https://www.incredible-edible-todmorden.co.uk/. 10/20/2016 Knoblauch, H. (2005). Focused Ethnography. Forum referred. Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Original article 18) McDermott, C. (2009). Core Values: It's Time To Go Research, 6 (3), Art. 44. Lamikanra, O. (2002) Fresh-Cut Fruits and Vegetables: Science, Scrumping [Press release].
Penabaz-Wiley, S. (ed.), Site Visit 2 Newton, A. C., Akar, T., Baresel, J., Bebeli, P., Bettencourt, E., Bladenopoulos, K., . . . Koutsika-Sotiriou, M. (2010). Cereal 20) Slow Food. (11/10/2017 updated). Slow Food: About Us. landraces for sustainable agriculture. A review. Agronomy
38 Journal of Environmental Information Science 2017-2 are formed through reciprocal processes between
human activities. Here, people's thoughts, beliefs Stabilization and cognition change in formal or informal ways. In
turn, the landscape represents long-term trends.
Acceleration The content of landscape consists of the social and
System changes political condition, for example, rate of poverty,
birth, literacy, as well as the exact volume of sulfur Take-off oxide. In addition, it is a metaphor for material
aspects of society such as factories, highways, Pre-development time electrical facilities and so on (Geels, 2005).
Political demands influence these physical and
sociopolitical landscapes. The niche is positioned at Figure 1. Multi phase transition the lowest level of the MLP. The niche provides the (Rotmans et al., 2010) seeds for regime changes and is defined as a crucial acceleration phase. Structural change and incubator for social innovations (Geels, 2005). In institutional change are now broadly recognized this case, social innovation refers to the alternative and the processes of diffusion and embedding are perspectives, ideas, policies, initiatives, technology, observed. The last phase is stabilization, wherein and social practices that break the boundaries of a societal change settles and a new dynamic rigid system. Indeed, individual, entrepreneurs, equilibrium emerges. researchers, activists, inventors are critical change In this study, the MPT were examined according agents. These develop social innovation through to the following time frame and evaluation criteria. interacting with each other and enforcing societal The pre-development phase occurred during the transformation. 1950s. During this period, society was aware of the 3) Multi Level Governance risks of pollution, although civil movements had not There are many interpretations of the term yet been established. The take-off phase occurred governance. It refers to administrative management, during the 1960s, a period of increasing social good governance, corporate governance, and policy innovation. The acceleration phase occurred from networking, among others. Rhodes (1997) defined the end of the 1960s to the 1980s, when through governance as self-organizing inter-organizational shifts in the regime, the government started to networks characterized by interdependence, implement environmental laws and regulations. resource exchange, rules of the game, and Finally, the stabilization phase was during the significant autonomy from the state. Matsushita et period after the 1990s. During this period, al. (2007) refer to governance as processes to adjust environmental conditions changed as a result of different opinions and conflicts of interest, co-evolution between political, social, and determine the course of social groups created by economical process. humans, and maintain order and mechanisms. 2) The Multi-Level Perspective Based on this definition, Matsushita et al. (2007) Originally developed to understand regime sifts defined environmental governance as a problem (Geels, 2005, Geels et al., 2010), the MLP consists of solving process towards sustainable development, three levels, namely niche, regime, and landscape which actively involves related entities, takes (See figure 2). The relationship between these advantage of diversity and pluralism, and concepts is a nested hierarchy, and transitions integrates governance from the top (government) occur through dynamic multi-level interaction and autonomy from the bottom (civil society). In between different levels (Geels, 2005). In the addition, a functional condition of MLG in the process of MLP transition dynamics, the regime transition management is defined the bottom-up represents social norms and cognitive rules, which and top-down power and the mixture with which
Journal of Environmental Information Science 2017-2 39 the actors and network of stakeholders can work Niigata prefecture. The Showa Denko Company (Niikawa, 2014, p.74). With reference to the discharged contaminated wastewater from the definition of Matsushita et al.(2007) and Niikawa upper reaches of the Agano River. (2014), this study applied MLG approach for the In 1971, the first Niigata Minamata disease analytical framework. This study analyzes the lawsuit was finalized with the court ordering mechanism of multi level governance in global, compensation for the victims. state, prefectural, and local level regarding 3) Itai-itai malady Japanese post-war pollution issues. Itai-itai malady is a cadmium-induced chronic 1.2 Area of research interest disease. Most victims were located in Jinzu River The area of research interest is post-war pollution Basin in Toyama prefecture. Here, pollution was issues in Japan, specifically Minamata disease, discharged from the Kamioka Mine operated by Niigata Minamata disease, Itai-itai malady, and Mitsui Kinzoku. The symptoms include severe Yokkaichi asthma. This study contends that post- damage to the kidneys and bone marrow. Victims war pollution issues meet the definition of have been observed since the middle of the Meiji era, transition (Geels, et al., 2010, p.11) for the following but until a local newspaper introduced the reasons: these issues entail interaction between unknown disease in 1955, it was not known to the multiple stakeholder partnerships; system changes public2). In 1968, victims of the Itai-itai malady are observed; it is taking several decades to brought a civil case to court, holding the companies overcome the problems; and involving institutional responsible for compensation. In 1971, the Toyama and organizational changes are involved. Basic District Court ruled that the plaintiff won the suit information on the four major pollution issues is and awarded damages. provided next. 4) Yokkaichi asthma 1) Minamata disease Yokkaichi asthma was caused by sulfur oxide air Minamata disease was officially first recognized pollution in Yokkaichi city, Mie prefecture. The in 1956 in Minamata city, Kumamoto Prefecture. smoke and soot were produced in the Yokkaichi The cause of the disease is methyl mercury Petrochemical Complex, which consists of heavy poisoning from contaminated seafood. Typical industries, a thermal electric power plant, and symptoms included numb hands and feet, petrochemical industries. The sulfur oxide air equilibrium disorder, a narrowing field of vision, pollution led to bronchial asthma, and symptoms and hearing impairment related to neurological among residents in Yokkaichi since 1960s include palsy and brain shrinkage1). The first lawsuit was difficulty breathing and a severe cough. in 1969. In 1973, the Kumamoto Court ruled in Approximately 1,000 victims suffered from asthma. favor of complainants and acknowledged the In addition, the deteriorated water quality damaged responsibility of Chisso Plant, ordering fishing industries, because petroleum was absorbed compensation for the victims. In 1976, Kumamoto into fishery products and released terrible odor 3). Court acknowledged the delay of the accreditation Victims from Sakizu district sued the six companies work in Kumamoto Prefecture government was an operating in the Yokkaichi Petrochemical Complex inadequate administrative and illegal act. Several in 1967. This was the first air pollution lawsuit in cases are still now pending in the court in 2017. Japan. In 1972, the court declared that the victims 2) Niigata Minamata disease in Yokkaichi be compensated. Niigata Minamata disease was first reported in 1964 and officially acknowledged in 1968. The name 2. RESULTS derived from Minamata disease. Methyl mercury poisoning from contaminated food causes brain 2.1. MPT shrinkage and neurological palsy. The illness 1) Pre-development: The 1950s mainly occurred in the Agano River Basin in After World War � the Japanese government
40 Journal of Environmental Information Science 2017-2 prioritized economic growth in heavy industrial 1963 and 1964. This movement stopped the arena. This was difficult to attain, as citizens had construction of the petrochemical complex planned the right to protest for environmental protection. by the central government (Broadbend, 2005, Therefore, the right of life, which refers to Miyamoto, 2013). protecting people's lives and health, was On the other hand, for victims of the four major disregarded during the economic development. In pollution-related diseases, the last resort to solve these circumstances, Minamata disease was first the problem was to take the cases to trial to recover officially recognized only in 1968, despite that the their human rights and obtain justice. symptoms were already known in local communities In 1964, a Mayor in Yokkaichi city initiated an during the mid-1950s. A fundamental solution was investigation of a smoke concentration not provided to the victims in Minamata for a long measurement. While the report was not published, time. Thus, Chisso Plant continued to discard local residents conducted their own investigation contaminated wastewater until 1968. The extent with local universities (Itou, 2015). As a response to damage and pollutions, which caused extensive resident's demands, Yokkaichi city implemented a health damage, was hidden. Worse, this was related municipal expense treatment system to cover the to the next round of pollution issues, as manifest by burden on patients to pay their medical expenses. Niigata Minamata disease in 1964. This ordinance was the first in the country. In 1965, Since around this time, grassroots activities Ministry of Health and Welfare officially reported emerged against pollution issues in local the causal relationship between air pollution and communities. Fishermen, teachers, medical doctors, disease based on the investigation (Hashimoto, researchers, and the families of victims formed a 1988). For the first time, epidemiological approach small group to confront the problems. However, was applied decisions related to policies on the their voices did not reach the authorities. One administration of pollution control (Hashimoto, reason was that half the residents worked in the 1988). In 1967, victims from the Sakizu district filed company causing the pollution problems. They were a civil lawsuit against the six companies operating certainly under pressure to raise the voices. Their from the Yokkaichi Petrochemical Complex. At the activities were week and true grassroots activities. trial on the four major pollution issues, the court 2) Taking off : The 1960s acknowledged the causal relationship between By broadcasting the health hazards and disease sources of pollution and harm to the victims. No caused by pollution, anti-pollution movements such cases preceded the trial. For the victims of penetrated Japan and were recognized as part of pollution to demand compensations of damages, the political agenda. Furthermore, concentrated causal relation between adverse actions and the industrial areas suffered serious pollution problems damage caused had to be acknowledged (Watanabe, such as compound pollution in metropolitan Tokyo; 2012). This approach was also adopted in other sulfur oxide air pollution and underground water trials including those for Niigata Minamata Disease problems in Osaka city; air pollution in Kawasaki, in 1967, Itai-itai malady in 1968, and Minamata Mizushima, and Kitakyushu. In these areas, the disease in 1969. annual average concentrations of sulphur dioxide 3) Acceleration: End of the 1960s and the 1980s was ranging from 0.06 to 0.11 parts per million To respond to people's request for preventing (Imura, 2005). Consequently, the concern for health damage caused by pollution, local governments risks affected citizen's election attitudes. amended the environmental policy. The Progressive mayors and governors were gaining amendments impacted not only progressive local support from the local community. The dynamics government but also other local governments, which shifted with the establishment of a grassroots were dominated by a conservative majority. One movement named "No more Yokkaichi" in Mishima, notable advancement was introducing the PCA. The Numazu, and Shimizu in Shizuoka prefecture in PCA is a voluntary agreement between local
Journal of Environmental Information Science 2017-2 41 government and business industries to prevent the comprehensiveness, which unifies pollution control emission of pollutants. The public was aware of the and nature conservation through a law on national agreement after it was introduced in Yokohama city parks. It is based on the fundamental principle of in 1964 and the Tokyo Metropolitan Government in establishing a philosophy of environmental 19684) (Matsuno, 2007). The PCA is one of the conservation, responsibilities, and securing citizens' important means of environmental control. The lives and welfare. In addition, the law stipulated agreement is flexible enough to respond local strategies to attain a sustainable society and circumstances and capabilities through residents' international cooperation to address global consent (Matsuno, 2007), although it is also vague environmental issues. These strategies followed and relies on altering the behavior of industry principles of the United Nations Earth Summit held through its own efforts (Schreurs, 2002). in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. In 1995, Cabinet, which At the national level, the basic law for pollution consists of three ruling coalition parties, decided the control was enacted in 1967. The law outlined the settlement of the issues for Minamata disease responsibilities of central government and victims who were not officially recognized. As a introduced monitoring systems. However, it result of consultation, victims group were accepted included the so-called harmonization clause, which the settlement proposal, which is known as political asserted the harmonization of pollution control and solution. economic development. This stance was criticized in In 2001, the Ministry of Environment (MOE) was terms of how seriously the government tackled the established. The mission of the MOE is to protect pollution problem (Schreurs, 2002). Responding to the global environment, prevent pollution, and mass discontent with the government, the Pollution preserve the natural and other environments. Diet in 1970 passed 14 major anti-pollution laws, Despite improving physical conditions and which transformed many environmental practices environmental laws, several lawsuits claimed throughout Japan. The Pollution Diet also national compensation. During 1982 and 1988, stipulated the establishment of Environmental more than 2,000 plaintiffs went to trial5). A final Agency. In 1973, the law on environmental settlement was presented through a political pollution damage compensation was enacted. The judgment to resolve cases related to Minamata law stipulated that the polluter would compensate disease in 1995. In 2004, the Supreme Court issued the victims of air and water pollution (Broadbend, a judgment on Minamata disease case for the 2005). Kansai lawsuit. Following the Osaka High Court During the late 1970s and the 1980s, the ruling in 2001, the Supreme Court acknowledged environmental policy proved to be effective and the responsibilities of central government, and the improving environmental circumstances. The plaintiff won the case3). This was almost 50 years anti-pollution movement changed to a lawsuit since Minamata disease was first diagnosed. against large-scale public works such as Osaka In 2013, the treaty of Minamata Convention on International Airport Lawsuit and Shinkansen Mercury was adapted in Kumamoto city, Japan. Noise Pollution Litigation (Awaji, 2010). Several The object of the convention was to protect human factors are related to changes including the health and the environment from anthropogenic conversion of energy fuel from petroleum to coal, an emission and the release of mercury and mercury economic depression due to the oil crisis, compounds6). Background to the treaty was the improvement of corporate ethics and advancements increasing use of mercury in developing countries, of pollution prevention technologies, and external leading to concerns regarding health hazards and pressure from the OECD and United Nations. environmental risks. Thus, the treaty fully 4) Stabilization: After the 1990s acknowledges the significance and need to regulate In 1993, the Environmental Basic Law was these emissions in developing countries (Takamura, enacted. The law is valued for its 2014).
42 Journal of Environmental Information Science 2017-2 2.2 MLP The above-mentioned movements have the same Previous research noted several factors that meaning as the grassroots movements and PCA is contributed to resolving post-war pollution issues. related to the political trends such as rise of They are development of epidemiological causal progressive local governments and the battle of relationship approach (Miyamoto, 1975, 2013, 2014, harmonization clause. Hashimoto, 1988, Watanabe, 2012), rise of Figure 2 shows the process of MLP transition progressive local government (Miyamoto, 1975, dynamics modified by Schot et al., (2008). At the 2013, 2014, Broadbend, 2005), the grassroots anti- micro level, the citizen's group supported the pollution movement (Miyamoto, 1975, 2013, 2014), dissemination of social innovations through its the anti-pollution movement in Mishima, Numazu, networking activities, which influenced people's and Shimizu movements, battle of "harmonization thoughts, beliefs, and cognition of pollution issues clause" (Schreurs, 2002), and the development of at the middle level. At the macro level, the PCA (Matsuno, 2005, 2007). Based on previous landscape was generated through the niche and studies and analysis in this research, the regime. Anti-pollution movements and court orders epidemiological causal strategy, movements in entailed institutional and political changes. Mishima, Numazu, and Shimizu, and the PCA are Furthermore, environmentally conscious business regarded as representations of social innovations. styles and ethics were cultivated through the PCA,
Figure 2 The process of MLP transition dynamics (modified by Schot et al., 2008)
Journal of Environmental Information Science 2017-2 43 and in this process, environmental conditions Mishima, Numazu, Shimizu, the epidemiological improved. causal strategy, and the PCA were observed as 2.3 MLG representative of social innovations. Table 1 presents the main incidents, lawsuits, The first social innovation was the anti-pollution and principal laws related to Japanese post-war movement in Mishima, Numazu, and Shimizu in pollution issues. These are categorized as three Shizuoka prefecture in 1963 and 1964. Miyamoto levels, namely civil society, prefectures and the local (1975) noted that four factors leading to the government, and the state government and global movement were the unification of citizens, farmers, levels. At first, the citizen's group initiated small and progressive parties; use of a scientific grassroots efforts at the local level during the 1950s. environmental assessment; citizens' organizational Since the serious health damage and environmental learning; and strengthening of autonomous rights. degradations were broadly known, the public Before the movement, decisions related to the opinion put pressured on government and central government's planned economic environmental administration. This was the development were difficult to change. As such, the beginning of emerging environmental protectionism. movement triggered a transformation in the After lawsuits were filed and the court ordered that Japanese bureaucracy, recognizing the power of the the victims of pollution be compensated, people in a democratic Japan (Broadbend, 2005). environmental administration began to change. On This shows there is nothing better than when the other hand, the uniqueness of the Mishima, citizens think and act for themselves for the Numazu, and Shimizu movements eliminated the wellbeing of the community (Ui, 1971). risk of pollution problems, changing the The second social innovation was the creation of a government's industrial policy and overturning lawsuit strategy, which clarified an epidemiological state-level decision-making. In general, the national causal relationship between pollutants and disease. governance system is more difficult to change than This was a result of collaborative efforts between the local governance (Niikawa, 2014). The citizens, academics, and lawyers, and represented opposition movement stalled industrial project an alternative for co-evolution to victims afflicted by countrywide, and progressive local governors one of the four major pollution-related diseases. In initiated the PCA (Broadbend, 2005). However, at addition, the diffusion of this strategy relied on the state level, the government did not take human networking between each group (Miyamoto, effective action because of pressure from the 2014). It was hard to win without knowledge Ministry of International Trade and Industry, sharing and conscience intension. Another business, and the Liberal Democratic Party collaboration formed through the epidemiological (Broadbend, 2005). The turning point at the state study is between the City of Yokkaichi and Ministry level was the Pollution Diet in 1970. Since then, of Health and Welfare, who cooperatively environmental degradation has decreased under the investigated the epidemiological causal relationship strict regulations. This indicates that the top-down between pollutants and disease. Base on the approach was necessary for solving public commons principle of separation of three branches, issues such as pollution problems. jurisdictions is not part of the administration's work, but presumably, clarifying the government's opinion 3. DISCUSSION before the trial was favorably for the victims (Hashimoto, 1988). In the civil trial, victory was a To clarify the social transition, this study created citizen-based multilayered social network and four phases of time to highlight societal transition. administrative support. These led the next regime The driving force from the pre-development to shift towards establishing the basic law for take-off phase was social innovation cultivated in pollution control in 1967 and environmental niche. In this case, the grassroots movement in
44 Journal of Environmental Information Science 2017-2 Journal ofEnvironmental InformationScience 2017-2 Table 1 Main incidents, lawsuits, and principal laws regarding Japanese post-war pollution issues
Environmental pollution damage compensation Basic Environmental law (1973), law(2003), macro Air pollution act (1968), Environmental pollution Revised environmental Politicall resolution of Establishment of the (State & Basic law for pollution damage compensation pollution damage Minamata Disease Ministry of Environment Global) control(1967) law (1973), compensation law (1988) (1995) (2001) Treaty of environmental agency Minamata Convention (1971) , The pollution on Mercury (2013) Diet (1970)
Minamata disease PCA in Yokohama city seminar in Vietnum meso (1964), Pollution control Sulfur oxide emission (2001)7), Minamata (local gov. ordinance in standard in Mie pref. disease seminar in & Pref.) Metropolitan Tokyo (1972) Philippine (2003)7) , (1969) Minamata disease seminar in China(2003)7)
Mishima, Numazu, Shimizu movement Kansai Minamata (1963-1964), Minamata Niigata Minamata Disease conclution micro official recognition of disease litigation (1969), Disease second (2004), No more Minamata Disease (grass Minamata Disease Itai-itai litigation (1968), litigation(1982), Minamata litigation second litigation (1973) roots) (1956) Yokkaichi litigation Minamata disease third (2005), No more (1967), Niigata litigation (1980) Minamata second Minamata disease litigation (2013) litigation (1967)
Pre-development Take-off Acceleration Stabilization 45
pollution damage compensation law in 1973. In at the state level and the Pollution Diet was held in other words, the structural changes were shaped by 1970. Indeed, these regime shifts transformed mutual interaction among citizens, government, administration at the level of the state. Because of legislations, jurisdiction, and academics. mutual interaction between the state, legislation, The third social innovation was embedding PCA and the society, Environmental Agency was into local governments' pollution prevention established in 1971. In 2001, the agency became the systems. Compared to the late responsiveness of the Ministry of Environment. They represented national government, many local governments important administrative structure changes. responded quickly to public opinion. The PCA is a Japanese social transition demonstrated the voluntary agreement for pollution prevention necessity of multi-level governance in resolving without legal force. Despite the vagueness, the PCA pollution issues. Furthermore, a healthy democratic was widely accepted by the mining, manufacturing, system and social justice supported the foundation and electric power industry (Matsuno, 2007). The of this governance. It was the process of making the PCA promoted successful cooperation between legal and institutional infrastructure of democracy government and business sector as a (Timothy, 2001). non-confrontational method. Furthermore, it In the stabilization phase, physical and promoted corporate ethics in society. sociopolitical conditions attained equilibrium. The During this phase, multi- layered dynamics were enactment of laws and regulations improved, observed in governance transitions. One environmental condition and abated the social contribution of the anti-pollution movements movements. Environmental movements entered a provided opportunities to cultivate citizenships new phase to deal with various concerns ranging through citizen participation in the political and from pollution to global environmental issues. social agenda. As such, bottom-up social These experiences are our assets to transfer to transformation encouraged a regime shift in the the next generation and to developing countries centralized governance system. Furthermore, the facing environmental degradation. However, when process of solving pollution issues was one introducing the lessons, the status quo of each pioneering case for bottom up approach, because it country must be considered. Moreover, sharing our provided opportunities for citizens to conceptualize knowledge and experiences is worthwhile for environmental policies and promoted autonomous educational purposes and in enhancing local citizenship. In addition, cooperation between autonomy, institutional changes, providing citizens, government, and industrial sectors administrational guidance to the business sector, strengthened the role of local government in enhancing business ethics, and strengthening environmental administration. PCA was one of the mutual interaction between multi-stakeholders. examples. These processes promoted a power transfer from the central to local government. CONCLUSIONS Through the experiences to tackle environmental issues, autonomy and civil rights were getting arise This study provided a new perspective on the and formed a divergence to transform subsequent transformation of Japanese society to overcome environmental policies and governance. post-war pollution issues based on social transition From the take-off to the acceleration phase, approach. Three social innovations in niche were people's beliefs, norms and rules were changed addressed, namely the anti-pollution movement, in through reciprocal processes between human Mishima, Numazu, and Shimizu; the creation of the activities. These mind shifts changed the voting epidemiological causal relationship strategy; and behavior, and many progressive local governments formulation of PCA. These innovations triggered were emerged during period from the end of 1960s changes to the environmental policy and to the 1980s. These pressured the political domain governance system.
46 Journal of Environmental Information Science 2017-2 Past industrialization in Japan was based on an chousen", p.28~p.52, Houritsubunkasha, Kyoto. "economic first policy" that undermined the social Beck, U., Giddens, A. and Lash, S. (1994) Reflexive system. However, when environmental destruction Modernization. Polity, UK, 225pp. exceeds the tolerance level, it takes considerable Broadbend, J. (2005) Japan's Environmental Politics: time to recover the original social and Recognition and Response Process. In: Imura, H. and Schreurs, environmental state. Nowadays, similar destruction M., A. ed., "Environmental Policy in Japan", p.102~p.134, is evident in developing countries. During the Edward Elger, Cheltenham, UK. process of economic success, negative forces may not Geels, F., W. (2005) Technological Transition and System be clear to people in developing countries. However, Innovations: A Co-evolutionary and Socio-technical Analysis. it is critical to overcome the side effects of Edward Elger, UK, USA, 322pp. industrialization and advance to the next stage of Geels, F., W., and Schot, J. (2010) The Dynamic of Transitions A modernization. Solving public commons issues such Socio-Technical Perspective. In: Gring, J., Rotmans, J. and as pollutions problems require citizen's support Schot, J. ed., "Transitions to Sustainable Development: New from bottom up as well as government's top down Directions in the Study of Long Term Transformative Change", control. The transition regarding post-war pollution Routledge, NY. (e-book) issues suggests that a healthy democratic system Hashimoto, M. (1988) Shishi Kankyo Gyousei. Asahi Shinbun, and cooperative policymaking are necessities for the Tokyo, 376pp. governance system. Iijima, N., Watanabe, S. and Fujikawa, K. (2007) Neglect of Pollution victims: Environmental Sociology of Itai-itai disease and Cadmium Pollution Problem. Toshindo, Tokyo, 374pp. NOTES Imura, H. (2005) Japan's environmental policy: past and future. In: Imura, H. and Schreurs, M. A. ed., "Environmental Policy 1)National Institute for Minamata Disease. in Japan", p.15~p.48, Edward Elger, Cheltenham, UK.
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