Equatorial : Centering the in Global and Local Security Published by University of Washington Jackson School of International Studies

Instructors: Nadine Fabbi Joël Plouffe

Special Adviser: Donat Savoie

Expert Evaluator: Tony Penikett

Author of the Foreword: Bernard Funston

Editors: Charlotte Dubiel Binh Vong

Design Editor: Kevin Shaw

Coordinator: Ngoc Ho

Task Force Team: Michael Brown Zoë Cosford Hannah Dolph Charlotte Guard Steven Moore Max Sugarman Rachel Tam Nicolas van Tulder

Cover Photo, bottom right: Barry Pottle

1 2 Acknowledgements

This Task Force report could not have been achieved without the generous support of a wide variety of individuals and organizations. We would like to extend our sincerest thanks to all those who donated their time, energy, funds, and passion to aid us in this extraordinary experience.

University of Washington Wolfram Latsch, Lecturer in International Studies, Director of the Task Force Program Tamara Leonard, Associate Director, Center for Global Studies • Dan Mandeville, Nordic Studies Librarian • Siôn Romaine, Canadian Studies Librarian • Louise Richards, Fisheries and Oceanography Librarian • Monick Keo, Canadian Studies Center • Staff of the Odegaard Writing and Research Center • Presenters• Jean-François Arteau, Vice-President, Société d’habitation du Québec Kristin Bartenstein, Professor of Law, Faculty of Law, Université Laval • Jean-Marie Beaulieu, Senior Science Advisor, Canadian Polar Commission • Maria Beauséjour, Ministère des relations internationales, de la Francophonie et du Commerce • Extérieur du Québec • Richard Daigneault, International Affairs Advisor, National Assembly of Québec Louis-Jacques Dorais, Professeur titulaire, Département d’anthropologie, Université Laval • Mathieu Doyle Gosselin, International Affairs Advisor, Communication and Public Affairs • Division, Ministère des relations internationales, de la Francophonie et du Commerce Extérieur • du Québec Marc-André Dubois, Advisor, External Relations, World Wildlife Fund

Luc Ferland, for Ungava, Parti Québécois, Chair of the Committee on • InstitutionsLeanna Ellsworth, and Parliamentary Health and Climate Assistant Change to the Officer, Minister of NaturalCircumpolar Resources Council (Northern Affairs •

Stefanfile) Fournier, Research Associate, Center for the North • BernieLouis Fortier, Funston, Professor Chair, Canadian of Oceanography, Polar Commission ArcticNet Scientific Director, Université Laval • Robert L. Gandolfo, Captain, U.S. Coast Guard, Coast Guard Attaché • • • MorleyKitty Gordon, Hanson, , Communications Coordinator, Officer, Sivuniksavut Makivik Corporation • PhilippeBrigadier Hébert, General Director Guy Hamel, of Policy Commander, and Development, Joint Task ArcticForce NorthFile () • Stephen Hendrie, Executive Director, • Anja Jeffrey, Director, Center for the North, Conference Board of • André Jolin, Services touristiques • Joë Lance, Executive Assistant to the President of Makivik Corporation • Frédéric Lasserre, Professor of Geography, Université Laval • Lonzell Locklear, Special Advisor for Energy and Environment, Embassy of the of • America • John Mackay, President and Director General, Société d’habitation du Québec William Mackay, Senior Advisor on Intergovernmental Relations from the Territory of Nunavut • Dominic Maltais, Secrétariat aux affaires autochtones, Direction des relations et du suivi des • ententes, Gouvernement du Québec • Marc Meloche, Senior Policy Analysis, Canadian Polar Commission

• internationales, de la Francophonie et du Commerce Extérieur du Québec • SiasiaAriadne Morel, Moisan, International Western States Affairs Desk Advisor, Officer, United United States States Division, Division, Ministère Ministère des des relations relations

• 3 internationales, de la Francophonie et du Commerce Extérieur du Québec Nunavut Sivuniksavut Barry Pottle, Inuk photographer, • Siomonn Pulla, Senior Research Associate, Center for the North • Thierry Rodon, Associate Professor of Political Science, Chair of the Northern Sustainable • Development Research Chair, Université Laval • Julie Rodrigue, Advisor, Agency of Natives Affairs

• Directorate, Global Marine and Northern Affairs Bureau • DonatRenée Savoie,Sauvé, Director,Inuit, Circumpolar Department and of Arctic Fisheries Affairs and Oceans (DFO), International Affairs Alexander Shestakov, Director, World Wildlife Fund, Global Arctic Programme • • Claude Trudelle, Deputy Director, Policies Analysis Division, Ministère des relations • internationales,Gretchen L. Tierje, de Sciencela Francophonie & Technology et du Officer, Commerce Embassy Extérieur of the du United Québec States of America • Melissa Weber, Policy Analyst, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, International Affairs Directorate, Global Marine and Northern Affairs Bureau • Lori Wilkinson, , Polar Continental Shelf Program Nick Xenos, Director of Arctic Science Policy and Integration, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern • Development Canada •

Sponsors

the Centers for Global Studies & Canadian Studies (International and Foreign Language Education, This program is supported by the Government of Québec (Visiting Professor & Québec Unit grants);

Office of Postsecondary Education, U.S. Department of Education); the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies; Hellmannthe Fund Chapman for Innovation Charitable and Fund. Excellence in International Studies; International Studies Program Discretionary Fund; Maxwell M. and Julia Fisher Endowment; and, The success of this program would not have been possible without expert advice and assistance of Donat Savoie, President, Inuit, Arctic and Circumpolar Affairs Consulting Firm and Knight

(Chevalier)We would ofalso the like National to express our of gratitudeQuébec (2010). to Bernard His input Funston and forfriendship writing havethe foreword been invaluable. to our report. We cannot think of a better way to begin the report.

Finally, we would like to thank our instructors Nadine Fabbi and Joël Plouffe for their extraordinary support and guidance through the past ten weeks.

4 Preface

History of the Arctic Task Force The Task Force on the Arctic prepares international studies majors to effectively deal with Arctic issues and to ensure that the voices of Québec and Canada, including the Inuit of Canada, are included in future negotiations regarding the region. The Task Force program in the Jackson School

International Studies majors. has an over 25-year history impacting the research and professional development of hundreds of experience is required for International Studies majors in the Henry M. Jackson School of The Task Force is a 10-week, 5-credit seminar held in winter quarter. This capstone Studies students may be preparing for careers in multi-faceted non-governmental and governmentalInternational Studies organizations, at the University the Task Force of Washington offers students (UW). the Recognizing opportunity that to many address International policy questions in a “real world” setting. The seminar operates much like a Presidential or Royal Commission – the students research a current and relevant policy issue, prepare a written report,

2009and present Task Force their policyon the recommendations Arctic – to an outside expert in the field. http://jsis.washington.edu/canada/file/archive/taskforce09/ students The produced first Task the Force report, on Towardsthe Arctic, Arctic led by Resolution: Vincent Gallucci Issues ofand Sovereignty Nadine Fabbi, and focused Governance on in theArctic Circumpolar sovereignty, North was includingoffered in chapters2009 and on included the Canada-U.S. a one-week dispute research over tripthe Northwestto . ThirteenPassage, shipping issues, and the role of Canada’s Inuit in Arctic sovereignty. The students presented their

Honorablefindings to MentionRob Heubert, at the Centre UW Libraries for Military Research and Strategic for Studies, Undergraduates. University of Calgary. The report was also presented at the 12th Annual UW Undergraduate Research Symposium, and won 2011 Task Force on the Arctic – http://jsis.washington.edu/canada/courses/arctic.shtml and the Makivik Corporation, , created a partnership to involve Canadian Inuit participants In 2011, in an effort to create a truly international educational experience, Canadian Studies Governance team, led by V. Gallucci and N. Fabbi. The international team spent a week in Ottawa in the program. As a result, 14 UW students and two Makivik participants formed the 2011 Arctic visiting Foreign Affairs and International Trade and Indian and Northern Affairs Canada; six Arctic U.S.country Representative embassies; forscholars the Arctic with Council, the Faculty served of Law as the at theexpert University evaluator. of Ottawa; ministers of parliament; and Canada’s offices for the national and international Inuit associations. Julie Gourley, 2013 Task Force on the Arctic – http://jsis.washington.edu/canada/courses/arcticpolicy.shtml grant, Joël Plouffe, l’Université du Québec à Montréal, served as co-instructor of the Task Force and the Task In Force 2013 team the Task was Forceable to focused travel to on both Arctic Québec security. City Thanks and Ottawa to a Government as part of their of Québec research experience.

Nadine C. Fabbi is the Associate Director of the Canadian Studies Center. For the last ten years her work has centered on the history and geopolitics of the circumpolar north. She is currently engaged in research on indigenous diplomacies and international relations in the Arctic. She earned her MA in Canadian Studies from Carleton University and is currently enrolled in a doctoral program at the University of . Nadine has travelled to , the , Churchill, Manitoba, she has taught on Inuit history and political mobilization at the University of Alberta and the , and Siberia. In addition to the 2009 and 2011 Arctic-focused Task Force classes, 5 University Centre of the Westfjords, Ísafjörður, Iceland. Nadine’s most recent publications include, “Geopolitics, , and Arctic Resources,” co-authored with V. Gallucci and D. Hellmann, in Fishing“Inuit Political People Involvementof the North: in Cultures, the Arctic,” Economies, in the Arctic and ManagementYearbook 2012, Responding edited by toL. Heininen;Change, edited and, by C. Carothers et al.

Joël Plouffe is a Research Fellow at the Raoul Dandurand Chair of Strategic and Diplomatic

UniversityStudies at theof Lapland, University Finland. of Québec His research at Montréal and (UQAM). publications He is deal also mainly affiliated with to geopolitics,the Northern foreign policyResearch making Forum and network international on Geopolitics relations and in theSecurity Arctic. (www.nrf.is), Joël holds a doctoralled by Dr. scholarship Lassi Heininen from of the the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and is currently a project member on “Climate Change and Commercial Shipping Development in the Arctic” under the auspices of with Canada’s National Defence and Canadian Forces ‘’ in Canada’s Western Université Laval’s ArcticNet and led by Dr. Frédéric Lasserre. In August 2012, Joël was embedded

Arctic (). He is currently enrolled in a doctoral program in Political Science at DonatUQAM. SavoieHis thesis is an looks Anthropologist at the influence by training of Arctic and geography has occupied in US several foreign senior policy positionsmaking. within

MakivikAboriginal Corporation. Affairs and He Northern has received Development several honours Canada forduring more his than career 35 years and was in areas appointed related to to the Arctic, Inuit and Circumpolar Affairs. He is presently Special Advisor to the Office of the President of of the province for his work amongst the Inuit. National Order of Québec in 2010 by the of the Province of Québec, the highest recognition Bernard Funston is currently the Chair of the Canadian Polar Commission, a body established by an Act of Parliament to promote the development and dissemination of polar knowledge. He has extensive experience on a range of matters pertaining to the and the northern circumpolar region, including systems of governance, international and intergovernmental relations, Aboriginal land claims and self-government processes, resource development issues, development. By training, Mr. Funston is a constitutional lawyer and a member in good standing of thescientific Law Societies research of and Northwest cooperation, Territories and a range and Alberta. of fields He relating holds degreesto economic from and Trent University, the

University of Cambridge (King’s College), and the University of Alberta.

6 Foreword by Bernard Funston

In a very short time the circumpolar North, often loosely referred to as the Arctic, has century. The reasons for this are varied and to some degree disturbing. Two primary forces are at workemerged in this from transformation: the periphery ofclimate global change geopolitics and globalization.to become a mainstream issue for the 21st

The Arctic is extremely vulnerable to climate change and this region is now experiencing is expected to accelerate, contributing to major physical, ecological, social and economic changes, manysome of thewhich most have rapid already and severe begun. climate Indeed, change the Arctic on Earth.can be Over viewed the as next a barometer 100 years, that climate is highly change responsive to global processes. Changes in Arctic climate that are resulting in loss of sea ice and glacial ice will also affect the rest of the world through increased global warming, rising sea levels, possible changes to ocean circulation and so on.

Globalization is also reaching into the Arctic. A burgeoning human population is turning its attention northwards, anticipating that reduction in sea ice will lead to accessible natural resources on land and in marine areas. Arctic tourism has begun to increase rapidly. In addition, a number of transboundary pollutants from industrial operations in more southerly latitudes are carried northwards by natural oceanic and atmospheric forces.

However, there is room for optimism. Northern peoples are well known for their resilience and adaptive genius. Arctic states, independently and through cooperative organizations such as the Arctic Council, are carefully studying natural and human systems relating to this region in efforts to devise governance systems and management practices that are effective to meet new challenges. Many non-Arctic states have also turned their attentions to the Arctic, not only because of potential resource development opportunities, but also for purposes of improving understanding of Earth systems through collaborative science with the Arctic states.

It is not surprising that there are many interests and perspectives that inform the up-surge in attention relating to the circumpolar North. These interests and perspectives can be analysed under four broad and often competing conceptualisations: homeland, laboratory, frontier and wilderness.

Homeland renewable resource: Depending activities remainon how important it is delimited, components the Arctic of ismany home indigenous to between cultures 4 and 9 and million economies.people, including indigenous peoples. Hunting, herding, fishing, trapping, gathering and other

Laboratory: For the past few decades, in particular, the Arctic has been a laboratory for

Year. increasing scientific research and cooperation, particularly during the recent International Polar Frontier: For many nation-state governments and multinational corporations the Arctic is a frontier with the potential for exploitation of important natural resources to feed national and global demands for energy, minerals, fresh water and other renewable and non-renewable resources.

Wilderness: Alternatively, many environmental and conservation organisations see the protected areas. northern circumpolar region and its flora and fauna as wilderness to be preserved in parks and juxtaposing homeland, laboratory, frontier and wilderness helps clarify some of the values and While this way of characterising the7 interests engaged in the Arctic is an over-simplification, goals of various stakeholders. Our stewardship of the Arctic, and indeed the planet, will hinge on how well we can reconcile and balance these various values and goals. Balance is important because the values and goals expressed through each of these conceptualisations are politically legitimate and have to be taken into account in policy-making processes.

The Arctic is not a closed system. Any effort to better understand the dynamics of Arctic human and natural systems, and their connections to a larger global context, has a potential to better inform policy responses. All efforts to generate cooperation have the potential to empower collaborative actions which will be necessary to move towards a lighter human footprint on Earth systems. The Brundtland Commission noted that: “The environment does not exist as a sphere separate from human actions, ambitions and needs, and attempts to defend it in isolation from human concerns have given the very word ‘environment’ a connotation of naivety in some political circles... But the ‘environment’ is where we all live, and development is what we all do in attempting to improve our lot within that abode. The two are inseparable.” [World Commission on

IssuesEnvironment arising andfrom Development, climate change 1987] and globalization are complex. Arctic state and Arctic non-state actors cannot simply talk among themselves and look inward towards the Arctic region. In turn, non-Arctic actors must not ignore their connections to the drivers of change that are environmental, economic, political and social consequences in non-Arctic regions. Both Arctic and transforming the Arctic. Arctic change is relevant outside the Arctic and will likely have significant dialogue and take actions. Quite simply, a coordinated global approach is needed. non-Arctic interests must accelerate their efforts to find processes and mechanisms to improve Students and professors from the University of Washington are to be commended for

Arctic Policy is a joint program between the Canadian Studies and International Studies centers intheir the innovative Henry M. Jacksonapproach School to advancing of International the discourse Studies. on InArctic addition policy. to Theconducting 2013 Task research Force onon the Arctic at the University of Washington, these students and professors travelled to City and aboriginal organizations, and think-tanks. In addition they visited the Nunavut Sivuniksavut School, andOttawa, spoke Canada to a number to speak of with individuals a broad who range specialize of officials in Arcticactive instudies. Arctic Theiraffairs thoughtful in government, report NGOs, is a welcome addition to the collaborative effort to better understand the Arctic and its relationship to the rest of the planet. It is a testament to a promising new generation of policy-thinkers dealing with important issues.

Bernard Funston Chair Canadian Polar Commission Ottawa, Canada

8 Contents

Executive Summary...... 11 by Binh Vong Introduction...... 13 by Charlotte Dubiel and Binh Vong

Part I Chapter 1: Ending the Dispute...... 18 How Inclusion of Inuit Perspectives on Sea Ice Could Build a More Effective Strategy for Canada by Zoë Cosford

Chapter 2: Honoring Ottawa’s Promises to Nunavut...... 24 by Ngoc Ho

Chapter 3: Le Quebec Total...... 32 Creating an Unifying Vision for Northern Development by Nicolas van Tulder

Part II Chapter 4: Arctic Tourism: Cruises and Bruises...... 42 by Steven Moore

Chapter 5: Creative Conservation...... 50 New Paradigms of Biodiversity Management in the Canadian Arctic by Max Sugarman

Chapter 6: Pomegranates in the North, Muktuk in the South...... 59 Building Infrastructure for Arctic Food Security by Kevin Shaw

Chapter 7: Urban Inuit: An Issue of Human Rights Deprivation...... 68 by Hannah Dolph

Chapter 8: Education in the Canadian Arctic...... 75 The Nunavut Sivuniksavut Program as an Inuit-Centered Model by Charlotte Guard

Part III Chapter 9: The Arctic Council and non-Arctic Interest...... 86 Managing Perceptions and Influence in a Changing Region by Michael Brown

Chapter 10: China and the Arctic Council...... 95 by Rachel Tam

Conclusion...... 101 by Charlotte Dubiel

Glossary of Terms...... 103

References...... 104

9 10 Executive Summary by Binh Vong and essential time to reassess political, economic and social matters pertaining to the Arctic region. As Canada Frequently prepares considered to chair the a barometer Arctic Council for climate (2013-2015) change, now the is Arctic both isa strategica region highly affected by climate change and environmental degradation, giving rise to a number of environmental, socio-economic and political challenges. Most directly affected by these problems are the indigenous populations who call the home. As indigenous populations continue to reassert their voice and global interest in the region increase, new strategies must be adopted to successfully reconcile diverging interests. This Task Force report uses security as both a medium and a framework to reassess

Inissues so doing, in the we Canadian composed North. a model We definefor capacity security to acknowledgeas capacity building the interdependency for individuals, of individuals,communities communities, and nations (both and nation-states. ethnic and state) As theto build Arctic sustainable is a region and encompassing resilient systems. both local indigenous and imported systems, the chapters within this report distill and reconcile these differences to form a more thorough narrative. Chapters in this report provide background information, analyses and policy options for imminent issues facing the Canadian Arctic region. The research that underpins these chapters derives from scholarly work and statements from governments, indigenous groups, and other Arctic organizations to form comprehensive analyses of issues at stake. Part I of our report addresses on-going dialogues between Inuit population in Canada and the Canadian government on the Northwest Passage, land claim agreements in Nunavut, and Québec’s Plan Nord as a case study on the need for Northern and Southern Québec to further collaborate in addressing the challenges and opportunities around Québec’s nordicity. The three chapters in Part I demonstrate that the inclusion of Inuit agenda and perspective into governmental policies is both essential and constructive. Part II of our report demonstrates capacity building in Northern communities on the following areas: tourism, biodiversity, food security, indigenous homelessness and education. ongoingThe findings issues in andthis priorities section suggest for the forNorth’s integration future. of Northern traditional knowledge with Southern Finally, scientific Part IIIand of economic our report knowledge focuses on to the foster emerging enhanced relationship mutual betweenunderstandings the Arctic of Council and a non-Arctic states, with the last chapter focusing on China’s request to enter the Arctic Council as a permanent observer. Part III found that as environmental problems in the Arctic are imported from other regions of the world, it is necessary to include non-Arctic states into the discourse on Arctic security. Established after extensive research and analyses, the policy recommendations in Part I and Part II of this report predominantly target the Canadian federal and provincial governments, as well as indigenous populations in Canada, while those in Part III directs toward non-Arctic states and the Arctic Council. These recommendations seek to advance development in the North, calling for a development approach that includes individual, community, and nation-state actors.

11 Policy Recommendations:

For the : government, Canada’s Arctic Policy statement, and at the supranational level. • Incorporate the Inuit perspective on sea ice in consultation between Inuit and the Federal establish an independent institution to oversee the implementation of the NLCA. • Devolve land and resource management in Nunavut to the Government of Nunavut and Assisted Refugee Program to indigenous population • Allocate funds and resources from the Citizen and Immigration Canada’s Government For the Government of Canada and Provincial Governments:

• Practice adaptive co-management focused on ecosystem-based management and• Provide resources more to information maintain infrastructure an regulation at for a self-sustainingtourism in the Arcticlevel. For• Include the Government community of infrastructure and the in policy Government discussions of Nunavut: on the Arctic and increase staffing incorporated into this model. • Create a trust or endowment to expand NS model and value of critical thinking must be For the Government of Québec: for long-term sustainable growth by investing in human development before resource development• Incorporate Plan Nunavik into a revamped Plan Nord, and prepare Northern Québec

For Indigenous groups and populations: ascertain community opinions and demands, particularly around food security and infrastructure.• Conduct baseline needs assessments using PhotoVoice in each Arctic community to

For the Arctic Council and non-Arctic states: new states • The Arctic Council must reevaluate the role of non-observer states and allow the entry of

• China must establish an Arctic foreign policy.

12 Introduction

By Binh Vong and Charlotte Dubiel

Our Task Force report seeks to were rearticulated in the boardrooms of Québec reinvigorate political discussion regarding and Ottawa: “the Arctic region will not only be security and cooperation in the circumpolar facing a time of change and challenge…but also a North in the midst of rapid environmental change. Given that the Arctic region is warming at twice report commends existing innovative solutions the rate of the rest of the globe, the decisions fortime adapting of great toopportunity” change and (Aglukkaq, recommends 2013). options Our made in the coming years and even months for new solutions for capacity building. The are critical to the capacity of Arctic systems people who live in the north are responding to support resilient communities. As Canada to the changing climate with dynamic and innovative steps to both adapt to the new and negotiate the admittance of new observer environment and determine the political statesprepares into to the take Arctic the CouncilArctic Councilin May of(AC) this Chair year, context in which their needs are articulated and our Task Force team has been distilling the most addressed. The circumpolar north is already a important issues for Canada’s consideration locale where the agendas of stakeholders who call the Arctic home are intersecting with the agendas of decision-makers and entrepreneurs theduring United its 2013-2015 States Secretary chairmanship. of State At theHillary last from the South. Today as we look towards official Council conference in Nuuk, Greenland the Kiruna AC Ministerial Meeting in May and prestigious cabinet member representing the U.S.Clinton government. was in Herattendance, presence ais afirst testament for any to Arctic development, it is important to consider the growing importance of circumpolar issues reframingprepare to Northerncommence development official dialogue such regarding that it is to the foreign policy of the US and other Arctic not merely development for the people of the states, signaling that now is a strategic time to North, but rather by the people of the North for reassess issues pertaining to Arctic security. the people of the North. As our Task Force utilizes security as minister of the Arctic Council the medium for discussing human capacity for declared On that January “development 21st of this foryear, the the people Canadian of order to provide for climate changes in the Arctic every action it condones within the Council. In well-being,and inclusive defining if it is security to continue must tobe bedynamic equated in theher speechNorth” Aglukkaq(2013) is alsoCanada’s embraces primary the commongoal for with safety. For the purpose of this report, themes conveyed in the media, the likes of which Arctic security is understood as the capacity 13 for individuals, communities and nations (both resilient systems and to assert a representative voiceethnic inand arenas state) of diplomacyto build sustainableand negotiating and power. In using capacity building as inherent in levels that are interdependent and contribute tosecurity, community we define resilience capacity and personalin three ordifferent group security: individual, community, and nation- state. The Arctic is a region with unique systems that incorporate local and imported The model above illustrates the interconnectivity of individual, community, and innovative, beginning with community solutions state level capacity. The double sided arrows forstrategies. community Arctic-specific needs that solutionscultivate resiliencemust be represent the interdependence that these and establish political capital. The Centre for multi-levels actors share in building capacity the North, in their assessment of community for sustainable, secure solutions. In the same resilience, found that capacity for individuals manner as a positive feedback loop, capacity on means the ability to meet basic needs where the individual, community and national levels residents of resilient communities can enjoy empower one another. food, water and housing security. They say Our report accompanies the current resilient communities establish a general sense of progressive discourse regarding the Arctic wellbeing amongst members, with a high degree that reframes security beyond a mere political, of fate control. The third element of resilience is military, economic or environmental context. social capital: community political articulation Each chapter begins with a brief summary of the within the nation-state that is sustainable in background on the issue for discussion, followed that its economic development is diverse and by analysis that addresses the interests of balanced with environmental protection (Sisco, options. Partstakeholders one of and our finally report ends addresses with a list ofpolitical policy of2010). capacity for community resilience as our articulation of the Inuit in the Canadian Using the Centre of the North’s definition government at the national, territorial, and capacity to include the state. Capacity on the provincial levels. The recommendations therein foundation,nation-state levelwe expandis the abilitythis definitionto maintain of are directed towards increasing capacity for security within state boundaries and national dialogue and implementing solutions at each values internationally. On a community level, of these three cross sections of governance. capacity entails a self-reliant economy, with In the opening chapter, Cosford revisits the diverse and local economic development and dispute between the United States and Canada the capability to enjoy social capital. Capacity over the Northwest Passage, arguing for the on the community level is needed to protect incorporation of the Inuit perspective of sea ice individual capacity while individual capacity is as territory into the debate over the status of necessary to assert community capacity. The the Northwest Passage. Ho’s chapter focuses state is the institution which encompasses both on land claim agreements in Nunavut, arguing communities and individuals and thus, state that it is critical for Canada to devolve power in level capacity is essential to maintain security for Nunavut as in other territories and pay special both individuals and communities. Legitimate attention to Inuit proportional representation states can only maintain their capacity to defend for decisions relating to resource management. their sovereign space insofar as members of that Van Tulder’s chapter zeros in on interactions state enjoy the capacity to have their basic needs between Nunavik and the government of Québec, met and organize politically, i.e., self-determine. arguing for the overhaul of Plan Nord if Québec In the international arena, the state also relies on is to abide by the aphorism: “Maître Chez Nous”. the capacity of the community and individual to Along the same continuum towards thrive and be resilient in order to legitimize its localization, section two of our report addresses national sovereignty. how northern communities might build capacity

14 for development that benefits local well- being. The chapters in section two analyze the permanent observers. We conclude the body viability of capacity building in communities of our report with Tam’s chapter on China’s for various forms of development and therefore application to partake in the AC as permanent overall security, focusing in on the systems that observer. encompass: tourism, biodiversity, food security, homelessness in indigenous communities and education. Moore examines the implications of tourism on the natural characteristic of the Arctic as well as impacts for indigenous populations. A primary concern that accompanies the development of tourism is the potential for causing damage to biodiversity and wildlife conservation. Sugarman expands the dialogue on biodiversity, arguing for creative integration chapter looks at food security in the Arctic, arguing thatof scientific community and infrastructuretraditional knowledge. plays a vital Shaw’s role in the cultivation of independent, self-sustaining, in the Arctic. Dolph discusses homelessness in theand Northself-sufficient and proposes food systems solutions for forinhabitants building both physical housing capacity and the capacity for prevention through political prioritization. Finally, Guard investigates the potential for Nunavut Sivuniksavut to be implemented as a model for Inuit education. She recommends using the model as a way to integrate indigenous history as social capital and expanding the capacity for education to foster critical thinking, in addition to job skills. Part three widens the purview of our report from community security to international cooperation. We recognize that the Arctic region is unique in that environmental changes do not originate in the Arctic. Rather, they are imported from development in other parts of the world. In part three we place an emphasis on the capacity for internal voices to be transmitted to the international stage, via the nation-state. Brown’s chapter reexamines the institution of the Arctic Council, arguing for the inclusion of nation-state

Binh Vong and Charlotte Dubiel are juniors at the University of Washington, majoring in International Studies. Binh is also studying Political Science and Chinese language, Charlotte is a double major with Spanish language. Both are members of the Jackson School Journal of International Studies editorial board and very active in the University community. Charlotte is an academic writing tutor and a peer mentor on campus. Her favorite place to teach, however, is in the first grade classroom at Beacon Hill International School. Binh hopes to one day practice environmental law. 15 Part One: Governance Strategies

16 17 Chapter 1 Ending the Northwest Passage Dispute: How Inclusion of Inuit Perspectives on Sea Ice Could Build a More Effective Strategy for Cana- da

By Zoë Cosford

Abstract The accelerated melting of the sea ice in the Arctic has brought many of the challenges and issues facing those who live in the Arctic to a more prominent position in national dialogues. The dispute over the Northwest Passage has received much coverage in the press and importance as a political tool because it symbolizes historic potential realized in the Arctic. Canada has increasingly been taking actions to assert its claims on the Northwest Passage, but this dispute remains stagnant, with no real progress towards a resolution of the crystalized dispute that commenced decades ago. Inuit conceptualizations on sea ice display an entirely different worldview from those that are held by the non-Inuit. Canada has shown the desire to strongly assert its claims in the Arctic, but is underutilizing its most valuable resource – the Inuit who underpin those claims to begin with. By using recent research as well as the Inuit themselves as sources for sea ice knowledge, Canada can present a more nuanced argument regarding its claims on the status of the Northwest Passage. Engaging indigenous perspectives on this issue, which has shown no progress in decades, can reinvigorate the discussions and lead to a more swift resolution. Introduction years, Inuit have had a more vocal role in a focal point of Canadian media and politics discussions regarding shipping and development for decades, The Northwest and through Passage that (NWP) it has hasbecome been in the Arctic, as evidenced by their consultation a representation of Canadian sovereignty, and the enormous potential for economic development in the Arctic. There is no question in the 2009 Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment over the sovereignty of Canada in its arctic (AMSA), produced by the Protection of the Arctic regions, but rather a legal (albeit politically Marinethe state Environment of dialogue (PAME) on Inuit working perceptions group of thesea Arcticice, looking Council at (AC). how This applying chapter this investigates dialogue conceptualizations of sea ice and territory can can revive discussions on the NWP to lead to driven)bolster disputethe Canadian over the position status ofon the the NWP. NWP Inuit by an equitable resolution of the dispute. This is reinvigorating the debate itself, engaging in the achieved through the assessment of papers current development of the inclusion of Inuit and on sea ice as well as materials produced at the indigenous perspectives into political dialogues supra-national and domestic level. and demonstrating the uniqueness of the region, Permanent sea ice cover has historically which can serve to remove a major roadblock to rendered the NWP non-navigable. However, American acceptance of the Canadian claim. This paper argues that more assertive integration of passage as sea ice began to melt and technology Inuit perspectives into both Canadian discourse createdthe 20th icebreakers century saw strong the first enough crossings to endure of the and the legal argument will reinvigorate the stalemate – an effective solution at its conception, between Canada and the United States is based but no longer as relevant as the sea ice melts and notthe indifficult claims sailing. of sovereignty, The nature but legalof the status, dispute as potential navigation becomes easier. In recent

explained18 by legal scholar Donat Pharand (2009) from the University of Ottawa: Manhattan should not enter those areas under Canada and the United States maintain diametrically opposed views in the legal the voyage of the SS Manhattan, Canada took status of the Northwest Passage. Canada moreCanadian long jurisdiction term domestic (p. 1148). legislative In response action. to considers the Passage as a national sea The SS Manhattan situation reinstituted the route, in the same way as Russia views unresolved legal status of the NWP, and induced the or , requiring its consent for foreign Canada implemented the Arctic Waters Pollution use. The United States considers the Preventionmultiple Canadian Act, which responses. “…extended Most significantly, Canadian Passage as an international strait, in which the new right of ‘transit passage’ from the claimed baselines and into the Arctic Oceanenvironmental and Beaufort enforcement Sea,” an importantout to 100 step nmfor Canada in asserting more control in the Arctic applies. (p. 4) organization of bodies of water are laid out in turn responded to this legislation by informing theThe United rationalities Nations Conventionfor the classification on the Law of andthe Canada(Kraska, of2007, the p.basis 42-43). of its The security United concerns,States in and the precedent that the extension of claim from actions and sailings on traditionally open might set. The United States answered through Seasseas and(UNCLOS), oceans. aAfter legal a structureseries of incidentsthat originates in the diplomatic channels, sending a note entitled “U.S Opposes Unilateral Extension by Canada of High between the two states’ (Canada and the Seas Jurisdiction.” The note explained US position 1960’s, 70’s and 80’s in which the differences and expressed American concerns of Canada’s attention, Ottawa and Washington negotiated the United States) claims were thrust into public other countries to take similar jurisdictional action thatsetting would a precedent be invalid that under could international influence politicalArctic Cooperation solution for Agreement a legal issue. (1988), Washington which, assuredaccording Ottawa to Christopher that its consent Kirkey would (1995) be soughtwas a Manhattan incident and subsequent responses for all navigation by US icebreakers within bylaw the (Byers US and& Lalonde, Canadian pp. governments 1151-1152). broughtThe SS waters claimed as internal by the government of their diverging positions to light – the US set Canada. The US emphasized, however, that the out its precedent-setting security concerns, and agreement was unique to this particular area, Canada focused on defending its jurisdictional and not referring to any other maritime areas claims.

Sea transited the NWP without Canadian consent. either(p. 417-418). legal argument, This cooperative resulted agreement, in the functional which Again in 1985, the US icebreaker Polar crystallizationwas concluded, of significantly, the dispute without as it stands prejudice today. to fromAccording Canada’s to Kirkey Department (1995), ofUS External State department Affairs in The Canada-US Status Quo and Defense officials informed representatives Sea, would navigate through the NWP. The reason when the American ship SS Manhattan, was Maygiven of was 1985 that that using a US the Coast NWP Guard would ship, save the twenty- Polar sent through The dispute the NWP. over According the NWP beganto Arctic in 1969, legal thirty days of travel and hundreds of thousands scholars Michael Byers and Suzanne Lalonde informed Canada, but did not explicitly request icebreaker to accompany the ship to test the permission.of dollars in However,fuel costs Canada(p. 403). once The againUnited granted States navigability(2009), the ofUS the government route being sent used a toCoastguard transport oil from Alaska to the Atlantic seaboard. The However, despite agreement that the sailing did US did not seek Canadian permission for the notauthorization in any way for intrude the crossingon Canadian (Kirkey, sovereignty 1995). voyage, but upon learning of the crossing, of Arctic waters or the NWP, the Canadian Canada gave approval. Additionally, Canada government began to feel pressured from public sent an icebreaker to aid in the endeavor and opinion to take stronger stance, with “…opposition arranged for a government representative to be parties, legal scholars, ardent nationalists, and onboard the Manhattan. American refusal to ask Canadian society at large, all pressed for an for permission triggered political controversy effective response to this unwarranted American in Ottawa, predicated on the belief that the

19 incursion into ‘Canadian waters.’” (Kirkey, 1995, supports our ability to exercise these rights throughout the world, including SSpp. 404).Manhattan. The Canadian The government approach to announced this crossing a through strategic straits (United States, serieswas markedly of “sovereignty different enhancing”from that of actions the 1969 to take place, including utilizing straight baselines around the , the construction 2009, p. 2). of an icebreaker, and plans for naval exercises Beginningrhetoric regarding in the thelate Arctic,1960’s, and the responses NWP has to coupled, however, with diplomatic statements of USoccupied actions a significanthave largely place shaped in Canadian the bases political of the intentionin the Arctic to cooperate (Kirkey, 1995). with the These US: actions were Canadian status claim. As the current agreement is in place without prejudice to the legal positions, with the United States all means of it is relevant today to continue discussing the cooperationWe [Canada] thatare preparedmight promote to explore the legal status of the passage, as ease of transit respective interests of both countries as brings international interest, from groups who Arctic friends, neighbours and allies in are not party to said agreement. the Arctic waters of Canada and Alaska… Any co-operation with the United States Inuit Concepts of land and sea ice ... shall only be on the basis of full respect Inuit conceptualizations of sea ice and territory, derived from occupancy and use since time immemorial, constitute a completely for Canada’s sovereignty (Kirkey, 1995, p. different worldview from non-Inuit perspectives. The aforementioned405). Canada-United States Understanding the logic, pragmatism and origin of the Inuit perspectives is vital to recognizing its result of this cooperation. As this agreement was importance as a potential factor in the Canadian reachedArctic co-operation without prejudice agreement to the ofrespective 1988 is legal the claim regarding the NWP. positions, this can be marked as the effective origin of the crystallization of the legal dispute of Arctic Council’s Protection of the Arctic Marine the status of the NWP. In 2008, in consultation with the Today, the NWP remains the subject of TheEnvironment Sea Ice Is (PAME)Our Highway. working This group, report the sets Inuit out controversy erupted when a Conservative MP toCircumpolar highlight the Council vitality – Canadaof the sea (ICC) ice publishedas part of strong rhetoric in Canadian politics. In 2009, the Inuit experience, and in doing so seeks to to rename the NWP the “Canadian Northwest further emphasize the important of keeping Passage.”in the House UBC oflegal Commons scholar floored Michael a motionByers the Inuit involved in the conversation regarding discussed the issue in a news article that year, development in the Arctic. The Sea Ice Is Our highlighting that this move threatened to offend Highway was in turn incorporated into PAME’s the Inuit of Nunavut, had no productive effect on the Canadian claim and had no standing under published the following year. This was hugely Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment (AMSA), NWP is not as widely discussed in the American perspectives on sea ice in regards to shipping internationalmedia as in Canada, law (Globe but evidently & Mail, still 2009). maintains The significant,and development as it was in thethe Arcticfirst time were that included the Inuit in an Arctic Council commissioned publication. administration issued a Presidential Directive The Inuit have been a nomadic people whicha place reiterated in US politics. its’ traditional In January position2009, the on Bush the living in the Arctic since ancient times: NWP: their entire culture and identity is based Freedom of the seas is a top national on free movement on the land. Inuit rely priority. The Northwest Passage is a strait on free movement in order to eat, to used for international navigation, and the obtain supplies for traditional clothing Northern Sea Route includes straits used and art, and generally to keep their rich cultural heritage alive. Inuit temporarily of transit passage applies to passage move out from settlements to harvest forthrough international those straits. navigation; Preserving the regime the resources that are sometimes bartered rights and duties relating to navigation or traded. This movement takes place on the sea ice that surrounds and connects

and overflight in the Arctic region 20 mapping the sea ice, creating innovative ways for The SeaInuit Ice communitiesis Our Highway (ICC, , through2008, p. i).analysis hunters(Aporta, to2011, use thisp. 12). information This project while worked out on theon ice, creating educational materials, and passing on the knowledge of the sea ice from elders to onof Inuittradition land anduse, adaptation,first person theinterviews, standard and of sustainablestudies, presented use, and three the role key of findings, the sea icefocusing as the very clear analysis of Inuit uses of sea ice. This canInuit serve youth not (ISIUOP, only to aid2011). Inuit The in hunting ISIUOP practicesprovides underscore the primary Inuit concerns regarding but also to improve non-Inuit understanding of shippingInuit highway and (ICC,development 2008, p. ini-ii). the These Arctic: findings with the sea ice. regards to tradition and adaptation, the Inuit are “…We will undertake a multidisciplinary “highly adaptive people who are seeking ways to approach to understand Inuit knowledge cope with these changes while maintaining their of the sea ice and local observations of culture…They must have free movement over sea change, coupled with analysis of change ice and open sea As the Inuit stand to be most directly affected by any accidents that damage the Arctic ecosystem, it is their position that any doing,from local, we will social be in scientific, a position and to broaden natural development affecting the land should allow them ourscientific collective perspectives understanding and methods. of Inboth so to continue to live off of it for many more years ecosystem and community vulnerability to sea ice change. Without the important standard of “sustainable use.” This standard also input and direct involvement of Inuit intoapplies the tofuture. the sea, This which constitutes is vital the to Inuiteveryday defined life because it is a source of traditional food, and impossible, to develop locally appropriate practices including hunting. The connection to assessmentsexperts it would of community be difficult, vulnerability, if not the environment – land and sea – gives Inuit a resilience, or adaptive capacity to deal with observed changes in the dynamic The Sea Ice is Our Highway presents the Inuit sensestake inof developmentpride and wellbeing of shipping (ICC, in2008, the p.Arctic, i-ii). which based on how the Inuit have used the sea The ISIUOP,sea ice therefore,environment was (ISIUOP, wide-ranging 2011). in ice is very different from the government’s stake its purpose: acknowledging that not only is it in development. important for Inuit knowledge to be shared PAME took The Sea Ice is Our Highway among Inuit, but to look at how Inuit knowledge and the perspectives that it presented, and can improve what they term “adaptive capacity.” incorporated them into AMSA by including a This is a clear example of Inuit knowledge being short section on indigenous use: “The sea ice is very important to the way of life and culture. development of the region. Inuit do not distinguish the water from the land looked atThe in suchstudy a wayand asknowledge to influence of potentialsea ice in terms of their hunting and culture” (PAME, has evolved in a relatively short period of time. From The Sea Ice is Our Highway and ISIUOP to space vital to hunting and harvesting, but also the inclusion of indigenous perspectives in the 2009,is a space p. 113).The for connection. sea ice not In contrastonly represents with the a AMSA, the importance of distinguishing Inuit blockage and obstacle that ice represents to concepts has been recognized at the highest those from the temperate regions of the rest of levels of Arctic cooperation. One level where this the world, the sea ice of waterways like the NWP recognition is lacking, however, is at the federal is a dynamic connective force. level in Canada. Rosemarie Kuptana, former Inuit sea ice was recently the subject President of the Inuit Tapirisat of Canada (now study through Carleton University. The Inuit a direct challenge about the lack of Inuit inclusion of an International Polar Year (IPY) supported inknown the discourse as Inuit Tapiriit regarding Kanatami, the NWP: or ITK) makes led by Claudio Aporta, was a continuation of an The current positions of Canada, USA and Sea Ice Use and Occupancy Project (ISIUOP) the European countries are disrespectful, Inuit Land Use and Occupancy Project, designed to say the least, and harkens to earlier earlier,to produce highly as influential comprehensive 1970’s study as possible called The a and discredited European colonial documentation of Inuit sea ice knowledge practices. Canada is required to consult

21 and its course to date has been, and is, potential effects can be addressed in a more in violation of its agreements with Inuit permanent fashion. The original cooperative agreement has endured for decades. It has been an effective whichhave the are optionprotected of invokingunder s. 35the of non- the solution (in that any major issues have been Constitutionderogation clause Act 1982. of the Inuit Constitution in this case Act international interest in potentially using the strait,avoided and thus changes far), but in climatehow Inuit change, have growing had to Kuptana’s1982 assertion (Kuptana, is 2013,rooted p. 11).in both legality use the ice merit a reinvigoration of the debate. Primarily, melting of the sea ice has affected how, has the constitutional obligation to operate when, and where Inuit use the sea ice: moreand morality; cooperatively not only with does the Inuitshe argueregarding Canada the As climate change and reductions in sea NWP dispute, but they are acting in such a way ice affect the migration routes of the land that “harkens to…colonial practices” (Kuptana, and sea animals we rely upon, it may be necessary for us to travel even further current Canadian position would be costly, both than before in order to reach them. Inuit 2013,in real p. terms 11). Aand legal symbolically challenge inby theInuit spirit to the of hunters are reporting many changes cooperation. Kuptana provides an avenue for in the locations and times that our cooperation, however, by pointing out a clause traditional animals can be found… This is of UNCLOS which is in direct contention with why we are very concerned that sea ice Inuit knowledge: “UNCLOS does not address routes remain passable for hunters as use and occupancy as a way of life on the water well as the migratory game they follow, as the UNCLOS states that it is impractical for and that the entire Arctic environment be kept free from contamination – both in the areas we are now using regularly thehumans AMSA to ,occupy and ISIUOP the sea…” that (Kuptana,Inuit have 2013, indeed p. and in those areas where we may need to been11). It occupying is evident fromthe sea, The andSea Icefurthermore is Our Highway, their occupation of that sea is rooted in practicality, as it supports hunting, communities and other The Inuithunt stand in the to futurebe most (ICC, directly 2008, affectedp. 19). by practices. Kuptana’s bold statements, directed to both Canada and international actors, argue exactly when shipping in the Arctic will pick that participation in the discourse should not be up,increases but the in fact shipping. of the matterIt is difficult is that to it determine is not the ignored. Kuptana’s depiction of the dichotomy quantity by which it increases, but the fact that it of governmental relations with the Inuit is a will increase at all that determines that this is an choice that the government can make. They can issue that needs resolution. Despite the debate work in cooperation with the Inuit, who can over whether climate change will open Arctic reinforce claims to the Northwest Passage and waters and the NWP to shipping in few years or Canadian Arctic as a whole, or continue with the dissatisfactory state of indigenous inclusion and lawmaker has no option but to plan for that risk constitutional and legal repercussions. in decades, for McRae (2007), the responsible

Practicality of Integration aspossibility to why now (pp.is in 20). the Finally,best interests Elizabeth for Elliot- both The primary challenge to the Canadian statesMeisel to(1999) settle has this made dispute: a compelling “Canada’s argument place as claim of status in the NWP is the American desire a paramount ally and continental partner of to avoid making precedent-setting concessions, the US, the history of bilateral cooperation for as the idea is that agreeing for the NWP to be recognized as internal waters may give rise to nature of the Northwest Passage that precludes similar arguments in the strategically important anymore arrangement than fifty years, becoming the geographically precedent-setting unique Strait of Hormuz, the Strait of Malacca, and the with regards to other straits, and the fact that the passage is not considered a vital choke-point by the US military” form the basis of this conclusion ofStrait the ofNWP a more (Senate distinct of possibility Canada, 2009, that willpp. affect16). As Inuit climate life changeand society, makes it easier is important navigation to occupancy and use by the Inuit removes this risk resolve the stalemated dispute, so that these of(Elliot-Meisel, precedence. 1999, pp.408). Sea ice, and it

22 The Inuit concepts of sea ice as an •• Amend the next incarnation of Canada’s Arctic extension of territory and important space for Foreign Policy statement to include stronger social behavior and survival are an expression assertions of Inuit sea ice occupancy, and the of its uniqueness as a region. Asserting that uniqueness of this occupancy to the region uniqueness would set the NWP apart from of the Canadian Arctic as well as the NWP the regions where the US would like to avoid setting precedent. Inuit have been involved in •• Using the upcoming Canadian Arctic Council publicizing these perceptions at the domestic Chairmanship as a platform, encourage a and international level, and the materials higher level of integration of indigenous that have been created to disseminate these concepts of sea ice and territory into discussion conceptualizations can be a part of that dialogue. and consciousness at the supranational level There is a willingness, desire, and in the case of Kuptana, a challenge to the government itself for •• Provide more funding to/promote the indigenous involvement in the dialogue regarding creation of more Inuit led projects like ISIUOP in the region of the Northwest Passage, to political power of Inuit groups, particularly the create a better understanding of how climate ICC.the NWP.In the Jessica twenty Shadian years before (2006) the discusses creation the of change and development will affect the Inuit the Arctic Council, the ICC constructed a concrete that live there basis for discussing how to manage the Arctic environment and development. Inuit agency Conclusion Decades in, the stalemate over the status Declaration on the Establishment of the Arctic of the NWP has shown no signs of progressing. was well established, and exemplified by the The government of Canada has expressed, state in the Arctic Council declared that “it was largely through political rhetoric that it wants to Council.this group In fact,and an not official any Arcticrepresenting government a member- that stake the strongest claim possible on the NWP. was responsible for introducing the principles However, without innovation and creativity, this of sustainable development into the circumpolar claim remains deadlocked in the same argument. By internalizing Inuit views of sea ice in NWP agency of the Inuit through their organization in rhetoric and policy, Canada can add cultural and groupsforum’” like (Shadian, the ICC 2006,is of crucial pp. 257). importance The political to the historical nuance to its legal claim. This dispute way that the Inuit can and should be included in the dialogue regarding the NWP. The structure of the legal arguments appears less than for advocacy and materials documenting Inuit hasimminent. endured The for dispute over 40 is years, largely and political, a resolution and a sea ice knowledge and use have been established, compromise is a strong possibility. Reinforcing and successfully applied at the level of the Arctic Canadian claims with Inuit occupancy and sea ice perceptions is the most effective way to The sea ice of Nunavut is much more approach reaching that compromise. Because it Councilthan frozen (through water—it AMSA). is a dynamic part of the is the Inuit who stand to be most directly affected subsistence economy, community, and society. by navigation through the NWP, they have high Canada has the opportunity to reinvigorate the debate by addressing Inuit perspectives in said status will eventually determine regulatory its own claim—giving innovative nuance to an powersstakes in and the restrictions. final determination As Canada of itsprepares status, asto argument lacking consideration for the regions’ chair the Arctic Council, it has the opportunity uniqueness. to be a more innovative actor in the Arctic. Accordingly, by strongly asserting the concepts Policy Options •• Formalize consultation, beginning with and into its Arctic Foreign Policy, Canada has the more comprehensive knowledge sharing ofpotential sea ice to into encourage its official a more position timely on resolution, the NWP on Inuit perspectives on sea ice and Arctic moving into its chairmanship with new vigor and territory, between the Inuit and the Federal sounder levels of partnership with the Inuit of Nunavut.

government (particularly, AANDC and DFAIT) Zoë is a senior at the University of Washington, graduating in March with a degree in International Studies and a European Studies minor. 23 Chapter 2

Honoring Ottawa’s Promises to Nunavut

By Ngoc Ho

Abstract Nunavut was created in 1999 to meet the Crown’s obligations under Article 3 and 4 of the Nun- avut Land Claims Agreement (NLCA), a legally binding modern treaty protected under section 35 of the1982 Constitution. The Nunavut Act was created outside of the legally binding treaty to establish the Government of Nunavut; however, the implementation of the agreements has not fully been honored in the past two decades since its existence. Ottawa’s inability to commit to fulfilling its legally binding discourse has resulted in discrediting Canada’s integrity among not only the international community, but most importantly its Northern Canadian citizens, the Inuit. As Canada is about to take the helm of the Arctic Council in 2013, now is the time for Canada to be a forerunner in effective stewardship and leadership by strengthening sustain- able development, cohesive environmental agendas and human security. As a result, Canada needs to address its own underlying issues with sustainable resource development, human security and environmental agendas before it can attest to Arctic security and development. Introduction Nunavut is Canada’s largest territory, population in Nunavut is comprised of mostly coastalcovering borders, one-fifth including of Canadian the Arctic land Archipelago mass and youth,Population 40 percent growth raisesof the various population socio-economic are under containing roughly 70 percent of Canada’s 16and while political 60 percent issues aresuch under as housing 25 (Mayer, shortages, 2007).

(Legare, 1998; Legare, 2008). If Nunavut were to economic funding and self-reliance. The federal become its own country, it’d be the 12th largest governmentjob insufficiency, provides leading an toannual increased unconditional need for inInuit the inworld Nunavut (Berger, technically 2006). The Canada’s territory largestcovers 352,240 square kilometers of land, making government of Nunavut’s expenditures, social, transferhealth, training,of funding and to infrastructureNunavut to finance programs the squarelandowners; kilometers however of anythose resource lands revenue are directly from managedsurface and by subsurfaceNunavut Tunngavik rights to Incorporatedover 38,000 (Department of Finance, 2013). Nunavut’s 1 current budget is projected to spend $1.34 (NTI) (Berger, 2006; Legare, 1998, Legare, billion and to receive $1.47 billion in revenue development2008; Mayer, of2007). natural Settled resources, land claims,which isPaul an Dependencyfrom the Crown, on Canada allocating for funding for well is aover burden 90 importantMayer (2007) aspect argues, of devolution,provide for communityclarity for notpercent only offor Nunavut’s Nunavut, butrevenues also Canadian (Peterson, taxpayers 2012). resilience, and capacity building. in other regions. Therefore, it is in Ottawa’s interest to fully implement the Nunavut Land percentNunavut beingtoday Inuit. incorporates Nunavut has34,028 the citizenshighest in order to build Inuit capacity to become self- (Nunavut Bureau of Statistics, 2012), with 85 Claims Agreement (NLCA) and honor devolution a hospitable environment for human rights birth rate in Canada with 25 percent per 1000 alleviation,sufficient. Honoring resource these development, agreements willand create self- compared1 NTI is a Designated to Canada’s Inuit Organization11 percent. (DIO) As a that result, is reliance. responsible for any powers, functions, or authority on It falls under the responsibility of the behalf and for the benefit of Inuit (NCLA. 24 state to implement land claims agreements and government represented by the people have devolution of resource management to build been established, Canada has failed to honor its state capacity by addressing economic and environmental problems in Nunavut. This chapter and intent of the NLCA (Aboriginal Affairs and argues that it is not only in the interest of Nunavut fiduciary agreements in fully honoring the spirit but also of the Canadian federal government to Yukon and more recently the NWT, the Nunavut honor land claims agreements as devolution governmentNorthern Development does not have Canada, the administrative2011). Unlike would allow for capacity building in Nunavut capabilities to control land and resource to address socio-economic woes, and prosper. A development despite their “province-like’ stronger Nunavut territory will be empowered Since Inuit compose a majority of the funding, proper education and support for Inuit population,institutions (AmagoalikNunavut should & Campbell, be a de-facto 2012). self- bystandard economic of living. prosperity, Implementation sufficient housing, of the NLCAmore governed administration to be able to better issue between the federal government and Inuit mustpopulation, include to Articleestablish 23, a thegovernment most contested that is to respond to Inuit interests (Legare, 1998, for the people and by the people. Transfer of p. 272). The reality of the situation is that jurisdiction and responsibilities to the Nunavut Inuit employment in the government is at 50 government enables Inuit to take their future Resourcespercent, onlyPlanning a 6 percentand Strategic increase Priorities,since it’s into their own hands and to hold government implementation in 1999 (Department of Human fewer positions. However, more government Canada’s integrity and relations with Inuit and positions2012). Granted, in later during years its beginningsshould imply there morewere theofficials international accountable. community. Moreover, In the nextit rebuilds section, Inuit employment. The fundamental rationale I will describe what the NLCA entails, problems in creating a separate territory from the NWT with the agreement, and how fully implementing the agreement will be advantageous to Canada. the political, social and economic values as well The latter half of the essay is the next step asis tothe establish perspectives an institution of the Inuit that population better reflects who after implementing the land claims agreement occupies a majority of the area in which is now in Nunavut: devolution. I will describe what devolution entails by drawing from the Yukon for a separate Nunavut territory were rejected and Greenland examples. Nunavut (Legare, 1998, p. 274). Initial proposals

The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement until a survey conducted in 1980 and 1982 The Nunavut agreement is a cohesive found that 56 percent were in favor of annexing marriage between Inuit in Nunavut and Canada Nunavut from the NWT (Legare, 1998, p. 274- and therefore, requires attention and commitment 5). Although both the Inuit Tapirisat of Canada from both parties to ensure an enduring coalition (ITC)to establish and Tungavik the new Federation territory, ofsubsequent Nunavut (TFN)land claims negotiated negotiations with the were federal conducted government only

(Aldridgea contract & or Merritt, modern-day 2012; Fenge treaty & thatQuassa, according 2009). the relationship of the Inuit of Nunavut to the Theto the Nunavut Standing Land Senate Claims Committee Agreement on Aboriginal (NLCA) is Canadianbetween TFN state and for Ottawa. international The agreement and domestic defines law. Aboriginal sovereignty with Crown sovereignty” Peopleby relinquishing (2008), “serve[s] Inuit ties to to reconcile the land pre-existingin exchange that “Parliament, as a government measure, for the creation of a Nunavut territory and Article 4 of the NLCA recommends government as well as the “rights for Inuit to a new Nunavut Territory, with its own Legislative participate in decision-making concerning the Assemblylegislation toand establish, public withingovernment, a defined separate period, use, management and conservation of land, water from the Government of the remainder of the compensation and means of participating in allowed for negotiations on a political accord and resources, including the offshore; financial Northwest Territories” (NLCA, 1993); this reliance and well-being of Inuit” (Nunavut Land the new Nunavut government (Fenge & Quassa, economic opportunities; and to encourage self- that would establish the powers and financing of the Nunavut territory and a territorial public was created outside of the legally binding treaty, Claims Agreement [NLCA], 1993). Although 2009). Since the Nunavut public government 25 it did not accord constitutional protection under and capacity building. If the youth in Nunavut the agreement weakening its legitimacy and are the solution for the future, then now is the lack of recognition from federal, provincial and time to stop the cyclical web of socio-economic problems. Ottawa needs to address issues of underfunded school programs that lead to low territorial governments (Legare, 2008; Anderson, graduation rates and under-representation in the McCarthy,separating the& Mehaffey, details of the2012; implementation Fenge & Quassa, of the workforce. Housing shortages must be addressed 2009).Nunavut Fenge government and Quassa from (2009) the constitutionally argue that by since a rapidly increasing population requires protected land claims agreement, the Crown has esteem, alcohol and substance abuse, family hence, “The Government of Nunavut remains a sufficientviolence, youthhousing suicide in order and towelfare mitigate dependency” “low self- thecreature ability of to statute repeal and the hasgovernment only such of powers Nunavut; as to build community resilience and capacity, Inuit Nunavut government does not own, youth(Legare, will 2008, likely p. 352).to continue Unless theto Crownface the steps same in controlParliament nor has administerdevolved to it”public (Penikett, lands 2011). and socio-economic implications as they transition into adulthood. exploitation goes to either Nunavut Tunngavik resources; benefits from natural resource Impediments of the NLCA lands, or to Canada who owns the rest (Legare, Inc. (NTI), who owns 18 per cent of Inuit owned Inuit employment in the government of Nunavut by the government of Nunavut can easily Article 23 of the NLCA stipulates that change2008, p. if 348).parliament Furthermore, amends powersthe Nunavut obtained Act should be at a representative level of 85% (Berger, jurisdiction over land and resources, the Nunavut 2006; Legare, 2008; NCLA, 1993). As of 2012, Legislative(Legare, 2008, Assembly p. 348). functions Despite lack fairly of economicsmoothly Inuit filled positions within the government are at 50% (Department of Human Resources Planning and Strategic Priorities, 2012). Statistics from with 15 of the 19 members of the Legislative previoussuggest that years implementation clearly show that of ArticleInuktitut 23 asis notan Assembly being Inuit as of 2013 (Legislative being met. Legare (2008) and Berger (2006) both Assembly of Nunavut, 2013). Although the ratio and training programs are necessary to ensure does not reflect Inuit participation in government adequateofficial language Inuit employment and better funding in the government for education of employment at the representative (85%) level Nunavut. “Even though is the language can(NLCA, freely 1993, express p. 191) their itviews only ontakes a given a majority subject (10 support) for a law to pass and each member The Government of Nunavut’s objective most widely spoken in Nunavut, 42 percent of the is(Legare, to improve 2008). the lives of all Nunavummiut Inuit have reported difficulties receiving services by strengthening culture and expanding the in Inuktitut from their government; the majority of government employers, around 53%, are non- in Nunavut are derived from economic realities Inuit (Legare, 2008). Inadequate education and economy (Legare, 2008, 350). Social problems trainingNunavut programsLand Claims makes Agreement. it difficult As to a fulfillresult the of housing, and inadequate schooling and training employmentunderfunded andobjective under supportedfrom Article education 23 of andthe such as unemployment, insufficient funding for training programs, heightened drop-out rates from socio-economic issues have stunted Inuit (Berger,and alcohol 2006; abuse, Courneoyea, criminal behavior2009; Legare, and suicide2008), rates.resulting Youth in ina Nunavutsignificantly are caughthigher betweenrate of drug two they have completely exhausted the supply of different cultures: one of traditional impediments employment growth in government workplace; including lack of survival skills and traditional Berger proposes the implementation of knowledge in harvesting and music and the other aqualified bilingual Inuit system (Berger, in Nunavut 2006; Legare, to ensure 2008). proper of the modern world where poor education, low education, graduation and employment. However, graduation rates, lack of housing, food security there are challenges that his proposal faces such issues, and violent social relations are the norm have negative pathological effects on indigenous as: 1) Canada’s refusal to contribute additional communities(Legare, 2008). necessitating Rapid socio-economic community resilience changes educationof teaching funding materials of 20 transcribed million; 2) inshortage Inuktitut of teachers that can speak Inuktitut; and 3) lack 26 that is relevant past fourth grade. However, if these challenges can be met, opportunities for tosufficient fund their teachers, vernacular. materials, Quebec, and a province,funding, hasNunavut jurisdiction lacks theover same the directionfinancial andcapabilities pace of Inuit are possible (Berger, 2006; Legare, 2008). resource development within its boundaries. Accordingpromotes cognitive to the World development Bank’s findings that is essentialin 2005, In contrast, Nunavut does not have such luxury. teachingto learn childrena second in language. their native The or Worldfirst tongue Bank reports that when the language of schooling fully devolve land and resource jurisdiction to is rarely or not used at home, students tend to theCanada government should consider of Nunavut fulfilling so thatthe NLCAInuit andcan have a lower level of learning and higher rates of drop out and repetition. A case study of Mali socio-economic issues. become more self-sufficient and resilient to that children who transitioned from a local Nunavut can become more self-reliant by corroborates their findings by demonstrating acquiring According resource to rightsAndre on Legare Crown (2008),lands, success rate than children in French-only reducing dependency from transfer payments, programslanguage to(Bender, French Dutcher, graduated Klaus, at Shore,a 32% & higher Tesar, increasing Inuit employment within government, and full implementing the NLCA to receive adequate funding. Nunavut hopes to reduce its 2005).less likely The to study repeat suggests their grade that children and three who times use dependency on Ottawa by “acquiring from the their first language as instruction are five times Canadian government: control, management, and Ergo, funding the implementation of Inuktitut less likely to drop out (Bender, et al., 2005). this would enable Nunavut to be self-reliant, English as a second language can potentially benefitsan objective over thatpublic the Crown NLCA lands proclaims and resources”; to ensure asincrease the official high schoollanguage graduation of Nunavut rates along (Berger, with land claims agreements are the building blocks leads to more inclusion of local content into the in(Legare, developing 2008, NLCA,a constructive 1993). Modern and treatiesauspicious and curriculum.2006). Furthermore, This results the inuse greater of local participation vernacular relationship between the Crown and aboriginals from parents and the community as they are in a better position to be involved in school when they agreements can increase tension if one of the feel that their knowledge and culture are valued (Governmenttwo does not meetof Canada, the promises 1997). stipulatedHowever, inthese the agreement as Canada has done to Nunavut.

(Bender,building inet theal., region2005). because Moreover, it empowers transitioning youth to asInuktitut it allows as them the official to study language in a language fosters that capacity they Article 17 of the NLCA promotes resource can relate to socially and culturally. Thus, it is revenuesdevelopment are directlyon Inuit funneled Owned intoLands NTI’s (IOL) bank to pertinent that Ottawa invests in education in promote self-sufficiency. However, all resource Nunavut. powers, function and authority on behalf and Current schools taught in English in account (Speca, 2012; Legare, 2008) to fund Nunavut are essentially foreign institutions delivering a foreign curriculum in a foreign onfor IOL.the benefitTherefore, of the Inuit Inuit need (NLCA, other 1993). sources Inuit of doeconomic not directly opportunities benefit from that resources will enable developed them to language use in Nunavut and Quebec, arguing: “Howlanguage long (Legare, would 2008, the French p. 365). Language Lagere compares survive opportunities, Canada should transfer control in the province of Quebec, if Quebecois children beand more rights self-reliant. to land and To resources fill this gapto the of territorialeconomic were educated in English from fourth grade and government of Nunavut in order for them to be onwards?” Legare relates Quebec and Nunavut more self-reliant. Moreover, Canada’s inability by arguing that Quebecois’s government has the to address resource development in a timely capacity to provide proper education programs manner and complex regulations on businesses that ensures the preservation of its vernacular impinge upon development of natural resources, tongue whereas the Nunavut government lacks making it less appealing to business groups who the capabilities to provide adequate Inuktitut not only have to face high costs of production arithmetic and textbooks past the fourth grade. due to labor, climate and transportation, but also Although Quebec has been able to preserve heightened restrictions and limitations from French as the main language in school with

27 rigorous regulatory systems (Erlandson, 2009). the responsibilities to administer, control and time frames for development and operations manage land and water to local population approvalsErlandson become (2009) unpredictable,”warns that “if thenprocesses the Arctic and (Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development as a site for business will appear unattractive devolved while the NWT had just signed the a viable oil and gas sector, facilitating better devolutionCanada [AANDC], agreement-in-principle 2013). The Yukon and is Mr. mostly Dale management(Erlandson, 2009, capacities, p. 421). operating Accommodating regulatory to Drown was recently appointed Chief Federal Negotiator for Nunavut Devolution (AANDC, process for surface rights disputes, guaranteeing riskprocesses management, more efficiently, and establishing improving structuredresolution Devolution is perhaps the next step to timelines will make the arctic north a more address2013). Nunavut’s socio-economic problems. attractive center for research and development Greater responsibilities and jurisdiction will create more governmental jobs to tackle the government has so many national and subnational issues(Erlandson, to resolve, 2009, it p. cannot 422). addressBecause sub-national the federal processes for land and resource management. issues on a timely matter. Therefore, it is in the influxTransfer of ofthe responsibilities newly transferred and managementgovernment best interest of the federation to devolve those of natural resources will expand Nunavut’s jurisdictions to the subnational level, in this case mixed economy that is currently dependent on Nunavut, to deal with subnational issues such as government jobs and the sale of harvested goods, commerce in Nunavut. This will reduce delays in regulations, lower restrictions to territorial standards, and increase business interest in craftseconomy and supportsart (Bowman, traditional 2011; economy Mayer, , linking2007). Nunavut for its inviting working environment. Laurenthe necessity Bowman2 of devolution (2011) suggests to sustain that traditional the wage Ottawa’s failure to fully implement the knowledge , culture and traditions. NLCA discredits its integrity among Inuit and the Devolution3 is a critical step towards international community. Honoring the NLCA greater self-reliance. The legislative assembly is consistent with Canada’s international and of the Nunavut government would have the domestic human rights obligations. Canada’s decision-making capabilities over economic inability to honor its agreement to the Inuit has development. More importantly, Nunavut legislators have greater access and control of growth and stability of Aboriginal populations royalties generated from resource development, inlowered their socialtraditional well-being; territories, economic environmental self-reliance, enabling them to disburse revenues to programs

Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Inuit. Greater self-reliance will empower Inuit protection; and culture and language (Aboriginal and departmentsespecially youth that bestto participatereflect the needsin their of recognizes that the plight of “aboriginal peoples territorial state. Ottawa’s relinquishment of its remains2011). The the United most Nationspressing Human human Rights rights Council issue jurisdiction over land and resources implies trust in the territorial government to be accountable. When responsibility rests in local politicians socio-economicfacing ”; development. an embarrassing The Government assessment rather than on the federal level, the territorial offor Canada’s a first worldapproach nation to implementingwith overall modernpositive government “face stronger incentives and hold treaties needs to change in order to adhere to the greater capacity to address the wide-ranging international legal, constitutional, and human economic and social interests of the electorate” rights conventions established by the UN Human Rights committee on Aboriginal rights. result of increased faith and support in the (Alcantara,Nunavut government Cameron &to Kennedy, govern and2012). support As a Devolution as the Next Step Devolution is the process of transferring 2 Wage economy represents the aggregate paid labor or services on an hourly, daily, or weekly basis. In this argu- province-like powers to territories. Most ment, we include salaried wages as well to encompass an responsibilities such as education, health, image of stable income. governance, and transportation have been 3 Traditional economy reflects traditional knowledge on devolved to Canada’s northern territories except subsistence consumption from sources such as harvest- for the management of land and resources. This ing, hunting, gathering, and fishing. Typically, these sources of food are used as trade, barter or for sharing in a community. final step to devolution involves transferring 28 itself, Inuit in return, will restore its relationship Canada-Yukon Oil and Gas Accord provided for and trust with Canada. Devolution would simplify resource management. Rather than having to comply the transfer of oil and gas to the territory in 1993, with both the federal and territorial’s various implemented in 1999 (Cameron & Campbell, layers of bureaucracy, businesses will only have 2009,and gas p. 201).development “The accord with allows no offset Yukon under to keep the to negotiate with the Nunavut government, the first 3 million of resource revenues from oil

federal formula financing agreement. Revenues thus reducing time, money and conflict (Mayer, in excess of 3 million are subject to an offset in 2007).and years’ For instance,for things resource to get development done compared pre- the formula financing transfer in 60 to 80 percent devolutionto post-devolution” in the Yukon (Alcantara, was slow; “itCameron, took ‘years & Accordrange, through completely five devolvedincremental land steps and (Cameron resource management:& Campbell, 2009, oil p.and 203). gas By were 2003, devolved the Northern and clarity, lack of timeliness and competing land- shared management of offshore resources was useKennedy, issues 2012, further p. 335).slowed Uncertainty, mineral development insufficient in the Yukon. It took three years for territorial civil servants to clear the backlog of applications agreed upon (Cameron & Campbell, 2009, p. that had accumulated under DIAND’s watch 201). This accord stipulates that Yukon may retain 3 million per annum in resource revenues setting that has clear and established procedures without any formula financing offset. However, in(Alcantara, resource Cameron,development & isKennedy, more inviting 2012). forA any revenues in excess of 3 million are offset at entrepreneurs and corporations to invest and yeta rate to reachof 100 the percent resource or onerevenue for one ceiling (Cameron to attain & develop in the Arctic. theCampbell, one for 2009, one ratio. p. 203). Fortunately, Yukon has By devolving jurisdiction and One important advancement from responsibilities to the government of Nunavut, the restructuring of the Yukon’s constitution Canada can show just how much it has matured: as the result of devolution is the removal of that “by these actions, the federal government the Governor in Council, in this case the andthe AuditorCanadians General are accepting of Canada that reports the Northin 2003 is sectionfederal minister4(3) of theof theYukon Department Act which of enablesIndian Affairs and Northern Development, to not only appoint the of Yukon (Yukon Act, MacKaymore than argues, a frontier; “approached it is a homelandin the right for way, the devolutionpeople who livewill there”increase (Mayer, self-determination 2007, p. 5). Bill on the administration of the territory directly” by increasing Inuit capabilities.” Moreover, it 2003), but also “instruct the commissioner will reduce dependency on Territorial Formula (Cameron & Campbell, 2009, p. 202; Yukon Act, federal government while raising the standard 2003). Cameron and Campbell (2009) woefully ofFinancing living comparable (TFF), funding to that provided of fellow forCanadians by the realizedthe proposal that theto amendamendment the act of insection case federal4 from theministerial act was todirection be removed was needed.in 2012, However,ten years afteras of

(Mayer,the burden 2007; on southernMacKay, taxpayers2013). Capability and eventually to be self-sufficient from resource royalties will lessen 2013, the act is still in place. revenue Selling the territorial out in terms government of reaping is allowedthe profits to Yukoncontribute Devolution to Canada’s wealth (Speca, 2012). keepfrom withoutnet fiscal it benefit being offset or the against amount the of revenuesresource Aside for the Yukon, which is considered provided to the territorial government under “mostly” devolved, the responsibilities within territorial governments are consistent with provinces except for their jurisdiction and the territorial formula financing agreement has control over land and resources except for the emerged as a criticisms of Yukon’s 2003 devolution transfer agreement (Cameron & Campbell, 2009, however, legislative jurisdiction of surface and p. 203). Formula financing agreement provides Yukonsubsurface (Cameron lands, regulation& Campbell, and 2009). management In Yukon, of at least 75% of territorial revenue based for all waters, forest resources, and mines and minerals three territories and nearly 90% for Nunavut were devolved to the territorial government. The devolution(Mayer, 2007, that p.Nunavut 7). Hiram should Beaubier take note cited of: the in Mayer 2007 revealed shortcomings of the Yukon 29 need for responsible federal minister to identify a clear vision and objectives for the federal extracted from their lands. Due to Greenland’s negotiating team, the need for a comprehensive enablinghomeland them rule, to it keep has the the profits capacity from to resources approve scoping exercise at the outset of the process to resource development schemes according to ensure focus throughout the negotiating parties, their environmental and economic stipulations. and recruitment of a human resources specialist to provide guidance on the development of a budgeting and distribution of funds, allowing retention strategy for current employees. Though Moreover,the government the country to support has fiscal programs control overthat their will bolster regional capacity such as education and training programs. Currently, Nunavut lacks canthe nowtransfer determine did not where, succeed at what in pace,significantly and in reducing dependency on Ottawa; “the territory socio-economic woes ranging from inadequate Land, in and of itself, is a valued commodity, thehousing fiscal to capacity high rates to alleviateof high schoolits communities’ dropouts. andwhat today resource Yukon fields has developmentlegislative, regulatory, can proceed. and These issues can easily be remedied with proper policy jurisdiction over development on most funding and support from the government of lands in the territory” (Cameron & Campbell, Nunavut. However, since the government of

has no capacity to neither expand their revenues 2009,is “miserly”, p. 204). future Cameron territorial and Campbell royalties (2009) and norNunavut look isfor financially revenues dependent elsewhere on as the they Crown, don’t it revenuesargue that will although increase, Yukon’s reducing net dependency fiscal benefit on have jurisdiction to land and resource rights. Ottawa. They further demonstrate devolution Anthony Speca reveals, “Greenland’s as a positive process that Ottawa should pursue total budget can grow limitlessly in proportion by comparing Newfoundland and Labrador in to resource revenues, yet it will never fall below terms of its ability to generate its own source revenues once it was able to control and exploit those resources. Critics of devolution may argue favorablethe level of in Greenland’s comparison regular, to the Yukon’s, inflation-indexed which has that there aren’t enough resources to exploit, and moregrant” stringent (Speca, 2012, protocols p. 3). andThese resource terms arerevenue very caps, or the NWT’s devolution agreement-in- will, in the future, reduce dependency on Ottawa. principle. Nunavut should not expect such thus not sufficient in claiming that devolution favorable terms. As negotiation between Nunavut that this argument is unfounded since resource and Ottawa commence, there will be talks of potentialHowever, isCameron still unknown and Campbell (Cameron (2009) & Campbell, argue Nunavut following along similar protocols as the Yukon Territory and the NWT. Although Nunavut will continue to receive its government transfers, Greenland2009, p. 204-205). as a Model Greenland’s devolution package is the ideal model. As a self-governing entity within certainthese transfers amount willin resource be reduced revenue at a specificper annum. rate , Greenland maintains jurisdiction over rangingThis amount from 50historically, to 100 percent in the after case reaching of the a all its land and resource deposits—gold, lead, zinc, iron, earth minerals, rubies, and offshore Canada hopes to transition Nunavut to a net oil and gas that are projected to produce more Yukon and NWT, is set at 3 million. Although Canada’s overall wealth, Ottawa cannot expect Greenland’s resource royalties are directly benefitNunavut system to start where contributing its revenues without contribute favorable to funneledthan 40 to into 50 itsbillion treasury barrels rather of oil than (Speca, shared 2012). with guidelines that will enable Nunavut to build its economic infrastructure and to establish a continues receiving its “block grant,” similar to resilient community through good education and theDenmark TFF where (Speca, the 2012).government Better provides yet, Greenland revenue stable incomes. to fund government operations, etc., until it Through the Equalization program that provinces participate in, “Ottawa provides revenue without inculcating a corresponding reaches DKK 75 million (13 million) in resource management allows territorial governments sourceunconditional revenues fiscal fall transfersbelow the to national less prosperous average freereduction range (Speca, over 2012).the pace Devolution and direction of resource of provinces whose ‘fiscal capacities’ to raise own- resource development while at the same time for all ten provinces” (Speca, 2012, p. 9). Anthony Speca30 (2012) suggests Nunavut negotiate for the provincial Equalization equation that counts half or none of the resource revenues acquired establish an independent institution to oversee depending on revenue capacity. In Nunavut’s the• In implementationcollaboration with of thethe NunavutCrown and Land Inuit, Claims case, current revenue capacity amounts to Agreement along the Land Claims Agreements Coalition’s “Four-Ten Declaration” in a time would$3,675 putper Nunavutcapita, just in underthe category half of ofthe provinces 2011-12 thatten province are unable standard to ofmeet $7,436 revenue per capita; capacity this Inuktitutspecific manner, transcripts fully in funded government by the federation.procedures, standards, and thus do not have to allocate • A funding amount of 10 million to incorporate their resource revenues against the amount of to promote Inuktitut as well as to teach Inuktitut.signs, and boards; this funding is also intended willmoney be ableconfigured to keep in its transfers resource allotted revenues (Feehan, while Government of Nunavut. receiving2009; Speca, full 2012).government This implies transfers. that In Nunavut such a • Devolve land and resource management to the scenario, Nunavut will have the funds to not Conclusion Failure to properly implement the education, job training, housing and other social- provisions of modern treaties puts Canada at onlyeconomic finance issues its thatgovernment hinder Nunavut’s but also endoweconomic in risk for generating legions of broken promises” development. (Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal However, it is important to take into consideration that negotiation between Nunavut access to the Arctic in resource development and Canada will not be the same as Greenland and andPeoples shipping [SSCAP], opportunities, 2008). As climate clear economic change opens and Denmark. Anthony Speca cautions, “devolution political agendas and policies in the Arctic are necessary for national and regional development. the context in which Greenland and Denmark Canada, in the past, has not been actively is not the same as decolonization ;” therefore, involved in shaping Arctic security due to their by their view that Greenland will emerge as a lack of a holistic understanding of sovereignty sovereign,are negotiating post-colonial their agreements state with are influencedfull rights rights at the international, state and community over lands, resources and revenues. Nunavut level. Canada, at this time, does not possess the should not expect similar outcomes. Accordingly, the federal government along with Aboriginal future of the region. Before Canada can attest to governments and Aboriginal organizations need itsscope own for model influencing for capacity international building debate in the onArctic the to work on a northern economic development framework to ensure a balance and sustainable within that region. By honoring its promises in economic path. Devolution will secure for young theregion, NLCA it needs and further to first devolving focus on capacity jurisdiction building over people living in the North a productive and land and resource development, Canada will not satisfying life in future economic opportunities, only rebuild its strained relationship with its emphasizing proper management of eco-life Arctic citizens, but also empower self-reliance, and the environment, sustainable resource create a stronger territorial government that is development, and building a stronger foundation accountable to its constituents, develop human for infrastructure for the local community (Abele, growth in education and health, and encourage greater overall capacity for Inuit. It is essential that Inuit are included in the policy making and Policy2009). Options for Canada decision making of resource management and economic development of lands, water, wildlife and natural resources because it directly impacts • Canada should honor its discourse with their lifestyle. Thus, the transfer of jurisdiction millionthe Inuit to in fund fully bilingual implementing education Article in a 23 timely by and control over natural resources to the providing, as Thomas Berger suggests, 20 territorial government of Nunavut is fundamental to the building blocks of Arctic sovereignty, in equivalent.manner to establish Inuktitut as an official human development and security. language taught in school until 12th grade or the Ngoc Ho is double majoring in International Studies and Political Science with a focus on po- litical economy. She hails from a contemporary town outside of Milwaukee, WI and has in- terests in traveling, languages, classic novels and nonfiction in statistics and theory. 31 Chapter 3

Le Québec Total : Creating an Unifying Vision for Northern Development (Un Plan Pour Tous)

By Nicolas van Tulder

Abstract This paper argues for the creation of new vision for the development of Quebec based on a conception of a “Quebec total” which is comprised of an understanding between Quebec’s Southern and Northern territories leading to a collaborative partnership for the benefit of “Quebec total.” Quebec’s Plan Nord in its current form represents avision formed within the context of Southern dominance. Plan Nunavik, released by the Makivik Corporation in 2011 represents current indigenous priorities that are essential to creating a balanced and productive relationship at the core of “Quebec total.” Such a partnership recognizes the interdependence of the North and South and the importance of investing in the human development of the North as a prerequisite for a northern development plan. Introduction perspective on Québec would include realizing was then Premier for the Parti Libéral du Québec that the responsible development of the The presentation of Plan Nord in 2012 North is intrinsically tied to the capacity of its grand vision for the development of Québec. communities to meet their basic needs and In(PLQ) it heJean imagined Charest’s an attempt“exemplary to establishsustainable a seize the opportunities for growth within the development project” with the ultimate goals of context of their culture norms. Thus, in seeking advancing the prosperity of “the communities the development of the North for enrichment concerned and Québec overall” (Plan Nord, of the province, Québec must acknowledge the interdependence between state investment and adapt to the lessons of the previous development community capacities in fostering sustainable 2012,project p. including14). However, the Jameshis vision Bay does project not fullyand growth and spurring territorial development. This paper examines the appropriateness conceptions of the North. As a result, his vision of Plan Nord as a vision for Northern development. imposesinstead reflectsa dominantly a continuation “sudiste” ofor historicalsouthern It accepts Canadian geographer and founder of view on Northern development. This perspective the Centre for the North at the Université Laval in prioritizes the exploitation of the resources Quebec, Louis-Edmond Hamelin’s argument that of the North and incompletely addresses the Québec is in a state of enforced duality where the realities of the Northern context and priorities non-aboriginal south views itself as distinct and of Northerners. In order to develop the North in separate from its aboriginal north and enjoys a a manner that is truly “sustainable,” “respectful,” position of political dominance over it (Hamelin, and “prioritizes local and regional spinoff” Québec must adopt a conception of a “total Québec” (Plan how this duality has resulted in “sudiste” policies for2005). the ScholarsNorth that including fail to takeHamelin into accounthave noted the Quebec” means approaching Quebec as a whole, conditions of the North and its communities. combiningNord, 2009, northernp. 9; Plan Nord,and 2012,southern p. 21). strengths, A “total Early policy even treated the North as an knowledge, and priorities. Such a holistic empty land with no barriers or conditions for 32 between the people of the North and the South argues that Plan Nord is based in the dominant and reinforcing the dominance of a “sudiste” exploitation“sudiste” perspective (Hamelin, and 2012, as a p. result 8). This fails chapter to take mentality in the governance of the province. As into account northern conditions and priorities. a result, governments whose actions are widely Thus, it cannot develop the full potential of the felt in the North remain attached to a distinctly North thereby missing the potential for cultural, social, and economic growth for Québec as a many in the south, Hamelin notes, maintain a whole. Many have noted this failure but the muchand oftenmore exclusivelyemotional attachmentsouthern toperspective; Southern Inuit communities of the North, in an effort to Québec than to the totality of the province. The work towards a more collaborative vision of political consequence of this absence of a “vision development, have taken to the additional step panquébécoise” is that the government of Québec of presenting their priorities through the release employs policies in the North that are directly of Plan Nunavik. Therefore this paper argues transplanted from the South. These actions are that an appropriate1 vision for development must carried out with the goal of integrating the North incorporate both southern goals of economic into Southern structures leading to the rise of investments and resource extraction set forth an opposing indigenous polity whose goals are in Plan Nord and northern concepts of human strongly rooted in the north. The opposite nature of the two polities precludes the possibility of plan that integrates both paradigms will ensue harmonious collaboration for the advancement thedevelopment development in Plan of theNunavik; Québec a comprehensiveprovince as a whole. Responsible governance of the province thus ofrequires a unified three Québec polities, (Hamelin, Hamelin 2012, argues, p. 26). a “le Québec Total” southern polity, an indigenous polity, and a joint Hamelin describes three entities of polity working from the objective of coexistence with the goal of addressing matters of interest to Southern Québec consisting of the territories Québec.south of Thea wavering first is “Leborder Québec that méridional”sits roughly orat 2 “leA Northern Québec total” Plan (Hamelin, or a Southern 2005, Plan p. 33). for the long been seen as the center if not the entirety North? theof Québec 50th parallel. as well Thisas its territory, seat of power he argues, and thus has exercised political dominance over the second L’ambitieux plan nordique, qu’il soit vu au region in the North. Northern Québec is comprised niveau global ou sectoriel, soulève évidem- ment des interrogations. Elles concernent what was formerly known as New Québec. This le quoi et le comment de l’ensemble du of the territory north of the 50th parallel in northern territory forms its own entity with a programme envisagé, une idée du Nord, une distinctive set of cultural, social, geographical conception des relations entre les Autoch- and environmental reference points stemming tones et les non-Autochtones, de même from the historical dominance of the indigenous que les liens entre les grandes opérations majority within its territory. The third entity, “le économiques et les avancements politiques Québec total,” consists of the previous two parts but “is more than the sum of its parts” because (Hamelin. 2009). a whole must be distinguished from those that 2 “Afin de réaliser un tel projet, une triple structure dont ofare the solely issues of that importance are of significance to Southern to Québec Québec as la racine se trouve dans les façons actuelles de procéder est proposée ; les tâches de chaque acteur politique Québec and Northern Québec have had positive seraient ainsi mieux définies et liées. Trois polities effects(Hamelin, in 2005,the form p. 25). of Thepeninsular concepts unity of Southern in the fonctionneraient en même temps : une politie autoch- tone, une politie non autochtone, une politie conjointe. Ces systèmes conjugués qui répondent à l’idéologie de la paths, and in vast infrastructure investments North, in North to North civil and military flight coexistence, exigent des préalables, ceux de la prépara- tion spécifique de l’un et l’autre agent…en établissant de however, the split identity has also contributed bonnes relations, les peuples contribueraient davantage negativelyto access bynatural creating resources a conceptual in the divisionSouth; à l’invention, à l’installation et à la bonne marche d’une territorialité revitalisée.” 1 http://www.makivik.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/ (Hamelin, 2005, 33) Plan-Nunavik-06_20.pdf 33 Plan Nord emerged out of an economic Sustainable Form of Economic Development”. statement given by the Minister of Finance of This document announced the development of the plan, grounding it in the principle of sustainable commitment to promoting the development development under the vision of taking “an Québec in 2009 indicating the government’s approach to sustainable development leading to an exemplary project integrating energy, mining, ofdevelopment the North of(Plan Québec’s Nord, economy 2009, p. through 7). In thisthe forestry, recreation, tourism, transportation and statementfollowing efforts:he outlined an agreement a five point on planrecognition for the wildlife development, and promoting the growth of local communities in a way consistent with their culture and identity.” It listed the basic conditions of professional qualifications signed with for what it calls “socially responsible sustainable in 2008; Free trade negotiations with the development.” Socially responsible development, implementationEuropean Union; of trade the pan-Canadian negotiations agreementto expand within the context of Plan Nord, requires mobility between Québec and Ontario; the partnership and respect for those affected by development, environmental quality protections, onwere labor aimed mobility; largely and at finallyopening Plan up NordQuébec (Plan to local employment support, investments in Nord,regional 2009, and p. international7). While the tradefirst fourand pointslabor local communication and transportation mobility, Plan Nord was the centerpiece that infrastructure, housing development in Nunavik, aimed to be a model of sustainable development and respect for indigenous cultures and identity within Québec that would tap into its underused resources while connecting its people to its of the ACCORD (Action concertée de coopération rising prosperity. The principle of sustainable (Plan Nord, 2009, p. 9-11). Guided by the findings development was an oft-repeated guiding was already in the process of searching for principle of Plan Nord. For the administration régionaleregional “nichesde développement) of excellence” program, and drafting which of Premier Charest, this meant “taking existing plans to allow them to be more competitive cultures and identities into account,” and only on international markets, Plan Nord proposed embarking on development projects “if certain to apply its conditions of socially responsible other basic conditions are met, for example with development to promising sectors which could regard to environmental protection, biodiversity be used as “levers of development” to grow the conservation in the northern environment, the participation of local workers in development projects, access to public land, and a minimum Planeconomy Nord and received benefit mixed all ofreviews Québec from (Plan the Nord,start. supply of quality housing in Inuit communities” The2009, general p. 14). consensus from indigenous groups, however, was that Plan Nord needed work. Indigenous protests began as early as January of investments(Plan Nord, 2009, into roads, p. 9). Plan airports, Nord’s housing, development health careprojects and included education roughly projects $326 in millionthe region. a year Plan in Nord also planned eleven mining projects worth 2012 when the Cris of Mistissini blocked route 167 to protest proposals to extend the route network, and billions of dollars in hydroelectric intoLoin their de «territory l’esprit communautaire (Chalifoux, 2011, », le p. 96). In $8.24 billion, a $28.8 million regional fiber-optic Plan Nord est principalement axé sur made under Plan Nord were a continuation l’exploitation des ressources naturelles par ofprojects several (McKenna, long term 2011). actions The andcommitments programs des multinationales étrangères. Ce modèle under the auspices of a multitude of agencies de développement exogène prévaut dans with portfolios ranging from development, to le Nord depuis des décennies et a déjà fait l’objet de nombreuses critiques (p. ex. : however, in bringing them together under one commonenvironmental program, protection, the government to aboriginal of Québecaffairs; hoped to bring attention to its efforts and thus Anonyme 1971 ; Simard 1974 ; Charest bring international recognition and support to 1975; Hamelin 1977 ; Morissonneau 1978 ; Barbeau 1987) (Asselin, 2011, p. 40). The guiding principles of Plan Nord were its early stages, Plan Nord enjoyed the support the benefit of all Québecois. of Pita Atami, the President of the Makivik “Plan Nord: For a Socially Responsible and released in 2009 in a Working Document entitled Corporation,34 until he was voted out of office and Plan Nord vaunts its connection with and By February of the same year, Mr. Tukkiapik sovereign4 claim to the North, quoting Hamelin in madereplaced it clear by Jobie the InuitTukkiapik were inreconsidering January of 2012. their p.claiming 94). “there is no Québec without the North.” position and that support for Plan Nord would The out of context use of this quote within Plan be conditioned on the position of the people of Nord reveals how the architects of Plan Nord missed the point by its partial use of Hamelin’s the Algonquin communities of Lake Simon and statement, which, in its entirety, argued “there is Pikogan,Nunavik (Chalifoux,who had been2011, excludedp. 96). That from March, Plan no Québec without the North: there is no Québec Nord, sat down with the government of Québec without understanding between the indigenous to consult on the subject of mining development on their land and insisted on being heard in the and the non-indigenous” (italics added)5 (Germain, 2011, p. 94; Hamelin, 2005, p. 1). releasedprocess of Plandevelopment Nord Working(Chalifoux, Document 2011, p. 97). in the newspaper Writing Lein Devoir,2009 aboutHamelin the noted recently that the Plan raised several important questions concerning how and what the program envisioned, what conception of the North it was based on, and how it viewed the relationship between the indigenous and the non-indigenous and the ties between economic projects and political advancement. He further recognized that the discourse of Plan Nord included notable advancements in its consideration of aboriginal the Manicouagan development, and even the rights in comparison to the 1950s and 1960s,

James Bay Convention of 1975 (Hamelin, 2009). orientedHowever, onfollowing natural the resource official unveilingexploitation of Plan by foreignNord in multinationals2012, scholars and critiqued for continuing it for being the same exogenous of development planning that had dominated Northern planning for In comparing indigenous and non-indigenous3 relationships decadesin development (Asselin, projects 2011, inp. Québec40). and Ontario, Alexandre Germain notes that Québec, itself hyperconscious of its autonomy, approaches its 4 “le Québec, lui-même assez jaloux de son autono- John Fowler. (2006). Map of Quebec. Retrieved indigenous communities with respect for their mie, exprime une certaine sensibilité pour l’autonomie autochtone dans son approche basée sur un partenariat autonomy and bases their relations on a nation- de nation à nation, mais il ne leur offre pas vraiment to-nation partnership. However, according to la possibilité d’être les « co-concepteurs » du projet de Germain, this approach avoids the recognition of société proposé par son gouvernement. Cette situation the interdependence of indigenous communities suggère que la notion d’interdépendance des nations au- and the Québecois, consequently denying the tochtones et québécoise pourrait être cultivée davantage” indigenous the possibility of being co-creators of (Germain, 2011, 94)

5 “Ici, il semble que la relation qu’entretient le Québec the proposed development plan (Germain, 2011, avec « son » Nord, ainsi que l’importance qu’il accorde à 3 “Loin de « l’esprit communautaire », le Plan Nord est sa propre autonomie politique et économique, l’ait rendu principalement axé sur l’exploitation des ressources na- moins sensible à la question de l’interdépendance qui turelles par des multinationales étrangères. Ce modèle de le lie aux Autochtones. C’est d’ailleurs dans cette inter- développement exogène prévaut dans le Nord depuis des dépendance que se trouve tout le sens de la citation de décennies et a déjà fait l’objet de nombreuses critiques Louis-Edmond Hamelin, « Il n’y a pas de vrai Québec (p. ex. : Anonyme 1971 ; Simard 1974 ; Charest 1975; sans la zone nordique », placée en exergue du document Hamelin 1977 ; Morissonneau 1978 ; Barbeau 1987)” et citée hors de son contexte, ce qui en brouille le sens” (Asselin, 2011, 40) (Germain, 2011, 94) 35 Plan Nunavik, a plan for Northern development wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Quebec.png drafted by and for the Inuit communities of March 3, 2013 From http://commons. Un Plan du Nord (A Plan From the North) development. Plan Nunavik was compiled by the The omission of Northern perspectives Makivikthe North Corporation to reflect withtheir the own help priorities of regional for in the crafting of Plan Nord bears serious Nunavik organizations including the Nunavik consequences for the feasibility of its vision in Regional Board of Health and Social Services, the North. Current social, cultural, and economic the Kativik School Board, the Avataq Cultural practices in the North are based on distinctly Institute, and the Nunavik Mineral Exploration Northern realities and perspectives that do not Fund. Mirroring Plan Nord, Plan Nunavik provides blend automatically into Southern structures or conceptions. On a conceptual level, the indigenous key areas of community development such as view of sustainable development depends on a housing,a 25 year health, plan for education, development access with to focusesthe land, in holistic view of their territory and can best be environmental and wildlife protection, culture, conceived as three nested circles. In this model, tourism, bio-food, non-renewable resource, energy, transportation, and communications de vie” in which a thriving society (the second the environment (the biggest circle) is the “milieu The territory of Nunavik for which Plan Nunavik(Plan Nunavik, was written 2010, p. consists 329). of all of Québec Plancircle) Nord, can behowever, realized being and eased oriented by the around use of the an creationeconomic of system prosperity, (the third functions and smallest according circle). to toNorth be considered of the 55th on parallel, its own. a Theterritory Inuit thatof Nunavik would On a practical level, Plan Nord’s proposals apply6 arebe the fully 52nd integrated, largest country -paying in the citizens world of if Canada it were thesouthern reverse solutions of this model that do(Asselin, no resonate 2011, p.in 43). the and yet today they still face severe conditions of living that are unmatched outside of the Inuit of the North as a protected zone is incongruous withnorth. indigenous For example, cultures the proposal in which to the set conceptaside 50% of are affected by poverty assessed according to protected zones where human activity is limited anNorth. index At based least off20-30% the lower of Nunavik cost of livinghouseholds in the south. Poverty places a particularly heavy burden on single parent families as well as the elderly or banned7 outright does not exist (Asselin, 2011, who often have little to no education and live off p. 43).“En effet, le concept d’aire protégée, d’où of scant government pensions. This condition is les activités humaines sont exclues ou exacerbated by the much higher cost of living in fortement limitées, est étranger aux cultures autochtones” thein the North south. where Nunavimmiut food costs (Inuit are 47% term higher for people and (Asselin, 2011, p. 43) household items are as much as 97% more than In response to this conspicuous absence jobs necessary to support their families in the of the northern perspective the Inuit of Nunavik expensiveof Nunavik) north struggle because to obtainthey lack the the high education paying submitted an innovative response in the form of 6 Pour mieux correspondre à la conception and skills. 53% of all Nunavik Inuit between ages autochtone holistique du territoire (Natcher 2001), les trois volets du développement durable devraient plutôt 20-64out before never obtaining graduated their from degree high as school compared and être perçus comme des cercles imbriqués (Mebratu 94% of Nunavik Inuit high school students drop 1998). Dans ce modèle, l’environnement (le cercle le plus grand) est le milieu de vie dans lequel peut s’épanouir to 25% of students in southern Québec. Among la société (le deuxième cercle), qui se dote d’un système the worst of Nunavik’s ills is the housing crisis; économique (le troisième – et plus petit – cercle) pour 68%only contributesof housing isto overcrowdedNunavik’s extremely whereas lowthe fonctionner. Or, en étant principalement axé sur la « rest of Canada faces 7% overcrowding. This not création de richesse », le Plan Nord fonctionne à l’envers de ce modèle” (Asselin, 2011, 43) health conditions (life expectancy is 59.5 years 7 “En effet, le concept d’aire protégée, d’où les leads to a number of social problems including for men and 67.5 years for women) but also activités humaines sont exclues family abuse, neglect, high incidence of alcohol ou fortement limitées, est étranger aux cultures autoch- and drug addictions, suicide, high rates of teen tones”(Asselin, 2011, 43) pregnancy, and mental health problems (Plan

36 culturally adapted way, substantially increase Through Plan Nunavik, the Inuit insist Nunavik, 2010, p. 358-360). services in a culturally adapted way, implement the future development of the north to all human and financial resources for education thatQuébecers, “If Québec it must is toaccept provide as abenefits fundamental from principle of the Plan Nord, before anything else, theCommission recommendations des droits of de the la April personne 2007 etreport des that it has to invest much more to improve the droitsand the de September la jeunesse, 2010 and devolvefollow-up additional report of self- the standard of living of Nunavik Inuit taxpayers, the governance powers to Nunavik including some inhabitants of the territory which Québec wishes The authors of the original Plan Nunavik acknowledgelegislative powers that (Planit was Nunavik, written 2010, as a p. rushed 465). tomust exploit uphold for itthe commitments benefit of future made generations” in previous response to Plan Nord and as a result they agreements,(Plan Nunavik, notably 2010, 460).the SpecificallyJames Bay Québec and lacked the time to properly consult with the communities of Nunavik. Thus the Makivik the Partnership Agreement on Economic and Corporation and the regional organizations of Northern Québec Agreement (1975) (JBNQA), Nunavik have launched Parnasimautik (meaning undertakingsCommunity Development of the Katimajiit in Nunavik Conference (2002) on effort to produce a locally adapted development (Sanarrutik Agreement), and the Québec plan“what that you will need break to be out prepared”), of the restrictive an 18-month model of Plan Nord to be truly inclusive of , responsibleNunavik socio-economic for environmental issues and (2007). social impactThese identity, language, and traditional way of life. commitmentsassessment, ensuring include settingInuit upharvesting an official rights, body This process will begin with presentations to regional organizations in the initial months of between the Makivik Corporation and mining andcompanies supporting operating Impact in the BenefitNunavik Agreementsregion. Plan Nunavik also insists that Québec account for the of2013 which followed will beby consolidated community andworkshops presented in impacts on Inuit harvesting of traditional foods toeach Makivik’s of Nunavik’s Annual 14 General communities Meeting the in results early and seek Inuit input on sustainable development practices, especially the designation of protected will expand the focus of development planning to2014 include (Nunatsiaq previously News, excluded 2012). areas The ofnew concern plan to bring up the issue of Inuit needs and socio- economicareas. Plan challenges Nunavik andis not yet the this first issue document had not been addressed and continues to pose serious including: elders, women, and the youth; problems. The Inuit of Nunavik insist that, as justice and social regulation; and community taxpaying citizens of Québec signatories to Undevelopment Plan Pour (Parnasimautik, Tous (A Plan for 2013). Everyone) numerous treaties guaranteeing their rights, they need access to services and a cost-of- Des projets substantiels ainsi qu’une politique living comparable to the rest of Québec. In de rapprochement entre Autochtones et order to fully and accurately understand the non-Autochtones sont de la plus grande conditions in Nunavik, they argue that Québec importance, car ils permettent de poursuivre must compile up-to-date and comprehensive la construction politique, économique et culturelle d’un vaste territoire en Amérique Finally, Plan Nunavik calls on Québec to realign statisticalits electoral data boundaries specific toto create the Nunavik an independent region. riding of Nunavik so that the Nunavimmiut In her inaugural speech, the new Premier can participate directly in Québec’s National of Québec, announced her own Assembly. Of its recommendations for Northern vision for the North based on the slogan of development, Plan Nunavik expressly lists nine priorities as preconditions for support for any of Plan Nord: address the housing crisis “lefor Nordrevamping pour tous”Plan (TheNord, North particularly for everyone). with Her Parti Québécois (PQ) has advocated the high cost of living, improve the provision of essentialby building services, an additional substantially 1000 increase units, address human regardsFerland, torecently mining re-electedroyalties andmember the financing of the ofNational infrastructure Assembly projects for the (Shields, riding 2012).of Ungava Luc and financial resources for health services37 in a (the northern most riding in Québec including Nord. that under the PQ government Plan Nord will continuethe territory but ofwith Nunavik), more involvementhas also announced by the examined The the Center idea offor “community the North security”(CFN), part in theof the Arctic, Conference which is Board a useful of stepCanada in the (CBC) process has content of Marois’ speech remains “sudiste” in its of working towards Plan Nord’s goal of creating exclusivepeople of focusNunavik on (Nunatsiaqconcerns over News, royalties 2012). Theand “prosperous, dynamic communities that offer an mining. If the PQ government wishes to continue attractive living community for young people, workers and families” and “wealth creation by way to northern priorities. The development of “lewith Nord Plan pour Nord tous” it must requires open itself“un Plan in a poursignificant tous,” which must stem from the unifying vision of “le security”local communities” refers to “the (Plan capacity Nord, of 2009,a community p. 19; Québec total.” Rutten, 2010, p. 22). The concept of “community Development of “le Québec total” opportunities for, meeting its inhabitants’ basic involves more than the resource minded needsto recognize and developing and address a basic threats level to, of resiliency,and fulfill development of the South, the resource potential including the capacity to: of the region is an asset that can be used to spur the development of the region’s human, cultural, and economic capital including the rich • promote socio-economic development; traditional heritage of the north, as well to build • protect the environment; a region that is revitalized and enriched by the • provide health services; • provide public safety and security; and However, when it comes to developing • establish effective governance” (Rutten, 2010, fullthe realizationNorth,8 this ofrequires its nordicity a model (Hamelin, that borrows 2012, Thep. 22). report “Security in Canada’s North: Looking p.more 19). heavily from the North such as the Beyond Arctic Sovereignty ” released by the CFN indigenous nested circles model, beginning with took a preliminary look at community security the environment and society and afterwards building the economy. This model acknowledges to community security in the North, notably “a the fact that communities must be strong lackin Canada’s of economic North diversityand identified (and thus,several job risks and economic development of the kind envisioned andby Plansecure Nord. before An theyeffective can benefit“Plan pourfully tous”from skill shortages); housing affordability, shortages, would thus begin from the style of community crowding,of critical and (water, poor conditions;energy, transportation,limited access development prioritized by Plan Nunavik and to education, health, and social services; lack use it as a foundation for the exploitation of its and traditional way of life, due to radical socio- resource potential in a sustainable and locally communication) infrastructure; loss of culture oriented manner. Prioritizing investment in rates of drug-related and violent crimes” (Rutten, communities accomplishes two critical functions. economic and demographic changes; and higher First it contributes to the growth of secure concerns that Plan Nunavik highlights as its communities that are capable of absorbing priorities2010, p. 23). for developmentThese critical in risks Inuit areterritory. the same The the pressures of development and capturing a investments proposed in Plan Nunavik thus work towards the creation of a secure community ready Secondly, it builds crucial local, skilled labor for the challenges of aggressive development. andportion infrastructural of the benefits capacity for internal for development. developing Action on the priorities of Plan Nunavik is industries. Building secure communities is especially critical for the goals of Plan Nord in the essential for their capacity to cope with intrusive areas of infrastructure and labor capacity. These development processes and develop lingering, areas are not only crucial for the development

are essential to the operation of developing 8 “L’utilisation du concept de nordicité devrait conduire local “spin-off” benefits as envisioned by Plan industriesof secure inand the productive region. Proper communities; investment they in à une québécité enrichie. Celle-ci aurait considéré le territoire du Québec pris comme un tout, renouvelé avec les Autochtones des relations de peuples, équilibré les skill training is highly demanded by industries démarches globalistes et sectorialistes de développement infrastructure,interested in miningearly education,in the north. and “Buildingspecific et comparé les pouvoirs respectifs du Québec du Sud et Labour Force Capacity in Canada’s North,” another du Québec du Nord”(Hamelin, 2012, 19). 38 report from the CFN, concluded that, “there planners. Development in these areas is essential is a competitive advantage available to those for the creation of secure communities that can businesses that can mobilize their local Northern be the foundation of strong development. shortage of workers at all levels, businesses that participatedworkforces;” inhowever, this study “businesses certainly are are facing facing a sustainable growth by making the appropriate investments3) Prepare Northernin human Québec development for long-term before resource development. Québec must realize a lack of qualified workers” (Martin, 2011, p. Local34). The Inuit current labor forcealternative could proveof flying to be in aforeign highly development to reach parity with the rest of costworkers effective imposes option significant while capturing costs to morecompanies. of the thatQuébec. Northern Improvement Québec instill the requires provision significant of basic services and conditions of living is essential of Québec. Likewise, infrastructural investments before any other forms of development can take profitssuch as from the development such mining projects of clean forenergy the province sources place. in the North can also aid in the development of communities while providing necessary services Conclusion to industries attempting to operate in the North. These companies are already engaged in or are L’utilisation du concept de nordicité devrait looking at partnerships with Québec to improve conduire à une québécité enrichie. Celle- capacity in these areas including the provision ci aurait considéré le territoire du Québec pris comme un tout, renouvelé avec les however, basic investment in extending energy Autochtones des relations de peuples, équilibré innovativeinfrastructure training to programsthe North for and local providingworkers; les démarches globalistes et sectorialistes adequate elementary and secondary education de développement et comparé les pouvoirs respectifs du Québec du Sud et du Québec du Nord stillPolicy needs Options to be prioritized (Martin, 2011, p. 34). (Hamelin,It is time for2012, Québec p. 19). to break from its Indigenous polity within Québec by increasing historical pattern and recognize its northern 1)their Strengthen level of self-governance. the voice and In influenceorder to achieve of an half. Québec needs to forge a new conception a joint polity working towards the coexistence of of its territory as the unity and coexistence of its Southern and Northern parts are leading to Québec the indigenous voice in northern affairs a partnership that unlocks the joint potential of themust North be strengthened and the South throughin a unified additional and stronger self- the whole, a “Québec total.” Plan Nord and Plan governance measures. In the case of the Inuit, Nunavik play equally crucial roles in this process granting additional powers to the Kativik Regional Government including legislative however, each vision maintains a highly regional powers and consideration of the creation of as each describe visions for growth in the North; a riding of Nunavik are strong steps in this the respective strengths of each region towards direction. aperspective. vision for the Québec development could benefit of the from entire applying province economically, culturally and socially. To begin Québec must realize the interdependence Plan Nord especially programs to address the of the state and its indigenous population in 2)following Incorporate issues: Plan Nunavik into a revamped building secure communities and creating a. Education/Job Training sustainable growth. The state depends on the b. Infrastructure Investment perspective, knowledge, and capacities of its c. Housing Shortage indigenous people just as much as they depend on the support and investment of the state. A Plan Nunavik is an effective presentation of strong partnership between the two will lead to the Inuit priorities and sets forth clear areas a revitalized and thriving province, secure in its of development that were left out by southern unity. Nicolas van Tulder is a graduating senior majoring in Economic and International Studies with a focus on security and diplomacy in the Middle East. An avid traveler, Nicolas has been to Morocco, Egypt, and now Québec for his studies and looks forward to his next adventure.

39 Part Two: Community Level Development

40 41 Chapter 4

Arctic Tourism: Cruises and Bruises

By Steven Moore

Abstract Movement of people to other parts of the world in order to experience new places and cultures, or tourism, is undoubtedly one of the largest industries on earth. Tourism brings people closer together in ways never thought possible in the past. This desire for adventure and new experiences moves people all over the world, from France to North Korea. There is no nation on earth which has not been affected by tourism, even the most remote and dangerous places in the world still attract determined individuals looking to expand their horizons and test their limits. The Arctic is no different; the far north has sparked the curiosity of many adventurous individuals who are drawn by its natural beauty, unique cultures and wildlife. Tourism in the Canadian Arctic today helps to provide jobs and revenue for those who inhabit the region, although the industry has yet to truly meet its potential due to many of the socio-economic and ecological issues that the north faces. This paper seeks to presents paths and perspectives that can be used in order to encourage further sustainable and beneficial tourism to the Arctic. Introduction a civilization. It’s difficult Inhospitable, to imagine vast earlyand extreme,humans significantand political level development of mainstream of the tourism Inuit world. until the theseeing far theNorth Arctic of Canada isas a a place place few fit for of usbuilding today mid 20thOpportunities century with for the increasing increasing tourism economic in would ever consider settling down, but for over the Canadian Arctic are not in short supply. The vast and pristine wilderness of the high Arctic contains many natural features which can be used through4000 years many the Inuitgenerations have called in this this unforgivingplace home to attract nature lovers from all over the world. (Stonehouse,climate off of subsistence-living2010). The Inuit and have adaptation, survived National parks containing natural attractions such as the Pingualuit crater in Nunavik, the the Arctic. Early European explorers in the Torngat Mountains in Nunatsiavut and chances muchArctic wereto the driven surprise by the of hopesthe first of discoveringexplorers to a to view the aurora borealis are ripe for drawing Northwest Passage to Asia, or in the case of the people to the region. The Arctic also houses a number of distinctive wildlife viewing prospects home, far from what any of us would consider for creatures like the and caribou. yourVikings standard during thetourism 10th centuryaffair (History AD a place of toArctic call Alternatively, for a heavy licensing fee some dedicated hunters seek to make these creatures and romanticism of these northern expeditions targets in strenuous hunting expeditions. Marine Transport). However, it is the stories Fishing, dog sledding, kayaking, cross country skiing and igloo camping are just some of the thattourism would are influence described many as ‘knapsack’ a voyage toadventurers the North additional ways in which tourists can utilize the throughoutwho sought the to pasttraverse 500 years. the untamed Pioneers landsof Arctic in Arctic wilderness for outdoor recreation. The unique Inuit culture and history can also sere of the wild man tourists that would soon turn as an attraction to travelers who wish to gain tonorthern the Canadian Scandinavia Arctic, in an the even 1800s, bigger a precursorand more experiences with new people and ways of life. In order to see high Arctic tourism thrive Canadian Arctic would not begin to see a in Canada there are a number of challenges menacing environment (Stonehouse, 2010). The 42 which must be addressed in the future. High regional and government partners” (Plan Nord, transportation costs make getting visitors to the far north very expensive and heavily sector cooperation it is possible we will see a affect the costs of food, medical supplies and successfulp. 3). With tourism increased industry government develop andin Canada’s private Arctic in the near future. This paper argues living there and reducing the amount of money that Arctic tourism should be carried out in a otherwhich essentialscan be invested making intolife difficultbuilding for tourism those environmental damage and prevents the reckless lack of infrastructure and stores also creates controlled,behavior of touristsefficient that manner could whichnegatively minimizes impact arelated number infrastructure of logistical (Dunlavy,problems for2009). tourists A Inuit livelihood. who need food and supplies to sustain travel. While many villages have at least one lodging Sustainable Tourism facility for guests the overall capacity is unable The key dimension to building to accommodate a full cruise ship or large tour sustainable tourism is to enable the Inuit to build group which may require shelter. Inadequate a long lasting economy whilst guaranteeing the medical infrastructure is another hazardous preservation of their culture and respect for concern for would be travelers in the region the local ecology. It is important to recognize who may be in desperate need of emergency the Inuit prowess regarding many aspects of the tourism industry, especially in relation to of Inuit Culture and Society states, “Essential culture based tourism which has the potential healthcarecare. The services 2011 Annual are less Reportaccessible of tothe Inuit State in to strengthen or dilute tradition (Ettenger, Nunavut than for southern Canadians because geographic distance between communities, high can open people’s minds to new ideas and ways construction costs, and a shortage of healthcare of2012). life, Invitingbuilding outsiders unity between to Inuit communitiesnortherners providers often necessitates air travel in order for and southerners. However it is possible for the

Safety of travelers is one of the hardest obstacles topatients overcome to receive as the care”Arctic (Tungavik, environment 2011, is morep. 8). canopposite also lead to occur, to new Kreg problems, Ettenger however, (2012) from in hisan often than not, unforgiving and unpredictable. writings on cultural tourism argues, “[t]ourism Several enterprises exist which specialize and share local values, to problems inherent in in tourism in the Arctic such as the Inuit owned influxthe ‘commoditization’ of outsiders who of mayculture, not which always may respect pose Cruise North, Arctic Kingdom Polar Expeditions special danger to cultures that value sharing and and that specialize in getting people generosity over exchange of money” (Ettenger, to and around the north. While successful to a degree the high costs of Cruises which start fades is an undesirable fate which can leave 2012,local economies p. 39). Short in a boomdepression, tourism it isthat important quickly to build tourism practices which keep guests aroundDevelopment $4000 corporations a person suchcan beas Makivikoff putting and coming back year after year. This chapter will toLabrador the budget Inuit Development tourist (Cruise Corporation North, work2013). to evaluate the effectiveness of current tourism improve life in the Arctic through infrastructure practices, taking into account these facets that aid and economic growth plans, and have a direct interest in improving the situation for tourism in in order to strengthen capacity and formulate bettermake uppolicy the options definition for theof sustainablefuture. tourism actors, others like the governments of Nunavut While investigating new plans for theand region Quebec (Fugmann, have developed 2009). plansAlong for with improving all these tourism, I examined the industry’s success, or the tourism situation in their land. Government lack thereof in other nations and gauged how operations such as Plan Nord in Quebec aim well their approaches have worked. One of the to improve tourism with their own economic biggest questions in regard to tourism is the plans. For example, “The Strategy aims to renew amount of regulation that should be placed on it Quebec’s tourism supply by developing new to ensure practices aren’t damaging over time to products and attractions and encouraging the the host region’s overall well being. Nepal and the growth of small and medium-sized businesses, Norwegian owned Arctic islands of Svalbard are which will diversify the economy of northern prime examples of comparable tourism ventures. regions. . . . carried out in cooperation with Much like the Canadian Arctic, these destinations

43 boasted impressive landscapes without hordes of travelers, which made tourism an alluring the drill here is how quickly things can be moved uphas and weighed deployed in on from the the issue, south stating: as well. “[p]art We have of and was largely unrestricted, granting tens of to be realistic. There is no possible way in the industry.thousands Tourism of travelers in Nepal entry took into off inthe the country 1960s vastness of the Canadian Arctic we could ever with little oversight on visa requirements and have all of the resources necessary close by. It’s foreigner behavior once in the nation (Smith, over the region’s massive landscape is permitted, lots of revenue to Nepal also had a number of furtherjust impossible” tourism (Wallace,could result 2012, in p. more 1). If freestranded reign negative1981). This cultural unrestricted consequences tourism and while resulted bringing in travelers and increased mortality as a result, the country’s reputation as a narcotics haven which is surely incompatible with a sustainable tourism model. Svalbard represents a much more Environmental concerns are an integral restrictive,(Smith, 1981). planned approach to tourism. Much element of building sustainable tourism. The like the Canadian Arctic, Svalbard experienced disappearance of unique local fauna such as a quick growth in cruise tourism to the polar bears and caribou would certainly lead to region, bringing revenue to the residents but a decline in demand for wildlife based tourism also threatening the integrity of the ecology the harmful impacts of tourism the Norwegian possibilities(Tivy, 2010). inGlobal the warmingArctic asand the the meltinglandscape of (Guðmundsdóttir,government took restrictive2009). In action order as to described mitigate icemorphs will also and directly new challenges influence forthe sealevel travel of tourism arise for tourism and outdoor recreation was prepared of tourism in this region is minimal will work withby Anna a view Guðmundsdóttir, to safeguard the “[a] unique management environment plan to(Tivy, alleviate 2010). the Ensuring harshness the environmental of climate change impact in and keeping tourism development within addition to preserving the pristine appearance environmentally sustainable and commercially and natural beauty of the land. Many NGO’s are concerned with this very topic, the WWF touristsacceptable who boundaries could visit (Guðmundsdóttir, the region per 2009,year or other traces of development are a unique p.and 4). required This plan a heavy set adegree limit ofto preparationthe amount forof states,characteristic “[v]ast ofareas the ofArctic. wilderness These areaswithout are roads both the would-be travelers to ensure their ability environmentally valuable and one of the main to handle the environment was up to standard reasons why tourists come to the Arctic” (World similar set of regulations to be put in place in overdevelopment of the Arctic and the increased the(Guðmundsdóttir, Canadian Arctic 2009). to promote It is the possible health offor the a levelsWildlife of Fund,pollution 2010, that p. come 1). withTourism it leading related to ecology and safety of visitors all while making further environmental degradation would surely the area appealing in an exclusive way. diminish tourism to the region over time (Ford, Due to its remote character, lack of infrastructure and costliness of travel, it is unlikely the Canadian Arctic will to see the same Cruise2007). Tourism Cruise ship tourism is unquestionably Nevertheless, with an increasing number cruise the most widespread, developed and perhaps boatsexplosion sailing of tourism there every that Nepalyear and did morein the foreign1960s. harmful mode of Arctic travel that exists today. nature trekkers making perilous journeys into According to Stewart there has been a steady the tundra, the sustainability of current tourism approaches demands fastidious research. Arctic over the years, “The number of cruise Tourists getting stranded in remote areas shipsincrease visiting in cruise the Canadianboat traffic Arctic to the has Canadian steadily without the aid of a local guide and dying as a result is a reoccurring issue that raises concerns increased since 1984. In 2006, the number of fromcruise else-whereships doubled that to 22the ships, ocean up fromenvironment 11 ships rescuefor many in inthe the Canadian region (Pfeiff, Arctic 2013). make Costsmeasure and hasin the become previous one season of the confirmingfastest growing observations areas of generalpreventive difficulty against associated losing people with searchimperative and

the world’s tourism industry” (Stewart, 2007, p. (Wallace, 2012). Prime Minister 370).44 Despite this steady growth the threat of climate change could potentially hinder future cause of changing port calls, which leads to unplanned docking of boats in villages (Dobson, of ice throughout the Northwest Passage could potentiallycruise ship allowactivity more (Luck, boats 2012). to journey The melting to the between the local communities and cruise ship industries2002). Clearly needs communication to improve andto coordinationensure that sea and ice conditions could become increasingly adequate arrangements are made for the arrival region or make navigation much more difficult as of cruise ship tourists every time. Coast guard Aboard these massive luxury cruises communications capabilities have the potential travelersunpredictable are andlavished dangerous with (Johnston,similar amenities 2012). to aid this effort for better coordination (Wallace,

Cruises remain quite expensive, attracting a In order to help reduce the negative relativelyas they would wealthy find and in pampered the south clientele, (Luck, 2010). which impact2010). of cruise ships to this region the quantity creates the potential to inject a lot of revenue and preparedness of boats allowed to go to the into local economies. However, the domination Arctic must be reassessed and capped at a level of cruise boat tourism in the Arctic creates a which is appropriate for the Arctic’s capacity. While Inuit-run companies such as Cruise for local communities. Many of the cruise ships North Inuit certainly take Arctic well-being into travelingnumber ofto theecological Arctic are hazards not constructed and difficulties to deal account there is still a level of oversight and with ice and the weather conditions of the far mismanagement that needs attention. Creating north- making the potential for serious accidents a regulatory body specializing in cruise ship activity has the potential to do a lot of good, as to ships to running aground, potentially leaking high (Stewart, 2010). These hazards can lead was viewed as providing a multilevel liaison The draining of cruise boat wastewater into argued by Johnston, “[s]uch an organization thepollutants Arctic Oceaninto the is watersalso becoming (Stonehouse, problematic 2010). that would satisfy the needs of the Government with the increasing level of boats to the region. offor Canada,DMRs (decisionthe Government makers ofand Nunavut, regulators) and Discharges of waste water from food, sanitation the private expedition cruise ship tourism and toilets contain bacteria harmful to the fragile better cooperation, more accountability and regulations exists in an attempt to mitigate many establishingindustry” (Johnston, a presence 2012, on allp. 91).cruise Fosteringships to ofecosystem the harmful of the impacts Arctic of(Luck, cruise 2010). tourism While the ensure that safety standards are met will be problem can still persist, the extremely remote essential for building sustainable cruise tourism. properly conduct tests and inspections to ensure Ecotourism, Fishing & Hunting natureenvironmental of these practices cruises makesare up it todifficult standard to Ecotourism is the practice in which travelers experience the natural wonders of an The harmful impacts of cruise tourism area through the landscape and wildlife, whilst are(Stonehouse, often felt by2010). local communities. Preparing to maintaining a high level of environmental host a cruise ship full of passengers is no easy task consciousness and respect. Beyond the reaches for many of these small villages which suffer from of cruise boats Canada’s far north boasts an a chronic lack of tourism related infrastructure impressive array of national parks containing thousands of lakes, dramatic mountains and complications will result in boats being unable to creatures not seen in the distant southern lands (Stonehouse,dock in their intended2010). destination, Occasionally as describedweather the Northwest Territories are a prime example of vessels might bypass communities that were (Tungavik,natural phenomena 2010). The that Pingos can only land be formations experienced of byprepared Stewart for a(2007), visit or arrive“[i]n insuch other circumstances, communities in the far north. Air travel allows for access to many remote points of interest for tourists, type of unpredictability can mean wasted money Stonehouse explains, “Backcountry adventures, forwithout economically notice” stressed(Stewart, Inuit 2007, communities p. 373). Thisthat such as mountaineering, rafting, kayaking, opportunities for unprepared villages that had noprepared time to for gather an influx goods of and tourists set up and attractions missed angling and hunting, are served by large fleets for visitors. Uncertain ice conditions are another ofviewing fixed fromwing theand air helicopter has also becomecharter aservices” popular (Stonehouse, 2010, p. 30). Wildlife and Landscape 45 albeit costly method of experiencing the beauty of guided hunts which are done with dogs and of the expansive Arctic tundra. Eco-tourists are other traditional methods. Currently the hunts likely to have a high level of appreciation for are seen as quite sustainable regarding polar the pristine wild of the Arctic and be the type of bear population levels and the control of bears visitors who will endeavor to preserve the region makes for a safer living environment for the Inuit for future tourists. The chances for trouble in the vast uninhabited Arctic are too numerous to allow (Freeman, 2006). Revenue from these hunts isHigh substantial Arctic community and brings of in Resolute around received$20,000 trek out by themselves. Current regulations on per bear, “In spring 2000, the outfitter in the backcountryany tourist with permits gear areand minimal,inflated confidence for instance, to $306,700 from the southern wholesaler for hunting, the adventure tourist is rarely required takingbear hunting 20 clients seem on polarto be bear sustaining hunt” (Freeman, healthy “Unliketo obtain guided a backcountry wildlife tours, permit, sport have fishing a license and populations2006, p. 25). it Whileis imperative current practicesthat the Canadianfor polar to demonstrate competence or report their government monitor their numbers closely in intended routes and schedules” (Stonehouse, the coming years and further restrict hunting if populations drop to an endangered level. explorers make their way to towns like Resolute Supporting the population of polar Bay2010, with p. dreams40). Many of “hardcore of these survival” would-be in the polar late bears bolsters other more sustainable tourism winter. An article on the subject in Canada’s Up Here magazine states, “Unsurprisingly, most of Churchill Manitoba, while not technically north of these adventurers will fail. A few might even die. practicessixty relies like heavily wildlife on polarviewing bear (Lemelin, related tourism 2012). But each winter more of them come, speaking a babble of languages, armed with an arsenal of Ever pervasive issues like climate change will forcontinue a good to portion affect ofthe its local economy fauna (Chotka, of the region,2004). and as Chotka states this can have devastating high-tech gear, their parkas bearing the flags of tundraa dozen of differentthe far north homelands” is a major (Pfeiff, safety 2013, liability p. reliance on eco-tourism, and relatively small and1). Allowingthe need anyonefor emergency to journey care into or searchthe frozen and population,impacts on thethese already towns, lean “[b]ecause economy ofof Churchill a heavy rescue can cost the federal government tens of could collapse if tourism were to decrease

Svalbard, instating guide requirements or proper Churchill currently stands as a great example of thousandstraining and of dollarsregistration (Wallace, for 2012).wilderness Much treks like successfuldramatically” northern (Chotka, tourism 2004, p. centered5). Nevertheless, around in the Canadian Arctic would help to alleviate the polar bear and serves as an example to other problems with inexperienced tourists becoming northern communities who have yet to develop stranded and dying. wildlife based tourism of their own. The abundance of wildlife in the Canadian Arctic has made it an incredibly Cultural Tourism The most underutilized form of tourism to pursue their hobby on a grand scale. Fishing in the Canadian Arctic remains the promotion of appealing place for well to do fishers and hunters communities, and relationships between local The overall way of life for the majority of Inuit related tourism is especially profitable for native hasInuit changed culture asgreatly an attraction away from (Tungavik, the traditional 2010). historically advantageous. Bernard Stonehouse hunter nomad of old with the advent of forced fishing experts and traveling sportsmen are resettlement and the Inuit political reaction in relationship, “most importantly, the majority ofspeaks sportsmen highly expendituresof this mutually remain beneficial in the culture is experienced through museums, the sale community, directly supporting native jobs and ofthe art, 20th dog century sledding/racing (Stenbaek, and 1987). a handful Today of smallInuit bear hunting in the Canadian Arctic operates on Culture based tourism is looked upon by many businesses”a sustainable (Stonehouse, hunting system, 2010, allotting p. 38). each Polar Inuit Inuitgatherings as a means that welcomeof strengthening guests (Snyder,their traditions 2010). community a certain amount of kills (Freeman, and building understanding with southerners, in addition to being another means of establishing their kills to traveling sport hunters in the form 2006). Inuit hunters are allowed to transfer economic46 self sufficiency. Arviat in Nunavut is one settlement which has embraced culture attractions and products, training human tourism as a primary attraction. The Elders of resources, and promotion and marketing—in Arviat even offer storytelling to visitors who partnership with local and regional tourism wish to learn more about Inuit history, building a closer a cultural connection (Visiting Arviat, Economic returns from tourism have the industrypotential tostakeholder[s]” be reinvested (Planin order Nord, to improve p. 6). Challenges with culture tourism always local infrastructure, housing availability, food exist,2013). such as “inappropriate visitor behavior, security and education which will strengthen the technological innovations and the intrusion of livelihood of the Inuit who lag behind the rest of large numbers of people “ (Stonehouse, 2010, p. Canadagoes back in intoso many the communities of these fields is of (Tunngavik, the utmost insensitive124) will persist. situations Poor may tourist arise behaviorbut by educating is often importance.2011). Ensuring Failing that to moneyuse tourism used revenuefor tourism for bothdifficult the to Inuit prevent, and embarrassingthe visitors aboutand culturally cultural the betterment of the Inuit will cast a shadow norms and expected etiquette beforehand you can of doubt on the intentions of the industry, while success will only work to reinforce outside The introduction of new ideas and practices to investment and participation in future northern effectivelythe Inuit from tone downthe south the problemis often (Luck,unavoidable, 2010). tourism projects. but keeping with the vision of The WWF and Not only can tourism generate money for working to not change the lifestyles of peoples reinvesting in the community, but an increase and communities unless they wish it is a safe rule North could have a number of positive effects on technological innovations, while capable of in demand and decrease in costs of flying to the improvingto follow (World many Wildlifefacets of Fund, Inuit 2010). daily life, Advanced can be lower prices for goods which must be shipped set aside during traditional celebrations as to inthose such living as food in the and region. medical Lower supplies flying costs(Tungavik, mean not dilute the authenticity of cultural practices. Events should be planned well ahead of time and facet of commerce and governance in the Arctic. participation should be reserved by guests from 2011).Transportation, Tourism is connectedhospitality, to nearlycommunication, every other the south. Limiting the amount of people who food and beverage, parks, recreation, and can take place in these gatherings will not only more all play an integral part in the success of tourism. However, Interconnectivity between but will also aid in making the gatherings more these industries is lacking, as stated by the helpintimate, to prevent providing an excessivea memorable influx experienceof visitors that truly connects people to the joys of Inuit are few strong links between tourism partners, civilization. Taking these precautions will aid in Nunavutwhether Tourismthey are Strategy,governmental “[a]t present,departments, there sustaining the authenticity of Arctic culture for Inuit organizations, tourism industry members generations to come. Improving cooperation between these actors will Inuit Benefits of Tourism orbe necessaryother stakeholders” in the future (Tunngavik, success of tourism,2010, p. and 8). In Nunavut alone, tourism brings a total can be easily achieved through local economic forums. Inuit involvement is crucial to the of 30 million dollars annually to the economy, future of tourism, without direct consent from employing over 500 people and helping to communities and Inuit leaders for major changes provideindustry ahas livelihood the potential for some to 3000become artists a focal and in tourism policy the integrity of the industry will carverspoint of lasting(Tunngavik, revenue 2010). to the CanadianThis emerging Arctic and its inhabitants, further strengthening conscientious of the needs of the North and the the autonomy the Inuit have worked for. In failInuit (World willing Wildlife to collaborate Fund, with2010). economic If the South experts is Nunavik the Quebecoise government plans for and tourist specialists from the rest of Canada tourism development through Plan Nord focus there is potential for building a sustainable on expanding all aspects of the current tourist tourism sector. Tourism investments in Nunavut industry, for example “Efforts will mainly focus have a high yield, which is why now is the time on developing infrastructures (accommodation, to increase the amount of trained tour guides and hospitality specialists in order to prepare outfitting and hospitality), setting up tourist47 for new travel service expansions (Tunngavik, come to light. In addition to complying with NORDREG ships should focus on communication visible today with the government providing with local communities to ensure preparedness additional2010). Further funding cooperation for tourism with promotion the south to the is for the visit from cruise ships in all situations. North, which has the potential to greatly increase the level of travel to the high Arctic (Northern •• Sustainable ecotourism should be the focal point of Arctic travel.

PolicyStrategy, Options 2008). and other outdoor activities come with the lowest •• Promote, expand and increase tourism-related amount Wildlifeof environmental viewing, hiking, hazards. camping, The hunting fishing infrastructure across the board in an attempt of polar bears while currently seen as sustainable to make travel costs more affordable and lure by the government should be monitored closely more people to the Canadian Arctic. to ensure it is not negatively impacting the future Ideally, this would be done in a manner which gives a variety of settlements opportunities populationshealth of the thenspecies, further if studies limiting find or that getting hunting rid instead of concentrating activities in a few villages. ofis polarsignificantly bear hunting working allotments to decrease should polar occur. bear toOne have way uniqueto increase flourishing interest amongtourism southerners industries and foreigners would be the marketing of “last Challenges and Gaps in Knowledge chance tourism” through relevant advertising. Creating new economic regulations This idea states that due to severe changes comes with logistical challenges. These include occurring in the Arctic many features which gathering the necessary funds for initial the region has become famous for such as large investment, ensuring the willingness of all dramatic icebergs, pristine wilderness and a necessary participants and establishing realistic healthy population of polar bears may be gone regulatory policy. Creating more infrastructure to someday, and that it is imperative that you see accommodate tourists is an expensive endeavor them before it’s too late. Doing this will not only must be shown the promise of Arctic tourism. spread concern and awareness over the troubles Inwhich addition, will require changing finding the legal willing requirements investors that for ofencourage the Arctic people and what to flock we can to thedo toregion help. but will however, the free reign adventure tourism •• The implementation of stronger regulations economicand cruise activity ship willactivity be metcurrently with opposition; operating on tourists. is unsustainable. These recommendations Similar to that of Svalbard, requiring prioritize smart practices that ensure the long local guides or wilderness competence should be term resilience of the Arctic tourism industry. necessary to obtain legal permission to explore the vast Arctic tundra independently. This will Conclusion minimize the amount of explorer casualties Tourism covers a broad range of issues leading to costly search and rescue missions when it comes to Arctic security, particularly in and treatment for frostbite and other winter the realm of economic, social and environmental related ailments. Cooperation by the federal and security, as the industry is so closely connected to local governments to ensure these regulatory all facets of life in the North. With increasing levels standards are upheld will be necessary, with local of autonomy for Inuit communities, the need government agencies acting as the implementers for handing out wilderness licenses and keeping and with tourism comes revenue which can track of the various travelers. befor economicreinvested self-sufficiency into other aspects is ever of increasing, security, such as food and housing. It is imperative that •• Implement on-board surveyors from the revenue gained from tourism does not negatively government on cruise vessels to ensure waste impact the social well being of the Inuit and the and pollution control. ecological health of the Arctic, making the need Stronger regulation on the capability of for sustainable tourism essential. There are cruise ships to handle northern waters will also endless opportunities to entertain visitors while become a necessity in the future as new challenges maintaining the pristine condition of the local in navigating the unfreezing Northwest Passage

flora,48 fauna and landscape within the Canadian Arctic. Through this controlled and pragmatic approach to polar tourism, the industry could be a focal point in a new age of economic success for the Canadian Arctic and its people.

Steven Moore is a 4th year Jackson School student with a heavy interest in tourism as an international issue and source of trans-boundary connectivity. He hopes to become involved in the industry someday doing work and research around the world in order to broaden his understanding of humanity and the 49 Chapter 5

Creative Conservation: New Paradigms of Bio- diversity Management in the Canadian Arctic

By Max Sugarman

Abstract This chapter argues that biodiversity conservation matters to Arctic security, defining a broader understanding of security that aims for local empowerment, human security, and environmental security. After asserting the critical importance of biodiversity for security through ecosystem services, we explain the threats to biodiversity in the current context of climate change. As a response to these threats to environmental security, a wide range of solutions is being developed. Currently international conventions set a standard for biodiversity conservation. At the local and regional level in the Canadian Arctic, biodiversity is managed through the merger of biological science and traditional Inuit knowledge. Harvested species are managed with schemes of co-management, while ecosystems are managed with consultative and planning processes. As climate change continues to alter the Arctic, biodiversity must be managed creatively and integrated between scientific and indigenous schools of thought at multiple levels to successfully adapt to a changing climate. Recent ideas for stronger international frameworks, inclusion of Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit, citizen science, and ecosystem services provide a ‘creative’ direction for biodiversity management. Introduction Biodiversity, the diversity of all living paradigm for conservation. things and ecosystems, is a crucial aspect of Traditionally, conservation has been environmental and human security. Ecosystem entrusted with biological science. Conservation services that 1stem from biodiversity play a began out of the demands of hunters like fundamental role in the functioning of the Arctic Theodore Roosevelt who sought to maintain environment and Arctic societies. As climate populations of species. From this demographic change and globalization threaten biodiversity, focus, conservation has grown to a broader goal of new paradigms of conservation are necessary. In maintaining the rich biodiversity – at the genetic, this paper we will clarify the historic and current species, or ecosystem level – in perpetuity biodiversity management strategies. This paper starts with international frameworks for historically focused on population statistics, encouraging biodiversity, and then follows with seeking(Noss, 1990, a stable 355). population Conservation of a species methods below have its carrying capacity. Conservation practices at the and ecosystem based management currently species level include monitoring, culling, and ex- inclarification the face ofof the the role dichotomyof population of management indigenous knowledge and non-indigenous science. Finally At a broader scale, conservation science opportunities for integrating these two different hassitu called(captive for or protected off-site) conservation.areas of land and water. approaches are offered to bring about a new In the face of climate change, an ecosystem- based approach involving management “’maintenance of the local and the planetary of non-protected lands, and partnerships biosphere1 Environmental as the essentialsecurity issupport defined system as the on between government, landowners, and private which all other human enterprise depend’” or the citizens has become more prominent. Finally, protection against vulnerability of ecological systems conservation has enlisted international action

50 (Trombetta, 2008). through the Convention on Biological Diversity by global and external forces of climate change and globalization. While not traditionally Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora associated with security, biodiversity is relevant (CBD), Convention on International Trade in to security on both environmental and human like the International Union for Conservation of levels. The main connection of biodiversity (CITES), and non-governmental organizations to security is through the need to secure the However in recent decades, traditional ecosystem services that biodiversity provides Nature (IUCN). indigenous concepts of knowing the natural are the variety of provisions, culture, and ecologicalworld have beenknowledge recognized (TEK), and incorporated. and more In (Trombotta,regulatory systems 2009, p.that 599). maintain Ecosystem the stability services of the Canadian Arctic, the Inuit have been strong ecological and human communities. In the Arctic proponents of TEK, especially for the monitoring these services include important ecosystem regulation like the role of mosquitoes in nutrient cycling or direct provisions of consumption of conservationspecies populations such as (Wenzel,population 2004, monitoring, p. 254; butAglukkaq, often 2013).provides TEK alternative informs different observations. methods At regional, national, and international forums, the goodsecosystem like servicesArctic char include fisheries the social (A. bondsShestakov, and Inuit have called for inclusion of their voice and personalknowledge transfercommunication). from harvesting More wildlife subtle or knowledge in conservation practices. While TEK the spiritual values of ecosystems (L. Ellsworth, has many opportunities, the concept itself has many layers, especially with introduction of the help keep the ecosystem functioning and stable. , or the full Additionallypersonal communication). these ecosystem First, services these contribute services aspects Inuit understandings of the world.2 to the security of the human community by broader Despite Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit decades of (IQ)collaboration, facilitating health, social interaction, and Inuit knowledge and science have potential community stability. These examples of ecosystem to clash. Over the past decade as research and services support the argument that biodiversity

with a security component for communities, conservation have focused on the North, conflicts thereis linked is a strongto security tendency (Djoghlof, toward 2011). inequality Along in callhave forbeen consultation noted (The betweenCommunities…, science 2005; and the impacts of environmental insecurity (Diaz Berkes et al., 2007; Tyrrell, 2008). A general Despite a strong pattern of collaboration, the ecosystems and human communities through indigenous communities requires clarification. etbiodiversity, al. 2006). someBesides people the holdsecurity an intrinsic provided value for non-indigenous science have increased as in the biological diversity of organisms, including conflictsbiodiversity between becomes Inuit more understandings threatened. Looking and many indigenous, Québecois, and Canadians particularly at Nunavik can provide a glimpse at the possible resolutions of diverging viewpoints The valuable biodiversity in the Arctic is between science and TEK in both planning and highly(Gouvernment threatened du byQuébec, external 2011, forces p. 98). from climate practice. The central question is: how can Arctic change and globalization. The Unikkaaqatigiit biodiversity be conserved despite external report shares the observed changes to wildlife threats and in the face of dissenting tactics of conservation? Ultimately, biodiversity must be managed creatively and integrated at multiple andThese fisheries changes from include climate shifts change in Beluga according whale levels to successfully adapt to a changing climate. tomigrations, Nunavik’s new Inuit bird (The species, Communities…, and changes 2005). in

Biodiversity at Risk Arctic biodiversity is deeply threatened patternsfish species and speciesand runs diversity, (The ecosystemsCommunities…, are changing2005). Along dramatically with alterationswith sea iceto losswildlife and 2 Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit is described simply as “tradi- tional Inuit knowledge,” a concept that includes “spiritual changes to the ecosystem are leading to stressed as well as factual knowledge,” or even more conceptually lake disappearance (CAFF, 2010, p. 69). These as avaluqangittuq – “that which has no circle or border or declined populations of harvested species around it” (Tester and Irniq, 2008, p.49). Essentially, IQ is an approach that is rooted in Inuit concepts of knowl- climate change, there are increasing threats of edge, rather than TEK which is framed within Western chemicalsuch as cariboupollution (CAFF, and 2010,invasive p. 29).species Besides that conceptions of science and epistemology. 51 only do the dangers to the Arctic’s biodiversity As biodiversity is lost to the forces of affect the region, but have wide ranging global climateharm biodiversity change, the (Johnsen security of et Arctic al., 2010, communities p. 8). consequences and responsibilities. During is threatened. While new species may be discussions of the CBD, the southern African appearing, the overwhelming observations of country of Malawi even noted its concern for biodiversity reactions to climate change point to Arctic biodiversity as important bird species a sharp decline in biodiversity outweighing any migrate thousands of kilometers between the biodiversitybenefits of newof thespecies Arctic or willecosystem strengthen services the Arctic and Africa (Subsidiary Body on Scientific, resilience(The Communities…, of Arctic ecosystems2005, P17). (ChapinDefending III the et TheseTechnical international and Technological frameworks Advice, 2011,encourage p. 3; A.change Shestakov, at national personal and communication,local levels. By clearly2013). also confers resilience to human communities al., 2006, p. 198). The biodiversity of the Arctic clear set of goals for conservation, the CBD serves asdefining a standard biodiversity for biodiversityand setting conservationa broad, yet through ecosystem services (Djoghlof, 2011, p. 15).this Aspresents many asa 279security migratory threat species to countries of birds For instance the CBD has elevated awareness may be harmed by severe changes in the Arctic; of(Convention biodiversity on as Biological a global issue,Diversity, with 1992).more food sources disappearing, causing a nutrition governments “explicitly recognizing the value beyond the Arctic (CAFF, 2010, p. 8). Not only are in algae density has lowered the quality of water Likewise, the CBD calls for the protection of fordeficiency drinking for showing Inuit populations, the comprehensive but also increases health customsof biodiversity” that are (Balmford “in accordance et al., with 2005, traditional p. 212). risks to human populations from biodiversity cultural practices that are compatible with conservation” showing the global interest in Biodiversity destabilizes other aspects of human integrating indigenous values (Convention on losswell-being. (Knostch In theand Arctic, Lamouche, linguistic 2010, diversity p. 10, 33).has declined in correlation with biodiversity decline, Despite the value of a global agreement, suggesting strong links between biodiversity and theBiological continued Diversity, threats 1992, of biodiversity art. 10c) loss signify the failure of the CBD as a policy instrument, even according to its current head Ahmed Djoghlof ecosystemcultural resilience resilience, (Knotsch human and health, Lamouche, and 2010,even culture,p. 9; CAFF, biodiversity 2010, p. 99). loss Throughhas real implications the impacts on can be attributed to the absence of important human security. (Zeller, 2010). The failure of the convention Framed within the debate between regimesignatories is necessary like the United for a transnationalStates (Snape, problem 2010, p. change elevates the pertinence of biodiversity 6). Nevertheless, a comprehensive international management.indigenous and Increasingly, scientific management, dramatic changes climate to ecosystems are causes of urgent concern. These like biodiversitySome models loss (Trombetta, exist at a 2009,more p.regional 598; A. small crises are quickly becoming the norm, and levelShestakov, and incorporatepersonal communication, indigenous perspectives 2013). directly. Most prominently, the Arctic Council between indigenous communities and science. Forwith example, each ecological science may crisis, call conflictfor conservation may arise of a species at risk, while indigenous communities with(AC) representativessupports a working from thegroup nation called states the may seek to continue traditional hunting andConservation indigenous for permanent Arctic Flora participants. and Fauna (CAFF)In fact, practices. As climate change continues to shape biodiversity management motivated the creation the Arctic, a new path must be forged that shifts of the Arctic Council seeing the need for full state and indigenous involvement to protect a of collaboration. conservation from a crux of conflict to a cavalry International Frameworks – the vulnerable environment (McIver, 1998, p. 149; Underpinnings of Conservation producedArctic Council, an Inuit 1996, Regional par. Conservation4). Even earlier, Strategy the International frameworks at a global, multi-state Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC) regional, and indigenous mindset lay a foundation for the protection of biodiversity. Not (IRCS), serving as an indigenous management model as the first indigenous and first regional conservation52 strategy (Nuttall, 1998, p. 30). This strategy was credited with as a globally recognized model for indigenous have existedQuotas on speciesand moratoriums counts and definitions have been of Environmental Program (UNEP) serving centralsustainable policies harvests for (Kishigami,managing 2005,populations p. 137). of provide the basis for a comprehensive and harvested species in the Arctic, but have not governanceeffective conservation (Nuttall, 1998, strategy. p. 30). In particular,These models the been fully embraced by Inuit harvesters. Since voice of the Inuit offers a setting for a fresh and collaborative approach to conservation. regulationsthe 1980s, onthe the Department harvest of ofbeluga Fisheries whales and in The Harvest – Co-Managing the Populations Oceans (DFO) has instituted quotas and other of Species While international responses have strategiesNunavik and include Hudson quotas, Bay (Kishigami, or limits 2005,on the p. offered broad-scale collaboration between 125;number Tyrrell, of whales 2008, harvested,p. 323). These date managementselection for the hunting season, training for newer hunters, substantive work has been done in local regulations on hunting methods, and codes of communities.scientific and Historicallyindigenous andcommunities, presently, biodiversity has been cooperatively managed over the two endangered populations of belugas between scientists and indigenous communities inconduct the Eastern (Tyrrell, Hudson 2007). BayIn 1996, and Ungavaafter concerns Bay in

Nunavik and Nunavut provide several examples for all three beluga populations in the Hudson Bay ofthrough collaborative the conservation efforts to of maintain specific populations.biodiversity Québec, the DFO placed a “blanket quota” of 240 of species for consumptive ecosystem services, in particular harvesting – a key component of Inuit and Ungava Bay (Tyrrell, 2008, p. 325). However, society. Nunavik in particular serves as a model HudsonWestern Bay. Hudson This leftBay the had Inuit 57,000 in Nunavik individuals with a for balance between science and indigenous frustratingcompared limit,to 3,100 considering individuals the sharp in difference Eastern knowledge with harvest limits, monitoring, and in population numbers. Another challenge with research, supported by an extensive scholarly the quota system was the application of the same quota numbers to different communities in Nunavik, despite varied community size. discoursealtered populations, (Lewis et al., disagreement2009, p. 14; Kishigami,between Nunavik communities began to resent the DFO 2005, p. 125). However, as climate change has has been observed. To ensure the sustained and unequal quotas have forced Nunavimmiut to cooperativeindigenous andconservation scientific conservationof important methodsspecies, (Kishigami,purchase Beluga 2005, p.meat 130). from In certainNunavut cases where the an integrated approach is suggested that can management and quotas are less restrictive, limit potential weaknesses caused by dispute. or travel far distances to James Bay to harvest Applications of non-indigenous biology and indigenous knowledge align with the The forced purchase of a typically subsistence conservation of populations. Populations are the belugagood instills (Tyrrell, a sense 2007; of Nunatsiaq“powerlessness” News, in2012). Inuit groups of individuals of the same species living communities, weakening the social community in a particular geographic area, and “are the primary currency and concern of conservation strengthrooted policies offered may through not beharvest wholly (Tyrrell, appropriate 2007, p.for 575). Arctic The biodiversity application management. of these scientifically biology” (Freeman, 2011, p. 4; Van Dyke, 2008, p. Even more drastic have been ecological240). Most needs. scientists Just gain as species expertise are in ecologically individual moratoriums on hunts, suggested by scientists unique,species, theirmatching purpose each in the species Inuit diet to is species-specific for biological reasons, but in contrast to Inuit

closures of estuaries to human activities that thesespecific numbers (Inuit Tapiriit are based Kanatami, off counts n.d.). ofHarvested species. continueways of thought. today to In protect the 1990s, vulnerable the DFO populations mandated Governancespecies are managedof harvesting through can include limits on IQ harvest;through of Beluga whales in Eastern Hudson Bay and co-management boards and community-based conservation. In Nunavik, managers attempt to include indigenous perspectives to manage pressedUngava Baymoratoriums (Doniol-Vacruze have etstrong al., 2012,ecological p. 7; these populations, but distinct disagreements backingNunatisiaq as theNews, harvest 2012). of belugas These in scientificallytheir calving

53 areas of estuaries has been noted to affect beluga Inuit in management bodies supports efforts ability to remember habitats (Doniol-Vacruze et to include Inuit knowledge in the management process. While the concept of Inuit inclusion step was seen as highly necessary for the DFO to is ideal, the adaptiveness and effectiveness of protectal., 2012, biodiversity, p. 5). While the this agency drastic even management admits the strong disagreements with local Inuit (Doniol- this inclusion becomes difficult when the body only stop the harvest of beluga, but also limit increases participant numbers (Peters, 2002, Vacruzethe interactions et al., 2012, of Inuit p. 5). with These the closuresestuaries not as ofp. 682).the committee Meanwhile, inhibit limitations the effectiveness on the human of recreational areas, or harvest zones for other thecapacity committee. and scientific Armitage knowledge suggests of membersthat the species. By placing estuaries as sanctuaries of the committees are too complex, and one option is Beluga, the Canadian government is perceived for a simpler co-management system with fewer to prioritize wildlife over the Inuit people

formal actors involved (Armitage, 2005, p. 726; imposed(Armitage, by the2005, DFO, p. indigenous 721). Even knowledge though isthere not planKishigami, for 2005, p. offers 135). an alternative approach incorporatedis a strong scientific meaningfully backing into for these the decisionsmethods within the Nunavut’s needs offirst wildlife integrated management. management After consultations with indigenous groups and prescribe to IQ and harvesters claim that beluga organizations like the Nunavut Tunngavik Inc., (Doniol-Vacruze et al, 2012). Instead, harvesters regions, rather than the blanket quotas over maywill returndisagree if hunted with the (Doniol-Vacruze fundamental etbehavioral al, 2012, the DFOoceanic set limitsspace. based These on specificzones geographiccan track ecologyp. 5; Kishigami, of the beluga 2005, whales,p. 132). the While DFO harvesters struggles CITES requirements for the harvest and trade indigenous understandings of the environment. each specific animal, keeping in line with the to effectivelyPopulation convey monitoring this scientific has knowledgebeen another to different quotas adapted to regional differences challenge of wildlife management between of narwhals (George, 2012). Each zone has community-based management model (Dawson, whales, there has been substantial controversy in population and community demand, fitting a overindigenous the validity and scientificof satellite parties. telemetry For countsbeluga IQ, by raising the quotas based on human needs 3 2013). This new effort more effectively includes tracking makes this system more effective by bear(Lewis population et al., 2009, verging p. 14; Kishigami,on endangerment, 2005, p. addressingin the ecosystem. the actual Moreover, concern the of narwhalmore specific parts yet133). Inuit Likewise, communities scientists sense consider an increase the polar in trade, rather than trying to control population numbers. This discrepancy can be accounted for by the Institutions and policies in place to protect shrinkingpolar bear of numberssea ice forcing (MacDonald, polar bears 2012, to foragep. 3). harvested populations inappropriately apply in community waste to obtain energy, but this non-indigenous concepts onto communities concept has not been appropriately conveyed to Inuit communities. These differences in Likewise, scientists struggle with a perception of population counts develop an increasing clash illegitimacythat lack the from capacity disputed to fulfill population the roles counts. required. An integrated approach of human capacity building Climate change is increasing the likelihood of can improve the existing model, ensuring a betweenthese disagreements indigenous andand as scientific populations priorities. shrink positive collaboration.

Another form of co-management is Land, Water, and Ice – Can We Conserve the throughthe importance management of accurate boards counting such is amplified. as the Entire Landscape? Hunting, Fishing, and Trapping Co-ordinating Beyond populations of species, the Committee in Nunavik. Importantly these boards current approach to biodiversity conservation establish the leadership of Inuit in their own is an ecosystem-based management. Instead biodiversity management as leaders who draft of simply managing a species, scientists and communities are encouraged to plan 3 Satellite telemetry collects signals from marked beluga conservation for the entire system. Entire regulationswhales and extrapolates (Berkes etlocations al., 2007, for the p. remaining150). Placing ecosystems work as a whole to provide important individuals (Lewis et al., 2009, p. 16). 54 regulating ecosystem services – services that management throughout Nunavik (Gislason, provide resilience against ecological crisis. First the shifting effects of climate change call panels like the Nunavik Marine Region Wildlife for ecologically conscious management of the Management2007, p. 102). Ultimately,Board, which regional practices co-management landscape- broader landscape, not merely discrete areas scale management, may be pathways towards an effective inclusion of indigenous ways of thought ecosystem approach includes indigenous voices and(Heller knowledge and Zavaleta, into 2009,management p. 27). Second,decisions an forum not only can strengthen management, but because communities become intertwined with andcan alsovoice empower in EBM Inuit(Gislason, communities. 2007). This sort of Currently, community consultations The ecosystem-based management serve as the main way to make determinations of the conservation (Berkes et al., 2000, 1260). conservation decisions. According to the Makivik Corporation , through Plan Nunavik, new (EBM) approach is highly regarded, and Canada is leaders are 4required to show up, and a round highlighted as a model for EBM (Slocombe, 1998, table of core leaders, local leaders and the public p. 34). EBM attempts to (1) treat the ecosystem attend consultation meetings (J. Salvo, personal as a unit, (2) practice adaptive management, and easy(3) involve to discretely stakeholder focus participation on species and(Van ignore Dyke, are consistently recommended throughout the human2008, p. aspects, 350). While EBM populationmust involve management local actors, is communication, 2013). These consultative efforts aligning with indigenous interests. Currently, co-management presents consultationliterature (Berkes is considerate et al., 2007, of p.local 150; concerns, Johnsen etit an opportunity to integrate indigenous and al.,is crucial 2010, p.that 75; these Mallory concerns et al., 2006,are not p. only 23). heard,While but incorporated into management decisions. River caribou herd in Québec saw a dramatic At the regional level, Nunavik and scientific conservation. Recently the George Québec have prepared to protect biodiversity. Both indigenous people and Québecers want to decline from 300,000 individuals to only 27,000 protect biodiversity (Gouvernment du Québec, indeveloped. a few years Four (Wells, tribes 2013). and severalTo deal biologistswith this significantfrom the Québec shift, a co-managementgovernment worked response together was to biodiversity loss, both Québec and Nunavik to manage the caribou population (CBC News, 2011,have presented p. 94; Makivik, similar 2012, plans, p. although 333). In thereresponse are disagreements in the details of the change. Plan makes them a strong model for EBM because Nord, Québec’s Arctic Policy, notably calls for the their2013). migratory The migratory route must nature be whollyof caribou conserved herds for an adaptive management for caribou that protectionAlthough Plan of fifty Nord percent is no longerof land innorth place of withthe 55th the includes(Slocombe, the 1993, conservation p. 615). Biologists of other haveassociated called changeparallel in(Gouvernment government, duthe Québec, ideas and 2011, sentiments p. 142). species, sustainable forestry, and protected remain, and the new Parti Québecois government

land in the North from industrial development communitiesmigratory corridors participate (Courtois in mapping et theal., routes2004, still seeks to protect at least fifty percent of ofp. caribou605). Inproviding the Western nuances Arctic of herd indigenous dynamics and attractive, but there are substantial critiques. Plan(Blatchford, Nunavik, 2012). the Inuit This response concept tois impressivePlan Nord, still seeks the same amount of protected lands, morenarrative accurately forms thanof research a typical arescientific challenging approach to (Kendrick and Manseau, 2008, p. 407). Other interactions with the ecosystem instead of bold butclaims the of emphasis environmentalism. first is placed One ofon thehuman key historyinterpret, observations but “reflect and a range environmental of local variability history facets of Plan Nunavik’s response to biodiversity in observations and reflect the range of natural loss is the need for consultation for protected area designations, bringing Inuit to the forefront improvedof the ranges” understandings (Kendrick ofand the Manseau, ecosystem 2008, but grantsp. 416). respect Inclusion and of thisdignity TEK to not the only indigenous brings in goals for biodiversity protection include the Inuit who often sense disengagement with of these decisions (Makivik, 2012, p. 422). Other government-led conservation. This follows 4 Makivik Corporation is the organization formed after suggestions for the incorporation of TEK into the James Bay Northern Quebec Agreement to protect the rights, finances, and interests of the Inuit in Nunavik 55 enforcement of existing wildlife regulations and expanded Inuit human capacity and expertise on tools like Rapid Assessment of Circum-Arctic 2013). These special areas can be chosen based Science calls for similar goals especially for the ecosystem resilience that can serve the broader concepton wildlife of management a regional (Makivik,adaptive 2012,management p. 419). Ecosystem Resilience (RACER) locating areas of strategy. This would support a broad-based ecosystem management that is aware of bioregionwith Inuit (Christiecommunities and Sommerkorn,is necessary 2012,to form p. global change and incorporates indigenous appropriate5). Through alland of meaningfulthese decisions, boundaries consultation that voice appropriately (L. Fortier, personal respect both cultural and ecological values. To achieve a faster establishment of these areas, Ecosystem-based management is also Guenette and Alder call for a more devolved appliedcommunication, in aquatic 2013). ecosystems, especially the vast marine ecosystems that surround Nunavik Inuit leaders who can help shape these areas and and are integral to the Arctic. Marine ecosystems moreprocess quickly (2007). accomplish This process protection will need across to involve their as a whole face challenges with management, land as sought by Plan Nunavik. especially in the complex space of Arctic waters As the current popular approach, and ice. Marine protected areas are tools for EBM is a strong foundation for biodiversity conservation of aquatic regions (Van Dyke, conservation. Conservation is a large-scale issue, and the management of entire ecosystems and landscapes tightly involves indigenous 2008,more managedp. 333). Theseand used may zonesrange withfrom multiplepristine perspectives. Inclusion in management decisions, no-go zones, banning all access to fisheries, or involvement in planning, and agenda-setting In the Alaskan arctic, a model has been proposed that aligns with goals for ecosystems, all show withpurposes indigenous (R. Sauve, support, personal placing communication). a moratorium the strengths of the EBM approach to provide comprehensive environmental security. on all commercial fishing in the marine waters Creative Integration – Forward-Thinking scientists(Bennett, have2009). strongly Instead, urged onlyCanada traditional to place Approaches for Conservation harvests are allowed (Bernton, 2009). 551 The great challenge is continuing the integration of indigenous knowledge and voice watersa moratorium are sustainable on industrial and resilientfisheries, (Boswell, waiting with non-indigenous science in the face of for scientific research to show that the Arctic climate change. International collaboration moratorium would still enable Inuit to practice offers one opportunity to preserve biodiversity. 2012;traditional Reeves hunting et al., and 2012, social p. 460).bonding Any through broad Several recent ideas can strengthen the current the harvest. (L. Fortier, personal communication, relationship between science and indigenous knowledge including Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit, may be ideal in the short-term. citizen science, and an ecosystem services 2013). WithSeveral proper scholars consultation, have called this for strategy marine framework. protected areas because coverage in the International Legal Proposals Before tackling management, Canadianprocess of arcticforming is afairly marine weak protected (CAFF, area2010, has p. international legal frameworks need 98;been Peacock lengthy et and al., 2011,ineffective p. 337). to someHowever degree the considerable attention. International approaches to conservation still provide the basis for effective marine protected areas that are selective. In environmental security across the Arctic. (Guenetteaddition, these and protectedAlder, 2007). areas The would DFO not calls be no-for Historically attempts to conserve biodiversity go zones, but managed areas (R. Sauve, personal internationally have centered on global treaties

have failed to meet their obligations for the communication).from oil and gas These development” managed areas (Peacock allow foret CBD,(Trombetta, other forums 2009, p. for 597). conservation However as need countries to be fishing, hunting, and shipping, but are “protected discussed. The Arctic Council, notable for its involvement of indigenous peoples, and founded areasal., 2011, should p. 337). be protected To determine with a theseconservation specific on the basis of international environmental purposeareas for (R.long-term Sauve, marinepersonal protection, communication, specific protection, offers a model for cooperative

56 observation to capture the greatest amount of establishingbiodiversity conservationa “precautionary (Metcalf, approach” 2004, through p. 116; aStruzik, treaty, 2010). can set A stronger standards Arctic for Council, environmental possibly researchlocal knowledge becomes possible a learning (Mulrennan experience et al., 2012, for p.scientists, 249). This and communityalso Inuit who based often participatory are limited in educational opportunities because of their protection across Arctic states (Verhaag, 2003, p. isolation. Together Inuit and scientists can Democratizing579). Biodiversity Management Another possible model for conservation populations and ecosystems can be managed. Thereset research are already agendas models and for sciencehelp defineengagement how economic pursuits such as tourism discussed through the Nunavik Research Centre, making of specific species is to involve wildlife in citizen science a real possibility for expansion (S. the ecosystem services provided by wildlife, inpossibly the previous bringing chapter. economic Tourism growth commodifies to Inuit Ecosystem services are the fundamental communities. Some of these possibilities include reasonHendrie, for personal protecting communication, biodiversity. 2013). However wildlife viewing from cruise ships or vehicles, or research on the value of these services through trophy hunting. Polar bears have been suggested ensure that the value is clear (de Groot et al., trophy hunting, supporting Inuit communities natural capital still needs to be quantified to as a possible (albeit controversial) species for greater value for polar bears through a hunting 2010,role of p.ecosystem 28). Research services done in Inuit by communitiesa variety of program,(Freeman hunters and Wenzel, would then2006). become By creatingpart of the a projects, like Unikkaaqatigiit, have clarified the sustainable population conservation effort. services within the market can then protect these A newer dynamic of indigenous services.(The Communities…, In the short-term, 2005). the Placing risk assessments ecosystem knowledge, known as Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit of ecosystem services can contribute to Integrated Regional Impact Strategies, planning of TEK. Instead of providing basic knowledge for the future of wildlife (L. Fortier, personal (IQ), challenges the scholarly devised notion cultural, spiritual, and ecological knowledge of flora and fauna in ecosystems, IQ provides Policycommunication, Options 2013). making it more meaningful to communities •• Implement and enforce existing without trying to fit a Western thought process, international agreements (e.g. Convention that TEK is less relevant, and fails to integrate Inuit(Tester communities and Irniq, 2008,into the p. management55). Wenzel suggests process regulations •• Communicateon Biological Diversity) the ecological and wildlifescience behind Wildlife Act, can play a critical role in actually quota and moratorium regulations to (2004).bringing Instead,indigenous IQ, alreadyknowledge part andof Nunavut’s voice to communities •• Practice adaptive co-management focused on an ecosystem-based management theArctic scientific Council, forum even (Testermentioned and theIrniq, concept 2008, ofp. •• Identify and expand marine protected areas IQ49). in Leona her recent Aglukkaq, speech rising on Canada’s chairwoman ascendancy of the in resilient spaces of special concern •• Recognize the value of IQ and consider the philosophy holds currency in Inuit communities, values of IQ in management decisions andto the may Arctic be a moreCouncil effective chairmanship route for (2013).partnership. This •• Improve long-term observations and Citizen science, or the inclusion of local monitoring by creating a new crop may provide an opportunity for integrating engagement in Inuit communities Inuit in the scientific process of management, •• Involveof citizenscientists communities through in settingscientific research agendas based off models such as the onescientific critical and component indigenous of styles citizen of science.biodiversity The Nunavik Research Centre Wemindjimanagement Protected (Ayles Areaset al., Project 2007). between Research Cree is and biologists offers a framework for community Conclusion science. This process involved workshops, Both conservation biologists and semi-structured interviews, and participant indigenous harvesters offer vital perspectives in

57 biodiversity management. Together these two powerful beacons of knowledge can shed light on the complex nature of Arctic ecosystems, both broader understandings of ecosystems. While thesewith specific management wildlife proposals populations, tackle and adaptation also with at a micro scale, the issues of biodiversity are inherently global. Only with regional and international collaboration between nation-states and indigenous participants can biodiversity be meaningfully conserved. Biodiversity is a critical component of community resilience and conservation will secure biodiversity and its ecosystem services. As global carbon mitigation fades in promise, these adaptation methods for populations and ecosystems will provide the resilience to ecosystems and communities that can sustain Arctic communities.

Max Sugarman is in his third year at the University of Washington majoring in International Studies and Environmental Science/Resource Management with interests in sustainable development, landscape ecology, conservation and geography. 58 Chapter 6

Pomegranates in the North, Muktuk in the South: Building Infrastructure for Arctic Food Security

By Kevin Shaw

Abstract Arctic food security is a multisectoral issue affecting human rights and public health in Inuit communities. Although much attention has been given to the pressures and policies that shape food security in the North, less work has been done on food systems infrastructure. This paper examines the role of community infrastructure in Arctic food security by considering three relevant examples: community freezers, greenhouses, and the Arctic Food Network. Together, these case studies demonstrate the potential of community infrastructure to build independent and self-sustaining food systems in the North. Introduction The foundations of food security in security has emerged as a topic of intense Canada’s Arctic are increasingly unstable. concern for the international research For decades, the two pillars of the Arctic food community, regional governments, and for economy—country food and imported food— Arctic communities themselves. Today, a variety have come under pressure from globalization of academic organizations are actively making and climate change. Country food derived from Northern food security a research priority, the traditional harvest has declined as a share including but not limited to the Council of of the diet of Inuit, especially among youth, Canadian Academies, the Association of Polar spurred in part by fears about contamination Early Career Scientists, the McGill Climate Change and the dwindling transfer of hunting practices Adaptation Research Group, ArcticNet, and University of the Arctic, which is set to convene its

(Lougheed,country food 2010). has beenSince displacedthe resettlement by imported of the academic discussion on food security has grown, foodInuit frominto permanentthe South, communitiesincreasing Inuit in therisk ‘50s, for inauguralso too has Northern political Foodmobilization Summit onin 2013.the ground. As the cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and other The UN Special Rapporteur on Food visited

Arctic into a subject of international discussion non-communicableto offset the egregiously diseases high (Duhaime,cost of imported 2008, andCanada controversy. in 2012, making While notfood embraced security in by Canada’s all, the foods,p. 76). Subsidybut communities programs havecontinue been putto strugglein place movement of people around food activism, as response to the urgent public health and human UN official’s call has helped galvanize a diverse inrights meeting problem their posed basic by needs threats (Myers, to food 2008). security, In around food security that has accumulated more Arctic communities have implemented creative exemplified by Feed My Family, a Facebook group adaptations in the built and natural environment. these various initiatives have generated political The purpose of this paper is to investigate the role synergythan 20,000 around online Arctic members. food security, Taken includingtogether, of community infrastructure in strengthening policy options that target the wage economy (e.g. Arctic food security. poverty reduction to increase purchasing power, In the past two decades, Arctic food 59 improved food subsidies) and those that target the subsistence economy (e.g. hunter support health outcomes arising from the widespread transition towards imported, processed food. area that remains understudied, however, is Somewhat ironically, early warnings around communityprograms, commodification infrastructure. A of concluding local foods). report One contamination of country food probably assisted the transition away from country food towards imported foods, especially among younger Inuit frominfrastructure the 2013 Nunavutto provide Food hunters Security with Symposium places tolists store, the prepare,need to share,“[improve] and sellcommunity-based their harvests” The Food and Agriculture Organization (Lougheed, 2010). of how community infrastructure might be (, 2013). This paper takes up the question (FAO)Food Summit:of the “FoodUnited securityNations exists established when alla agriculture alike. definitionpeople, at allfor times, food securityhave physical in the and 1996 economic World improvedHow to thecan benefit food of securitylocal harvesting in Arctic and communities be addressed at a local level through meet their dietary needs and food preferences enhancements in community infrastructure? access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to This chapter explores possible answers to the research question in three case studies that Rapporteurfor an active on and the healthy Right tolife” Food (FAO, in his1996). Country This span the history and geography of the Canadian is the definition employed by the UN Special Arctic: community freezers in Nain, Nunatsiavut, greenhouses in , Nunavik, and the Visit Report (De Schutter, 2012). The FAO’s accessibility,classic definition and of adequacy.food security Availability is expanded is ina Duhaime (2008) to take account of availability, inArctic Nunavut. Food DrawingNetwork from (AFN), these a examples,project being this quantity and quality of available food” (Duhaime, implementedpaper discusses by Lateralthe strengths Office onand Baffin limitations Island function of “supply mechanisms; that is, the of food systems infrastructure. The chapter measure that typically refers to one’s ability to articulates a set of policy options to guide the 2008,“acquire p. 74).supplies Accessibility made available is a socio-economic at markets” development of food security infrastructure in the Arctic, including conducting community needs includes adequacy, both in terms of raw quantity assessments, consolidating emerging knowledge, (Duhaime,and nutritional 2008, quality. p. 74). Acceptability Food security is a fourth also and increasing human capacity to support Arctic measure that is employed in Canada’s Action infrastructure. In sum, this chapter argues that Plan for Food Security (as quoted in Duhaime, community infrastructure has a vital role to play in the cultivation of independent, self-sustaining, referring to the uptake and reception of different 2008:foods inAgriculture a local, cultural and Agri-Food context. Canada, 1998), of the Arctic. Today, the academic literature has and self-sufficient food systems for inhabitants reached a broad consensus on the multiple Background factors driving Arctic food security as well as a Arctic Food Security menu of viable policy options. As a recent article In the past two decades, Arctic food published in BMC Public Health succinctly states, security has grown into a topic of intense lack of food security in the Canadian North “must concern for Inuit communities and academics be understood in the context of socio-economic alike. Contemporary interest in Arctic food transformations that have affected Inuit society over the last half century as former semi-nomadic began to write widely on the country food- hunting groups were resettled into permanent securitysharing practicesbegan in of the the Inuit’80s, (aswhen quoted researchers in Ford, levels of contaminants in country food triggered andsettlements” environmental (Ford, Lardeauchanges & allVanderbilt, contribute 2012, to a2012). series In theof studiesearly ‘90s, on the the discovery health ofimpacts alarming of thep. 1). complex, Political, shifting economic, landscape legal, ofsocio-cultural Arctic food security, and are driven for the most part by climate change and globalization. Meanwhile, persistent organic pollutants (POPs) on human researchers and advocates have assembled a healthimpacts (as arising quoted from in the Ford, consumption 2012). Researchers of country list of prescient policy responses, including the havefood beenwith unablehigh levels to find of concretecontaminants, adverse whereas health revision and increase of social assistance levels they have found increasing evidence of the poor to meet basic costs of living in the North and the

60 Photo by Barry Pottle establishment of a living minimum wage (De the situation is even more severe in Nunavut stressed the importance of policy strengthening 90% higher than in southern Canada, while theSchutter, subsistence 2012, economyp. 20). Researchers through, for have example, also Price discrepancies only increase the further funding hunter support programs and North(Duhaime, one travels.personal Meanwhile, communication, levels of 2013).social assistance, as disbursed through federal transfer payments, family allowances and pension plans, Framingcommoditizing Food Security country in food a Mixed (Duhaime, Economy 2008). A national right to food strategy must take effective stock of the mixed economy remain Neitherinsufficient does to pure cover subsistence basic costs present of living a by implementing policy that supports the sustainable(Duhaime, 2008). model for food security. Prior to the availability of both country food and healthy imported food. To understand why the Arctic land, relying on the availability and proximity food economy contains elements of both of’50s, harvest Canadian species Inuit livedfor nomadicallysubsistence. offWhile the imported food and country food, it is necessary subsistence afforded Inuit direct access to the to examine why neither the free market nor pure land, it also made them particularly vulnerable subsistence present viable standalone models for food security in today’s Arctic. did not support an elderly population and could The free market does not create the notto fluctuations have experienced in wildlife. the Asdemographic nomads, the growth Inuit conditions for sustainable food security in the that occurred after their resettlement. Inuit Arctic. “In very remote regions, the market is culture has changed with the introduction of imported food, and widespread starvation no longer poses the clear and present danger that simplyyou’re runningnot working,” into a wall” says (Duhaime, Duhaime personal(2013). it once did, when Inuit lived in a state of pure “If you cut social programs, social benefits, subsistence. While the country food harvest most food supply chains is belied by the inability remains an integral part of the Inuit diet and ofcommunication, many poor Inuit 2013). to access The apparent store-bought stability foods of cultural discourse, policymakers and advocates due to high prices. In the Canadian Arctic, over alike must recognize that a return to subsistence is neither possible nor desirable.

40% of the population lives below the threshold of poverty. In Nunavik, the cost of food 61is 60- In discourse and in practice, the Arctic freezer initiative in Nain, Nunatsiavut. Second, functions as a mixed economy. Today, not only it considers the development of greenhouses are the subsistence and wage-based1 economies in Kuujjuaq, Nunavik. Third, it analyzes the complementary, they mutually depend on each other for continued existence. Most Inuit households participate in both subsistence together,Arctic Food these Network three case(AFN), studies a project span beingboth and wage-earning to varying degrees, with the theimplemented history and on Baffinthe geography Island in Nunavut.of the Eastern Taken earnings from wage employment continually Canadian Arctic. Community freezers, as reinvested in equipment needed for harvesting traditional infrastructure, point to a long legacy of is unique to the Arctic, where geographical exemplify the present push among Arctic countryremoteness food impedes (Natcher, market 2009). function This relationship and where Arctic food systems infrastructure; greenhouses globalization and demographic growth have AFN suggests how food systems infrastructure increased the costs of the country food harvest. cancommunities move forward for towardsbuilding greater infrastructure; integration and of Inuit tradition and modern circumstance. While Food Systems Infrastructure these initiatives by no means constitute the only relevant examples of food systems infrastructure infrastructure has been contested by experts in the North, they provide the bases on which an in architecture, While theurbanism, precise and definitionplanning, theof food economy can be built. as a system of public works and the resources independent, self-sustaining, and self-sufficient necessarybasic definition for some of infrastructureactivity (Merriam-Webster, describes it Community Freezers Community freezers, or kuakuvik in capital and a public good. This paper adopts Inuktitut, are a mechanism for food sharing and 2013). Infrastructure constitutes both physical storage in Arctic settlements. In many ways, community infrastructure is built environment community freezers represent the prototypical thethat communityprovides a as public its frame service of reference;to community thus, example of community infrastructure supporting members. Moreover, White and Sheppard Northern food security. For centuries, ice cellars argue that “infrastructure is ecology” (White & dug into the permafrost provided a means of storing harvested meat through the off-season. These naturally chilled cellars still remain in use Sheppard,emergent ways2011), of whileunderstanding Yu says that infrastructure “nature is by Inupiat in Alaska, although climate change oninfrastructure” the discourse (Yu, surrounding 2012). The impactArctic ofsecurity these and unusual weather events in the past decade will be discussed later on in the chapter. This have rendered many of them unviable in the summer, increasing risk for food borne illness following: public architecture that supports the production,paper defines distribution, food systems access infrastructure and consumption as the community freezers utilizing freon cooler of food in Arctic communities. in the population (Brubaker, 2009). Modern

Three Case Studies in Food Systems technology emerged in Nunavik in the 1970s and Infrastructure infrom the issuesNorthwest relating Territories to wear in theand 1980s maintenance (Organ, This paper presents three examples of 2012, p. 6). In recent times, they have suffered community infrastructure intervening in Arctic allowed their community freezers to lapse out of food security. First, it examines community operation,(Ridlington, while 2010). others Some are activelycommunities reinvesting have freezers, which have been used for decades in into community freezer initiatives, as in Nunavut Inuit communities to store harvested meat for the off-season, focusing especially on the community of community freezer initiatives draws heavily from(Organ, a case 2012, study p. conducted6). This chapter’s in the settlement discussion of Nain, Nunatsiavut by Jennifer Organ. economy of the Inuit is not merely an economy — a trade1 According negotiated to David by hunters, Natcher, municipal the subsistence governments, From the perspective of cost and and community members who purchase game for sustainability, community freezers constitute a consumption — but a social economy, a system of sizable but arguably necessary investment. In the activities and symbols that provide meaning and past, hamlet administrations have experienced occupy a central place in the Inuit sense of self

difficulty62 in keeping up with costs of freezer (Natcher, 2009). maintenance and energy for refrigeration. In traditions of food sharing typically operate. In a study conducted of four communities in the particular, the community freezer in Nain was settlement region, only one community bought because community members noticed freezer remained operational, while another was had in obtaining country food through existing Nain study, the community freezer was purchased the difficulty that Elders and single mothers in construction (Douglas &, Chan, 2012). In the raised the initial capital investment themselves. traditionsocial and of economic food sharing networks to the (Organ,most vulnerable 2012, p. Meanwhile,in 2005 by a thecommunity government volunteer covers group, costs which for and12). sociallyCommunity isolated freezers members thus of extend a settlement the Inuit by energy and space and designated hunters donate and promoting traditional food use” (Douglas & Despite high energy costs, community freezers “formalising and normalising [sic] food sharing apresent portion one of methodtheir catch of collectivizing(Organ, 2012, the p. cost12). Community freezers have received of energy related to refrigeration, which would widespreadChan, 2012). support in different Inuit otherwise be borne completely by households using individual freezers. Meanwhile, the Inuvialuit study found that 2community freezers communitiespresent a long-term across thesolution Arctic to(Organ, Arctic 2012;food play an important function in the protection of Douglassecurity, &they Chan, present 2012). vulnerable While they settlement do not cultural food security, a subset of food security members with a coping strategy in situations of that centers on accessibility and availability last resort and extend access to country food to the whole village population, at least in theory. this view, community freezers are a crucial Taken alone, they are never “enough.” Yet they ofinvestment country foodsin the (Douglas long-term & sustainabilityChan, 2012). Inof play an integral function in Arctic food security Arctic food systems. As Arctic integration into by concretizing Inuit sharing traditions in the the wage economy continues apace, it likely that built environment. As the prototypical example increasingly few Inuit will have direct access of community infrastructure for Arctic food to the land. For those without a hunter in their security, community freezers demonstrate household or family, community freezers may the feasibility and importance of food systems constitute their only option for accessing country infrastructure. food. In terms of culture and tradition, Arctic Greenhouses community freezers are vital infrastructure Arctic greenhouses are essentially for food sharing. Food sharing amongst Inuit infrastructure to support the local production typically occurs within immediate and extended of fresh fruits and vegetables in Arctic communities. They are readily scaled to suit people can and do share outside these networks, different levels of use, such as: individual familythere is networkslittle guarantee (Collings, of this 2011). happening Although in a backyard plots, community gardens that operate climate of relative scarcity. Organ’s study found during the summer with volunteer assistance, that those without extended family were often and commercial-scale operations that operate year-round and require heating inputs during the winter. In the Eastern Arctic, commercial- ofthe sharing,” first to formalizedaccess the incommunity the structure freezer of thein scale greenhouses could easily and successfully Nainfreezer, (Organ, includes 2012, those p. 87).who The normally “community lack employ hydroponic and aquaponic technology. access to the kin networks through which Inuit Greenhouses can be easily coupled with other structures and security domains, including schools and youth security, power plants and inputs of energy to maintain, but there are ongoing energy security, and homes and housing security. 2 Community freezers currently require significant projects that revamp community freezers to bring Because of the wealth of sunlight afforded by them into line with ecological and adaptive design Arctic summers, the quality of produce that can principles. As has been mentioned, the ice cellar relies completely on the ambient temperature of be grown in Northern greenhouses easily rivals anything grown in the South (Avard, personal Ecologically minded innovators in Vermont have takenpermafrost steps fortowards its cooling designing effect and (Brubaker, constructing 2009). greenhouse initiatives are in operation in , community freezers inspired by the Inuit example Iqaluit,communication, and several 2013). other Promising northern settlementscommunity

63 (PRWeb, 2010). comports with Inuit culture and food traditions. movement is gaining momentum in Kuujjuaq, In envisioning the role of greenhouses, it is a(Avard, Nunavik 2011, settlement p. 11). In whereparticular, Ellen the Avard, greenhouse a PhD important to keep in mind that the majority of candidate at Laval University, has focused her caloric intake in the North already comes from thesis research. imported foods. Country food only accounts for A major question that skeptics have raised is the feasibility of proposed greenhouse projects. As the emerging literature has shown, approximately 20% of the average caloric intake however, Arctic greenhouses have been of Inuit, with approximately 80% accounted for technologically feasible for decades, dating as far bypartly imported because foods imported (Duhaime, produce 2008). tends Many to beof back as the Canadian government’s experiments these imported foods are nutritionally deficient, the role of greenhouses in creating local food cannotlow in bequality understated. (Duhaime, Prior 2008). to contact, Moreover, Inuit throughoutwith Northern the agricultureArctic, including in the one 1950s. in Kuujjuaq At the lived off the land, harvesting what was available time, the government established five substations from the herds, rivers, and plants within their when funding abruptly ended (Avard, personal localities. When placed within this historical , which remained functional until the ‘60s, context, greenhouse initiatives harmonize well projects have sprouted up across the Arctic with the Inuit tradition of maintaining and sporadically,communication, typically 2013). functioningSince then, greenhousefor several years until funding runs out, the community loses Arctic greenhouses, as they are understood by interest, or key personnel are transferred. What scholarscultivating and a localby Inuitfood advocates,ecology (Avard, represent 2011). a is clear enough is that the pertinent issues are way of reclaiming ownership over Arctic food funding and political will rather than technical systems and asserting control over the means of feasibility. The technology behind installing food production. Greenhouses also present the hydroponics and aquaponics is well-understood opportunity to grow herbs and healing medicines and readily available. Passive solar greenhouses operate during the 3 sun-rich Arctic summer. There is considerable support for During the winter they can lie fallow or operate greenhousesunique to the comingNorthern from context the (Sanofsky,community 2012). level through heat inputs. Commercial greenhouses in Arctic settlements, from research institutions, could operate year-round requiring heating and from regional governments. Inuit have inputs during winter, but could potentially be readily taken to the inclusion of lettuce, potato, coupled with local power plants to utilize waste and onion in their diets, for example including heat energy that is otherwise squandered (Avard, potatoes and onions in the preparation of caribou

4 Newcomers to the idea of Arctic greenhouses2011). may question whether the stewconvened (Avard, a workshoppersonal communication, on sustainable 2013).northern In installation of agricultural infrastructure thegreenhouses fall of 2012, that the Universityreceived ofa Saskatchewangreater-than- expected turnout. In addition, greenhouses economically feasible option for any future type of commercial3 Hydroponic greenhouse technology operation would be in the the most Eastern the development of Northern Québec. Arctic Arctic. This is because the tree line is further south in havegreenhouse garnered initiatives significant are mentionsincluded in in Plan plans Nord for the Eastern than in the Western Arctic and, as such, and in Plan Nunavik, in which they are listed nutrient-rich, arable soil is harder to access. alongside seaweed aquaculture and mussel cultivation under infrastructure-related pilot projects. While current cost projections indicate Kuujjuaq is political: power plant management is that growing food in greenhouses will not hesitant4 One reason to allow why the this construction has not happened of community yet in necessarily save on costs relative to importing greenhouses close to their premises, since there produce, it must be emphasized that greenhouse exists the potential of complications involving produce vastly outmatches imported produce in community volunteers and children. However, terms of quality. Produce that is imported from commercial greenhouses that were constructed this difficulty could be resolved if it were only by the time it reaches Northern shelves (Avard, type of case, processes would be more formal as the the South routinely loses mass (and/or quality) onlyin close people proximity typically to theon-site diesel would generators; be trained in this staff food locally would reduce post-harvest losses personal communication, 2013). Growing 64 (Avard, personal communication, 2013). Photo by Henry Kudluk due to transportation. Moreover, greenhouses The project is funded by a partnership between operating at a commercial scale add jobs and municipal government and local cooperatives, revenue to the community. Local restaurants and empowering local residents through the food stores in Kuujjuaq have already expressed a readiness to purchase greenhouse-grown infrastructure provides the basis for an export produce. Clearly, greenhouses have a major role processeconomy ofof countryparticipation foods that(White, has the2012). potential AFN to play in the cultivation of independent, local, to reach southern consumers, among them and self-sustaining food systems in the Arctic. urban Inuit who lack reliable access to country foods. AFN is deployed as a kit of parts ready Arctic Food Network (AFN) for assembly by local Inuit using local materials. For instance, the project utilizes reclaimed wood social-architectural project in development from demolition projects in Nunavut. The project The Arctic Food Network (AFN) is a makes use of both rock and snow/ice, two of the regional network of shelters that spans the most abundant natural resources in the North, by Lateral Office in Nunavut. It consists of a implementing snow walls, water troughs, and traversable by snowmobile. Shelters can serve a copper shingles that can resist extreme hot and varietytraditional of purposes, hunting fromtrails overnight of Baffin stay toIsland, food storage and preparation. AFN structures differ Beyond supporting harvesting, AFN depending on their environment and whether strengthenscold temperatures transportation (White, 2012). infrastructure they are situated on solid land, over open water, between Arctic communities. Organ found or a combination of both. Besides supporting the that “anxiety and unsafe travel conditions” led harvest of country food through land hunting and some users of community freezers to opt out of harvesting activities. Concern about the safety of cultivating seaweed crops and basic aquaculture snowmobile trail networks can discourage people asice well fishing, as ecosystem AFN also providesmonitoring. infrastructure It has received for from accessing the land. AFN builds on existing considerable attention within the last two snowmobile trails used by Inuit, increasing their safety and adaptability for use by hunters. Perhaps for sustainable design and then receiving the the improved land transportation offered by AFN years, first winning the Holcim Award (2011) also increases the potential for an inter-Arctic to Arctic knowledge. The purposes of AFN are market for greenhouse produce. The inclusion of multiple:Arctic Inspiration to establish Prize greater (2012) mobility for contributions between infrastructure for data and internet access helps to “bridge between the traditions of the Inuit and the expectations of the young generation” thetraditional various hunting Inuit settlements; practices, especiallyto enable amongbetter distribution of country foods; to reinforce shelters can also function as bases for ecological (Holcim,monitoring. 2012). By couplingWith data infrastructureconnectivity, AFNfor younger AFN Inuit; is anddesigned to build to the be foundationssustainable ofboth an food systems with infrastructure for online inindependent, terms of cost self-sufficient and local environmental food economy. impact. data connection, youth integration and wildlife 65 management, AFN maximizes on the potential blank slate. Rather, the natural environment of the built environment to intervene in multiple provides for basic needs and should itself be domains of human security. Three pilot sites are considered infrastructure for life and food. This currently being developed in collaboration with understanding of infrastructure harmonizes well Nunavut’s Department of Culture, Language, with Inuit traditions derived from subsistence. Unfortunately, the history of infrastructure in the Canadian North has been mainly one of DiscussionElders, and Youth (White, 2012). short-term development perpetuating sovereign Community infrastructure can intervene control, colonial enterprise, and top-down within the dual food economy by supporting both economic development (Sheppard & White, harvesting and northern agriculture. Community freezers can make country food available North have historically focused on connecting to those who lack direct access to a hunter, 2011).Arctic settlementsSouthern infrastructure to the southern projects military- in the including full-time workers, widows, and the economic complex, leaving the Arctic dotted elderly. Greenhouse infrastructure introduces with unused ‘legacy infrastructure.’ What about alternative sources of healthy and nutritious infrastructure that connects Arctic communities foods, independent of food imports and country to themselves and each other? What about food harvests, and presents opportunities for infrastructure derived from and in harmony with education, wage employment, and social re- Inuit culture that meets contemporary challenges integration within the community. Infrastructure of globalization and climate change? The model of infrastructure embodied by the three case such as the Arctic Food Network, can enable studies proposes to increase independence, greaterthat makes part-time harvesting participation more flexible in andhunting, feasible, as well as engage youth in traditional knowledge systems and communities. transfer. At scale, greenhouses and the Arctic self-sufficiency, and sustainability in Arctic food Food Network will create micro-economies that Policy Options generate jobs, revenue, and regional networks Conduct baseline needs assessments using of exchange to enhance both economic and food PhotoVoice in each Arctic community security. As the examples show, community to ascertain community opinions and infrastructure can intervene in multiple security demands, particularly around food security domains by coupling built infrastructure with and infrastructure. the surrounding ecology. One of the great merits of community infrastructure is its ability to reach the most vulnerable members of the population in a patternedCreate a certificate after the programPrairie Horticulture for Northern targeted manner. Community freezers are often food production that can be fulfilled online, built with the most vulnerable in mind, including Certificate (PHC) offered by the University ofConsolidate emerging (Tanino, knowledge 2012). in the provideelders and a crucial single meansmothers of (Organ,physical 2012, activity p. 12;for theConnors, elderly, 2012). while Communityaddressing thegreenhouses food security can online resource that features crowd- problem posed by lack of direct access to country sourcingfield of Arctic and user-ledgreenhouses content in an (Avard, accessible food. The Arctic Food Network reaches youth who might otherwise be estranged from Inuit culture, makes the harvest more feasible, increases the personal communication, 2013). safety of land transportation networks, and maintaining of Northern greenhouses and widens access to country foods. communityIncrease human freezers, capacity which for entails staffing creating and By positing “infrastructure as ecology” delegated position. Integrate these duties and “nature as infrastructure,” emergent to create a position in each land-holding urbanisms are eminently relevant to Arctic organization and ethnic organization dedicated to monitoring and maintaining food systems infrastructure. development (Sheppard & White, 2011; Yu, perceptions2012). Viewing of thethe Arcticnatural asenvironment an uninhabited as a Establish dedicated federal and regional “security pattern” (Yu, 2012) resists popular 66 funding streams for food systems as time goes on. Without systemic policy change infrastructure in the Arctic. for poverty reduction, conditions are unlikely to improve. Conclusion Community infrastructure must be seen This paper’s title underscores the major as one tool in the arsenal of bottom-up and role that globalization has played in Northern community-based approaches to improving food security, both as an undermining pressure food security. Food systems infrastructure, and a source of new solutions. The phrase when implemented on a commercial scale, can “pomegranates in the North” is inclusive of become self-sustaining and revenue-generating. globalization and the importation of Southern This applies to both greenhouses and the Arctic foods to a Northern context. The “pomegranates” Food Network. If the push to build a commercial of the title also point to the possibility that greenhouse in Kuujjuaq succeeds, it will be a infrastructural and architectural practices that source of jobs as well as fresh, local produce that originate in the South can be “imported” to can be sold to other Arctic communities. With phrase “muktuk in the South” references the export economy for country food, hence the possibilitybenefit Northern of a more food security.robust export Meanwhile, economy the inclusionAFN, Lateral of facilitiesOffice hopes for smoking to enable meat, a functioning likely to

Northern hunters as well as urban Inuit who food harvested through the AFN can be marketed havefor country historically foods, lacked which access would to benefita land bothdiet. tofit urbanSouthern Inuit, tastes. who oftenIn addition, lack reliable excess access country to The “muktuk” of the title also suggests that infrastructural innovations incubated in the demonstrate that strong and functional food North can be adapted to improve food security systemscountry foodsinfrastructure (Pottle, 2013).in the These Arctic examples should at a global level. This has already happened with be seen as essential to a national right to food community freezers, which have been adapted strategy that prioritizes poverty reduction. by green technology innovators in Vermont Acknowledgements advent of Arctic greenhouses can push the local It is necessary to acknowledge the many tofood utilize movement cold outside forward air (PRWeb,by demonstrating 2010). The wonderful people that the Arctic security task that it is possible to have independent, self- force met in its research trip to Québec City and Ottawa. Among them, Barry Pottle, Donat Savoie, of relative scarcity. Meanwhile, AFN stretches Jean-Francois Arteau, and Leanna Ellsworth thesufficient boundaries food economies of architecture even in and environments urbanism all contributed substantially to this report’s through its development of an ecological concept understanding of food security and public health of infrastructure. in the Arctic. In addition, this report would have Community infrastructure must be seen turned out very differently but for the candid as one node within a larger, holistic national insights of Gérard Duhaime and Ellen Avard, who right to food strategy. Perhaps most centrally, it agreed to do phone interviews with the author. must accompany broader policy efforts at the Their passion, knowledge, and experience are federal and regional levels to combat poverty woven into the fabric of this chapter. Thank you and increase food purchasing power through also to our professors, Nadine Fabbi and Joël poverty reduction. Adjusting current levels of Plouffe, as well as the governments of Québec social assistance to meet basic cost of living and Ottawa for sponsoring our trip. Lastly, thank you to Barry Pottle and Henry Kudluk for the use political conditions in Canada render this of your images in this policy report. unlikely.would be Demographic an important trends first towardsstep, but a currentrapidly expanding youth population mean that current subsidy programs are unsustainable in the long run. Notwithstanding independent critiques of Nutrition North, the sheer fact of the North’s propulsive growth means that existing levels of

Kevin Shaw is a fourth-year student focusing on international studies and global health. Upon foodgraduation, subsidy he will hopes become to work less in and the less intersection sufficient of built environment, design, and public health. 67 Chapter 7

Urban Inuit: An Issue of Human Rights Depri- vation

By Hannah Dolph

Abstract Forced Migration is not a foreign concept within the Arctic region. Relocation of Inuit com- munities in the 1950s and 1960s led to multigenerational trauma resulting from cultural and societal disconnect. Government-executed permanent resettlement has contributed to over- crowding in inadequate housing and a population of Inuit “hidden homeless”. Subsequently, this emplacement has rendered Canadian Inuit Internally Displaced Peoples (IDP) in their territories. In addition, emplacement has caused some to search for economic prosperity, refuge, or education in urban centers, often resulting in a compounded lack of opportuni- ty for upward mobility. This paper argues that as multiple international bodies of law rec- ognize that Inuit are deprived of basic human rights, the Canadian government must act. Introduction It is not only the environment that sculpts housing, Inuit are often forced into overcrowded houses (National Aboriginal Health Organization, socio-economic challenges also contribute to thesethe Arctic changes. region Inuit as tundracontinue of transformation;to assert their decreasing housing availability leaves Inuit rights to postcolonial control over themselves 2008). Rapidly growing populations along with through personal development, community combat this ever-alarming situation (Knotsch empowerment and political mobilization. In leaders and government officials struggling to exchange for relinquishing their Aboriginal ties mobility in their homeland, Inuit are forced to to land and resources, Inuit received reparation &migrate Kinnon, into 2011). urban centers.When left In lightwithout of increasing upward payments, reestablished and outlined their homelessness, it is crucial that policies and rights, and established their own territory and dialogues on the international, federal, territorial, functioning self-government beginning with provincial, and community levels acknowledge the negotiation and signing of the James Bay Inuit homelessness as it hampers community capacity to be resilient. Hence, it is important to Concurrent with this political mobilization is frame homelessness as a human rights issue. andthe growingNorthern housing Quebec crisis. Agreement Homelessness (JBNQA). is a In the Canadian Arctic, forced migration lingering result of social upheaval from forced has been interwoven into the history of indigenous emplacement. populations. Oral trajectories of Inuit identity Paternalism has caused homelessness, and culture now encompass the colonialism a concept that depicts being without a place experienced in the pass half-century. After World of permanence, automatically connoting an War II, the installation of an American military individual inability to construct a consistent life base in the Arctic generated a scramble for the and where day-to-day activities are a constant Canadian government to assert itself for fear of struggle. In the Arctic region this phenomenon lost sovereignty in the north. Government-forced is referred to as “hidden homelessness”. This settlement and installment of a welfare system vulnerable population is a direct result of resulted in a direct manifestation of dependency inadequate housing and lack of infrastructure. that left many Inuit dislocated from culture and tradition. Inuit way of life was compounded, 68 Due to weather extremes and insufficient contributing to negative impacts on self-reliance The community of Kinngait, Nunavut, is and well-being. Today, Inuit socio-economic one of the most alarming case studies of hidden duress from resettlement continues by way of homelessness and its impact on human health. Tester, the report preparer for Iglutaq, states that approximately forty-seven percent of the Impactsinadequate of housing,colonialism food prevail security, and insufficient leave Inuit job homes in Kinngait are overcrowded (Tester, opportunities, and deficient means of education. inadequate housing design, age of dwelling and Nationscommunities High unable Commissioner to fix these problems.for Refugees 2006). Respondents of the survey answered that Given the definition from the United needed a different or better home. Respondents indicatedovercrowding that overcrowdingas significant wasreasons a contributing why they (UNHCR),interpretation, homeless I argue Inuit that areCanada classified needs asto factor to physical ailments including: colds, addressInternally its Displaced human rights Peoples issues (IDPs). of homelessness Using this in the Arctic. This essay aims to illustrate the ninety-one people interviewed reported having depth of homelessness and its negative effects coughs, flu, insomnia, and stress. Five of the on Northern communities. Then, this paper will human health impacts are not the only outcome discuss forced migration and its cyclical effect tuberculosisof homelessness. (TB)(Tester, 2006). However, along with homelessness. Finally, I will argue why Canada must take initiative to alleviate these Poverty as a Response of Multigenerational socio-economic issues. Trauma Homelessness is both a cause and Hidden Homelessness It is crucial that policies and dialogues perpetuating social issue that needs to be on the international, federal, territorial, addressedsymptom ofby overcrowding; building regional this is capacity.a self- provincial, and community levels acknowledge Under social and cultural duress, colonialism Inuit homelessness as it hampers community continues. After colonialism, housing in Arctic capacity to be resilient and challenges assurance Canada became subsidized, yet today housing of human rights protection. Determinants and consequences of homelessness are often exacerbates social issues, thus forming a cyclical remains insufficient and lacking. Overcrowding nature. Therefore, it is important to view the in depicting two boys sleeping interdependencedifficult to distinguish between because the impacts of their of cyclicalhidden onsystem. the streetsOn August of 2009,Iqaluit, an Nunavut article was (Paperny published & homelessness and factors that make it forced migration. effects of the housing crisis on Inuit youth. CarolineMinogue, Anawak 2009). commented:This article exemplifies the Health “These young kids, you see them walking From Cathleen Knotsch and Dianne around at midnight, you see them Kinnon’s report addressing the Inuit housing breaking into cars, you see them stealing crisis, many health experts maintain that food. … All of that is symptomatic of a inadequate housing can be an associated great number of people who’ve been left behind in that ugly grinding reality of demonstrates the linkages between overcrowding poverty, of disconnection from services, causeand reduced of health ventilation problems. in Inuit Significant housing withevidence high of family dysfunction at home and rates of respiratory tract infections (pneumonia nowhere to go and ‘Who cares where I am?’” orCanada bronchiolitis) Mortgage and and hospitalizations Housing Corporation, of Inuit This article depicts the inherited trauma that infants and children (Banerji et al., 2001, & 2009; Inuit youth face since colonization by the Canadian government. On the one hand they 2005;Studies Karron, show thatsingleton, indoor & carbon Bulkow, dioxide 1999; Kochfrom confront a bleak future with hardly any prospects etcigarettes al., 2003; and Kovesi the ethigh al., 2006,rates 2007,of permanent & 2009). of upward economic mobility, due to lack of chronic lung disease among Inuit infants and education and employment opportunities. On the young children are correlated (Knotsch & Kinnon, and traditions, and often become stuck in a other, they must juggle the conflicting cultures 2011; Kovesi et al., 2007). 69 standstill of historical multigenerational trauma recognition by the government. Inuit population and abuse. In fact, a report prepared for the in urban centers has grown. “Most Inuit live in Working Group for a Nunavut Suicide Prevention Inuit Nunaat, a growing percentage lives in other parts of Canada, and in particular, southern urban the primary cause of the exceedingly high suicide centres.” The urban centers with the highest Strategy (2007) identified cultural dislocation as population of Inuit are Ottawa, , and strugglesrates in Nunavut that are (Haghebaert,a result of multigenerational 2007). Hidden More Inuit will head south if social conditions trauma.homelessness Overcrowding intensifies familyis both and a communities cause and Yellowknifein the North as do of not 2006 improve, (Statistics predicts Canada, Kishigami 2006). symptomatic of social dislocation. The Canadian government is aware of In Kishigami’s paper, “Homeless Inuit in the human rights atrocities occurring in the ”,(George, 2009). he depicts the struggles of urban living Arctic. In issuing apologies for Inuit resettlement for the homeless Inuit. City life is disillusioning and dog slaughter, the Canadian government because in seeking some forms of success, urban acknowledges the social duress forced migration Inuit often experience another form of social had on Inuit communities (Aboriginal Affairs and and cultural disconnect. Cities are physically unrecognizable- there can be almost no Furthermore, Stephen Harper, P.M., commented connection made with the land. Social customs Northernon the Developmentcontroversial Canadaphotos [AANDC], of Nunavut’s 2010.) are completely different. In addition to these homeless that had some people acknowledging severed ties of tradition, there is no longer a the crisis and some people speculating the stigma around it. “As you go to more northern Family relations are commonly weakened when and isolated communities, we know historically therestrong is support migration system from in place the Arctic(Kishigami, community 2008). and presently these kinds of problems are more When Inuit migrate from a remote state, and as such has the responsibility to take (Kishigami,community 2008). to a southern city, the culture acute.”preventative (CBC andNews, curative 2009). action. Canada is a welfare shock can be overwhelming – from the Inuit are forced to migrate into urban pace of life, to service bureaucracies, and centers of the south because of the dire situation language barriers. Newcomers to urban centres are often unaware of or unable hidden homelessness “forced migration”, the to access the resources available to them, ingovernment Northern ofcommunities. Canada is required In officially to act labeling against such as childcare, healthcare, provincial overcrowding and homelessness within its health insurance, and housing (National borders. As an enforcer of the UDHR, the UNHCR brings notoriety to human rights violations. Within Inuit communities, the right to an adequate Aboriginal Health Organization, 2012) living standard as provided through necessary culturalOften times, insolvency. Inuit flee Northern communities This right, outlined in the UDHR, implies that the only to find a continuation of socioeconomic and housinggovernment is not plays being a respectedrole in providing (UDHR, art.adequate 25(1). Homelessness persists in urban centers. shelter to its citizens. Whether that is in the form of increasing economic opportunity, or providing means of protection against natural disasters. “Inuitpercent represent of homeless 10 percentaboriginal of thepeople aboriginal in the Governments are obliged to make housing population in Montreal, but they count for 45 accessible. overcrowded. Unemployment and drug abuse addcity” (Savoie,to these 2012). stresses Urban (National Inuit homes Inuit are Health often Forced Urban Migration The UN Report on Internal Displacement have also contribute to Aboriginal homelessness, Organization,and research 2008). in Winnipeg Racism and and discrimination Thompson, individuals who have been forced to leave their for example, statistically demonstrates defineshomes orinternally places ofdisplaced origin topeople avoid as the groups effects of discrimination against Aboriginal people in of human rights violations and who have not the housing rental market (Corrado Research crossed internationally recognized state borders. This forced migration of IDPs to the south calls for homelessness within urban centers needs to be and Evaluation Associates Inc., 2003). This 70 recognized as a result of forced migration. is predominantly emergency response, lacking an effective national plan that would provide Urgency of Action for more cost effective alternatives such as Without effective action against hidden homelessness, Canada could face many consequences. Credibility as a world power supportive and transitional housing ($13,000- player would be threatened under scrutiny of institutional$15,000) and responsesaffordable suchhousing as forhospitals, single the international humanitarian community. families ($5,000-$8,000) in comparison to Economic prosperity is disadvantaged because lack of community resilience and government detentions, and prisons ($66,000)-$22,000) dependency is rampant in Inuit communities. (National Homelessness Initiative 2006; Focus Furthermore, as the Canadian government gains Consultingthat provide 2005).a network Homelessness of different servicesalso has that a Chairmanship of the Arctic Council, scrutiny significantinclude, shelters, economic food impact and clothing on urban banks, centers and from the humanitarian, and private sector will mental health and substance abuse treatment focus on the contradiction between resource development for the people of the Arctic region and the human capital development that is characterizecenters (Homelessness many community Partnering food Secretariat; program nonexistent and leaves Inuit in the hidden Government of Canada 2008). Hidden homeless homeless bracket or forced to migrate to urban centers. It is challenging to bolster economic Canadians(CFP) users are (Fordcostly, &preventative Lardeau &measures Vanderbilt, are prosperity, when basic human rights remain investments2012). Government for the future.initiatives to help homeless unmet. Paternalism in the Arctic has caused human Regional Initiatives Addressing Crisis1 rights violations and vulnerable populations of In this section, we will focus on regional IDPs to suffer. It is interesting to note that while initiatives from Nunavik and Nunavut that the UNHCR was being implemented on December address housing and homeless issues directly. In doing so, we are able to bridge gaps in Canadian of those individuals who were displaced during government initiatives. This does not represent 14,World 1950 War to II,help Canada support was and using protect displacement the rights that these regional development plans are as a tool to establish sovereignty in the Arctic. “models” to follow for the Canadian government, Currently, thousands of displaced Iraqi and but there are aspects of each that can be pulled to Iranian refugees will be relocated from Turkey coming from Canada. Without federal funding have been resettled in Canada, according to andfurther support, efficient these and initiatives effective will combat fail. In strategies addition, Citizenshipto Canada. Soand far, Immigration about 12,000 Canada. Iraqi refugees In all, some initiatives are nonexistent because there is a lack of federal help. As forced migration year through cooperation with the UNHCR (Press, is symptomatic of paternalism in the Arctic, Canada will accept about 14,500 refugees next Canada needs to confront the issue of hidden displaced individuals, but in using this example homelessness as a partner to Inuit regional and 2013).of displacement Not to discredit acknowledgment, the recognition we seeof these that municipal governments of the Arctic. Canada has an obligation to also help protect IDPs in its region. Already the UN has conveyed Nunavut concern about “Canada’s lack of progress on homelessness and poverty that it asked the Corporation was established to create, Canadian government to report annually, instead administer, In and2000, coordinate the housingNunavut programs, Housing to hidden homelessness as “forced migration”, of providing availability to affordable housing ofCanadian every fourgovernment years”(Laird, action 2007).is crucial. In framing optionsrender the to Government individuals of and Nunavut families. (GN) capableHuman Additionally, the hidden homeless and capital development in regards to housing is the forced migration dependency is costly. One study

first goal of this corporation (Nunavut Housing found that in 2001, the annual public cost of understanding on current regional initiatives homelessness was estimated to be $30,000 to 1 Additional research can be done to develop $40,000 per person annually (Eberle, Margaret et homeless crisis in Inuvialuit and Nunatsiavut al. 2001). Federal action to combat homelessness responding71 to housing insufficiencies and the hidden needs are offered few services and little support had sheltered temporary residents over the that would enable them to lead independent, Corporation).course of a year Thirty-two in Nunavut. percent Without of households a doubt, these hidden homeless Nunavummiut contribute withoutdignified gaps,lives” there (Igluliuqatigiilauqta, is further guidance October, for taunts the region (Igluliuqatigiilauqta, October, development2012). In creating within communities.an imagined The continuum objective significantly to the overcrowding problem that of instilling self-reliance is to reduce reliance In order to curb the social distresses on heavily subsidized houses. Economic caused2012). by overcrowding and homelessness, the independence, market choice, and mobility must Igluliuqatigiilauqta report suggests that more be goals of the Action Plan (Igluliuqatigiilauqta, houses be built. A long- term comprehensive strategy is required to address homelessness and the lack of housing. The framework for the NunavikOctober 2012). By attempting to meet the basic needs lack of housing is as follows: of Inuit vulnerable to homelessness, one of GN long-term strategy to fight homelessness and Makivik’s most important objective is to prevent homelessness altogether. In providing adequate 1) increase Nunavut’s housing stock; housing for Inuit men, women, and children, 2) improve collaboration within government and adequate income and integration efforts, and andwith external stakeholders; 3) identify gaps in Nunavut’s housing continuum; helps Inuit adjusting to urban life. Makivik attemptsprovision to of establish sufficient social support and cultural services, networks, Makivik 4) instill self-reliance to reduce dependence on promotes healthy lifestyles, and addresses the governmentThe comprehensive (Igluliuqatigiilauqta, and collaborative October approach 2012). availability of country food and services for the that the Nunavut Housing Corporation proposes children within urban settings. These initiatives will provide the government with a guide to advocate for a complete and rounded approach address the housing crisis. against poverty in Nunavik. To increase Nunavut housing stock, To continue the strategy and action plan on Inuit homelessness, Makivik is attempting contributed through partnership with the federal to further protection of Inuit men, women, and government,it is essential Inuit that partners, financial other investment governments, be children in Montreal by working with Inuit NGOs and the private sector. In order to establish organizations and groups that help provide a realistic response to the housing crisis, there social services in the urban center. A partnership is urgency for understanding demands of Nunavummiut. The report proposes this be between the Makivik Corporation president, done through interdepartmental collaboration Jobieagreement Tukkiapik, was andsigned Joey on Saganash, October Chairman4, 2012 of the Board of Directors of Projets Autochtones with improved service delivery and reallocation ofwithin existing the governmentresources where to find most solutions, needed. along This installment and funding of Projets Autochtones collaboration can be furthered with dialogue Québec,Québec (PAQ).a shelter This for agreementAboriginals supports in Montreal the among Inuit organizations and NGOs that convey information received from the grassroot level. Plan Nunavik set housing and the The “housing continuum” this report high(Makivik cost Corporation, of living as 2012). one of the main issues is referring to is a range and diversity of housing options. Some housing situations Nunavimmut are entitled to the same quality of are more conducive to particular income lifeto beand addressed level of services by Québec as other within Quebecers. five years. In levels. In increasing the variety of housing building off of plan Nunavik, Parnasimautik is options available, it is easier to transition with an opportunity for all Nunavimmiut to examine differentiation of income. In Nunavut, there every facet of their lives and propose a sustainable are gaps in the continuum. “The continuum is model of development acceptable to everyone incomplete, resulting in public housing acting as a catch-all: those whose income would support a the gap of consultation that was overarching move up from public housing are stuck for a lack (Parnasimautik,in both Plan Nord 2013). and This Plan is a Nunavik.way to bridge “The consultations will give elected representatives, of affordable options, and those with72 specific local organizations and residents an opportunity and broad continuum housing that entices to discuss the challenges of development” adaption to new more conducive life-styles. Providing self-sustainability practices, as ownership and renting will be more suited to (Parnasimautik, 2012). diverse income levels. Plan Nord pressed for at least 500 new •• Inuit consulting needs to be integrated dwellinghousing units coveredto be built by a over tripartite a period agreement. of five into policies and initiatives that push for Furthermore,years in Nunavik talks (2011-2016), are under way in withaddition the federal to 340 housing development. Unlike Plan Nord, this will equate factors like local municipality needs that are crucial to development Nunavikgovernment was and in strongthe Inuit opposition partners toto buildthis plan500 becauseadditional it housinglacked consultation units (Plan Nord,with the2012). region’s Plan overcrowded populations would really like peoples. Furthermore, skepticism of Plan Nord’s toplanning. see, respect With consultationfor development to define plans what and housing development program grew through housing construction will be subsequent. the absence of money and resource delegation. This could be modeled after Quebec’s Communities could not supply the municipal Housing Corporation philosophy, “our land, our village, our pride.” remained unacknowledged in the development services, such as trucked water delivery; this sustainability. Overall, in analyzing the regional plans 1. Continuing development of self- toprogram combat (Nunatsiaq the issues News, of overcrowding 2012). and Inuit “hidden homelessness” the solution would seem mechanism 2. Integration by way of of traditional social media beliefs or within easy- build more houses. Regional initiatives a special 3. Implementing Internet forum consultation that advances lack the ability to bolster community capacity. accessibility to those who are transient. The Canadian government must withdraw its paternalist role in the Arctic. The overarching goal Urban Inuit Forced Migration needs to be the creation of a housing solution that • Establish a system of consultation and is independent of government subsidy as well integration to better understand housing as respecting human rights of Inuit in both the management and resources available to Inuit North and the South. The Canadian government who are forced to migrate to urban centers needs to take a proactive leap in acknowledging • Create similar Inuit IDP integration hidden homelessness IDPs as a high priority. process as outlined by the Citizenship and Homelessness in and of itself is forced migration Immigration Canada’s Government Assisted calling for international recognition. Refugee Program • Assist in resettlement, employment, Policy Options: accommodations such as food and shelter. Prevention Consultation and mentorship programs •• Recognize hidden homelessness as a human modeled off of Makivik Coporation rights issue that must be addressed partnerships like PAQ. •• Acknowledge housing sources as multifaceted as they can be used for alternative means to Conclusion: socioeconomic problems. The issue of homelessness has been •• Research needs to be conducted to study poorly acknowledged and is a relatively new micro migration and Inuit transience phenomenon in the Arctic. As a result, little populations. This knowledge gap serves as literature is in circulation and most of it ranges an opportunity for better understanding vulnerable populations of homelessness and information needs to be gathered on Inuit consequences and determinants of it. fromhomeless the latecounts, 1990s their to currentthe early living 2000s. situation, More and strategies to combat this problem. Even with Hidden Homeless of Arctic Region the absence of recent or thorough information, •• Long-term fund and reallocation of resources it is obvious that forced migration is becoming an important part of Inuit trajectories. Through investments will provide economic prosperity government- enforced settlement and the intoward the form different of a competitive housing alternatives; housing market, these establishment of a welfare state, dependency

73 became a norm that dislocated Inuit from culture and tradition. Installing government housing, schooling, and health care compounded Inuit way of life. The intensifying housing crisis has created a population of hidden homeless. Overcrowding adds stresses of social and cultural disparity that leads to Inuit IDPs, forced to migrate into urban centers of southern Canada. In framing hidden homelessness and urban Inuit as forced migration, we claim that humanitarian recognition demands Canadian government action. The costs of emergency response and economic burden on urban centers, human right violation of inadequate housing, as well as the gaps in knowledge about these homeless populations, indicate much needed government intervention. Homelessness is both a symptom and cause of social and cultural dislocation, as a form of forced migration itself, is has a strong role in dictating migration decisions. In framing both the urban Inuit and hidden homeless populations in the light of forced the housing crisis. Policy options provided in this reportmigration, are anthere attempt is an towardattached a holisticurgency approach in fixing

Looking at the housing issue as a cause of forced migration,in fighting we overall develop poverty a better in understanding Arctic Canada. of the dire situation in Inuit communities.

Hannah Dolph is a second-year junior, double-majoring in International Studies and Law, Societies, and Justice focusing on human rights. With one year left at the University of Washington, Hannah hopes to study abroad, gaining enlightenment through field research and travel experience. After graduation, she aspires to gain a degree in human rights law. 74 Chapter 8

Education in the Canadian Arctic: the Nunavut Sivuniksavut Program as an Inu- it-Centered Model

By Charlotte Guard

It is my belief that we need to re-frame this discussion – and view it not as an achievement gap but as an “education deficit” worthy of a national stimulus plan. , Former ITK president.

Abstract Today, education in the Arctic is at a turning point. After the four regional land claims were settled in 2005 education became the top priority for the Canadian Inuit. Inuit education was damaged as a result of relocation and regional schools and has yet to recover; approx- imately 75 percent of students do not graduate from high school compared to 75 percent of non-aboriginal Canadians that do. Additionally, those that do wish to pursue post-sec- ondary education find that they do not have the adequate tools for southern universities and less than 5 percent have obtained degrees. The Inuit are a very young population with a median age of 22 and are finding themselves with few opportunities, leading to arise in illness, crime and poverty. However, there have been strides in reframing the educa- tion deficit to examine the underlying problems with Inuit education and to solve not only unemployment, but also to create resilient communities. This is seen most notably in the model of the Nunavut Sivuniksavut (NS), where students learn about their heritage, cul- ture and the Arctic in a supportive and encouraging environment. The school has seen im- mensely positive results, around 85 percent of students are graduating and a similar num- ber of students are gainfully employed post-program. In order to replicate such positive development NS could be utilized as a successful model for the three other Inuit regions. Introduction communities. The prevailing education model, and university The deficit attendance. in Inuit education However, is theseoften definedstatistics in serve terms neither of graduation to fully rates, address test thescores ill- developedwith little duringchallenge colonialism, and incentive in the to 1950slearn” and ‘60s “is founded on a paternalistic ethos solutions for the Inuit. The Inuit have reached a been effective for Inuit students. Sub-standard turningfitting, colonial point in legacy the very of education,core of how nor education to offer living(Salokangas, conditions 2011, such p. 267) as homeand has overcrowding clearly not is structured. This trend beyond test scores and prevalence of illness are contributors to low is evident in the “National Strategy on Inuit levels of graduation, which compound ineffectual school models and severely limit the capacity both the challenges and opportunities towards improvingEducation” educationreleased forin 2011,the Inuit which youth. identifies When students fall through the gaps, and are not able to we look at the conversation surrounding Inuit forjoin success the skilled (Salokangas, workforce 2011, this failing p. 267). system As more will education it is vital to look at the capacity of a only perpetuate itself if it is not reformed. very young population moving through the In his article on education, Poelzer education system to positively impact their

(2009),75 argued that “a persuasive case could be made that the single most important instrument nation to enhancing Aboriginal human rights” (p. for achieving the broader policy goal of building schools are not currently “appropriate to prepare 265). When the conversation moves past simply ayouth sustainable to live Northin their is education” home communities (p. 446). Inuit nor trainingmeasures, students it creates to findthe potentialwork to include to develop teaching into in the south and this has left parents confused acritical more appropriate,thinking skills resilient and confidence-building education system. about the ways they should help their children In the midst of this monumental conversation

on post-secondary Inuit education. While there in regards to education” (Salokangas, 2011, areof education very few redefinition,students who this are paper able willto attend focus p.do 267).graduate Further from exacerbatinghigh school, thethere problem are few is college, it is not for lack of employment. There thepost-secondary fact that for options.the 25 percentInuit students of Inuit havewho traditionally been unsuccessful in Southern of leadership, education and other sectors in universities due to the high costs associated aretheir not communities. nearly enough Absence trained of relevantInuit to materialfill roles with post-secondary education, sheer distance, has also been addressed as a barrier to post- secondary curricula. Education should provide preparation. Yet there has been little funding the training and knowledge to allow the Inuit ora lack research of confidence funneled and into inadequate determining pedagogical what is a functional and useful curriculum for the Southern universities have not proven successful Inuit, as is especially evident in post-secondary into encouragingfill these vacant education, roles in what their is communities. the alternative If for a young Inuk? education is not simply a question of improving One school in Ottawa has emerged discussionstest scores, but(Simon, creation 2011). of Fora curriculum the Inuit, thatbetter is relevant to their unique geography and culture. school,as a leading is unconventional model to fill inthis that gap. itNunavut is not suggested that challenges to Inuit education need designedSivuniksavut to function (NS), alike nearly a Southern two-decade university, old toMary be reframedSimon, former from presidentan “achievement of the ITK, gap” (2009) to an in fact it was not designed to look like any other conversation about strategies for success. “educationThis deficit” shift in orderconversation to have ahas meaningful already model; it was founded and responds completely begun, and it is changing the way that education toand Inuit culture necessities. and the opportunities The classes thatreflect they what will students find interesting about their own history national summit on education was held by Inuit leadersis viewed in Inuvik, in the NT Arctic. in order In toApril address of the2008, Inuit a largehave tomajority further return their toeducation. their communities About 80 and to 85 percent of students graduate from NS and a would be successful in improving educational model is incredibly successful when applied standardseducation deficitamong andthe toyouth. develop The a outcomestrategy thatwas infind a gainfulrespectful employment manner that (Gregoire, incorporates 2012). InuitThis tradition and values. This school presents an established model that could be emphasized as thereframing 2011 Nationalthe discussion Strategy of onInuit Inuit education Education to an alternative to failing education programs. (NSIE)include holisticwhich communityhighlights thebased importance practices that of 1 will address Inuit tradition, culture, language I. History of Nunavut Sivuniksavut2 and history. The initiative is comprehensive and looks at all ages and levels of education from pre-k to post-secondary, as well as incorporation In 1982, The Tunngavik Federation of of modern and traditional knowledge into agreementNunavut (TFN) of whatreplaced was Inuit then Tapiriit the Northwest Kanatami curricula. Moreover, the shift also encompasses (ITK) to represent Nunavut in the land claims Inuit education not only as a way to train students for the job market training but to also Territories1 seventy five (Nunavutpercent of studentsSivuniksavut, do not graduate 2012). from The high school compared to seventy five percent of non-ab- original Canadians that do gradate and only five percent frames this as matter of security because “if the have university degrees. become critical thinkers. Salokangas (2011) 2I heavily utilize Morley Hanson and Murray Angus’ security issue, the discursive frame changes paper, “The three rs” as there are limited resources education problem is defined as an educational written on post-secondary Inuit education and Nunavut Sivuniksavut. from one of prioritizing economic benefits of the 76 negotiations spanned almost two decades prior

2011, in order raise student capacity and in 2008 tothe the TFN signing realized of the that agreement Nunavut in would 1993 andneed the a toNS begraduated more formal its 300th and studentcourse packets (Activity made Report, up creationpopulation of ofNunavut young inpeople 1999. who During understood that period the of2012, news pg. 7).periodicals, In 1994, thegovernment classes were documents, packaged land claims process and could continue the work, and academic articles were developed. However, leading to the creation of the land claims training the method was the same: respond to the needs of the students to learn and develop their own history and “capture the central elements of the inprogram, Ottawa Nunavut with two Sivuniksavut, teachers and in 1985 ten students(Hanson hasand Angus,grown 2011,to the p. largest 32). The class program ever with that thirty-began formalizing the program it allowed the school to takeInuit onstory” new (Hanson students & and Angus, gain 2011, the recognition p. 33). By it deserved as a successful alternative model for timeseven the students program in hasthe evolved2012-2013 immensely: academic year teaching Inuit students at the post-secondary (Gregoire, 2012). According to Hanson, in that to allow students to continue taking classes at NS. Forrather, the the first two nine instructors years, there worked were with no level. In 2003, a second year program was created “courses”the students in eachthe conventionalyear in a “popular sense; Today the school continues to be immensely education” mode to explore an ever- successful, with graduation rates hovering widening array of historical and political materials relating to Inuit history, politics, number of students employed post-graduation and land claims. In guiding students between 80 and 85 percent with roughly the same through this process and responding universal praise among northerners, and has to their questions it became clear that gained(Gregoire, national 2012). recognitions The school for already its innovations “enjoys what the students were seeking was an understanding of “why things were the across Canada it is also making waves. Thomas way they were” in their communities. andBerger, success” in his (Hanson report to& Ottawa,Angus, 2011, concluded p. 32) thatbut They wanted to know “their story” and “for me, the spirit of Nunavut – and its future – is how things in their world in the north Nunavut Sivuniksavut program” (Activity Report, exemplified by the students and graduates of the had come to be.” (Hanson & Angus, 2011, p.33)The history of the Arctic is unique to the its2012). kind The offered Commerce in the Reportterritories to Canada – has proven(2012) Inuit who have survived challenging conditions tostates be a that highly the successful “ (NS) program stepping – the stone only for one Inuit of for time immemorial, yet there had been no youth who have graduated from high school but curriculum in post-secondary education that have yet to enter post-secondary education” teaches students about their own story and that of their ancestors. However, as the program recognition it still remains largely unstudied formalized Hanson and Angus realized that this and(p. 14).underutilized However, among even aseducators the program in the South.gains was exactly what would be important if students This should be remedied in order to recreate the were to rebuild more healthy communities and program’s success. What makes the school so successful? had been damaged during forced settlements Can this model be applied effectively in the other instilland regional confidence schools. in an The educational program structure is based onthat a territories of Canada, and if so, how? This paper curriculum that not only explains why Northern argues that the Nunavut Sivuniksavut training communities today are economically, politically school offers an exemplary model of education and educationally struggling compared to the rest because it is based on Inuit-centered education, of Canada, it also is designed to gain back the trust is relevant to Inuit life and increases pride and in education that was lost during colonization by holistically supporting students. own knowledge and experience from living in The school has been in existence theconfidence Arctic within students. new and NS pertinentincorporates material, students’ all for nearly two decades and has undergone while providing the support necessary to make the change to life in a large city. The program curriculum and staff not only prepare students significant adjustments to accept more students. The building has changed twice in 199877 and for the job market, but also instill a sense of understanding and pride in Inuit history and be an Inuk. culture. With a greater skill set and increased self- confidence Additionally, in themselves, Post-secondary and what it means case to needed positions in the government or public importance of incorporating the voices of the sector,confidence, continue students their are qualifiededucation to andpursue become much Inuitstudies themselves in Inuit education in curricula (2007) because highlight the value the greater contributors to their communities. of one’s own knowledge of the land, history and culture are immeasurable. Hanson and Angus II. An Inuit-Centered Curriculum address student knowledge and recognize the Pedagogical Approach value of incorporating it into their program. The reason, according to Hanson and The teaching methodology is also based Angus, NS coordinators, that the program has on a presumption that the students been so successful is due to the pedagogical bring with them a wealth of expertise approach that it takes in designing and developing derived from their lived experience in the curriculum. The Post-secondary case studies they are contributing to the overall thelearning north; experience by sharing of thethis group. knowledge, Thus, successin Inuit educationfor Inuit (2007)communities. report there One outlinedof the the learning is not a one-directional a number of findings that lead to the program’s process from instructors to students, but bold, innovative, generous and all-encompassing rather a collegial one where everyone’s withfindings a focusis that on the successful “program student design mustlearning be knowledge, experience, and perspective rather than on the perpetuation of colonialistic is brought to bear on a given topic. It is and sometime rigid institutionalized systems” (p. through this process that students gain

Not only has NS successfully incorporated and world in which they live actually do count Inuit-based3). focus into their curriculum, but confidence that their views about the the program was “founded upon the desire to help the students learn about the world they’re (2011). and how it came to be, and their own place in it” stepping into as young adults (a.k.a Nunavut), At the start of the program students are shown(Hanson a &curved Angus, line 2011, on ap. blank34). page and asked whatthey will it means be able to to them. show Initially, that the it line signifies chronicles very little but at the end of the 8-month program with the quallanut, and the start of cultural degradation.their history, beginningOn the Y-axiswith the is first“Inuit interaction power, control autonomy and independence” (Angus The nature of a pedagogical approach in improving student’s perceptions of education and Hanson, 2011, p. 35) and it begins receding and themselves has been thoroughly analyzed with this first interaction, reaching a low point atfor relocation the better and as regionalthe Inuit schools began in to the organize 1960s. However, in the early 1970s the line takes a turn (Hooks,ownership 2008). and are When motivated students to contribute are included to the people and a voice in the nation’s conversation. inprocess. the process of defining education they take Themore line effectively represents to thefight Inuit for story,their andrights for as the a students this history is the key to understanding where they came from and understanding their Moving Past Colonial History cultural legacy of vibrant political participation. There has been much written about This education model changes Inuit students’ the devastating effect of regional schools and opinions of their communities, their outlook on the world and ultimately increases their colonization on the Inuit (McGregor, 2012, McElroy,78 2008). While the Inuit were not colonized in the traditional sense, via settlement (Fabbi, Language as the Corner Stone existence of living and in one generation lost for both education and culture is clearly of 2007,much p.of 7), their they language, were forced culture, to change and theirtraditional entire importance The forsignificance the Inuit ofcommunity. native language In the Canadian Department of Education’s strategy argues that though regional schools cannot be blamedskills. Poelzer for all loss(2009) of culture, addresses they thiscreated issue a deep and mistrust in structured education and there has tofor preservebilingual the education, languages. 2004-2008, However, manya long- of been no functional substitute developed. Yet term coordinated effort is defined in order Inuit culture survived the multitude of invasions instruction have not been implemented. While and trauma. NS incorporates this history and Nunavutthe recommendations has the highest such numbers as K-12 ofInuktitut native revives traditional ways of knowing as part of its curriculum. One of the most important themes it is not taught formally past the third grade, andusage, written at 83 Inuktitutpercent (Poelzer,usage is 2009,declining. p. 460)The up to today. The history provides students with problem is multi-faceted because as students ina sense the class of background, is Inuit history, heritage from theand 1400’s context right for do not receive training past the third grade they their communities in the world. They develop are unable to teach it in schools if they become a greater understanding for why it is that their teachers. In addition, many teachers come from communities are struggling, what importance the South and have no knowledge or ability in the traditional practices like hunting hold and why their parents and grandparents have deep seeded language is to lose the cornerstone of a learning mistrust in the education system. The students language. Poelzer (2009) argues that “[t]o lose a learn about their heritage and see that it applies NS included Inuktitut language classes into the directly to their communities, even directly to system” (p. 433). It is for this reason that in 1999 In addition, they also take into account is lack of relevance. Developing curricula that curriculum (Angus & Hanson, 2011, p. 37). theirare relevant families. to “A[n]students’ obstacle experiences, to access[ibility] lives and important to northern communities, not only communities is essential to breaking down inthat relation “[t]raditional to traditional ecological activities knowledge on the is vitally land, but also to ensure the future health and well- Relevancy increases interest at the time of being of inhabitants as they are affected by educationlearning so barriers” students (Poelzer, are more 2009, focused p. 446).and engaged, additionally they can see how it will NS “classes on drum making, sewing, traditional apply when they return home. ayresource ay ay singing,development” and throat (Poelzer, singing…are 2009, 461). taught At by Inuit instructors, with the help of Elders who are brought down from Nunavut” (Angus and

Hanson,by test scores 2012, andp. 37). academic These skillsexcellence, do not but fall theyinto theare vitalsystematic to healthy strategy communities for education as they as preventdefined cultural degradation. In depth interviews with incoming students have revealed the depth of insecurity that many youth feel about their identity, both as Inuit and as young individuals in the larger Canadian society. Having to negotiate two cultural worlds at home, they have often found themselves forsaking Inuktitut language and traditional skill development as they follow the school system for its prospect and Christine, perform traditional throat of employment and ‘better life’ at the end singing.2012-2013 NS students, Savannah

These programs(Angus and are Hanson, designed 2011, to p.challenge 42). the

79 belief that in order to be successful, students they personal, social, or academic. Staff must give up, or hide their culture. The lack of of colonial programs that convinced students are available 24/7 to assist students, as confidencethat their thatcommunities students feelwere is a productbackwards of years and they might need (Hanson & Angus, 2011, could not compete in the modern era. Inclusion Some ofp.42). the staff are former students, and are well of traditional songs and Inuktitut not only ensure versed in the challenges associated with living that students continue the traditions but also away from home and completing the rigorous instill a sense of pride in where they come from. school schedule, and all are knowledgeable about Inuit culture and history. The staff and students A Structure of Support address the certain challenges associated with Success for the students is not solely a not only living away from home but also an result of the NS curriculum as their approach also absence of scholastic tools. “The things that one emphasizes relationships with both students requires to succeed at University (strong research and time-management skills, good study habits, obstacles to post-secondary education is leaving theand community.teachers. OneWithout of thean Arcticmost significantuniversity completely alien to these students” (Poelzer, students must travel to the South to attend the ability to participate in seminars) are often classes, but the isolation that comes with living inherent but are learned skills that students in a different environment with little support is 2009, p.447). Independent study habits are not often insurmountable. The key to “overcoming at NS the staff and cohort are there to provide these barriers requires cohort-based models, thecoming instruction from Southern and support homes necessary may for to granted; prevent with tutors and explicit strategies for moving students from becoming overwhelmed. from dependent learning to independent Living in a City student support as a facet of their approach. Poelzer argues that “students, especially those Oncelearning” students (Poelzer, have 2009).these independent NS points tolearning inter- from remote Aboriginal communities, are skills they are theirs to utilize in future ventures. unwilling to leave family and community to If you were to plot on a map the range of areas travel hundreds, even thousands of kilometers to where these students had come from it would attend university courses for northern students” among them are a range of varied communities, homesickness that accompanies it is thought to linguisticspan hundreds dialects of miles and traditions.(with no road However, access) they and (2009). Travel away from communities and the share the experience of being far away from home succeed in other post-secondary models. Poelzer homes and their dependence on one another be a significant factor for students who do not is crucial to their success in the program. The education closer to the Arctic to increase cohort method has long been cited for success opportunities(2009) argues tothat participate. this is a caseHowever, for bringing at NS the location is part of what they believe to be a primary reason for their success. Away-from- factor(Montiel for 2012, student Nimer, success. M., 2009, Murray-HarveyThe students home students develop the practical skills of oftenet al., share2000) apartments,and it is a significant help each contributing other with cooking for themselves and learning to navigate homework and provide support when one feels a city, and they also mature in other ways. lonely or isolated. Recognizing the importance of Their life experience in the South the cohort as the school has grown over the past few years, Hanson split the larger group in half in their personal ability to pursue randomly to keep student-to-student interaction theirgives educationalthem a newfound and career confidence goals as independent young adults. The South has In addition to peer support the staff at the tight (Gregoire,school are 2012). critical to the success of the have ‘measured up’ and are as capable as program. Staff play a multitude of roles anyonebecome else demystified in living in and that they environment. see they

as instructors, but also as counselors, mentors,in the students’ and guides, lives: first and and supporters foremost The school(Angus does & Hanson,more than 2011, increase p.44). students’ on the full range of student needs, be

marketable80 skills and access to available jobs; labor force attracts additional and better jobs” it increases students’ confidence in themselves, Reportwhich studentshas immeasurable are quoted invalue. saying In “Ithe am proud2011- (2012, p. i). The program is cyclical in nature to2012 be Inuk.Nunavut I love it.Sivuniksavut I am proud myAnnual ancestors Activity are as nearly 80 percent of NS students work in my ancestors and our history is our history” Nunavutstudents andsee 60that percent there arechoose jobs to to reside be had, in theirthey homewill attain communities higher levels (Gregoire, of education, 2012). increasing As more called Inuk anymore. I am proud and happy” the likelihood of more healthy communities. Jobs (PA, 2012) and “I am not ashamed or shy to be in the public sector are crucial to community school’s ability to delve into perception problems health because they avoid the boom-bust nature (PP,among 2012). the InuitThese youth. statements Positive demonstrate self-image isthe a of resource extraction employment and give the demonstrable result of student’s time spent at NS. Inuittraining more students influence to onenter the communitythis particular agenda. area III: Outcome of service The and NS aschool high haspercentage a specific of focusstudents on Job Opportunities that complete the NS program will go on to be The question of what Inuit students will employed by the Nunavut Government. The do in their communities after they graduate often Government regularly hires students that have closely follows the discussion of post-secondary graduated from NS because of the students’ education. In Berger’s report to Indian Affairs and overall ‘worldliness’ in comparison with ranging from thirty to seventy percent, and “personal enthusiasm, confidence, maturity increasing(2006) Nunavut in more unemployment remote communities, is very high, yet provides an essential link between educational there are also severe labor shortages (Poelzer, outcomestheir peers” and (Angus economic & Hanson, success. 2011, “Employment p. 42). NS in a community proved to be an important factor jobs face worker shortages and the high costs that encourages educational attainment. The associated2009, p. 448). with Many bringing businesses people and uppublic from sector the prospect of good jobs encourages education, and South or elsewhere. There are clearly jobs for the a more educated labor force attracts additional Inuit, but they do not have the skills to take them claims, employment in public service was to be andeconomic better statusjobs” (Centrefor individuals, for the North, their 2012,families p. (Martin, 2011, p. 4). As part of the Nunavut land ii).and Job communities. attainment is the key to raising the socio- Many graduates of NS express an interest representative of the Inuit population. In 2009, in continuing their education through the second eighty five percent of the population was Inuit year program or alternative programs. Some butjobs onlyavailable, forty andfive students percent ofof NS those have employed had very students continue their education at training were Inuit (Poelzer, 2009, p. 449). There are programs like the Nunavut Teaching Education the Inuit population they have not been through little trouble finding them, however, for much of school teachers. The reintegration of Inuit Projectstudents (NTEP), into their which communities certifies Inuit continues to become the asector. training or university program that qualifies cycle and allows them to apply what they have them toThe find barriera job in to the this government is education, or private more learned in constructive ways in their community. not been able to see the connection between from NS and showed that after the program, specifically, relevant education. Students have A survey in 2009 interviewed 143 students security in their future. The Conference Board graduating from high school and financial findingsurveyed, a seventyjob was threenot an percent area wherewere employed, students think-tank based out of Ottawa, which has generallyeleven percent struggled. were inOf school the 143or training, who were and producedof Canada, reports Centre onfor athe wide North variety is a ofnon-profit subjects eight percent were not gainfully employed. The including education and job employment. They have found that “employment in a community gainful employment serves as evidence of both proved to be an important factor that encourages thenumber necessity of students for trained that have Inuit, been as wellable toas findthe educational attainment. The prospect of good jobs encourages education, and a more educated that students did when they returned varied success of NS in filling those positions. The jobs 81 but a large number of respondents, thirty nine with gambling, drug and alcohol, or other percent, worked for the Government of Nunavut. societal problems. Throughout the program a combination of assignment based classes as organizations and thirteen percent for the federal well as song and dance, contributes to powerful government.Additionally, Thefifteen remaining percent thirty worked three for percent Inuit feelings of acceptance and placement (Hanson, non-Inuit businesses. Many students do enroll in that “programs aimed at Aboriginal peoples furtherworked trainingfor non-profit programs, organizations, from the survey Inuit forty and 2003). The commerce report (2012) noted two percent said that they had attended college, programming that gives participants a sense however, most do not go to Southern universities offail empowerment,because one critical self-worth factor isand missing; pride thein themselves and their histories” making programs shows graduates from NS are not only equipped like NS “an essential step” before the labor (Gregoire,to work for 2012). the Government The variety of in Nunavut, job attainment as the school was initially designed, but have the skills and their culture is invaluable. It does contribute market (p. 14). This confidence in themselves also essential for a vibrant, resilient community. Confidenceto find work and in otherCritical sectors. Thinking to finding a job or continuing education but it is IV. The Limits to NS NS is a model that produces successful, need on The both opportunities the sides of employers for the Inuitand workers to find foremployment greater accessare significant to education. and there However, is clearly NS a it is important to examine the underlying does more than just prepare students for the confidentcontributors students, of success. and forYet, thatthe reasonprogram alone has its limits. Much of the NS foundation is based the health of communities. “Students’ motives directly or indirectly on cohort and staff support, jobare market;no longer it breedsdirectly confidence related to that employment, is vital to requiring that the school is kept small. At NS, but rather they are looking to further their where they receive more applicants than they can accept, they have to balance a desire for taking the challenges in Inuit identity result from on more students and keeping the structure education”colonization (Hanson,and globalization 2003, p.80). because Much “itof intimate. Additionally, NS functions as a non- pulled young people away from their families, communities and cultural practices, rendering from government activity, which allows it a many of the students dysfunctional within the profit (Hanson, 2003, p. 77) so is largely exempt traditional lifestyle, and led to a creation of a ‘lost generation’ of people who were not skilled challenging in a region like Nunavik where the Kativikcertain Schooldegree Boardof flexibility. is a government This has agency, been and therefore has less room to maneuver. NS is eldersin the waysand communities, of either world” essentially (Hanson, remaining 2003 p. not the end all to the question of Inuit education. Inuit,30). The but alsoInuit to youth be a partwant of tothe connect ‘modern’ to world, their Issues of access are also apparent, because even leaving them in a middle ground where they as NS provides scholarships and living stipends there are still many that that are not in a position argues that this contributes to a clash of identity to, or do not want to leave their communities cannot fully relate to either side. Hanson (2003) themselves and their culture. However, at NS, order to reach all students it is imperative that and lack of confidence in, and3 discomfort with, (Rodon,there be morepersonal options communication, for the Inuit, however, 2013). theIn methods that NS uses to achieve success continue period.Hanson Many (2003) enter has the observed program a feelingpositive ashamed shift in to be highly relevant. perception among the students over the 8-month have not learned to hunt, while at the same time V. Policy Options embarrassedboth that they by cannot the negative speak Inuktitut views of fluently the Inuit or •• A trust or endowment from Nunavut government should be created to expand 3 Hanson (2003) outlines his in-depth study of NS capacity of NS. student to determine how perceptions changed through •• Other regions of Canada should consider attendance at NS. He also provides an excellent overview looking at NS as a model of education for the of the importance of social identity and acculturation, Inuit, for example Nunavik could create an particularly for young people. 82 NS-like school in Montreal or . •• should be included in discussions of new modelsValues ofof education,confidence and and funding critical should thinking be directed accordingly. Constructive higher education must be a priority of the Canadian government.

VI. Conclusion Post-secondary options for Inuit students are incredibly limited. If they are able to graduate from high school and gain admittance to a university in the south they face extreme not have the same set of study skills that other Southernchallenges. students Many studentshave acquired find thatover theyyears doof academic training, and cannot compete at the same level. Nunavut Sivuniksavut accounts for the challenges associated with post-secondary education by focusing on an Inuit-centered model, one that incorporates the history as well as skills that will be necessary for job placement. Though NS may have begun as a way to involve young people in the government, it is no longer the sole they are then able to in translate into jobs and motive.thriving Studentscommunities. gain NSconfidence is not the and only skills solution that needs to be greater access and funding for other modelsto solving to develop,educational but itissues demonstrates in the North; important there strategies for success. First and foremost, and encourages critical thinking. These tools throughare invaluable its curriculum to the young NS because builds theyconfidence can be utilized throughout their lives in addition to an employment. The success of the NS model must beeducation taken into that account increases in discussions the likelihood of educationof finding because its achievements in increasing positive self-perception among Inuit students directly increase the resilience of communities.

Charlotte is in her third year towards a degree in International Studies at the University of Washington with a focus on development. She is from the San Juan Islands and has spent time living in Barcelona, Spain and Adana, Turkey. Charlotte teaches English as a Second Language and enjoys reading, studying languages, biking and snowboarding.

83 Part Three: Engaging the Globe

84 85 Chapter 9

The Arctic Council and non-Arctic interest: managing perceptions and influence in a changing region

By Michael Brown

Abstract This paper will discuss the Arctic Council and the greater Arctic region as entities undergoing change. However, likely the political and geographic change in the Arctic will be gradual on a political time scale. Considering the concerns in the Arctic about including more non-Arctic players in the Arctic Council, I will examine the Inuit as an example of indigenous influence in the Arctic, the Arctic Council as an institution, and potential changes in the Council. I argue that because of the position of Permanent Participants in the Council, they are in a good po- sition to influence political happenings, including setting the terms under which international actors are admitted to the premier governance forum in the region. Furthermore, any change made to the Council will have to be gradual and limited or the member states will likely not submit to it in the short term. This paper will examine what small changes can be made to the Arctic Council to strengthen it in the short term and what can be done to manage inter- national interests that please both the regional players and international players themselves. Introduction The prevailing discourse on the Arctic concerns. The Arctic Council is a nonbinding, is that it is a region undergoing changes somewhat informal institution that has a unprecedented in recorded human history limited remit for such important issues, yet the information that it produces through its working the situation out of proportion by exaggerating groups and the recommendations it makes are (Koivurova,tensions between 2009). TheArctic popular states media and non-Arctichas blown highly regarded by decision-makers shaping states. The ice is melting, yes, but it is more than Arctic policy, and it remains as the premier forum simply melting ice, for the Arctic is an inhabited region, so any environmental changes will affect the inhabitants. For the most part, Arctic Council wouldon Arctic argue, issues important (Young, 2005). feature is the inclusion member states are cooperating closely rather ofThe ArcticArctic Council’sindigenous (AC) groups most unique as Permanent and, some than competing, and China’s interest in the region Participants. This membership status ensures is much more benign than the newspapers would indigenous groups have access to the Council’s decision making processes to assure that their interests are considered. For example, Canada’s implymuch is(Lasserre, agreed upon,2013; butYoung, the extent2009, Jakobson,of it and opposition to the EU’s seal ban lines up with the 2010).the effect Development it will have will is the come real to point the Arctic, of debate. that Debate amongst stake-holders is focused on human security. The Arctic is an inhabited region, interestsconsensus of basedthe Inuit.(Huebert, organization, 2013, the KoivurovaAC tends confronted with a multitude of issues ranging to& Graczyk,shy away 2013, from p. 9,contentious Byers, 2012, international p. 21). As a from environmental protection to indigenous food security. Currently, the Arctic Council serves as a nexus for discussion about these myriad as:disputes climate like change military (precipitated security (Byers,by emissions 2012, 16). As transnational and global problems such 86 exigencies of international law’ seems frankly unhelpful to an effort to develop thoughtful fromcontentious outside and of likelythe Arctic), to affect potential the livelihoods oil spills of andnortherners, straddling a more fishing robust catches approach are tothe decision most responsesto extract, toand these the questions opening of(p. the9). passage has to manage non-Arctic states and to mold the actually Indeed,made it the potentially oil is still prohibitivelymore dangerous difficult and Councilmaking intois necessary a stronger (Molenaar, platform for2012). transnational How best unpredictable, to the point where no shipping companies are really considering using them nation-states and the Permanent Participants? solutions in a way that benefits both the member time scale, the changes are coming quite rapidly continuing interest in the Arctic as a region for extensivelyin eye blinks (Lasserre, of decades 2013). and centuries,On a geological but for resourceNon- interests andcan exploitation be defined by as actors the a political or business time scale, they are quite outside of the region, and their desire for more far off. Furthermore, aside from bickering over a few rocks straddling EEZs, countries in the Arctic Council trends toward postponing membership are mostly cooperating with few real tensions influenceto the non-Arctic in the statesArctic interestedCouncil. Currently, in the region, the between them. The United Nations Convention which may put the Permanent Participants at ease on the Law of the SeaUNCLOS has delineated the majority of the territory in the Arctic with either out, but is in the long-term counterproductive toin theinterregional sense of keeping cooperation. international For a influencehost of reasons, the involvement of non-Arctic states well-defined boundaries or the mechanism to could be a great boon as they can help raise thecreate media such might (Bartenstein, encourage 2013). people Thus, to believe. it is safe to awareness of Arctic issues and contribute concludeScholars that the like AC isCarina not stymied Keskitalo by conflictand Oran as Young tend to focus on political rather than include non-Arctic interests in the Council while physical change. The course of this change expertisestill respecting and finances. the say It ofis entirelyindigenous possible groups to

The revised criteria for admitting Observers in follows a path from frontier zone (1800s to the (Koivurova & Graczyk, 2013; Rhemann, 2012). Cold War), to potential theater of warfare (Cold Meeting do a great deal to help clarify the role betweenWar; 1947-1991), Arctic states to nowcooperative is a remarkable frontier change zone ofthe non-Arctic Arctic Council states, from but the more 2011 could Nuuk be Ministerial done, as from(present) the tense yet again.period Theof the level Cold of War, cooperation when the will be articulated in the following pages. Arctic was seen as a military platform for the two superpowers, the United States and the Background: the changing Arctic What has become clear over the past Murmansk speech helped open up the region decade is that the climate is changing and the ice Soviet Union. Mikhail Gorbachev’s famous 1987 in the Arctic is melting at a rapid rate, indeed both toas amore “mosaic,” cooperation as it is mostly (Åtland, issue 2008). based However, and not levels in the summer and the amount of ice more Youngentirely (2005, comprehensive. p. 9) refers toGiven this newthe cooperationshort time 2007 and 2012 were record low years for sea ice period since the end of the Cold War, and the only The melting sea ice has allowed for openings in recent discovery and explanation of transnational thanthe Northwest one year old and is almostNortheast zero Passages (Fortier, 2013).in the problems, this perhaps seems natural. Issues summer that has led to rampant speculation in a changing space tend to creep up piecemeal about changing shipping patterns (Lasserre, and get addressed one at a time, rather than in a comprehensive fashion. Furthermore, there is exposure of oil reserves underneath the ice. Oran something of a schism in the ranks of the Arctic 2012). With this thaw has also come the potential states, with those coastal states in the Arctic that to construct an inaccurate picture of the Arctic: Young (2009)The pundits’argues that portrayal this has ledof the recentmedia UNCLOS shying away from more multilateral developments in the Arctic as a ‘land rush,’ and regulationhave extensive of the territory Arctic region. in the TheArctic United defined States by ‘Arctic meltdown,’ a ‘very cold war for energy in particular is leery of a stronger Arctic Council resources,’ or ‘a perfect storm seeded with or other comprehensive treaty organization, political opportunism, national pride, military

satisfied as they are with what the UNCLOS has muscle flexing, high energy prices and the arcane87 provided them, and confident as they are in their own ability to regulate Arctic affairs in their Finland Wants to broaden the Council to be a monitor and existing and new trea- a different strategy and different vision for the ties like UNCLOS and the SAR treaty. Arcticslice (Locklear, Council. The 2013). United But States, each ArcticRussia, state Norway, has Would like to see a limited admittance of and Canada do not see the need for much change new observers, but what they proposed in the Arctic Council to varying degrees. While the in their Arctic strategy is not very differ- ent from the present situation. current format, Canada would like to see limited, Denmark, The Arctic Council “must evolve from a proceduralUnited States change and Russia to the are Council. satisfied Norway, with theon the Faroe decision-shaping to a decision-making the other hand, values increased international Islands, organization” (Denmark, Greenland, Faroe Islands, 2011). Basically Denmark involvement through the mechanism of more and Permanent Observers. Denmark, Iceland, Finland, sees great utility in the Council and has Green- outlined specific strategies that would and Sweden all have made recommendations for land strengthen it and allow it to exert more extensive changes, with Denmark in particular influence on Arctic states. Also advo- calling for the change from a decision shaping cates more international involvement, body to a decision making body. Ultimately, each but in a way that caters to the Permanent state has a different vision for the Council with Participants. Iceland Actively wants to have Observers pres- ent at the working group level, but wants few commonalities to bind them (Graczyk, 2012, little else besides that officially. p. 272-276). United “The Arctic Council should remain a This mosaic of cooperation at the States high-level forum devoted to issues within its current mandate and not highest levels rests on top of another change be transformed into a formal inter- enveloping the Arctic: its identity as a region. national organization, particularly one with assessed contributions (U.S. its genesis in the policies made by Mikhail GorbachevThe definition at the of theend eight of the Arctic Cold statesWar. Trying had is open to the idea of updating current proceduralWhite House, structures 2009).” However to improve the US his policies of glasnost and perestroika, he future operations. re-focusedto de-politicize the discussion the region onto better“soft issues” fit in with like Canada Would like to see more extensive changes to the Arctic Council than the the stage was set for further cooperation, and United States but nonetheless wants the environment (Keskitalo, 2007, 194). Thus, to keep the current model. Canada in part due to the initiative of the Finns and encourages the negotiation of new in- struments like the SAR treaty, as well Circumpolar CouncilICC, , and as an increased communication role. Russianthe first Associationthree Permanent of Indigenous Participants Peoples (Inuit of Russia It appears that Russia wants to keep the current balance in the Arctic and views Rovaniemi Process leading to the in suggesting changes to the Council as a change to the AEPS,North’s the RAIPON Arctic shiftedpredecessor) from a through region of the the current power balance. What’s more, some of its officials have said clearly that they think more actors in the region will “theconflict extent to one of the of cooperation‘Arctic’ has been at the expanded end of the lead to more international influence over Cold War. Keskitalo (2007) sums it up here: the region, which it does not want. Norway Also desires the current format, and through time from a ‘High Arctic’ to a five- offers no specific changes officially. state Arctic, and finally, the eight-state Arctic However, it is open to more internation- Withof today, this the expansion definition has of come the last the entity profusion mainly al observers, and wants to increase their ofmotivated the issues, be environmental,Cold War developments” indigenous, (p. 201). role in the Council. Sweden Ambivalent to outside actors, and lays out no plans for them in its Arctic strat- bysovereign, environmental and otherwise issues and that indigenous define the rights egy. Would like to see the Arctic Council asregion. much For as nowa frontier the Arctic for resource is a region extraction defined engage in more concrete projects. Key in developing the discourse of cooperation was considering the area as under threat of

88 damage from global issues like climate change wholesale. On the other end, there are also those It provided a convenient banner for countries who view cultural identity and way of life as to rally around, though now the discourse has evolved to questions of governance and region- building in the Arctic rather than the limited aboveof Arctic any governance gain in profits extends (Wilson though, & Smith, it makes 2011, p.much 915-919). more tactical As far assense their for position the Inuit in tothe engage fabric with non-Arctic actors in the Arctic Council than specific agreements of the past like the Polar to simply ignore them. Their prominent position TheBear Inuit treaty Circumpolar of 1976 h(Keskitalo, Council 2004, 25). in the Arctic Council as a Permanent Participant The Inuit, represented by the Inuit puts them in a position to affect the decisions of Circumpolar Council, have staked out an the organization, including under what terms impressive level of autonomy (Wilson & Smith non-Arctic states can be admitted to the Council. For instance, their position allowed them to home nations to set the terms under which convince the Canadian government to deny the 2011,Inuit land p. 910). is used, The ICC including works closely resource with extractionindividual EU observer status on the Arctic Council due to the EU opposition to the importation of seal Permanent Participant host governments tend (Wilsonto respect and and Smith, support 2011, them p. in911). other What’s areas more,(with While the positive impact of this act is debatable, the notable exception of Russia, as seen by their productsit appears (Huebert, that they 2013,have aByers, strong 2012, say inp. what21). happens, and thus should use it to further their aims. This way actors like the EU will be admitted closure of RAIPON (Bennett, 2012)). Canada’s to the Council under terms partly shaped by the financial commitment to their three Permanent Inuit and other Permanent Participants. As the Participants and Denmark’s financial support of Inuit are so established in their own territory, theThe IndigenousPermanent People’s Participants Secretariat disagree (IPS) aboutis an have such a strong position in the Council and toexample what ofextent this cooperation increased non-Arctic(Fenge, 2012). presence cooperate closely with their host countries, they should be permitted in the region, ranging from are well positioned, with their strong procedural cautiously welcoming to complete opposition. role and the support of their home government, I choose to focus on the Inuit Circumpolar to deal with non-Arctic interests, like resource Council in such detail because they have used extraction and potentially increasing foreign their existing position in the Arctic Council to promote their interests in a global context in interests. Accordingly, it would be a waste of their unprecedented ways. This is an important point positioninfluence, to inrefrain a way from that active suits dialogue their withdomestic non- to consider as increased non-Arctic international Arctic actors. This dynamic of power-sharing, in which Permanent Participants hold a strong position the Inuit have made their rights as indigenous andinfluence can certainly in the engage region with is powerfulbeing felt;interests the people compatible with their status as citizens and come out ahead. of modern democracies, is a hallmark of Inuit diplomacy, and perhaps a further indicator that auspices of the ICC, the Inuit are divided on how they can harness change effectively (Simon, to proceed Though on the technically issue of resource unified development. under the The ICC’s primary concerns within the AC relate explain how the Inuit brand of diplomacy is to sovereignty and development in the Inuit intensely2011). Thierry adaptable Rodon and and pragmatic, Francis Abele which (2007) has led them to effectively deal with outsiders topic of resource development has resulted in throughout their history. Certainly, the Inuit fractiouslands (Wilson opinions & Simon, within 2011, the Inuitp. 912-913). community, The went through the all too common model of colonization at the hands of the Canadian traditions with modern society. Some, like the government but, unlike other indigenous groups, Greenlandicwhich has found Inuit, difficulty see resource in balancing development the local as have also managed to claw back many of their rights and territory through land-claim treaties thus more autonomy. A more moderate approach helda way by of garneringothers in economicthe community self-sufficiency is to review and resource extraction on a case by case basis diplomacy(Simon, 2011). as characterized This accomplishment by: plays into and cautiously develop rather than embrace it Abele and Rodon’s (2007) description of Inuit

89 Collective persistence: without at other Permanent Participants the ability to do all requiring unanimity, an ability to just that. However, the Permanent Participants work co-operatively and in the longer do not occupy an unassailable position on the term toward a common goal, despite Council and are in many ways reliant on their numerous setbacks and roadblocks. home governments to continue operations. The Political realism: strategies taken based very position of the Permanent Participants on on a close appraisal of the balance of the Arctic Council serves to raise awareness of power. Adaptability: an ability to readily their issues to a potentially sympathetic globe. recognize changed circumstances, Currently the RAIPON issue is a major sticking however unwelcome these may be, and point between Canada and Russia as they enter to react constructively and quickly. Well- developed strategies to avoid win-lose will allow them to potentially make some protest confrontations: a tendency to soften into Canada’s 2013-2015 chairmanship, which direct criticism by indirect expression, Arctic Council not been such a high level forum, and a reluctance to force an opponent it’sat RAIPON’s possible treatmentthat RAIPON (Huebert, could have2013). just Had been the shuttered away with naught but a whisper. So while the Permanent Participants are powerful, Essentiallyinto a corner the (p. 48)Inuit have developed they are also vulnerable, and using the Arctic diplomatic strategies over time that have lent Council to manage non-Arctic interests can themselves to a pragmatic approach. The power both help them operate on their terms and raise sharing model of domestic government in the awareness of their issues to the rest of the planet.

International Interests in the Arctic Council landscapeInuit territories was fractured that emerged at the time,fits withRodon’s the On the whole, interest in the Arctic “collectivity(2007) description of francophones” well. The Canadian seeming politicalto offer outside of the region has been increasing. Sanjay hope for a similar Inuit collective, that the Inuit were exploring the prospects of land claims, and “the very fact that the material and the symbolic the fact that they were able to engage effectively riseChaturvedi of Asia (2012) is tempered argues: with the uncertainties with the various levels of power in Canada at the associated with the era of climate change time is a testament to their ability to organize and scarcities (goods, resources, and a clean

They sought and received a power-sharing geopolitical discourse of Arctic ‘exceptionalism’ andarrangement negotiate compatible (Abele & Rodon,with their 2007, goals, p. 51).for andenvironment) question atmight the furthersame time complicate increasingly the the Inuit are realistic and realize an inclusive untenable inside/outside geographies of arrangement will help them much more in the cooperation centered on the Circumpolar Arctic long run, rather than trying to establish “more confrontational racial politics” (Abele & Rodon, Basically, China’s and the developing world’s(p. 227).” predicted rise will not be easy to ignore, situation in the Arctic are clear: the Inuit have even in a region as removed as the Arctic. had2007, success p. 51). with The being parallels inclusive with in the past,current by However, the media has perhaps sensationalized relying on the “traditions of external relations China’s interest in the region as power-hungry, already present in Inuit culture,” rather than as they do not even have an Arctic policy. From The Inuit see themselves as proud citizens of theirwhich previous has little behavior, basis in theofficial Chinese Chinese will likelydoctrine, not tryingtheir respective to be exclusionary countries yet(Rodon, possessing 2007, of51). a interfere in the Arctic in a way that undermines unique transnational character that they want to the sovereignty of Arctic Council member states. Doing so would undermine its position in then would be to engage with international ongoing disputes in the South China Sea, which preserveactors, it (Simon,would be 2011). a better The way pragmatic to deal approach with the problems facing the Arctic, especially as climate China is cautiously monitoring the Arctic, as it change, the primary cause for ice melt in the seesit places both greater the potential importance negative on (Lasserre, and positive 2013). Arctic, is a problem stemming from the outside Climate change is a global issue that will affect The Arctic Council gives the Inuit and the effectsthe Arctic of themost melting visibly icein the(Chaturvedi, form of opened2012). world (Fortier, 2013). 90 resource reserves. China would be somewhat foreign involvement. The new stipulations remiss to not involve itself, given their projected in the Observer rules declared at the Nuuk thefuture Arctic need and for and resources start drilling. (Chaturvedi, They simply2012, Ministerialcurrently being Meeting considered in 2011, by and the the Task idea Force of a don’t230). haveHowever, the capability they are tounlikely do so, andto descend the effects on minimum financial contribution from Observers, of the melting ice won’t be truly realized for years hold non-Arctic states to the curb. Indeed, the forObserver Institutional Rules might Issues actually (TFII), be wouldtoo draconian, further they will have to abide by whatever the member as they give non-Arctic states little else besides statesto come stipulate (Lasserre, in extracting 2013). Whatever resources happens,from the Arctic. The situation is different concerning the EU, which has made a host of recommendations scientificInuit Circumpolar access to Councilworking and groups other (Koivurova Permanent & on Arctic governance, including suggesting the Graczyk,Participants 2013, have p. 7). shown Considering such a strong the fact penchant that the ATS as a model for opening the region to the for diplomacy, this almost draconian aversion world, a suggestion vehemently opposed by to outsiders seems counterproductive.. As the the member states and Permanent Participants problems facing the Arctic including climate change and pollution originate from outside of the region, making the AC a largely exclusive (KoivurovaChina’s relatively & Graczyk, approach 2013; to the Rhemann, Arctic in calling2012; body makes little sense for negotiating solutions. forYoung, little 2009). change Considering besides thea permanent contrasts between seat at the table, to the EU’s relatively more outspoken The Arctic Council: the Changing calls for change the member states might have Organization The Arctic Council is an institution the Council. formed out of the embers of the Cold War, as the comparably However, little conflict the Arctic with member China’s statesentry intoand war wound down, so did the view of the Arctic Permanent Participants are concerned that too as a battleground. The Finns took the initiative in many observers with a vested interest in the the security void left by the collapse of the Soviet Council would be a hindrance at best and an Union and came up with a model for action intrusion at worst. As one Russian diplomat put on Arctic issues that would later evolve into it: “if you give them the green light, soon there the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy will be one hundred observers on board, who will gradually require more and more rights, AEPS was primarily focused on environmental and then insist on turning the Arctic into the (AEPS)issues with in 1991. a smaller As its emphasis name would on “sustainable imply, the ‘universal humankind heritage’ on the model

development,” a term which would be ill-defined regionof the asAntarctic” theirs to administer(Koivurova and& Graczyk, steward, 2013,while up until the first few years of the Arctic Council’s thep. 5). Permanent Ultimately Participantsthe member fearstates multitudes view the existenceprocedure (Bloom, and staggered 1999). A levels unique of body, membership, the AC is of newcomers ignorant of their traditions and anwith informal decisions forum made yet it onstill consensushas codified between rules of being marginalized in their own lands once the eight member states and the Permanent again. Of course as it stands under the current Participants. It straddles the line between formal observer rules, the non-Arctic states that have and ad hoc as there is no voting, no permanent funding scheme, and until very recently there they can only make written contributions at was no permanent secretariat to properly MinisterialObserver status Meetings, have littleand areinfluence. limited For in one,the institutionalize it, though its members behave according to written Rules of Procedure (Bloom, that they cannot surpass that of member states financial contributions that they can make such folded into the nascent Arctic Council and more have1999). since The been working added, groups along ofwith the an AEPS expansion were (Arctica minimum Council, as 2013).it keeps This members financial statesstipulation in a of the AEPS’s narrow remit and mandate. What’s in particular keeps non-Arctic influence to more, the Arctic Council was also meant to give now, it almost seems as though the Permanent Participantsdominant financial have little position. to fear, As asit thestands member right decision making by establishing the status of states have closed ranks in a way against indigenous groups more influence over regional

91 Permanent Participant (Bloom, 1999). There are serious advantages to this to transnational issues. While many have argued format for those member states involved. To the for a hard-law decision making body in the United States, it offers the best of both worlds in organization is resistant to sweeping changes, considerable infrastructure in the form of working butArctic, that Timo it can Koivurova and has evolved(2009) littleargues by that little the to groupsthat it isand fluid technical and informal, expertise. while In also addition offering to meet new challenges: “it would be a mistake that there are no required contributions and few to think that the Arctic Council could easily be entanglements, so it can be used at will. Bloom turned into a treaty base body having regulatory

the establishment of the Arctic Council (1999) arguesas a forum that: without legal personality, AEPSpowers to ... the [t]his SAR is treaty not to andsay thatbeyond, no evolution its format has is and thus not as an ‘international stilloccurred evolving in Arctic and bearing cooperation” fruit. Though (p. 7). fewFrom of the organization’ as that term is understood Arctic Eight agree to what exactly should be done under international law, was an objective with the Council, the fact that they have a vision of the United States and is consistent for the Council is an encouraging sign. with a tendency in recent American diplomatic practice to seek an informal Possible Changes: Institutional Amendments cooperative structure when that and International Involvement structure is adequate for the purposes of Changes to the Arctic Council, in conjunction with the changing environment it researches, should cater to the Council’s most Indeed, theaside issues from involved Denmark (p. 721). and Greenland, important functions: as a platform for cooperation the Arctic Eight have little interest in diverging for non-Arctic as well as Arctic states (and from this format to any great degree (Graczyk, as a media bridge to the outside world, and as Arctic Council. It still maintains the hierarchy of apotentially knowledge more aggregate legally and binding producer agreements), (Graczyk, 2012). Little has changed from the AEPS to the and ministerial meetings, and an overall soft-law SAR treaty is an output of the Arctic Council, it working groups, Senior Arctic Officials (SAOs), 2012). Erik Molenaar (2012) argues that as the the Council as remaining in a “study and talk” as consisting of two instruments: the original formatarrangement. that has Koivurova been hit (2007)or miss, characterizes with some wouldfoundation be beneficialas decreed to in thesee Ottawathe Arctic Declaration, Council products of the Working Groups having huge and a system of treaties output by the Arctic

trends reinforce the notion that this change is influencethe indigenous with bodiesothers as hardly Permanent being Participants glanced at alreadyCouncil takingbut not place, adopted as oneby ittreaty (p. 158). has alreadyRecent (p, 191). The major difference is the inclusion of been produced and a second is on the way, much has the Council produced any sort of binding (Koivurova,arrangement, 2009, mostly p. serving6). Only as avery producer recently of As previously noted, this method is realistic, superb technical information with accompanying preferredlike Molenaar by the (2012) Arctic prescribesEight, and robustin his system.enough policy recommendations. to confront issues as they creep up. In the long This current format (soft-law, informal, term, the situation may change and necessitate some form of comprehensive treaty(Sellheim, states, and has its advantages and limitations. flexible)Its recommendations is more or less preferredcarry some by theweight member but system of choice. are not enforced or monitored. Issues that are 2012), butIncreasing in the short the Arcticterm, thisCouncil’s seems role to be as the an awareness raiser is an objective that goes hand due to the need for consensus, and non-Arctic in hand with the gathering of knowledge that Permanentcontentious Observers like fisheries have and not security been consistently are avoided the Council focuses on now. Its policy-shaping

it produces enjoys increased visibility. For both integrated into the Council (Graczyk, 2012). The ofmandate these goals, will be the better establishment fulfilled if theof a information Permanent anrecent oil spill adoption prevention of the treatySAR (Search under theand auspicesRescue) Secretariat in Tromsø, Norway is a great boon, ofTreaty the inArctic 2011 Council and the pointongoing to negotiationsthe format, withover for it adds a base to store knowledge, and also some updates, as capable of producing solutions provides a continuous staff, as well as further

92 establishing the reputation of the Arctic Council one of its main tasks is to facilitate information similarATS like tobody the in ATSthe Arctic(p. 40). “utopian” Though in nature,Kristin betweenas an institution and outside (Sellheim, Arctic Council2012, p.members, 71). As Bartenstein (2013) has called the adoption of an one potential and interesting change would this particular aspect of the system. By giving be to task it with producing media packets or Rhemann (2012) makes a good argument for newsletters consisting of information culled from to non-Arctic states and keeping Observer status forConsultative NGOs and Party the (or like, something it would similar) help betterstatus delineate responsibilities and privileges in the theraise various awareness working in the groups world (Sellheim,similar to what2012, the p. Council. By establishing a new category, new 73). As simple an approach as media could help rules can be constructed that better suit the level of participation that non-Arctic states want. Arcticon the Climate world Impactstage, which Assessment is advantageous (ACIA) did toin Consultative Parties can participate, but that 2004,member and states would and help Permanent raise the Participants Arctic agenda alike. participation can also be clearly restricted to To further aid in this cause, Jennifer Rhemann keep member state and permanent participant interest of primary concern. Giving slightly more access for funds and expertise would help foster (2012) explores the potential integration of cooperation rather than competition, as well morecould greatlyscientific increase groups the like capacity the Association of the Arctic of PolarCouncil Early to gather Career information Scientists and (APECS), foster a greaterwhich as better defining roles of the various ancillary network of scientists would help disseminate Policymembers Options to the Council (Rhemann, 2012). knowledgebase of talent and toawareness. work with Likewise, (p, 34). more A greater direct In light of what has been examined in this involvement between groups like APECs/UArctic and the Permanent Participants would heighten the future of the Arctic Council: visibility of their interests as well (Rhemann, paper, I have identified the following options for •• Continue to adhere to the current soft-law Of course, one of the more pressing issues format of the Council. likely2012, p.to 39). be discussed at the next Ministerial It is a more realistic option than a treaty Meeting in Kiruna this May is the issue of system. While this might seem limited, recent Permanent Observers in the Council. Though the history has shown that it can produce binding Observer Rules adopted at the Nuuk Ministerial documents. Because it can produce binding documents to deal with Arctic issues, and because for new observers, there are still some issues. the member states are comfortable with it, it is a MeetingFor instance in 2011 the helpgeneral codify trend the in selection the Council process has valid formula to stay with. Reactive and proactive been to view the group as more exclusive than inclusive, and new membership has been looked effective than any “panacea” treaty that could be renderedaction aimed obsolete at specific by changing goals circumstances.will be more The dual pillared system suggested Erik Molenaar atObserver askance status (Molenaar, might 2012).seem like While a good the ideaway toof is a good option. It plays to the Council’s strengths harnesshaving athe minimum purse-strings financial of newcontribution members, for it as a forum and a producer of knowledge. In the might honestly discourage them from joining at all, short term, this is the best option. if they only get the limited access that Permanent •• Change attitudes of member states to allow describes the potential backlash as a hue and cry for more inclusivity. Observer status imparts. Molenaar (2012) International actors can be managed As it currently stands, Observer status already effectively and also bring a lot to the table in appliesof “no taxation to states, without NGOs, representation” and intergovernmental (p. 171). include a new category for nation states like the Permanent Observer status for non-Arctic states termsConsultative of expertise Party in and the ATS,finance. as it Itwould may perhapshelp to thatgroups. would Rhemann help solve(2012) this offers overcrowding an alternative issue to entice actors to engage with the Council while also having them adhere to the greater interests and expertise by creating a new category for of the Permanent Participants and the member non-Arcticand further statesentice calledthem toConsultative contribute financesParties, states. Adding in a new membership category

93 for non-Arctic states would help to delineate format. These limits are indeed serious, but it privileges and status in the Council between non- makes more sense in the short term to focus on Arctic states and international institutions. It strengthening the Council piecemeal, rather than would provide a nice short-term incentive to non- aiming for a comprehensive treaty system, which Arctic states to be involved while still limiting few of the member states would agree to, and would likely be rendered obsolete by changing concerns of the Permanent Participants, allowing circumstances. themtheir influence.an increased At the presence same time, in tothe pacify Council the would help. Though they would remain unable to affect the decisions of the member states in declarations, perhaps allowing them to share in decision making in admitting new members to the Council would give them the increased control necessary to see to their interests.

•• Build the Council as a media platform. Raising awareness in the wider world will aid in solving Arctic issues, many of which are global in nature anyways. The Secretariat could serve an important role in helping the Council connect with the media and also distribute the body’s superb technical works. The Secretariat could build media packets to bring the world’s attention to Arctic issues. Furthermore, organizations both inside and outside the Arctic wouldbuilding get more the cooperationattention of betweenthe wider scientific world as well. Establishing a larger, more inclusive network of scientists and non-Arctic participants would allow the Council a bit of control over Arctic discourse, instead of allowing the media to classify the Arctic situation unchallenged.

Conclusion The problems facing the Arctic, in the form of climate change and pollution, largely stem from non-Arctic states. It is key that the Arctic Council outsidebe a forum of the for region,more international so it is justifiable involvement to involve as available and serve to raise awareness of Arctic issuesthis will beyond both broaden the Arctic the region. expertise In contrast and finances to the common beliefs that other international interests could dilute indigenous voice, the Permanent Participants maintain the ability and the position to effectively engage outsiders. In fact, not doing so would be counterproductive for their interests. The Arctic Council has the capacity to face the challenges in the Arctic even in its current limited

Michael Brown is a senior at the University of Washington studying in the Jackson School of Interna- tional Studies as well as Finnish language. After he graduates this summer, he plans to go to grad school in either Helsinki or Tampere for a Masters of Sociology.

94 Chapter 10

China and the Arctic Council

By Rachel Tam

Abstract China’s request for permanent observer status in 2009 was postponed by the Arctic Council, but this did not discourage China from re-applying this year (Arctic Council, 2009). Many countries are eager to gain a seat in the high-level international forum for circumpolar gov- ernance. However, there is limited discussion on the actual role of the observer, criteria for admission into the Council and influence of observer states. Despite not having an of- ficial Arctic policy, China has openly endorsed the workings of the AC, though was refused entry in 2009. Prominent scholars argue that China’s refusal to the AC has to do with the perception that China’s sole interest in the Arctic is for economic benefits rather than inher- ent interest in climate change (Jakobson & Peng, 2012). This misrepresentation deserves scrutiny as China has long been involved with scientific research in the polar zones and the actual capability of navigating the Northwest Passage remains unlikely. Rather, China’s objective in gaining observer status in the AC derives from its status as an emerging pow- erhouse and is part of a broader national strategy to become a responsible global actor. Introduction With the sea-ice melting in the , actor. The chapter then goes on to examine the scholars describe the phenomenon as the limited discussions on the role of the observer scramble for Arctic resources. The US Geological and the criteria for admission to the AC. In so doing it is crucial to understand Chinese the world’s undiscovered reserves of natural Survey estimates that some 30 percent of the dominant belief that China’s interest lies lie in the Arctic. The potential environmental exclusivelyArctic interests in Arctic broadly extractive defined, activities and challenge or the gastransformation and 13 percent will have of world’sprofound untapped impacts onoil geopolitical security, especially shipping patterns and resource extraction activities (Gautier et region’s economic potential (Campbell, 2012; Curtisprospective Wright, contributions 2011; Makki, China 2012; will Mrockowski, bring as a future2012). ACThe observer. chapter Methodologically, then sheds thislight paper on al.,that 2011; China isUSGS, considered 2008). forWith permanent the decision observer for statusobserver due status to the to begrowing made inrecognition May 2013, itthat is vital the Arctic is becoming an increasingly important looks exclusively at official Chinese governmental geopolitical environment. The Chinese hopes to documents (12th Five Year Plan; Chinese Foreign be considered a key player in Arctic governance ACPolicy and itsDocuments; Arctic foreign Principles policy agenda. of PeacefulIn doing and China’s interest in the region is clear. so,Coexistence) this chapter to assesschallenges Chinese existing interests perceptions1 for the The aim of this chapter is to reevaluate of China as an energy hungry giant and argues the inaccurate depiction of China’s interest in that China’s objective in gaining observer status the Arctic and to explore China as a potential in the Arctic Council stems from the desire to observer of the AC, which will consequently have 1 Since this chapter focuses on Chinese official gov- various implications for circumpolar relations ernmental documents, there is no mention of the and international affairs. Part one of the chapter indigenous population in the Arctic. China does not highlights China’s foreign policy and its goal to exclusively have a foreign policy on Inuit in the Arctic, establish its reputation as a responsible global though supports the UN clause regarding indigenous populations. 95 assert itself as a global power and a broader As climate change threatens international national strategy to become a responsible and security, it is an issue of rising importance in the visible actor in world affairs. agenda of many nation-states. In alignment with this, the Chinese government fully acknowledges China’s Foreign Policy to its national security. It is noteworthy that dictate its foreign policy, which is in accordance amongstand deems the climatepolitical change leaders aof significant China, there threat is no with its long-term China’s official goal ofgovernmental bolstering its documents reputation as a responsible global actor. China’s foreign policy is related to its ability to assert its major dispute on the reality of climate change. In 2011, power position in international institutions. ofChina socio-economic published its initiatives 12th Five-Year aimed Plan to ensure(2011 The analysis of these governmental documents to 2015), which highlights the incorporation reveals China’s broader national strategy of comprehensive document stresses China’s overall becoming a responsible actor in international progressgrowth (People’s in sustainable Republic development. of China, 2011). According This affairs. China’s participation in multilateral organizations such as the United Nations and “proposed concepts such as resource- saving, environmentallyto the 12th Five-Year friendly Plan, society, China has an sinceinnovative 2003 willingness to cooperate with other member oriented country, ecological civilization, green World Trade Organization (WTO) indicates its development” and continues to put these statesexisting (United international Nations order Member and doesStates; not World want environmental stewardship and its long-term toTrade be viewedOrganization, as a threat. 2013). Along China with respects its interest the intogoal ofpractice becoming (2011). a responsible China’s commitment actor generate to in becoming a compliant member, China’s goal to interest to gain permanent observer status to the uphold its reputation in the world stage is in line AC. Hence, the primary driving force of China’s with its foreign policy. interest2 in the Arctic region is to enhance its Much of China’s current foreign policy is reputation as a responsible player and to exert based on Zhou Enlai’s Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and is described as “harmony Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that China without uniformity”, which encourages itswill influence provide addedby joining value the as AC a member as observer of the status. AC diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences (Ministry of Foreign Reexamining Chinese Interest in the Arctic Many countries are concerned with

Affairsmaintained of the better People’s relations Republic with of major China, powers 2000). Sinceand ties the reformwith neighboring of China in 1978,states. the For country example, has andChina’s the growingworld’s secondinfluence largest and vieweconomy, China’s China’s rise China currently has diplomatic relations with as a threat. With a population of over 1.3 billion affairs. In an increasingly globalized world, everyChina’s move every has action the holdscapacity the abilityto influence to adversely world 171 countriesMoreover, and maintainsChina’s embassiesState Councilin 162 affect the global economy. Aware that acting (US Bureau of Public Affairs, 2013). assertive will alarm other international actors entitled China’s Peaceful Development Road, and harm its reputation as a responsible player, whichInformation highlights Office thepublished importance a white of peace,paper China adopts a low-key non-confrontational approach regarding Arctic matters, as evident for China and the outside world. China’s foreign in Chinese policy documents and rhetoric from policycollaboration, follows harmonythe road of and peaceful beneficial development, outcomes The misperception of Chinese objective opening to the outside world, linking the inofficials the Arctic (Peng, originated2011). from a statement by developmentwhich “unifies of Chinadomestic with thatdevelopment of the rest ofwith the Chinese Rear Admiral Yin Zhuo who claimed that, world, and combining the fundamental interests of the Chinese people with the common interests Chinathe Arctic must “belong[s] plan indispensable to all the people role in around the Arctic the It is in China’s national interest to maintain peace world, as no nation has sovereignty over it [...] inof allthe peoples international throughout stage, the which world” would (Liu, allow 2003). it to continue its domestic development. exploration2 The author asuses we this have argument one onfifth a theoretical of the world’s basis.

96 of current shipping routes in comparison statement appropriated international attention, to the Northwest Passage. Université Laval leadingpopulation” to the (Makki, perception 2012). of The China Admiral’s as a global bold power desperate to acquire supplies of energy the assumption that the Northwest Passage will and other minerals and to secure potential beProfessor heavily Frédéricutilized inLasserre the near (2010) future. dismisses Lasserre future shipping routes such as the Northwest argues that Chinese interest in the Northwest and Northeast passages. However, it is crucial Passage as a potential shipping route is not very not to base Chinese foreign3 policy off of a single credible as the Northwest Passage does not statement. The misguided perception that China’s necessarily offer a shorter route between major sole purpose in the Arctic is to seek economic international ports and the unpredictability of in consideration China’s long history of research For example, Lasserre’s research reveals that the inbenefits the polar is problematic,zones and actual especially navigable after shipping taking distancemelting sea from ice New makes York it difficult to Shanghai for navigation.. using the routes. Northeast Passage, also known as the Northern

While China is not an Arctic littoral state, its pending Dedication application to forScientific observer Research status is not Sea Route (NSR) is 17,030 miles in comparison to driven by economic motives. In fact, China’s 19,893 miles on the Northwest Passage (Lasserre, long involvement in the polar zones indicates 2010:Passage 6). will In spiteopen of and this close. and theSuch melting uncertainty of sea ice, it is difficult to foresee when the Northwest along four main axes: oceanography, biology, gauge shipping timetables and estimate arrival itsatmospheric dedication science, to scientific and glaciologyresearch structured(Humpert timesmakes forit difficultcargo. Moreover,for shipping Chinese companies shipping to been funding the Polar Research Institute of & Raspotnik, 2012). Since 1989, China has firms are largely globalized and make decisions circumpolar regions of Antarctica and the Arctic. basedunlikely on to cost become benefit the analysis future Panama (Lasserre, Canal 2010: for China (Zhongguo Jidi Yanjiu Zhongxin) in the 6).China. For these It is also reasons, worthy the to Northwest note that amongPassage the is the program supervises three Chinese research 4 stationsWith 124 in staff Antarctic and headquartered and one in in the Shanghai, Arctic shown an immediate interest in opening Arctic shippingthree largest routes Chinese due toshipping slower firms,speeds, none higher has insurance costs, higher probability of delays, and (Curtis Wright, 2011). The (Huanghe) Yellow serious risks of damage to the cargo (Lasserre, Riverclimatological Station hasresearch been stationin operation (Chinese since Embassy 2004 and serves as China’s first Arctic oceanic and reluctant to invest in icebreaker vessels to use 2010:in Arctic 7). waters,Furthermore, due to shippinghigh costs companies of operation are thein Norway,“development 2004). ofIn addition,marine economyChina’s mostand emphasizesrecent Five-Year the needPlan to(2011-2015) strengthen integratedpromotes these factors, it is reasonable to presume that for marine surveying and mapping” (Humpert & the(Lasserre, time being, 2010: China’s 7). Taking involvement into consideration in the Arctic is not associated with shipping purposes. above, China’s focus to the Arctic is not a sudden scrambleRaspotnik, for 2012). resources As shown but an from enduring the examples interest The Obsever Status As Canada prepares to take over the chairmanship of the AC, the question remains Shippingin scientific research in the region. India, Italy, Japan, South Korea and Singapore whetherobserver to status offer China,at the the Council. European According Union (EU), to owing to In touristrecent years,and cruise traffic ships in the rather Northwest than Graczyk, Non-arctic States apply for this role commercialPassage has shipping. increased Accordingly, significantly, the prevailing though to enhance their position in the Arctic, which notion that Chinese interest is fueled by economic gains from the opening of the Northwest Passage is problematic and requires an in depth analysis capabilitiesincludes scientific for operating research in the activity, Arctic” (Graczyk,“creating specifically designed Arctic policies and showing 3 China is portrayed as an emerging power, dire need of 4 In this statement, the Panama Canal is assumed to be energy sources (Campbell, 2012; Curtis Wright, 2011; the most utilized sea route, connecting Asia, , the Makki, 2012; Mrockowski, 2012). Americas and Africa. 97 progress when it released admission criteria for non-Arctic states, inter-governmental and 2011).inter-parliamentary Observer status organizations in the AC (globalis open and to observersstates to theand AC a definitionare granted of entrytheir respectiveaccording rolesto their (Gracyzyk acceptance & Koivurova, and support 2013). of objectivesObserver toregional) the Council’s and non-governmental meetings and activities, organizations have exclusive(Arctic Council, access to2011). the Council Observers proceedings, are invited can recognition of Arctic sovereignty, recognition propose projects through states and participants of legalthe AC framework defined inthat the applies Ottawa to Declaration, the Arctic and can submit relevant documents, at the Ocean, notable the Law of the Sea, respect of discretion of the Chair of the AC (Arctic Council, values, interests, culture and traditions of Arctic indigenous peoples, demonstration of political AC primarily at the level of Working Groups. Oran 2011).Young indicatedFurther, observers that non-state can participateactors have in been the Arctic interests relevant to the work of the AC “successful in the past in securing for themselves and financial willingness and demonstration of opportunities to participate in Arctic governance by framing” the issues in a way that corresponded To(Arctic understand Council, 2009).the AC decision to postpone China’s 2009 Application Revisited The AC serves to be the only major to examine empirical evidence from other cases internationalwith the agenda initiative of the Arctic for non-Arctic states (2009). states to Chinesesuch as entrythe EU’s into rejectionthe AC in 2009,by the it isAC. imperative Scholars turn to for formal recognition and participation deemed that the refusal of observer status to the in decision-making processes in the Arctic EU is due to the EU’s support for the ban on seal

largest sealing nation and has continuously lobbying(Makki, 2012). powers For thisin circumpolarreason, outside relations. players productsexpressed (Philips, that a 2009).seal ban Canada would is thenegatively world’s However,request Observer there are statuslimits toto thegain role influence of Observer, and as there are many provisions created to restrain Accordingly, Canadian foreign affairs minister external actors from skewing the main objectives Lawrenceimpact its indigenousCannon, representingpopulation (Philips, the Harper 2009). of the AC. The AC rules of procedure and Nuuk Government, was opposed to the EU accession rules state that the primary role of observers is to the AC because of their perceived disinterest to merely observe the work of the AC (Graczyk, to cooperate and coordinate with member states within the AC remains the responsibility of the 2013).eight Arctic Decision states makingand Permanent process Participants.at all levels Chinain the hasArctic participated (Philips, 2009). as ad-hoc Similarly, observer China of hasthe ACalso and been thereby postponed gained entry a deepin 2009. understanding Since 2007, cannot exceed the funding provided by the Arctic of the inner workings of the Council. It fully Furthermore, observers’ financial contributions accepts and supports the mandate and vision of decision-making,states. The constraint as investments on financial in input large-scale limits projectsthe ability have of externalthe potential actors to to exert influence pressure AC ofthe granting council (Lan,China 2009). an observer Although status, there scholars has not postulatebeen an official that negative explanation connotations to the postponing from the These constraints prevent external actors from media may have affected the decision (Jakobson onplaying Arctic a dominant states’ roledecisions in relation (Graczyk, to Permanent 2013). Participants. Chinese interest in the Arctic is associated with its& Peng,thirst 2012).for natural There resources is a prevalent rather thanbelief innate that Criteria for Arctic Council Admission concern in climate change. Six non-arctic countries have been admitted as Permanent Observer States to analysts to promote assertive views in regards the Arctic Council: France, Germany, the to the PriorArctic to region.2011, it wasHowever, common following for Chinese the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, and Britain under AC’s second deferral of decisions on permanent observer applications, Chinese Arctic scholars have become much more subdued in public. procedurethe rules of procedureand criteria created for inadmission 1996 (Gracyzyk have The rationale behind this changing rhetoric & Koivurova, 2013). Since then, the rules of is perhaps due to the fear that overly assertive statements may jeopardize China’s future changed. At the 2011 ministerial meeting held in Nuuk, Greenland, the AC made significant 98 Additionally, controversy stemming from China’s number of Chinese polar scientists (Humpert & inannouncement the Arctic (Jakobson of its sixth expedition& Peng, 2012, to the Arcticp. 5).

fromRaspotnik, expeditions 2012). between different countries inChinese 2013 andscholars its intention to adopt to build a aless new 8000-tonassertive The compiling of scientific findings icebreaker vessel in 2014 further encouraged for development in the Arctic region. Financial of AC admission, the perception of China as a contributionbenefits the fromglobal China community can also strengthenand is crucial the resourcerhetoric (Makki, hungry 2012). entity Despiteis the mainmeeting source criteria for Arctic Council by providing communication and resistance against its entry to the international cooperation among stakeholders in addressing Arctic issues. As maritime activities in the Arctic 5 increase, there is a growing need for Arctic search Contributionsforum (Jakobson from & Peng, China 2012). and rescue services, profound understanding Melting sea-ice is not only a regional of operating ships in Arctic waters and the issue, but rather a global phenomenon that development of successful regulations on safety affects every region of the Earth. Adhering to this and environmental protection. China is both perspective, China rejects the notion that Arctic states alone should decide issues pertaining to work of the council and to strengthen cooperation withinwilling theand Council. able to contribute financially to the environmental transformations will adversely affectthe Arctic. China’s Chinese economy, officials ecological claim that system potential and Policy Options energy conditions. In accessing the problems of Chinese China, a major global actor with clear presence in the Arctic, we propose policy rationalized interest in the Arctic, has the recommendations that will strengthen these potential to become a valuable permanent relations. support to the AC. The working groups of the AC areobserver funded through voluntarily the by provisions individual Arcticof financial states. Policy Options for China Under the current framework, states propose •• It is crucial for China to establish an Arctic projects or working groups, and governments foreign policy to foster communication with of the state that are interested take the lead in external actors. implementing and paying for these initiatives (US •• Bolster China’s long-term national goal of “sustainable development” by being more contributions and states within the AC do not active in climate change in the South. Department of State, 1999). There are no specified considered to be unsatisfactory to a number of Policy Options for Arctic Council financegovernments every andproject. proves This to underminefunding approach the work is •• Reconsider existing provisions regarding of the Arctic Council. However, including China in this international forum has the potential to from outside research. correct this problem. •• Reevaluatescientific research the role to of permit Observers contribution by increasing participation of Observers in government allocated a generous budget to the Arctic affairs In the 12th Five-Year Plan, the central in funds translates to increased frequency Policy Options for Permanent Participants organsof China’s of polar polar affairs research (Peng 2011). and Theexpeditions. increase •• Clearly establish the intentions and Five Antarctica expeditions and three Arctic objectives of indigenous population/ working groups clear to ensure that voice will be heard. researchexpeditions icebreaker will be iscarried expected out tobetween be in use 2011 by and 2015. As previously mentioned, a new polar Conclusion include a new ice-capable plane, a new polar The result to China’s application as research2014 (Bi, facility 2013). in China’sShanghai future and anArctic increasing plans 5 China meets all of the requirements for entry to the AC, as stated in the previous paragraph named “Criteria a potential observer will be finalized in May for AC Admission”. 2013 at the 8th ministerial meeting, held at 99 Kiruna, Sweden (Arctic Council, 2011). Thus, now is a critical time for the AC to respond to China’s request, as doing so can expand the AC’s arctic states will widen its scope in addressing international issuesinfluence. such Cooperation as climate change with non- and international shipping. Though China is too often portrayed as an energy-thirsty giant hindering its chances of gaining a seat as a permanent observe in the council, it is important to reconsider China’s motives. As seen from governmental documents and rhetoric from scholars and gaining observer status in the AC derives from its governmentalinterest in asserting officials, its position China’s as objectivean emerging in powerhouse, which is part of a broader national strategy to become a responsible global actor. As shown in this chapter, China’s entry into the to the council. China can positively contribute toArctic the Council throughentails more funding benefits for research than harm and communication. As the Chinese government is so intent on changing its ways and showing its keen commitment to solving the global crisis, is there a reason to neglect this global power?

Rachel’s interest in the environment stems from her time abroad in Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan. Naturally, she chose to focus her research in that region, and completed her chapter on China’s role in the Arctic. Rachel greatly enjoyed her experience in this Task Force, and is excited to see what the future has to offer for the Arctic region. 100 Conclusion

By Charlotte Dubiel Our title, “Equatorial North,” is meant Passage by considering a different worldview, to encourage the kind of vibrant dialogue the Inuit knowledge of sea ice, as a concept for Arctic security that begins with thinking that Canada could utilize as a diplomacy about the region as a homeland rather tool. Ho’s article considers Canada’s goals than a periphery. Our Task Force team was for its chairmanship of the Arctic Council fortunate enough to begin our investigation in Québec City and Ottawa, where we met North, in the context of regional land claims and spoke with experts dedicated to studying inagreements 2013, development and honoring for the a peoplecommitment of the and working for the North. Perhaps the most to devolution. In envisioning a prosperous invaluable experience for shaping this report province, van Tulder’s article advocates for was spending time with our peers from the the partnership between the interdependent North at Nunavut Sivuniksavut, perhaps it North and South Québec in order to was shivering out-of-doors in the Canadian prioritize human development. Each of these January. In reference to the interpersonal, approaches to making recommendations discussion-based learning taking place for political and diplomatic discourse abroad, our beloved instructor Nadine Fabbi begins with a critical look at the derivation summed-up the purpose of our expedition of knowledge. The authors consider what when she said “this is education.” Our community level resilience should look framing, research and writing were all heavily like before the provincial or national-state informed by the symposium of presentations, spheres, so that individuals, communities, talks and the personal connections we made and nations might be their most dynamic in in Québec and Canada. In this report we developing collaborative relationships. have, as authors and researchers, aimed to Part II of our report is a more detailed be cognizant of the voices of stakeholders. Our report accompanies the current capacity: tourism, biodiversity, food security, progressive discourse regarding the homelessnesslook at community-specific and migration Northern and education, issues of Arctic that reframes security beyond that draw on innovative models for developing a mere political, military, economic or solutions. Moore considers pre-requisites environmental context. We aim to present for sustainability regarding the tourism a series of recommendations that begins industry in the Arctic and proposes that the with recognizing the interdependency of state regulate cruise ships as knowledge individuals, communities and nation-states and the essential role for dialogue between common tenants of sustainability, such as them. ecologicalgaps fill, awarenessin addition and to preservationrecommending of In Part I of the report, Cosford presents cultural traditions. Sugarman proposes a an argument for reinvigorating a stagnant hybrid management scheme for biodiversity nation-state debate regarding the Northwest conservation, engaging biological science, 101 Inuit ways of knowing the natural world and the Arctic Council, a forum for multi nation citizen science in order to develop the most dialogue, and recommend that the Arctic not appropriate conservation plan at the local close itself off to ideas. The Inuit, as a people, level. Similar to the motivation behind citizen have made incredible progress politically science, Shaw recommends communities and socially in making their voice heard. in the North make use of targeted needs- We advocate for the continuing interchange assessments tools, such as Photo Voice, to of knowledge and think of the Arctic as determine management priorities. Guard’s a regional model for collaboration that modeling for education, rather than being a multi-sectoral action plan, is Nunavut globe. While we could never cover all of the Sivuniksavut. She recommends policy wouldissues berelevant beneficial to Arctic if modeled security, elsewhere we write in makers take a look at what is working and this report in the spirit of the borderlands, use the NS empowerment model as a starting hoping that each issue brought to the table point. Dolph asks her reader to consider the herein is thought of as crossing levels, and as very labels of homelessness and “moving dependent upon more than itself. south,” contesting that the terminology itself does not carry enough weight. She incorporates international frameworks for considering forced migration into the Canadian discourse about community well- being and recommends assisted repatriation as part of a reconciliation plan. Part III of our report jumps to international and nation-state relations at the forum of the Arctic Council. Brown and Tam argue that the Arctic Council must reevaluate the role of non-observer states and allow the entry of new states. New contributors bring new ideas and our authors advocate that Inuit voice be heard in a multiplicity of contexts. The change that is taking place in the circumpolar North will continue to affect the lives and development strategies of the inhabitants of the Arctic, as well as stakeholders and interested parties. The urgency that goes along with unprecedented change can be used as a catalyst for building dynamic solutions, and growing the capacity for security. Our report focuses on ten key Arctic issues in a variety of discourses and categories of social organization that include the individual, community and nation level. This report began in the spirit of dialogue and interpersonal connections. We conclude by recommending a continuation of the innovative solutions already in place or being discussed in the Arctic, which work towards capacity building for resilient communities. We commend the spirit of organizations like 102 Glossary of Terms

AANDC: Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Devel- NTEP: Nunavut Teaching Education Project opment Canada NWP: Northwest Passage AC: Arctic Council PAME: Protection of the Arctic Marine Environ- ACCORD: Action concertée de cooperation ré- ment gionale de développement PAQ: Projects Autochtones Quebec AEPS: Association of Polar Early Career Scien- PLQ: Parti Libéral du Québec tists POPs: Persistent Organic Pollutants AFN: Arctic Food Network PP: Permanent Participant AMSA: Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment RACER: Rapid Assessment of Circum-Arctic APECS: Association of Polar Early Career Scien- Ecosystem Resilience tists RAIPON: Russian Association of Indigenous CAFF: Conservation for Arctic Flora and Fauna Peoples of the North CBD: Convention on Biological Diversity SAO: CFP: Community Food Program SAR Treaty: Search and Rescue Treaty CIC: Citizenship and Immigration Canada TB: TuberculosisSenior Arctic Official CITES: Convention on International Trade in TEK: Traditional Ecological Knowledge Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora TFF: Territorial Formula Financing DFAIT: Department of Foriegn Affairs and Inter- TFN: Tunngavik Federation of Nunavut national Trade UArctic: University of the Arctic DFO: Department of Fisheries and Oceans UDHR: Universal Declaration of Human Rights DMR: Decision Makers and Regulators UNCLOS: United Nations Convention on the Law EBM: Ecosystem Based Management of the Seas EU: European Union UNEP: United Nations Environmental Program GN: Government of Nunavut UNHCR: United Nations High Commissioner for ICC: Inuit Circumpolar Council Refugees IDPs: Internally Displaced Peoples WTO: World Trade Organization IQ: Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit WWF: World Wildlife Fund IPS: Indigenous People’s Secretariat IPY: International Polar Year IRCS: Inuit Regional Conservation Strategy ISIUOP: Inuit Sea ice Use and Occupancy Project ITK: Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature JBNQA: James Bay and Northern Quebec Agree- ment NGOs: Non-government organizations NLCA: Nunavut Land Claims Agreement NORDRED: Nordic Energy Regulators NS: Nunavut Sivuniksavut NSIE: National Strategy on Inuit Education NSR: Northern Sea Route 103 References

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Chapter 3: Le Québec Total : Creating an Unifying Vision for Northern Development (Un Plan Pour Tous)

Appendix A PLAN NORD: INTRODUCTION FOCUSING ON SUSTAINABLE NORTHERN DEVELOPMENT The Plan Nord is the project of a generation. It first offered a perspective of sustainable development in Québec and is now one of the biggest economic, social and environmental development projects in our time. The world is changing before our very eyes and Québec must constantly renew itself if it wishes to continue to fulfil itself in this new worldwide economic space. The gouvernement du Québec is determined to open new horizons to Québec talent to enable it to express itself the world over. The government’s initiatives in recent years have sought to develop new spaces by bolstering its relations and alliances with France, the European Union, the emerging economies, and its neighbours in Canada and the United States. Accordingly, the government has concluded: ■ the France-Québec agreement on the recognition of occupational qualifications and individual mobility; ■ a Québec-Ontario trade and cooperation agreement; ■ a long-term agreement with Vermont concerning the sale of Québec hydroelectricity. In addition to these agreements, the Canadian common market and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) give Québec special access to the North American continent. Québec has an export-oriented economy and has always taken advantage of market openness. Through the Plan Nord, we are gaining access to new horizons. Northern Québec is an immense, majestic territory abounding in resources. Their history and culture make the territory’s residents unique. Its rivers have enormous hydroelectricity potential and the territory also has inestimable mineral resources. Its scenery and wildlife offer appreciable potential for tourism. The Plan Nord proposes a sustainable development model that will allow the natural resources to be developed in a spirit of respect for the environment and ecosystems for the benefit of Northern Québec residents and all Quebecers.

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We have elaborated the Plan Nord in partnership. It stems from the reflections of the gouvernement du Québec, regional elected representatives and the representatives of the and the Inuit who, along with the representatives of the economic, social, community and environmental sectors, have envisaged the North of tomorrow. The Plan Nord will be carried out over a period of 25 years. The initiative will lead to over $80 billion in investments during that time and create or consolidate, on average, 20 000 jobs a year for 25 years, equivalent to 500 000 man-years. The scope of the Plan Nord will make it in the coming decades what the development of La Manicouagan and James Bay were to the 1960s and 1970s. It is planning development differently, i.e. in consultation with the regions concerned. This document presents the perspective underlying the Plan Nord, the objectives pursued and the initiatives to be undertaken. It proposes an initial five-year plan that encompasses the measures in the initial phase of the Plan Nord. Chapter 1 proposes the establishment of a government corporation with its own board of directors, which will have a mandate to coordinate government initiatives bearing in mind the private investment announced north of the 49th parallel. The corporation will ensure the integrated, coherent development of Northern Québec. In particular, it will have a mandate to act as a mandatary in the development and funding of infrastructure and in the social field. Chapter 2 concerns the investment projects anticipated over the next five years to enable northern populations to participate fully in the sustainable development of Northern Québec. Accordingly, it sets out the development projects in the realms of education, manpower, housing, health and culture. Chapter 3 describes the immense resources found in Northern Québec and defines investment projects in the energy, mining, forest and wildlife sectors and the tourism and bio-food industries. Chapter 4 focuses on access to this vast territory and indicates investment projects in the realms of transportation and communications that are essential for Northern Québec’s development. Chapter 5 examines the environmental perspective of the development of Northern Québec and the measures to protect ecosystems advocated within the framework of sustainable development. Lastly, Chapter 6 presents the financial framework of the first action plan (2011-2016) under the Plan Nord. Innovative funding measures will enable the government to implement the Plan Nord in a spirit of respect for its objectives from the standpoint of fiscal balance and debt reduction. The Plan Nord establishes a new partnership between the private sector and local residents, the First Nations and the Inuit to enable them to achieve self-fulfilment. It allows for better control over our resources in order to enrich our society and attain greater energy independence. It proposes more effective conception of the sustainable development of Northern Québec in a spirit of respect for the environment and biodiversity. Above all, the Plan Nord opens new horizons to future generations of Quebecers and will offer the world the example of modern, sustainable, harmonious development.

(Plan Nord, 2011, 6-7)

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Appendix B

PLAN NUNAVIK : INTRODUCTION The broad development of northern Québec (including the landmark James Bay hydroelectric project) with its attendant economic, business and job opportunities has energized the imagination of Québecers over the past 60 years. A large part of this territory is also the “land where we live”, Nunavik. In 1975 under the James Bay and Northern Québec Agreement (JBNQA), the governments of Canada and Québec recognized Inuit rights in Nunavik, and granted the vast territory a legal status and a special regime of governance. The JBNQA was the first, truly modern Aboriginal treaty. The 2007 Nunavik Inuit Land Claims Agreement, for its part, further recognized the rights of Nunavik Inuit to the offshore region around Québec, as well as northern Labrador and offshore northern Labrador. The Plan Nord by the Government of Québec is set in this context. It is intended by its developers to be a unifying project, the sharing of a common vision, and a model for sustainable development. In response to the Plan Nord project in 2010, we prepared Plan Nunavik. Our Plan identifies Nunavimmiut's vision of development and our priorities over the next 25 years in areas such as housing, health, education, access to the land, environmental and wildlife protection, culture, tourism, bio-food, as well as non-renewable resource, energy, transportation, communications and community development. In Plan Nunavik, the position of Inuit regarding the Plan Nord and the development of natural resources in the region is very clear.

• Plan Nord must comply with and ensure the continued implementation of the Government of Québec’s obligations under all the treaties and other agreements signed with Nunavik Inuit.

• If Québec intends for all Québecers to benefit from the Plan Nord, it must be prepared to invest in the priorities set out in Plan Nunavik and strive harder to improve the standard of living of Nunavimmiut. Finally, this introduction would be incomplete if we did not recognize the vital contributions of the many other concerned regional organizations towards the preparation of Plan Nunavik. These include the Nunavik Regional Board of Health and Social Services, the Kativik School Board, the Avataq Cultural Institute, and the Nunavik Mineral Exploration Fund, to name but a few. Introduction prepared in November 2011. (Plan Nunavik, 2011, 329-328)

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Rutten, B. (2010). Security in Canada’s North Looking Beyond Arctic Sovereignty. Retrieved from http://www.conferenceboard.ca/temp/1420c648-aff4-4370-a3ee-e6562a6c7b99/11- 120_securityincanadasnorth_web.pdf

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Shields, A. (2012, November 5). Coup de frein sur la route du Nord québécois. Le Devoir. Retrieved from http://www.ledevoir.com/politique/quebec/363204/coup-de-frein-sur-la-route-du- nord-quebecois

Chapter 4: Arctic Tourism: Cruises and Bruises

Annual Report on the State of Inuit Culture and Society, (2011). Retrieved February 20, 2013, from http://www.tunngavik.com

Chotka, M. (2004). Climate Change and the Tourist Economy of Churchill: Perspectives of Local Residents. Retrieved February 25, 2013 from http://www.manitobaresearchallianceced.ca/

Cruise North Expeditions. (2013). Retrieved February 25, 2013 from http://www.cruisenorthexpeditions.com/

Dobson, S. (2012). A Primer on the Canadian Pacific Cruise Ship Industry. Retrieved February 20, 2013 from http://www.sfu.ca/grow/science/resources/1276880544.pdf

Dunlavy, J., Lipai, M., Baldwin, Gord. (2009) Transportation in the North. Statistics Canada. Retrieved February 19, 2013, from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/

Ettenger, K. (2012). Northern Aboriginal Events as Tourist Attractions: Traditional Cree Gatherings in Northern Quebec. Retrieved January 22, 2013, from http://journals.sfu.ca/nr/index.php/nr/article/view/238/243

Ford, J., Pearce, T., Smit, B., Wandel, J., Allurut, M., Shappa, K., … Qrunnut, K. (2007). Reducing Vulnerability to Climate Change in the Arctic: The Case of Nunavut, Canada. Arctic Institute of North America, 60(2), 150-166. Retrieved January 23, 2013, from http://www.arctic.ucalgary.ca/

Freeman, M., & Wenzel G. (2006). The Nature and Significance of Polar Bear Conservation Hunting in the Canadian Arctic. Arctic Institute of North America. Retrieved on February 20, 2013 from http://www.arctic.ucalgary.ca/

Fugmann, G. (2009). Development Corporations in the Canadian North - Examples for Economic Grassroots Initiatives among the Inuit. Erdkunde, 63(1), 69-79. Retrieved February 22, 2013, from http://www.erdkunde.uni-bonn.de/

Government of Canada. (2012). Canada's Northern Strategy: Our North, Our Heritage, Our Future. Retried February 20, 2013 from http://www.northernstrategy.gc.ca/cns/cns-eng.asp#chp1

Johnston, A. (2012). Perspectives of Decision Makers and Regulators on Climate Change and Adaptation in Expedition Cruise Ship Tourism in Nunavut. Retrieved January 22, 2013, from http://journals.sfu.ca/nr/index.php/nr/article/view/239/244

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Lemelin, R. (2012). Examining the Potential for Wildlife Tourism in Eeyou Istchee, Northern Quebec, Canada. Retrieved January 23, 2013, from http://journals.sfu.ca/nr/index.php/nr/article/view/246/249

Luck, M., 30, P., & Stewart, E. (Ed.). (2010). Cruise Tourism in Polar Regions. Washington DC: Earthscan

Pfeiff, M. (2013). 'If it's explorer season, why can't we shoot them?'. Up Here Business. Retrieved on February 10, 2013, from http://www.uphere.ca

Quebec Tourism Strategy North of the 49th Parallel, (2011). Plan Nord. Retrieved Febrary 20, 2013 from http://www.plannord.gouv.qc.ca

Stenbaek, M. (1987). Forty Years of Cultural Change among the Inuit in Alaska, Canada and Greenland: Some Reflections. Arctic Institute of North America, 40(4), 300-309. Retrieved January 23, 2013, from http://www.arctic.ucalgary.ca/

Stewart, E. J. (2007). Sea Ice in Canada's Arctic: Implications for Cruise Tourism. Arctic Institute of North America, 60(4), 380-390. Retrieved January 22, 2013, from http://www.arctic.ucalgary.ca/

Stonehouse, B. & Snyder, J.(2010) Polar Tourism. , ON: Channel View Publications

The Time is Right: A vision and Strategy for Tourism Development in Nunavut. (2010). Retrieved February 10, 2013, from http://www.tunngavik.com

Tivy, A. (2010). Cruise Tourism and Sea Ice in Canada's Hudson Bay Region. Arctic Institute of North America, 63(1), 57-66. Retrieved January 22, 2013, from http://www.arctic.ucalgary.ca/

Visiting Arviat. (2013). Retrieved February 24, 2013, from http://www.visitarviat.ca/

Wallace, R. (2012). Emerging Canadian Priorities and Capabilities for Arctic Search and Rescue. Canadian Defense & Foreign Affairs Institute. Retrieved February 20, 2013, from http://www.cdfai.org

World Wildlife Fund. (2010). Ten Principles for Arctic Tourism. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved January 23, 2013, from http://worldwildlife.org/

Chapter 5: Creative Conservation: New Paradigms of Biodiversity Management in the Canadian Arctic

Aglukkaq, L. (2013). “Canada’s Second Chairmanship of the Arctic Council.” Arctic Frontiers Conference. Tromsø, Norway.

Arctic Council., & Canada. (1996). Declaration on the establishment of the Arctic Council (Ottawa, Canada, 1996). Ottawa: Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, Aboriginal and

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Circumpolar Affairs Division.

Armitage, D. R. (2005). Community-Based Management in Nunavut, Canada: Change, Uncertainty, and Adaptation. Society and Natural Resources, 18, 715-731.

Ayles, B. G., Bell, R., & Hoyt, A. (2007). Adaptive fisheries co-management in the western Canadian Arctic. Adaptive Co-Management: Collaboration, Learning and Multi-Level Governance. Vancouver: UBC Press

Balmford, A., Bennun, L., Brink, B.t., Cooper, D., Cote, I., Crane, P., … Walther, B. A. (2005). The Convention on Biological Diversity’s 2010 Target. Ecology, 307, 212-213.

Bennett, J. (2009, August 22). Moratorium on fishing north of Alaska. (blog post). Retrieved from http://foreignpolicyblogs.com/2009/08/22/moratorium-on-fishing-north-of-alaska/

Berkes, F., Colding, J., and Folke, C. (2000). Rediscovery of Traditional Ecological Knowledge as Adaptive Management. Ecological Applications, 10, 5, 1251-1262.

Berkes, F., Berkes, M. K., Fast, H. (2007). Collaborative Integrated Management in Canada's North: The Role of Local and Traditional Knowledge and Community-Based Monitoring. Coastal Management, 35:1, 143-162.

Bernton, H. (2009, Feb. 5). Global warming spurs commercial fishing moratorium in U.S. Arctic. Seattle Times. Retrieved from http://seattletimes.com/html/nationworld/2008712029_arcticclosure6m.html

Blatchford, A. (2012). Parti Québecois will revamp Plan Nord if it wins election. The Canadian Press. Retrieved from http://thechronicleherald.ca/business/126140-parti-Québecois-will- revamp-plan-nord-if-it-wins-election

Boswell, R. (2012, Apr. 22). Leaders urged to impose moratorium on industrial fishing in the Arctic. Ottawa Citizen. Retrieved from http://www.ottawacitizen.com/technology/national/6500093/story.html

CAFF International Secretariat. (May 2010). Arctic Biodiversity Trends 2010 – Selected indicators of change. Akureyri, Iceland: Asperent Stell.

CBC News. (2013 Jan. 19). Aboriginal groups meet about George River caribou. CBC News. Retrieved from http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/story/2013/01/16/north- kuujjuaq-george-river-caribou.html

Chapin III, F.S., Hoel, M., Carpenter, S. R., Lubchenco, J., Walker, B., Callaghan, T.V., … Zimov, S.A. (2006). Building Resilience and Adaptation to Manage Arctic Change. A Journal of the

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Human Environment, 35, 4, 198-202.

Christie, P., and Sommerkorn, M. (2012). RACER: Rapid Assessment of Circum-arctic Ecosystem Resilience, 2nd Ed. Ottawa, Canada: WWF Global Arctic Programme.

Convention on Biological Diversity: Text and annexes. (1994). Châtelaine, Switzerland: Interim Secretariat for the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Dawson, S. (2013). Nunavut narwhal management plan aims for April 1 launch. Nunatsiaq Online. Retrieved from http://www.nunatsiaqonline.ca/stories/article/65674nunavut_narwhal_management_plan _aims_for_april_1_launch/ de Groot, R., Fisher, B., and Christie, M. (2010). Integrating the ecological and economic dimensions in biodiversity and ecosystem service valuation. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity.

Díaz S, Fargione J, Stuart Chapin F III, Tilman D. (2006). Biodiversity loss threatens human well- being. PLoS Biology, 4, 8, 1300-1305.

Djoghlaf, A. (2011). Biodiversity, Peace and Security. In A. Djoghlaf & F. Dodds (Eds.), Biodiversity and Ecosystem Insecurity (15-26). London: Earthscan.

Donoil-Valcroze, T., Lesage, V., and Hammill, M. O. (2012). Management implications of closure of estuaries to hunting of beluga in Nunavik. Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat. Mont Joli, Quebec: Maurice-Lamontagne Institute, Fisheries and Oceans Canada.

Gouvernment du Québec. (2011). Building Northern Québec Together: The Project of a Generation. Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune.

Freeman, M. M. R., Wenzel, G. W. (Mar. 2006). The Nature and Significance of Polar Bear Conservation Hunting in the Canadian Arctic. Arctic, 59, 1, 21-30.

Freeman, S. (2011). Biological Science.

George, J. (2012). Nunavut narwhal plan proposes new management system. Nunatsiaq Online. Retrieved from http://www.nunatsiaqonline.ca/stories/article/65674nunavut_narwhal_plan_proposes_ne w_management_system/

Gislason, R. (2007). Beluga co-management; perspectives from and , Nunavik. Proquest Dissertations and Theses.

Guénette, S., Alder J. (2007): Lessons from Marine Protected Areas and Integrated Ocean

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Management Initiatives in Canada. Coastal Management, 35:1, 51-78

Heller, N. E., and E. S. Zavaleta. 2009. Biodiversity management In the face of climate change: A review of 22 years of recommendations. Biological Conservation 142: 14-32.

Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, (n.d.). Arctic Wildlife. Retrieved from https://www.itk.ca/publication/arctic-wildlife

Johnsen, K. I., Alfthan, B., Hislop, L., Skaalvik, J. F. (Eds). 2010. Protecting Arctic Biodiversity. United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal. Birkeland, Norway: Birkeland Tykkeri AS.

Kendrick, A., and Manseau, M. (2008). Representing Traditional Knowledge: Resource Managemetn and Inuit Knowledge of Barren-Ground Caribou. Society and Natural Resources, 21, 401-418.

Kishigami, N. (2005). Co-Management of Beluga Whales in Nunavik (Arctic Québec), Canada. Senri Ethnology Studies, 67, 121-144.

Knotsch, C. and J. Lamouche. (2010). Arctic Biodiversity and Inuit Health. Ottawa: National Aboriginal Health Organization.

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Makivik Corporation and Kativik Regional Government. (2012). Plan Nunavik. Westmount, Québec: Avataq Cultural Institute. Mallory, M. L., Ogilvie, C., Gilchrist, H. G. (2006). A Review of the Northern Ecosystem Initiative in Arctic Canada: Facilitating Arctic Ecosystem Research Through Traditional and Novel Approaches. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 113, 19-29.

McIver, J. (December 07, 1997). Environmental Protection, Indigenous Rights and the Arctic Council: Rock, Paper, Scissors on the Ice?. Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, 10, 1, 147.

Metcalf, C. (2004). Indigenous Rights and the Environment: Evolving International Law. Ottawa Law Review, 35, 101-140.

Mulrennan, M., Mark, R., and Scott, C. H. (2012). Revamping community-based conservation through participatory research. The Canadian Geographer, 56, 2, 243-259.

Noss, R. F., (1990). Indicators for Monitoring Biodiversity: A Hierarchical Approach. Conservation Biology, 4, 4, 355-364.

Nuttall, M. (1998). Protecting the Arctic: Indigenous peoples and cultural survival. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Harwood Academic Publishers.

Peacock, E., Derocher, A. E., Thiemann, G. W., and Stirling, I. (2011). Conservation and management of Canada’s polar bears (Ursus maritimus) in a changing Arctic. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 89, 371-385.

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Peters, E. (2003). Organisational Design for Co-Management: Comparing Four Committees in Nunavik. Les Cahiers de droit, 44, 4, 667-690.

Reeves, R., Rosa, C., George, J. C., Sheffield, G., and Moore, M. (2012). Implications of Arctic industrial growth and strategies to mitigate future vessel and fishing gear impacts on bowhead whales. Marine Policy, 36, 454-462.

Slocombe, D. S. (1993). Implementing Ecosystem-Based Management. BioScience, 43, 9, 612-622.

Slocombe, D. S. (1998). Lessons from experience with ecosystem-based management. Landscape and Urban Planning, 40, 31-39.

Snape III, W. J. (2010). Joining The Convention On Biological Diversity: A Legal and Scientific Overview of Why the United States Must Wake Up. Sustainable Development Law & Policy, 3, 10, 6-47.

Struzik, E. (2010). As the Far North Melts, Calls Grow for Arctic Treaty. Yale Environment 360. Retrieved from http://e360.yale.edu/feature/as_the_far_north_melts_calls_grow_for_arctic_treaty/2281/

Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice. (2011). Report of Working Group II. (UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/15/L.1/Add.2). Montreal, Canada: Convention on Biological Diversity.

Tester, F. J., and Irniq, P. (2008). Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit: Social History, Politics and the Practice of Resistance. Arctic, 61, 1, 48-61.

The Communities of Ivujivik, Puvirnituq and , Furgal, C., Nickels, S., Kativik Regional Government – Environment Department. (2005.) Unikkaaqatigiit: Putting the Human Face on Climate Change: Perspectives from Nunavik. Ottawa: Joint publication of Inuit Tapiriit Kanatimi, Nasivvik Centre for Inuit Health and Changing Environments at Université Laval and the Ajunnginiq Centre at the National Aboriginal Health Organization.

Trombetta, M. J. (2009). Environmental security and climate change: analyzing the discourse. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 21, 4, 585-602.

Tyrrell, M. (2007). Sentient Beings and Wildlife Resources: Inuit, Beluga Whales and Management Regimes in the Canadian Arctic. Human Ecology, 35, 575-586.

Tyrrell, M. (2008). Nunavik Inuit Perspectives on Management in the Canadian Arctic. Human Organization, 67, 3, 322-334.

Van Dyke, F. (2008.) Conservation Biology: Foundations, Concepts, Applications. Springer Science and Business Media.

Verhaag, M. (2003). It Is Not Too Late: The Need for a Comprehensive International Treaty to Protect the Arctic Environment. Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, 15,

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555-579.

Wells, J. (2013, Jan. 2). In Decline, Caribou Face a Tough Winter in Canada. National Geographic NewsWatch. Retrieved from http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2013/01/02/george-river-caribou/

Wenzel, G. W. (2004). From TEK to IQ: Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit and Inuit Cultural Ecology. Arctic Anthropology 41, 2, 238-250.

Zeller, T. (2010, Jan. 31). Failed Efforts in Protecting Biodiversity. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/01/business/global/01green.html?pagewanted=1.

Chapter 6: Pomegranates in the North, Muktuk in the South: Building Infrastructure for Arctic Food Security

Avard, Ellen. (2011, September). “Greenhouses in the North: developing a new type of local food system in Nunavik.” PhD Research Proposal. Laval University.

Brubaker, Michael with others. (2009, October). “Climate change effects on traditional Inupiat food cellars.” Bulletin No. 1. Center for Climate and Health.

Collings, Peter. (2011, June). “Economic strategies, community, and food networks in Ulukhaktok, Northwest Territories, Canada.” Arctic Institute of North America.

Connors, Colleen. (2012, November). “Makkovik gets a community freezer.” CBC.

DeSchutter, Olivier. (2012) “Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food.” Human Rights Council, UN General Assembly.

Douglas, V. and H.M. Chan. (2012). “The Community Freezer as a Cultural instrument in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region.”

Duhaime, Gérard and Nick Bernard. 2002. “Regional and Circumpolar Conditions for Food Security.” Conclusion. Sustainable Food Security in the Arctic: State of Knowledge.

Duhaime, Gérard and others. 2008. “Sustainable Food Security in the Canadian Arctic. An Integrated Synthesis and Action Plan.” Chapter Two. Arctic Food Security.

Duhaime, Gérard. 2008. “The State of Food Security in the Circumpolar Arctic.” Conclusion. Arctic Food Security.

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Ferguson, Hilary. (2012) “Inuit Food (In)Security in Canada: Assessing the Implications and Effectiveness of Policy.” Queen’s Policy Review. 54-79.

“Food Security Across the Arctic.” (2012, May). Background paper of the Steering Committee of the Circumpolar Inuit Health Strategy. Inuit Circumpolar Council, Canada.

Ford, James with Marrie-Pierre Lardeau and Will Vanderbilt. (2012). “The characteristics and experience of community food program users in arctic Canada: a case study from Iqaluit, Nunavut.” BMC Public Health.

“Inuit and the Right to Food.” 2012. Submission to the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food for the Official Country Mission to Canada.

“The Jokkmokk Agreement.” (2012). Indigenous Terra Madre.

Lougheed, Tim. (2010). “Changes in the Landscape of Arctic Traditional Food.” Environmental Health Perspectives.

Merriam-Webster (2013). “Infrastructure.” Online.

Myers, Heather with others. 2008. “Food Production and Sharing in Nunavut: Not Only Discourse, But Reality.” Chapter 4. Arctic Food Security.

Myers, Heather with others. 2008. “Setting the Table for Food Security: Policy Impacts in Nunavut.” Chapter 3. Arctic Food Security.

Natcher, David C. (2009). “Subsistence and the Social Economy in Canada’s Aboriginal North.” The Northern Review Journal.

Organ, Jennifer. (2012). “Commuinty Freezers Supporting Food Security: Perspectives From Residents of Nain, Nunatsiavut.” PhD thesis. Dalhousie University.

Paci, C.D. James with others. 2008. “Food Security of Northern Indigenous Peoples in a Time of Uncertainty.” Chapter 13. Arctic Food Security.

Peters, Evelyn. 2002. “Sustainable Development, Food Security and Aboriginal Self-Government in the Circumpolar North.” Department of Geography, Queen’s University. Chapter 13. Sustainable Food Security in the Arctic: State of Knowledge.

Pohl, Ethel Baraona (2012, January). “Nature as Infrastructure.” Interview with Kongjian Yu. Domus.

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New Brand and Website.”

Sheppard, Lola and Mason White. 2012. “Arctic Food Network.” Lateral Office. Food and the City: A Future For the Metropolis.

Sheppard, Lola and Mason White. 2011. “New New Deal: Infrastructures on Life Support.” Infrastructure as Architecture.

Todd, Zoe. 2011. “Food Security, Arctic Security: Why the Local Cannot Be Ignored.” Department of Rural Economy, University of Alberta. Humanizing Security in the Arctic.

Theirault, Sophie. (2011, September). “The food security of the Inuit in times of change: alleviating the tension between conserving biodiversity and access to food.” Journal of Human Rights and the Environment.

White, Mason. 2011. “Regional food-gathering nodes and logistics network, Iqaluit, NU, Canada.” Poster. Holcim Awards for Sustainable Construction.

Chapter 7: Urban Inuit: An Issue of Human Rights Deprivation

Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. (2010, August 18). Government Of Canada Apologizes For Relocation Of Inuit Families To The High Arctic. , Quebec, Canada.

CBC News. (2009, August 19). Harper says social issues 'more acute' in North. CBC North.

Corrado Research and Evaluation Associates Inc. (2003). Housing Discrimination and Aboriginal People in Winnipeg and Thompson, Manitoba. Ottawa: CMHC.

Eberle, Margaret. Kraus, Deborah. Pomeroy, Steve. Hulchanski, David. (2001). “Homelessness – Causes and Effects, Volume 3: The Costs of Homelessness in British Columbia. Ministry of Social Development and Economic Security.” British Columbia.

Ford, James with Marrie-Pierre Lardeau and Will Vanderbilt. (2012). “The characteristics and experience of community food program users in arctic Canada: a case study from Iqaluit, Nunavut.” BMC Public Health.

Haghebaert, Bruno. (2007).“Working With Vulnerable Communitites to Assess and Reduce Disaster Risk.” Humanitarian Exchange Magazine 83: 15-16.

Knotsch, C., & Kinnon, D. (2011). If Not Now… When? Addressing the Ongoing Inuit

Housing Crisis in Canada. Ottawa: National Aboriginal Health Organization (NAHO).

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Laird, G. (2007). Shelter: Homelessness in a Growth Economy. Calgary: Sheldon Chumir Foundation for Ethics in Leadership.

Makivik Corporation. (2012). Signing a Partnership Agreement Between Makivik Corporation and Projets Autochtones Quebec, A Shelter in Montreal for Homeless First Nations and for Inuit. Montreal: Makivik Corporation

Makivik Corporation. (2013). Parnasimautik- Plan Nunavik. http://www.parnasimautik.com.

Murdie, R. (2010). Precarious Housing and Hidden Homelessness among Refugees, Asylum-Seekers, and Immigrants in Montréal, Toronto, and Vancouver. Toronto: York University.

National Aboriginal Health Organization. (2008). Homelessness and Housing Realities for Inuit: Workshop Report . Ottawa: Inuit Tuttarvingat.

National Aboriginal Health Organization. (2012). Inuit Housing Crisis: Call to Action Housing Realities for Inuit 2012 Workshop Report. Ottawa: Inuit Tuttarvingat.

Nunavut Housing Corporation. (2013). http://www.nunavuthousing.ca/apps/authoring/dspPage.aspx?page=home

Nunavut Housing Corporation. (2012). Igluliuqatigiilauqta. Nunavut.

George, J. (2009, April 24). Urban Inuit suffer with no support. Nunatsiaq News .

George, J. (2012, May 08). One year after Plan Nord’s launch, Nunavik calls for action on Plan Nunavik. Nunatsiaq News .

Kishigami, N. (2008). Homeless Inuit in Montreal. Tous droits réservés .

Paperny, A. M., & Minogue, S. (2009, August 14). Life on the mean streets of Iqaluit. The Globe and Mail , p. 3.

Plan Nord. (2012).

Press, J. (2013, January 15). Canada to resettle 5,000 refugees by 2018. Ottawa Citizen .

Savoie, D. (2012). Report on Inuit Homelessness in Montreal, Canada. Ottawa: Makivik Corporation.

Statistics Canada (2006) “2006 Census: Aboriginal Peoples in Canada in 2006: Inuit, Métis and First Nations, 2006 Census: Inuit”

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Tester, F. J. (2006). Iglutaq: Implications of Homelessness for Inuit. Kinngait: The Harvest Society.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 1948.

Chapter 8: Education in the Canadian Arctic: the Nunavut Sivuniksavut Program as an Inuit- Centered Model

Angus, M., & Hanson, M. (2011). The new "three Rs". Nunavut Sivuniksavut.

The Conference Board of Canada. (2011). Building labour force capacity in Canada’s north. Canada: Heidi Martin

The Conference Board of Canada. (2011). Lessons learned: Achieving positive educational outcomes in northern communities. Canada: Ashley Sisco, Margaret Caron-Vuotari, Carole Stonebridge, Greg Sutherland, Gilles Rheaume.

Daveluy, Michelle, Francis Le vesque, and Jenanne Ferguson. 2011. Humanizing security in the Arctic. [Edmonton]: CCI Press.

Fabbi, N. (2009). Inuit Ilinniarnirmut Sicummunaningat: Toward a national Inuit education strategy. Unpublished manuscript. University of British Columbia.

Gregoire, L. (2012, July 7). Nunavut Sivuniksavut looks forward to biggest-ever intake of Inuit students. Nunatsiaq Online. Retrieved February 4, 2013

Hanson, M. (2003). Inuit youth and ethnic identity change: The Nunavut Sivuniksavut experience. Ottawa: University of Ottawa

Hooks, . (1994). Teaching to transgress: Education as the practice of freedom. New York: Routledge.

McElroy, A. (2008). Nunavut generations: Change and continuity in Canadian Inuit communities. Long Grove, Ill: Waveland Press.

McGregor, H. E. (2010). Inuit education and schools in the Eastern Arctic. Vancouver: UBC Press.

Montiel, A. (March 08, 2010). The effects of structured Mentoring on enrollment and success rates of a cohort of education paraprofessionals. College and University, 84, 3, 26-33.

Murray-Harvey, R., Slee, P., Lawson, M., Silins, H., Banfield, G., & Russell, A. (March 01, 2000).

National Committee on Inuit Education. (2011). National strategy on Inuit education (pp. 67-100). Ottawa: Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami.

Nimer, M. (December 01, 2009). The doctoral cohort model: Increasing opportunities for success. College Student Journal, 43, 4, 1373-1379.

Nunavut Sivuniksavut. (2012). Nunavut Sivuniksavut. Annual Activity Report.

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Poelzer, G. “Education: a critical foundation for a sustainable north.” In Northern exposure: peoples, powers and prospects in Canada’s North, edited by Frances Abele, Thomas J. Courchene, F. Leslie Seidle and France St.-Hilaire, 427-465. Ottawa: The Institute for Research on Public Policy, 2009.

Salokangas, R. (2011). Hypothesizing Educational Security in the Arctic. In M. Daveluy, F. Le vesque, J. Ferguson, & International Ph.D. School for Studies of Arctic Societies (Eds.), Humanizing security in the Arctic (pp. 265-282). Edmonton: CCI Press

Simon, M. (2012, April). Speech presented to Piliriqatigiinniq Nunavut Teachers Conference. Nunavut.

Simon, M. (2011, June). Speech presented at Queen’s Conference on indigenous issues in post- secondary education. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.

Under Stress: the concerns and coping strategies of teacher education students. European Journal of Teacher Education, 23, 1, 19-35.

Chapter 9 The Arctic Council and Non-Arctic Interest: Managing Perceptions and Influence in a Changing Region

Abele, F., & Rodon, T. (2007). Inuit Diplomacy in the Global Era: The Strengths of Multilateral Interationalism. Canadian Foreign Policy, 13, 45-63.

Arctic Council. (2013). Home. Retrieved from http://www.arctic-council.org/

Åtland, K. (2008). Mikhail Gorbachev, the Murmansk Initiative, and the Desecuritization of Interstate Relations in the Arctic. Cooperation and Conflict, 43(3), 289-311. doi: 10.1177/0010836708092838

Bartenstein, K. (2013, January 29). Protecting the Marine Arctic and International Law. Lecture presented in Canada, Quebec City.

Bennett, M. (2012). Putin Shutters Russian Indigenous Peoples' Organization. Foregin Policy Association. Retrieved from http://foreignpolicyblogs.com/2012/11/18/putin-shutters- russian-indigenous- peoples-organization/ Bloom, E. (1999). Establishment of the Arctic Council. American Journal of International Law, 93. Pages?

Byers, M. (2012). Circumpolar Challenges: An Ambitious Agenda for the Arctic Council. Ottawa, ON: Rideau Institute.

Chaturvedi, S. (2012). Geopolitical Transformations: ‘Rising’ Asia and the future of the Arctic Council. The Arctic Council: Its Place in the Future of Arctic Governance, 225-261.

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Fenge, T. (n.d.). Canada and the Arctic Council: Promoting Co-operation in a Region of Growing Geopolitical Importance. Perspectives on Environmental History of Northern Canada.

Fortier, L. (2013, January 29). Arctic Climate Change. Lecture presented in Laval University, Quebec City.

Graczyk, P. (2012). The Arctic Council Inclusive of Non-Arctic Perspectives: Seeking a new balance. The Arctic Council: Its Place in the Future of Arctic Governance, 261-291.

Huebert, R. (2013, January 24). 2013: A Decisive Year for Canada's Arctic Ambitions. Canadian International Council. Retrieved from opencanada.org

Keskitalo, E. C. (2007). International Region Building: Development of the Arctic as an International Region. Journal of the Nordic International Studies Association, 42, 2nd ser., 187-205.

Keskitalo, E. C. (2004). Negotiating the Arctic: The construction of an international region. New York: Routledge.

Koivurova, T., & Graczyk, P. (2013). A New Era in the Arctic Council's External Relations? Broader Consequences of the Nuuk Observer Rules for Arctic Governance. Polar Record, 1-12.

Koivurova, T., & VanderZwaag, D. (2007). The Arctic Council at 10 Years: Retrospective and Prospects. Heinonline, 121-194.

Koivurova, T. (2009). Limits and Possibilities of the Arctic Council in a Rapidly Changine Scene of Arctic Governance. Polar Record, 1-11.

Lasserre, F. (2013, January 29). Shipping, China, and Arctic Geopolitics. Lecture presented in Canada, Quebec City.

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Chapter 10: China and the Arctic Council

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ARCTIC TASK FORCE 2013