 20-30m in length, 1-2m in width and 4-8cm mesh size. It also involves two persons to operate the net. Fixed with bamboo poles the net is provided with necessary floats and sinkers. The net is operated throughout the year. The catch mostly comprises of Rohu, Mirika etc. Phelni (Triangular basket net): Locally known as phelni or thela jal, is one of the most common and widely used net in shallow waters particularly in pre and post monsoon months. It is operated by a single person and most often by a fisher woman. This fishing gear is made up of mosquito net having a broad base, triangular in shape and supported by bamboo structure with a handle of about 1m for holding the gear. The length of the phelni is about 2m and width of the mouth is about 1.2m. The advantage of the gear is that it can be operated in weed infested, swampy waterbodies for trapping air breathing and bottom dwelling fish. In shallow water, the fisherman/woman push the gear in the swampy area by trampling the weed (if needed) and lift the net every after 2-3 minutes interval. Generally, Channa, Anabus, Puntius Polyacanthus, Mastacembalus. Rasbora and other small sized fishes are caught. The cpue of this trap ranges from 0.9-1.6.

Phelni (Triangular basket net) Saru langhi (Gill net): The net is the smallest one among the gill nets operated in DSNP. Mode of operation is same as that of langhi jal. The length of the net varies from 5-15m while width is about 1m and mesh size from 1-1.5cm. This net requires two persons to operate from a country boat. Small sized fishes including Puntius spp, Mystus spp are among the catches. b. Moving type: Moving nets are mostly seine nets operated in the Brahmaputra basin. Ber Jal (Seine net): This is one of the largest fishing nets operated in the water bodies of Brahmaputra basin. Though it looks like gill net, but it is moving type and it is operated by 3-4 persons. The net is 20-30m in length and 3-4m in width. The mesh size ranges from 2-2.5cm. Empty plastic containers at regular intervals are tied with the upper portion of the net as float and iron balls are tie d with the lower portion of the net a sinker. Heavy rope is provided in the upper line of the net for convenience of pulling the net. One person along with the boatman takes to the river and slowly releases the net so that a specified portion of the river is encircled. The rest of the person standing on the bank, pulls on the net towards them. The net is

mostly used to catch medium and large sized fishes and operated usually during post monsoon months.

Ber jal

Ghaila ber (Seine net): This is probably the largest fishing net operated by 20-30 fishermen. This net is usually operated in the deeper pools, confluences or at river meanderings where the depth of the river is high. The Length of the net varies from 85-100m whereas the width ranges from 3-4 m. The mesh size is about 5-7cm. Necessary floats and sinkers are tied with the two vertical ends of the net to make the gear erect during operation. The mode of operation of ghaila ber is more or less same as that of the ber jal. However, more manpower and boats are required during operation of the net due to its enormous size. This net is also operated in post monsoon months from October to April. Indian Major Carps, giant catfishes, Tor spp. are usually caught by this net. Ghisa jal (Seine net): The mode of operation is same as in ber jal. 3-4 persons are required to operate the seine net along with a boat. The net is 50-60m in length and 2-3m in width. The mesh size ranges from 1-1.5cm. A person keep one end in the boat and other two persons release the net in the river while moving the boat. The entire upper side of the jal possesses heavy rope for convenience of pulling the net. It also bears sinkers at its bottom lines. All kinds of medium and large sized fishes are caught by this net. This net is operated mostly in post monsoon and winter months.

Ghon ber (Seine net): This net is also resembles the ber jal. But it is much longer (60-70m) and relatively shorter in width (1.5-2.5m). The mesh size is 3-4cm. Floats

and sinkers are provided to make the gear vertically straight while in operation. The mode of operation is like that of ber jal. 6-8 persons are required to operate the net. All kinds of fishes are caught by this net. It is operated in the post monsoon months.

Cast Net: This type of net is thrown in water in a circular fashion either from the bank or from a boat. The name “cast net” is due to its mode of operation. Different types of cast nets operated in the Brahmaputra basin are described below. Khewali jal: This variety of cast net is somewhat conical in shape and arguably the most common net operated in the basin. A line is attached at the end point to pull the net. Heavy sinkers are attached in a short interval of l0-15cm above the base line forming a cavity where the fish entangles. The net measures 8-10m with a mesh size of 3-5cm. The tapering end where the line is attached is completely closed. The other broad open end measures 15-20m in diameter. The net is casted from the boat. The fishes are entangled within the circumference of the net which is retrieved by slowly pulling the line. The net is operated through out the year except in high flood. Cpue of the gear is 6.5-8.4.

Khewali jal operated in tributary of Brahmaputra in post monsoon

Fishing with Khewali jal in Maijan beel Community fishing with khewali jal

Ghon khewali: This net is also a type of cast net. It resembles the khewali jal except in length and mesh size. The mode of operation and its construction procedure is also same. But the size and mesh size varies. The name “ghon khewali” is due to its smaller mesh size. The length of the net varies from 3-5m whereas the diameter of the broader end is 7-10m with a mesh size of 0.8-1cm. While casting the net, the fisher stands on the bank or on the boat. The net operated by a single person is used to catch small and medium sized fishes.

Fishing in the Brahmaputra during flood

Operation of cast net in Maguri beel, Tinsukia Fisher showing the catch

Synchronized operation of cast net in monsoon Hat jal (Scoop net)

This cone shaped net is made up of nylon net which is stitched to a bamboo ring, attached to a long bamboo pole of about 5 ft. Drag netting is one among the major fishing operation in the beels of Assam. After drag netting, the small fishes which become moribund float on the water surface. These fishes are collected basically by the children with the hat jal. This is practiced during March-April when the water level is very low in the beels (Nath, 2010) to collect small sized fishes viz. Mowa (A. mola), Dorikona (R. doniconius), Puthi (Puntius spp.) etc. This method of fishes is reported to be operated by the mainly by the Tea Garden community.

Kapda jal (Mosquito net): Mosquito net is commonly known as kapda jal. It is a type of moving gear. The mesh size of this net is very small (0.1-0.2 cm). It is a very destructive fishing gear as not even the eggs can escape from this net. Though the net is declared as banned gear, it is widely used in DSNP throughout the year. It is operated by two persons who drag the net in shallow water from both sides. Small sized fishes mostly caught by this net. The cpue of this net ranges from 1.8-2.4.

Women operating mosquito net in river

Catch of kapda jal B. Traps

Bati mach (Bowl fishing): This gear is made up of a small disc made up of steel. This disc (bowl) is covered by thin cotton cloth and a hole is made at the middle of the disc. Atta is spread over the disc to attract the fishes. The gear is kept under water in the shallow area. When the fishes come to eat the food, they are trapped in the bowl. Generally small fishes (fry or fingerlings) are caught by this device. It has to be checked frequently (every10-15 min or whenever the entry of fish is noticed), otherwise fishes will come out. This trap is reported for the first time from River Burhi Dehing in Jeypore Researve Forest area in 2010 (Bania, 2010). The same has also been reported from Dibru Saikhowa area (Bania, 2011).

Bati mach placed in shallow part of river Borchaloni (Sieve fishing): This fishing method is operated in weed infested swamps or in paddy fields where the water level is very low. The gear used in this method is the sieve, locally called as ‘chaloni’, also used for clear out the paddy. It is made up of split bamboo, round in shape and perforated. Mesh size varies from 1- 1.5cm. Small sized fishes viz. Aspidoparia sp., Puntius sp., Colisa sp. are basically caught in the gear. The gear, known to be used largely by the womenfolk is deeped in water and left for 1-2 minute, then lifted up to collect the catch. The catch is then kept in the ‘khaloi’, a special restore device, they carry with them.

Women with sieve and khaloi to catch fish

Chai: Chai is a fishing trap newly reported in September, 2012 from the River Burhi Dehing, a tributary of the mighty river Brahmaputra (Bania and Borah, 2013). “Chai” is a vernacular word used by Tie phakial community. The device is found to be specifically used by the people of phakial community of Tiphake village near Jaypore Reserve Forest of Dibrugarh district, Assam. This community people came to this valley from Saukham valley of Tibet. The distribution of these people is restricted to upper Assam only. There are only 9 villages of this community in Assam. Out of which two (Namphake and Tipam phake)) are in Dibrugarh district and rest seven (Borphake, Monmo, Longphake, Nonglai, Mounglang, Ningdam, Faneng) are in Tinsukia district with a total population of less than 3000.

Mostly indigenous traps are found to be operated in the shallow wetlands only in post monsoon and winter months. But chai is used to operate in the comparatively shallow part of the river system in monsoon month to trap the large sized fishes. This conical fixed gear is made up of split bamboo rods of varying length according to required size. These are interwoven by bamboo stripes to give it a round shape as well as rigidity. The length of the gear is 1.5-2.0m. The posterior (tapering) end of the trap is closed whereas the anterior part is open for entry of fish. Mesh size ranges from 5-8cm.

Chai: The gear

The open mouthpart is 0.9-1.4 metre in diameter and the trap valve is very unique. The trap is kept fixed in the shallower part of the river with help of 2 bamboo pools fitted at the anterior portion. This is supported by another two bamboo pools which cross at the anterior part. Tree branches are placed near the mouth of the chai. It is operated by a single person. The trap valve is fitted at the anterior open part of the gear covering almost one third of the bamboo pool. It is rectangular in shape, made up of bamboo stripes and

Chai placed in river Burhi Dehing also interwoven by bamboo stripes having a gap of 1.5 to 2.5 cm between the stripes. This valve is regulated by a piece of thread which is fitted with another small piece of bamboo placed parallel to the valve. Two three long piece of threads falls longitudinally to the round trap which is again controlled by a small lock in such a fashion that when fishes move inside and rub with the thread, the valve drops down and the fish is trapped inside. The trap remains almost under water. Periodical checking is made for any trapped organism which can be retrieved alive without any damage. In this trap only a single fish can be trapped at a time, as once the fish comes in, the door drops down preventing the entry of another fish. So, only large sized fishes are caught in this trap. The prized catch includes species like wallago, chitala, sperata, rohu etc. The catch per unit effort of this trap ranges from 1.31 -7.8.

Chepa (Tubular trap): The chepa is made up of split bamboo rods of varying length according to required size. These are woven in a roundish fashion with jute string or soft cane strips. The trap is dorso-ventrally flattened having the maximum girth at the middle and tapering at the ends. A bamboo-made valve is fitted in the lower middle of the chepa to allow the fishes to enter inside with no scope for coming out. The number of these trap doors varies from 1-4. The fishes are removed from an opening at the posterior end. The spindle shaped trap is generally 0.5-0.7m long whereas its diameter ranges from 0.6-0.7m. The gap between two bamboo rods ranges from 0.3- 0.5cm. This device is strictly designed for the wetlands and set against the water

current. This trap is also suitable for the inundated paddy fields. Along with small fishes, cuchia (eel) and snakes are also trapped.

Chepa

Cylindrical nylon trap: This trap is frequently used in flood affected areas. It is made up of small mesh sized mosquito net with a funnel shaped entrance. The entrance is supported by a round strip of bamboo or iron made rings of 0.6-0.8m diameter. The ring is stitched to the inner circumference of the body. The inner part of the net is smaller than the outer tapering part and having a hole at the posterior extremity for the entry of fishes which when opens into a closed sac. The trap net is also set against the water current in shallow water bodies. So the exit of the trapped fishes is difficult. The length of trap ranges from 0.6-0.8m whereas the length of the inner side ranges from 0.3-0.5m. The catches of this trap includes mostly small fishes like Puntius spp, Trichogaster spp, Anabas testudineus, Danio spp, Esomus danricus etc.

Cylindrical nylon trap

Derjakoi (Triangular open mouthed bamboo trap: Derjakoi is a triangular open mouthed placed item made up of fine, split bamboo pieces interwoven with fine cane slips. The length of the gear is 2-3m and mesh size 1-2cm. It is actually a hiding place prepared using branches of small tree. Mustard oil cake is also placed in the trap to lure the fishes available in the water body. Most of the fish species are trapped in this device placed usually in the shallow water. Dingora (Bamboo conical trap): Locally known as dingora and made up of fine split bamboo of jati bah (Bambusa tulda) variety. This conical, fixed trap is specially designed for fishing in beels. The thin bamboo strips are fastened with fine cane slips to give it a conical shape. The gap between two strips is very less (0.2-0.4cm). The height of the trap is 0.5-0.7m with a diameter of 1-1.2m. A valve is designed in the inner side in a zig zag fashion so that fish once entered inside cannot come out. A small outlet at the posterior end is used for removal of the trapped fishes. Only small fishes are caught by this device.

Dingora

Dori or ban (Box trap with mat): Dori or ban is a type of fixed gear. It can be used both in shallow wetlands and rivers where the depth is not more than 0.5m. A ‘dori’ is made up of small bamboo strips woven with flexible cane slips and rectangular in shape. A trap is fitted with a ‘dori’ in such a way that a bamboo-made screen is pointed inwards from either side of the oval mouth. The trap is covered with the small twigs of weeds after placing at a suitable place in the beel or shallow river. It can be operated both in day and night. However, the catch is high at night time. Fish composition is dominated by trash fishes.

Dori placed in the shallow part of river Dori placed in beel

Ghana (Box trap): Locally called ghana and is interwoven by fine bamboo or cane strips having a gap of 0.4-0.5 cm between stripes. A valve is placed at one side of the lower part of the gear just like that of dingora. Small dead or dry fishes are kept inside as bait and once the fish go inside, no scope for coming out. The height of the ghana is 0.45 to 0.60m whereas the width ranges from 0.35 to 0.45 m. This trap is also designed for small sized fishes like Puntius, Rasbora, Trichogaster, Aspidoparia etc. This device is set up against the current when the water level is low.

Ghana (Box trap)

Hukuma (Triangular bamboo trap): Hukuma is a triangular trap where provision for resting/hiding of small sized fishes by keeping tree branches and aquatic weeds inside the trap. It is slightly curved or more or less funnel shaped trap made up of bamboo splits. The device is stuffed with tree branches and weeds to provide a suitable shelter for the fishes. The diameter of the open end is 0.8-1m and the length of the trap measures 1-1.5m. The mesh size measures 0.5-1cm. The main catches include murrels, prawns, Puntius spp, Mastacembelus spp. etc. This is a fixed trap operated by a single person.

Hukuma (Triangular bamboo trap)

Jakoi (triangular trap): The ‘jakoi’ is a type of shovel that is either dragged along the bottom or placed on the water bed to catch small fishes which take refuge in it when the weed is trampled. It is made up of bamboo strips of ‘Jati’ variety (Bambusa tulda). The shape of the main body of jakoi is triangular, but for dragging purpose, a handle is required at the upper corner. The mesh size of the gear ranges from 0.3 to 0.5cm. This type of gear can be used only in shallow waters where the depth is not more than the knee height. Small fishes are generally caught by this gear. The cpue of the gear ranges from 0.3-0.9.

Jakoi (triangular busket trap)

Thuha (Tubular trap): A thuha is a fixed gear placed against the water current. It is made up of a single piece of bamboo and is about 0.8- 1m long. The piece of bamboo is split up at the anterior end (30-40cm diameter) which acts as mouth. The strips are woven by fine bamboo or cane strips to give it a round shape as well as rigidity. The

other end remains complete and united. The trap does not possess trap valve. This trap is also used for catching small sized fishes in monsoon season.

Khoka (Tubular trap): The trap resembles “thuha” in its shape except the mode of operation. This trap is also constructed with a single piece of bamboo of about 1m length. The posterior (tapering) end of the trap is closed whereas the anterior (open) broad end is made up of split bamboo separated from each other by other pieces of bamboo in a roundish fashion. The mouth part (0.7-1m in diameter) is open and without a trap valve. It is also packed with twigs of trees and kept in shallow water. The trap is kept fixed with the help of bamboo pole fitted at the anterior portion. The trap is lifted periodically to remove the trapped fishes.

Khoka (Tubular trap) Pawoi (Cylindrical trap): Pawoi is a large cylindrical trap made up of split bamboo. This trap operated in the deep channels, measures 2.5-3cm in length. This trap resembles dingora but the size varies. Large sized fishes like Wallago sp., Mystus sp. are the major catches of this trap. Polo (Conical trap): This gear resembles the shape of a dome with short stem of about 15 cm diameters, open at the top. The diameter at the bottom varies from 0.6- 1m and sometimes even up to 1.2m, while the height varies from 0.6-1m. It is made up of small bamboo strips fastened with fine and flexible cane slips. Polo is designed specially for fishing in shallow water bodies. It is operated by a single person. The fisher(mostly woman) hold it by the side of the stem, presses its rim on the mud, then pulls it back and lifts above the level of water and again presses it as before while moving on through water. Whenever any fish is caught, the fisher puts his/her

hand inside through the stem to catch hold of the fish. Generally murrels and other air breathing as well as barbs are caught by polo. Another small version of polo (with small mesh size), called juluki is also frequently used in the area. The cpue rages from 0.85-2.2.

Polo (Conical trap) Juluki (conical trap)

Tubular Chepa: This trap is cylindrical in shape. Here, the anterior portion is slightly broader than the base portion. The device is made up of bamboo splits interwoven finely by plastic or cane strips. The mouth part is with a trap valve opening inwards which allow entry of fishes. The base portion is blocked properly by another set of bamboo splits. This is also a fixed trap and can be operated in shallow water, setting against the water current. The length of the trap measures 0.6-0.8m. Small sized fishes are usually caught by this device.

Tubular chepa

C. Hooks and Lines

Borokhi (Hook and line): An iron hook with bait is attached to a line. The end part of the line is attached to a rod. Earthworms, dry or live small fishes, insect larvae etc are commonly used as baits. Borokhi can be used both in river and wetlands. But the size of the line and rod should be altered according to the requirement. Young boys are frequently observed with this type of hook and line.

A small child with Borokhi A person with borokhi in Maijan beel

Tourists with borokhi in Kalmi Nalah of Dibru-Saikhowa

Hope for a good catch in river

Chatisikali Poncha (Harpoon)

This harpoon is made up of slender iron rods of umbrella, so the name. More than 10 iron sticks are attached to a bamboo stick of about 1.5m length to form this poncha. As the sticks are very slender, only small sized fishes can be caught with this gear. Operated mainly in inundated waters.

Gela borokhi (Hook and line)

In this type of borokhi, an iron hook with spoiled bait is attached to a long line and placed in deep water to catch large sized fish.

Hook fishing

5-6 iron hooks are attached to a nylon thread of 15-20m length. The other end of the thread is attached to a pole anchored in the river bank. Generally, earthworm or termite and more frequently small dry fishes are used as bait. After attaching the bait, the nylon thread is thrown in the river water. Rita rita, Mystus spp, Mastacembelus spp are mainly caught by this hook. This type of fishing is done mainly in the flood season.

Hook fishing in the River Brahmaputra during high flood

Kali poncha or kuchia hola (harpoon): In this type of harpoon only one hook is attached to the stick. It is operated by a single person. It is used for hunting cuchia (hence the name) and large murrels (Channa marulius, Channa striata) in dry months.

Cuchia hola (harpoon)

Hendali poncha (Harpoon)

In this type of harpoon three or more numbers of iron hooks are attached to a 1.5-2 m long bamboo stick with about 2m long line. But it becomes free when a fish caught and want to escape from the hooks. The escaping movement of fish make it free from the bamboo stick. This is used to catch mostly large sized fishes.

Poncha (Multi pronged harpoon): Poncha is a type of harpoon. It is generally used to catch medium sized fishes. It has 3-9 numbers of hooks (0.3-0.45m in length) attached to the end of a stick. The stick is about 1.5-2m long. The catches include giant murrels, Wallago attu, Aorichthys spp and Monopterus cuchia.

Multi pronged harpoon

Kosh or Hana: A kind of multi pronged harpoon with 18 numbers of prongs. Each of the prongs is caped with some designable barb and measures 35-40cm in length.

This type of harpoon is basically used in inundated waters. The catch comprises of Aorichthys, aor, Wallago attu, Cirhinnus mrigala, Labeo spp. etc.

Jorakata or light fishing: The tribal folks traditionally practice community fishing during night, which is locally known as Jora kata. Indigenous night lamps made up of dry jute stems, bamboo or other cheap combustible material such as discarded cloth piece is placed at the forehead of a boat. The peddler at the stern propels it slowly and quietly whiles his companion, statuesque and immobile at the prow rest a long spear or a harpoon or a sickle on his right hand ready to launch it at any fish that approaches, attracted by the blaze (Baruah et al., 2013). Being nocturnal in habit, many species of fish including cuchia comes out of holes in search of food. With this opportunity, the operation is done during Krishna paksha (the dark fortnight) Dark, moonless night enable easy catch as the fishes are lured by the flaming torch held in one of the hand of the fisher. During moon light method this period is not effective due to reflection of moon light by the water.

Jara kata

Ponga boroxi (Drift long lines): Drift long lines are long lines without a fixed attachment to the ground on shore or bottom that are free to drift with the current or tide. These are locally known as ‘nol boroxi’ or ‘ponga boroxi’. This is a single vertical line suspended from a short bamboo float of 30-35 cm length, carrying a barbed hook and operated by simply dropping it into the water and waiting for a fish to bite. The length of the vertical line is dependent on the water depth. This device is most suitable for weed chocked stagnant water bodies to catch specially murrels.

Acceptable baits are earthworms, small fish, and eggs of honeybee and ants and wheat balls.

Drift long lines (Ponga boroxi)

D. Nonconventional fishing

Jeng fishing: This dangerous fishing method starts from October to first part of March when the water level as well as current flow is low. Jeng or katal fishing is observed mostly in the wetlands and also at the confluence or at river meanderings. A specific portion of the water body selected to set up the trap by duping tree branches along with the water hyacinth. Actually a shed is prepared for the fishes which look like a bed of water hyacinth. This bed is again surrounded by long bamboo rods which prevents the movement of free floating hyacinths. This set up is left for 2-3 months. When the fishes settle under the shed of water hyacinth, the 40- 50 m2 area is suddenly covered by mosquito net supported by bamboo pools. The water hyacinths were removed and the trapped fishes are caught by the dragnets and cast nets. Along with the miscellaneous species of fishes, large sized fishes like Labeo spp, Catla catla, Wallago attu, Aorichthys aor, Chitala chitala are frequently caught. In jeng fishing 4-6 people are involved. This mode of fishing is identified as the detrimental, because large amount of immature and gravid fish are caught.

Jeng fishing in River Dibru at Memdubi area

Jeng fishing in Maguri beel

Barricade fishing: In the winter months, a specific device made up of bamboo and mosquito nets are used as barricades for fishing. This type of fishing is operated in the shallow parts of the river for catching diverse types of fish species.

Barricade fishing in River Dibru

Fish Poison

Plants: Use of plant as ichthyotoxins is an age old practice in the history of fisheries and the ichthyotoxic plants are still being applied by the indigenous communities in different parts of India (Negi and Kanwal, 2008, Tag et al., 2005, Borah, 2010). The extracts of some specific plants were also found to be used in the Brahmaputra basin as fish catching agents mostly in dry months. The locally available plants recorded to be used as piscisides during the interaction with different community are Polygonum hydropiper Linn, Spilanthes calva, Clerodendrum indicum, Derris elliptica (Wall) Benth, Millettia pachycarpa Benth (Bokoabih), Acacia pinnata Wild (Kuchai), Aegle marmelos Correa (Bel), Anamitra paniclliata Calebr (Kuamora), Anona squamosa Linn (Sitaphol), Dalbargia stipulaceae Roxb (Dat bijola), Engelhardtia polystachya Radlk, Euphorbia neriifolia Linn, Euphorbia tirucalli Linn, Excoecaria agallacha Linn, Gardenia campanulata Roxb, Kayea assamica King & Prain, Randa dumetorum Lamk Syn Gardenia dumeto rum Roxb, Ricinus communis Linn, Spilanthe sacmella Linn, Tephrosia candida Roxb OC, Trichosallthes bracteata Roxb, Zanthoxylum hamiltoniamum Wall, Croton tiglium and Pongamia pinnata. The crushed leaves of Polygonum hydropiper is basically used to catch the air breathing fishes like Channa spp. The leaves are inserted in the holes of the fish, which irritate them and make them compel to come out from the hole.

Clerodendrum indicum

Polygonum hydropiper Spilanthes calva (Wall)

The perennial climbing shrubs, Derris elliptica Benth and Millettia pachycarpa are reported to be used to catch the kuchia fish (Monopterus cuchia). The crushed root

materials are inserted in the hole of Kuchia in such a way that there is sufficient space for the mud eel to come out. During the operation (1.5-2hr) the fisher patiently wait without any movement near the hole with a wounding gear in hand. Unable to withstand the irritation caused by the toxin released from the crushed root, the fish come out of the hole and is caught by wounding. Single fisher operates the whole process discouraging any crowd as any movement around the holes creates vibration, which may alert the fish thereby delaying the operation (Barman et al., 2013). Nowadays the easy availability of the chemical fish poisons restricts its use. However, the chemical piscisides are having vital effects even to the non target aquatic organisms, these plants can be commercially used as piscisides after proper treatment. It is to be note that the fishes trapped by phytotoxins are edible without any side effect. These can only tranquilize the fish, never fatal to them.

Plant parts used as piscisides

Name of plant Local Name Part used as piscicide

Polygonum hydropiper Bihlolongoni Whole plant Linn Spilanthes calva Soku mela Stem, leaves and flower Clerodendrum indicum Okolbih Bark and seed Derris elliptica (Wall) Bokolbih Root Benth Millettia pachycarpa Bokoabih Bark and root Acacia pinnata Wild Kuchai Fruit and bark Aegle marmelos Correa Bel Bark of root Abizzia procera Benth Boga koroi Bark Anamitra paniclliata Kuamora Fruit Calebr

Anona squamosa Linn Sitaphol Seed, root and leaves Dalbargia stipulaceae Dat bijola Bark Roxb Duranta plumeri Moin Seed Engelhardtia Chal bih Bark polystachya Radlk Euphorbia neriifolia Sijoo Root Linn Euphorbia tirucalli Lonka sijoo Root Linn Excoecaria agallacha Tita sasi Latex Linn Gardenia campanulata Bili mona Fruit Roxb Kayea assamica King & Sia nahor Fruit Prain Nerium odorum sol Karabi Seed & root Randa dumetorum Gurol Fruit Lamk Syn Gardenia dumeto rum Roxb Ricinus communis Linn Era goch Seeds Spilanthe sacmella Linn Piraza Whole plant Tephrosia candida Boga Leave Roxb OC medelua Trichosallthes bracteata Kuabhaturi Fruit Roxb Zanthoxylum Tezmoi bih Root hamiltoniamum Wall Croton tiglium Koni bih Seed Pongamia pinnata Koroch Seed

Chemicals: It is well known that the Brahmaputra Valley is famous for the tea gardens. Around 800 numbers of medium and large sized tea estates exist in the Brahmaputra valley leaving the small ones of small tea growers. As such, most of the chemicals used as fish poison in the water bodies of the valley are the herbicide and insecticides commonly used in the nearby tea gardens. Among them, some notable ones are 2-4- D, thyadine and malatheon. These chemicals are unscrupulously used in wetlands and channels when the water level/discharge is very feeble.

Besides all the above groups, some traditional methods prevail in the Brahmaputra basin which are not yet covered and is very difficult to group. So, they are kept separate and are discussed below.

Pulling of water hyacinth

This is one among the primitive methods of fishing without using any actual fishing device. In this method, the water hyacinth is pulled to collect the veiled fish. The water hyacinth is locally known as ‘meteka’, hence this method is known as ‘meteka tana’ (meteka-water hyacinth, tana-to pull). Water hyacinth is one among the most common macrophytes which heavily infest the flood plain wetlands in winter months when the level of water is low. Air breathing fishes including Channa, Clarius and Anabus etc. take shelter under the roots of this plants which can be easily collected if the plants are carefully lifted up by hand. Both man and women are involved in this traditional method of fishing.

Meteka tana

Bheta fishing: This method of fishing is operated in the flooded paddy fields or small derelicts or channels in monsoon season. When the water level goes up suddenly, the fish starts migration. Bheta, a kind of barrier on the way of water is constructed with hard soil which is again supported by bamboo poles. The size and length of bheta depends on the size of the water channel as well as the velocity of the flowing water, usually small in paddy field and a bit larger in channels. A net may be of nylon or cloth made is erected over the bheta with the help of bamboo pole. Some small branches of shrubs are put in the net so that the fish once entered could not come out. The fishes get the obstacle while migrating towards downstream, jump to cross it and trapped in the net. Generally Channa spp., Puntius sp., Polyacanthus sp., Heteropneustes sp. etc. are caught in this device. A single person can operate the whole process.

Bheta fishing in paddy field

Dewatering of water body: Complete dewatering of small portion of shallow swampy areas, derelict or paddy fields with the help of large bowl like utensil is a common scene of rural Assam. Mostly small children and women are involved in this operation to catch small size fishes for home consumption.

Dewatering of water body Eel fishing (Nujung Fishing)

Eel fishing is primarily prevalent in the hill zones of Assam among the tribal population. The eel, Anguilla bengalensis (Gray), locally known as Nagbami comes up from the water into the wet or inundated bamboo grooves to eat the insects available there. The insects floating over water are then consumed by the fish. When the fish crawl through the colonies or nest of insects, most of them get stuck to its mucus. The eel comes back to the stream with the insects (Kalita, 2010). At that time, it can be easily identified and caught with the help of wooden sticks, gunny bags, guuny bags, spears etc. or even with the hand.

Table – Major Fishing gears used in the Brahmaputra basin

No of Name of Operational person Major types of fish caught gear season involved

A. Fixed net

Channa, Anabus, Puntius, 1. Phelni 1 Winter Rasbora .

2. Bhor jal 2 Winter Labeo, Wallago

3. Bagh jal 4-7 Monsoon Labeo, Wallago, Cirhhinus etc

4. Dheki jal 1 Almost round Medium sized fish

the year

5. Tongi jal 1 Monsoon Barbs, small cat fishes

Almost round 6. Fansi jal 2 Small and medium sized fish the year

7. Current Almost round 2 Medium and large sized fish jal the year

Almost round 8. Langi jal 2 Large sized fish the year

9. Ari langhi 2 Round the year Medium sized fish.

10. Saru 2 Round the year Puntius, Mystus Langhi

B. Moving net

1. Ber Jal 3-4 Post monsoon Medium and large sized fishes

Almost all 2. Ghaila All types of medium and large 20-30 season except ber sized fish monsoon

3. Ghon ber 6-8 Post monsoon All types of fish

Post monsoon 4. Ghisa jal 3-4 and winter Medium and large sized fish

5. Khewali Round the year 2 Small and medium sized fish Jal

6. Ghon Round the year 1 Small and medium sized fish Khewali

7. Kapda jal 2 Winter Small sized fish

C. Traps

Aspidoparia, Danio, Esomus, 1. Dingora 1 Winter Trichogaster

Puntius, Rasbora, Trichogaster, 2. Ghana 1 Winter Aspidoparia

3. Dori 1 Winter Botia, Danio, Rasbora

4. Polo 1 Winter Channa, Clarius, Heteropneutes

Premonsoon and 5. Jakoi 1 Anabus, Trichogaster, Puntius post monsoon

Puntius., Rasbora, Trichogaster, 6. Chepa 1 Pre monsoon Cuchia

7. Tubular 1 Monsoon Esomus, Puntius Chepa

8. Thuha 1 Monsoon Trichogaster, Barilius, Puntius

9. pre and post Trichogaster, Puntius, Anabas, Cylindrical 1 monsoon Danio nylon trap

10. Hukuma 1 Winter Puntius, Mastacembelus

11. Bati 1 Winter Botia, Balitora Machh

Post monsoon 12. Khoka 1 Anabus, channa and winter

Post monsoon Wallago, Chitala, Sperata, Labeo 13. Chai 1 and winter etc.

D. Hooks and Line

Round the year 1. Borokhi 1 Clupisoma, Labeo except in flood

2. Hook 1 Summer Rita rita, Mystus, Mastacembelus Fishing

3. Kali 1 Mostly in winter Channa marulius, C. striata Poncha

Labeo, Wallago attu, Mystus, 4. Poncha 1 Post monsoon Monopterus cuchia

Clarius, Labeo, Channa, Wallago 5 Jorakata 1 Monsoon etc

E. Nonconventional fishing

1. Katal Post monsoon Labeo,Catla catla, Wallago, 4-6 Fishing and winter Aorichthys, Chitala chitala

2.Barricade 2-3 Winter Labeo, Catla etc. fishing

Instrument for detrimental fishing

The variable nature of the water body made the fisher to use various devices suitable for the respective system. However, winter and pre monsoon months are always favourable fishing seasons in wetlands of Brahmaputra. Fishing in the confluences with bagh jal in the monsoon season is a common scene. On the other hand when the flood water start receding, fishing with dheki jal (lift net) in a synchronized manner is observed in beels, and also in the shallower part of river as well as mouth of connecting channels. Lift net or dip net bear more or less same meaning. Lift net is the preferred term as the catch is collected not by dipping the nets but by lifting them again (Brandt, 1972). Jeng fishing is identified as the detrimental, because large amount of immature and gravid fish are caught. Another detrimental fishing gear in the region is current jal. Small and medium sized fish which try to swim over are gilled in this gill net. The use of monofilament current jal is detrimental not only for fishes but also for the endangered river dolphins (Platanista gangetica gangetica) (Biswas and Boruah, 2000).Sometimes baby

dolphin and snakes are also entangled in gill net. This is a banned net but illegally operated under the cover of night.

Regulation of mesh size

Regulation of mesh size of gears is often emphasized to protect the young fish and to regulate the size of the fish caught. It is argued that if fishing in immature fish is intense, the abundance of the species may be so reduced before it approaches maturity that there would be sufficient adult fish surviving even if there is no fishing on them (John,1976). Another purpose of controlling the mesh size is to permit the escape of juvenile, hoping that their growth will increase the exploitable biomass, which might be available to the fishery later. The catch on a later day, is expected not only compensate the loss but to become more valuable. First, the total weight may be greater and secondly, large sized fish would have higher market price per unit. If both these conditions hold, then the value will surely go up in future. It is possible that an increase in unit value can even make up for a decrease, if any, in the catch (Anderson, 1977). Unfortunately, Indian Fisheries Act and other state regulations are hardly followed in Assam. Regulation of mesh size of fishing gears and observation of closed season is a far cry in remote areas. Catching of fishes by poisoning the hill streams and shallow water bodies is also a common practice. Pesticides and explosives use in fishing pollute the aquatic environment and disturb the aquatic biota including the fish food organisms. Therefore, a complete ban on use of explosives and poisoning should be enforced.

Traditional Fishing

The traditional fishing is more energy efficient and also in a better position to adopt renewable sources of energy (Joseph and Narayanan, 1965). Baishya and Bordoloi (2009) reported two indigenous fish trapping methods using split bamboo as barrier for catching Mystus spp. The erecting split bamboo barrier for fishing i.e dori has resemblance with “Sher Baarhi” reported from Bihar (Verma, 2006).

The traditional fishers commonly use a disc like device called Batimach in the of stretches of River Burhi Dehing around Jeypore Rainforest and Reserve

Forest. This fishing method is restricted to DSNP as well as Jeypore (Dibrugarh district) and has not yet been reported from any part of Assam (Bania, 2011). Many of the freshwater fish species are directly affected due to human interference including fishing. Only a handful of the freshwater taxa actually are harvested for food, while the rest suffer from irreversible loss due to faulty or wrong methods of fishing and unsustainable harvesting methods (Boruah, 1999). A fine meshed (0.1- 0.2cm mesh size) mosquito net used for catching not only the targeted ones, but also for capturing the very small fishes and even eggs and larvae. Frequent poisoning of the wetlands in dry months is another harmful practice in the Brahmaputra basin (Biswas, 1995; Biswas and Boruah, 2000) as it destroys the entire biota of the aquatic system. Moreover, most of the bamboo traps are found to be operated in the shallow wetlands only. But the use of chai in the flowing water in monsoon months denies this fact. The use of this traditional fishing device is restricted to certain pockets only due to their poor return in comparison to nets made up of nylon. The mono filamentous gill nets have replaced the traditional traps in many places. The fisher shifted to gill nets and cast nets instead of traditional traps. The gill nets of varying size sweeps apparently almost all macro aquatic organisms irrespective of size, species etc. A conspicuous reason for the option of gill net is that the fabrication of even the simplest traditional trap is time consuming provides considerably low return.

Need not to mention that fishing with traditional gears is eco-friendly in comparison to the destructive fishing like chemical poisoning, dynamiting, electro- fishing, use of small mesh-sized nets etc., which has imbalanced the aquatic biota damaging not only the water environment but also fishes and their prey-bases and ultimately the aquatic food chain. Therefore, to exploit the fishery resources, new eco-friendly fishing method is utmost urgent. So, in this respect priority should be given to the indigenous traditional knowledge. Because, traditionally, local communities worldwide are extremely knowledgeable about natural resources on which they are so immediately dependent. Unfortunately, much of this wealth of knowledge is today becoming lost as traditional cultures become eroded. Traditional

knowledge can play very useful role in rescuing disappearing knowledge and returning it to local communities. So, traditional knowledge should be conserved as a part of living cultural ecological system, helping to maintain a sense of pride in local cultural knowledge and practices and reinforcing link between communities and environment, so essential for conservation. The inhabitants in and around the water bodies largely depend upon the natural wealth of their habited not only for their basic need but also for basic amenities of life. But, now fact is that they are largely secluded from urban culture. Due to this, their inherent traditional knowledge is going to be vulnerable (Dutta et al., 2012).

Eco-friendliness of Gear

The time of operation of a gear or trap is an important factor in determining the eco-friendliness of a trap or gear irrespective of traditional or not. The evaluation of fishes collected through the traps calls for a discussion in this direction. As the fishing by many of the gears is during breeding season (monsoon), most of the fishes landed are berried. The gears which are set against the migratory path, practically catches the brooders. In addition to these, there are instances of killing of entrapped fish species which are undesired and uneconomic.

On account of the highly diverse nature of fish habitat, fisher community, diverse terrain and topography of inland water areas, a diverse range of fish trapping devices to collect fish and other aquatic animals has been evolved over a long period of time by the fisher from very simple tools to the present, often sophisticated fishing methods. Many of the traditional gears are still in use today in one form or another contributing to the total fish production and the economy of the local community. Majority of the traps are fabricated in different shapes and sizes and are comparatively cheaper and efficient than other traditional fishing gears. A single type of gear may be known by different names with locality and sometimes a common name for variety of gears in different areas. However, factors such as thinning out of fish population and reduction in natural shallow water areas, poor returns and

attitudinal changes of the fisher can lead to reduction in the use of fishing traps (Baruah et al., 2010).

Most of the studies elsewhere on the traditional fishing methods endorse the role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge on the responsible and wise use of bio- resources. Many of the gears operated in Assam could not be considered as eco- friendly particularly when the fishing season is taken into consideration. These also explicitly violate the provisions of the fisheries legislations of the state. As such, the eco-friendliness of traditional knowledge has to be redefined. With this backdrop, an urgent intervention of the policy makers, Fisheries Department and conservationists including the scientists and researchers is required at this moment for the long term conservation of fishery resources of the state. Traditional fishing practices are extremely important as they can provide livelihood for a large section of fishing communities. Therefore, the eco-friendly fishing techniques must be documented, preserved, scientifically upgraded and promoted not only for future use but also for sustainable exploitation of fishery resources to conserve or minimize the collapse of inland water fish stock.

ITK of certain aqua fauna of the Brahmaputra basin with special reference to River dolphin

Need not to mention that fish is mostly used as food. Some varieties, of course, have great aesthetic value and are kept in aquaria for their soothing effect. Still other groups are renowned for their medicinal value. Although medicinal importance of certain fish species is well known, very little scientific informations on chemical components and mechanism of action are available about these medicinal fish species, especially those found in the Brahmaputra basin.

During the period of survey, while discussing with the communities basically the heads of family and the women folk a total of 12 varieties of fishes have been recorded with 16 different modes of treatment. Among the medicinally important species murrels (Channa spp), sleeper goby (Glossogobius giuris), devil catfish (Chaca chaca) and several cobitids are noteworthy. Channa punctata and C. gachua are traditionally used for treating aesthama, Clarius batrachus and Heteropneustes fossilis are well known for their therapeutic value. Glossogobius giuris (locally called patimutura) is another variety for prevention urination in sleep that is fairly common in adolescent age. Similarly, the flesh of Chaca chaca is mixed with certain herbs and the paste is used against certain gynecological problems. The utility of medicinally important fish species is summarized in the Table.

The most widely used aquatic fauna for therapeutic purpose is river dolphin (Platanista gangetica gangetica). This aquatic mammal has a huge reservoir of fat (blubber) beneath its skin. The blubber acts as insulator for maintenance of body temperature of dolphin. The blubber is used for extracting oil whenever a dolphin is accidentally or intentionally killed. The oil extracted from the blubber is said to be a master drug against a variety of ailments. The oil is most commonly used for healing burn injury. In fact, dolphin oil is also used for getting relief from common cold and cough to rheumatic pain. Every household in the river bank area keeps a bottle of dolphin oil in their house for emergency purpose. In case, a family member suffers from any type of ailment, be it stomach pain or headache, dolphin oil is first used for

preliminary treatment. The village women use dolphin oil as hair oil against rising of blood pressure and related ailments. Even rostrum of dolphin is used as comb and it is believed that the dolphin teeth have medicinal value.

Dolphin oil is extracted by various means. However, the most common method is by keeping the dead dolphin in a container, followed by burying the container underneath the earth for a varying period. The oil from the blubber oozes out after a week or so. Another common method is chopping the flesh of dolphin and allows the fillets to sun dry. The oozing oil from the fillet is collected in a container. Traditionally, dolphin is a highly sought animal for their medicinal value. Although, dolphin meet has a very pungent smell yet they are killed, often intentionally for their oil. In short, dolphins are killed for their oil just like poachers kill rhinos for their horn and elephants for their tusk. Needless to say that the dolphin oil is highly priced, fetches anything between Rs. 500/- and Rs. 2000/-. Since population of dolphin in the Brahmaputra River has been drastically declined, spurious oil is often sold in the name of dolphin oil (Biswas and Bania, 2010).

Utilization of animal or their body parts especially of rare and endangered species for medicinal purposes is not only unethical but also illegal according to the prevailing law of the land. Many tribes consider dolphin as a revered animal. For instance, Mising tribe considers river dolphin is the descendent of the princes of their clan who committed suicide long time ago. This is why older generation of the community never encourage killing of dolphin. It is true that dolphin oil has therapeutic value but then, what will happen if all dolphins are killed for the benefit of human being? Human diseases will not vanish even after extinction of dolphin. Moreover, allopathic drugs are available in the market for all diseases and it is the moral and legal duty of the government to supply medicine and provide proper health care for the citizens residing every nook and corner of the state. Effective awareness programme in the dolphin inhabited areas against killing this endangered and ecologically important mammal from the brink of extinction. The rural people should be convinced to use modern medicine instead of drugs prepared from wild animals. As for example, for treating burn injury tooth paste may be applied in the wound if

any medical aid is not readily available. Further, fishing of Clupisoma garua and other cat fishes by using dolphin oil, a destructive practice in vogue in certain parts of Assam, should be discouraged without further delay. As an alternative strategy, waste from slaughter house may be used for luring the same. At the end, it is appealed to all concerned to conserve river dolphins for their aesthetic and ecological values.

Finally, it was observed that though some of these fish species are still being used among the local communities, they are very reluctant to disclose the same. They were observed to keep these therapies among themselves only. The scientific analysis can only reveal the actual component present in these species which cures the disease. This calls upon a systematic scientific study. At the same time care should be taken so that community’s values are restored with due credit.

Table: The utility of medicinally important fish species

SL Scientific Curable diseases Mode of treatment name/common name 1 Clarius batrachus a. To cure general a. Cooked with pepper (Magur) weakness b. Cooked with dry b. To cure pox khorisa (bamboo shoot) 2 Heteropneustes fossilis a. To cure general a. Cooked with pepper (Singhi) weakness b. Taken as paste (ash of b. Against fungal infection head portion of the fish of nail along with coconut oil). 3 Glossogobius giuris To cure urination in sleep Taken as paste (Patimutura) 4 Monopterus cuchia For general weakness and Flesh cooked with chilli (Cuchia) anemia 5 Puntius sarana sarana For restoring eyesight Roasted or cooked fish is

(Seni Puthi) given to patient.

6 Puntius sophore To cure Malaria Dried and grinded fish (Puthi) are mixed with Colocasia (Kachu) and taken with chilli and salt. Also known as Hukoti. 7 Wallago attu (Borali) To cure pox Cooked with dry khorisa (bamboo shoot) 8 Channa barca To cure general weakness Cooked with Dalania (Chenga) indica, pepper. 9 Channa marulius (Sal) To cure general weakness Cook with dal (mati mah) and sol fish. 10 Channa striata(Sol) To cure general weakness Cook with dal (mati mah) and sal fish. 11 Channa punctatus a. For healing wound a. Scale of burnt fish (Goroi) b. Against menstrual used. problems. b. Cooked with Commelina benghalensis (kona simolu) 12 Channa gachua a. To cure blood dysentery a. Boiled with Lasia (Cheneli) b. To cure menstrual spinosa (Chengmora) problems. b. Cooked with Commelina benghalensis (kona simolu)

CONCLUSION

The important aspect of the river Brahmaputra is that it provide livelihood to the local community living in the bank. . A majority of the low-income group population of artisan fishermen depends on the bioresources available from these ecosystems for their daily food, health care and energy needs. The resource conservation and management of environment needs a holistic approach involving strong cooperation of the people in the participatory programmes. Many a time, economic and legal instruments and suitable interventions are essential to protect these resources. Unless the minimum requirements of the poverty driven inhabitants who are solely dependent on these ecosystems for their daily needs are met, effective management of the ecosystem is not possible and the protection and conservation practices may fail. Therefore, the management programmes should adopt economically sound measures that act as incentives for conservation and sustainable use of resources and components of biodiversity of riverine habitats.

The sustainable exploitation of natural resources and developing efficient markets for the resultant produce is critical to durable enhancement of local livelihoods. Even then several options are available in this regard that may be relevant to Brahmaputra. This includes development of cottage industry like manufacturing of fishing gear, nets and bamboo products, development of cage culture, involvement of womenfolk in handicraft business which acts for poverty reduction as well as conservation of fish resources. But the task of exposing rural women of socio economically backward area to new technologies that can help them to generate income and improve quality of life is really challenging.

Emphasis should be given for the development of a new concept of “geo- tourism”. Development of ornamental fishery with a good number of endemic fish species available in Brahmaputra basin will surely add conservation attitude to the ecotourism sector.

Moreover, there is an urgent need to quantify the land use- land cover pattern of the basin and aquatic habitat changes using the satellite imageries. It is imperative

that a close watch of the changes taking place in the Brahmaputra drainage system should be monitored to at least prevent further deterioration of the important habitat.

For restoration of bioresources and their habitat in Brahmaputra basin three parameters should be taken up simultaneously through which resource management could be achieved. These are awareness programme on implementation of Environmental and Fisheries Act, provision for basic civil amenities and finally alternative livelihood options. The integration of all these three requirements along with the community participation in resource conservation may only secure the conservation and sustainable use of the biodiversity. A strategic plan for habitat and fish and other biodiversity restoration in Brahmaputra is schematically given Resource Management of Brahmaputra

Awareness programme Alternative livelihood Provision for basic mplementation of options on i civil amenities Environ & Fisheries Act on implementat Vocational training Control of illegal Sanitation fishing

Housing Ecotourism

Control of agrochemical run off Health care Animal husbandry

Education Poultry farming Control of tree felling Community hall

Captive breeding of aquarium fish Habitat restoration

Community participation Short term fish in resource conservation culture

Reduction of fishing pressure Bee keeping

Provision for Horticulture Implementation of Environmental and stipend for youths Fisheries Act Production of organic manure

Desiltation of river bed Propagation of ornamental plants and insects

Promotion of handicraft

Marketing channel

Conservation and sustainable use of Biodiversity of Brahmaputra

Fig: Schematic diagram of a three prong strategy for conservation and sustainable use of freshwater biodiversity in Brahmaputra

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