Changing Climate, Uncertain Future

Considering Rural Women in Policies and Strategies

WENDY MlLNE

Cet article explore les effets des changements climatiques ri marginalized experiences of rural communities and rural partir d'expkriences marginaliskes chez les femmes rurales et women. Examining climate change from rural and dans leur communaut6. En examinant ces changements dans gendered perspectives gives context to the problem and uneperspective rurale etgenrke on a contextualistleprobli.me provides directions for including the experiences of rural ofiant ainsi des directives qui incluent les expkriences &S women in climate change polices and strategies. femmes rurales dans les strattfgies et les politiques des changements climatiques. Canadian Climate Change Policy Directions

There is utter uncertainty about what the future will look Limited public engagement with the issue of climate like in the age of climate change. Just a handful of the change reflects the Canadian government's hesitance to anticipated social, economic and environmental costs of fully address the primary causes of climate change: unjust climate change-, extreme weather, flooding, economic relations and unsustainable consumption pat- fires, disease, starvation, resource depletion-foretells terns fueled by fossil fuels. Instead, Canada, like much of disaster for people and ecosystems around the world. the industrialized world has responded to the global There will be little shelter from the fallout of a changing challenge of climate change by using market-based prin- climate. And there is no doubt that it is the world's poor ciples to guide international negotiations that protect and marginalized, the people who have had the smallest northern interests and priorities. role in creating climate change and who are the least able Canada, unlike the U.S., has at least acknowledged the to shape responses for adaptation and mitigation, that are reality ofclimate change by endorsing the . the most vulnerable to climate destabilization. Negotiated in 1997, ratified by the Canadian Parliament Canadians are witnessing- that even the subtlest changes in December 2002, and becoming international law in in the climate has the potential to affect our daily lives. February 2005, Kyoto is an international agreement to From households to workplaces, across urban, rural, and reduce geenhouse gas emissions, the primary cause of remote landscapes, there is a budding recognition that the climate change. The irony is that since signing the proto- climate is changing. Yet, even with the increasingly visible col in 1997 Canada's "business-as-usual" practices have evidence of the force of climate change there is negligible caused emissions to rise steadily (Suzuki public debate and citizen action, and only restrained Foundation 2005a). policy and strategic responses from municipal, provincial, Regardless of the fundamental flaws in the Kyoto and federal governments. Even more marcginalized is Protocol its premise is supported by Canadian NGOs, like dialogue on how to protect people and ecosystems that are the Suzuki Foundation and Pollution Probe, as a first step the most vulnerable, and make certain that all public in an international response to a global threat. Canada's interests and social locations, and not just a select few, are plans to respond to Kyoto have been outlined in the considered in climate change policies. Climate Change Plan of Action released in November Ultimately, equitable responses to climate change re- 2000, and in the April 13, 2005 revised plan Project quires informed citizens and democratic approaches that Green-Moving Forward on Climate Change: A Plan for do not leave communities, regions or segments of the Honouring our Kyoto Commitments. The 2005 plan pro- Canadian population out of the negotiations. This article poses to use the full range of policy instruments to shift explores the affects of climate change from the typically Canada toward a clean energy future and increase the

VOLUME 24, NUMBER 4 49 efficiency, sustainability and international competitive- offers some direction for dismantling imbedded biases, ness of the Canadian economy, while moving toward our increasing understanding of the full range of gender-based emission reduction objectives under the Kyoto Protocol inequities, and encouraging the participation of women (Government of Canada 2005). The plan is built on six who are the most vulnerable to the impacts of climate key elements: competitive and sustainable industries for change. the twenty-first century, harnessing market forces, part- nership among Canada's governments, engaged citizens, Changing Climate in Rural Communities sustainable agriculture and forest sectors, sustainable cit- ies and communities. Across the vast, sparsely populated, rural landscape of Response by environmental NGOs to the 2005 plan Canada, are communities in the throws of a wide range of commended its release, but condemned its lack of teeth to social, economic and environmental changes. There has been job cuts in the forestry, fishing, mining and food producing sectors, a downsizing of government support, Climate change increases the and a growing gap between the "haves" and "have-nots" vulnerability of rural communities, (Shortall and Bryden). Family farms are on the decline threatening the foundation of CanadaFs (Sumner), resource communities are experiencing boom- and-bust cycles of growth, stagnation and decline (Reed), social, economic and environmental and rural communities dependent on multinational manu- well-being. facturing and industries have lost in aftermath of free trade and restructuring by losing plants to lower wage commu- nities (Winson and Leach). confront corporate pollution, and ultimately downloading The prospect of climate change increases the vulner- an unequal share of reducing greenhouse gases onto ability ofthese rural communities, consequently threaten- citizens (Suzuki Foundation 2005b). According to the ing the very foundation of Canada's social, economic and plan, citizen's environmental well-being. Already in rural and remote parts of Canada reports of floods, forest fires, drought, buy-in and active involvement are critical ifwe are to shrinking glaciers, and shorter ice seasons are indicators of achieve our climate change and sustainability goals. a changing climate (Lemmen and Warren). Agricultural Canadians need to take action themselves and can production, crucial for feeding Canadians, has had signs play an important role in driving sustainability im- of things to come. The extreme drought and heat that provements in communities and industry. (Govern- plagued much of Canada in 2001 resulted in some prairie ment of Canada 2005: 28). provinces having lowered crop yields and threatening the availability of water and feed for livestock (Lemmen and Paradoxically, this plan for citizen engagement has been Warren). And in Canada's north the impacts of a chang- done with limited citizen participation in policy and ing climate has resulted in shorter winter seasons and strategy development. Citizen "buy-in" will require more unpredictable ice conditions that has compromised the than astated policy direction anda few celebrity promoted safety of traditional hunting and fishing practices, has advertisements in the public media. The abstract science, undermined traditional knowledge of living with the land economic language, and trading mechanisms that domi- and resources, and made ice roads unreliable (CCME). nate discussions of climate change marginalizes other Clearly, the remaking of rural Canada has been occur- forms of knowledge (Holloway) and is outside the learn- ring in a manner that raises uncertainty about the agency ing approaches ofmost citizens (McBean and Hengeveld). of rural people, and the ability to have equitable input into These technical responses have contributed to a public local, regional, and national policy and strategic develop- that is concerned about climate change, yet resistant to ment. Climate change is only increasing the likelihood of translate this concern into action, especially concerning conflict in rural areas that will make it extremely difficult energy conservation (Kasemir, Swartling, Shule, Tabara for working collectively toward viable solutions and Jaeger; Plotnikoff, Wright and Karunamuni). (Pendergraft). Too often, all levels of urban-centric policy Citizen engagement is critical to ensure equitable re- development is based on assumptions that rural commu- sponses to climate change. currently, climate change nities are stagnant, homogeneous, pastoral places empty approaches are incapable of recognizing differential im- of multiple identities, oppressions or acts of resistance pacts, the inherent power imbalances in responsibility (Sachs 1996) where everyone lives in harmony with taking and decision-making, the marginalization of local nature (Li 1996) and where there is a presumed lack of knowledges, and the unequal risks based on social and difference and implied consensus and agreement on prac- geographic locations. Turning a feminist lens on climate tices and ideology (Abowitz). In fact, rural areas are places change policies and strategies, and in particular viewing where dominant groups exercise control over meaning the changing climate from rural women's experiences, (Dupuis and Vadergeest), there are increasing inequalities

50 CANADIAN WOMAN STUDIESILES CAHIERS DE LA FEMME (Scott, Park and Cocklin), and where issues of most the elderly, children, immuno-compromised individuals, concern to women are often subservient to community and the poor andAboriginal populations (see also Lemmen issues (Li 1996). and Warren) with the elderly and women experiencing Ensuring an equitable policy process, and in particular the most morbidity from heat waves (WHO).And un- a rural policy process, requires recognition of the power doubtedly, "some communities will be more vulnerable relations that allow the structural exclusion of women than others, for geographic reasons, due to health status or (Shortall). To confront power relations that exclude the because oflimited resources" (Climate Change and Health experiences of rural women it is imperative to shape an Office 1). understanding of the gender and rural dimensions of Women who live in rural areas already have limited climate change. health resources as current systems for health information are poorly coordinated and inadequately promoted, and Rural Women and Climate Change: Policy Considerations Despite the extreme vulnerability Researchers argue that rural women, particularly in the of agriculture to climate change, South, will be especiallyvulnerable to the effects ofclimate change (Denton; Dankleman). In wealthier societies, like scientists continue to marginalize Canada, there is likely to be less gender differentiation other forms of situated knowledge from the effects of climate change (Skutsch). However, in and practices about farming. a context where changes in rural Canada has led to the reorganization of government work and plant closures, where the necessity of off-farm labour and relocation has health services are often infrequent, irregular and limited increased women's isolation, limited women's ability to (Centres of Excellence for Women's Health). The ongo- find paid work, and reduced access to needed social ing lack of health services, combined with state-intro- services and health care (Leach; Shortall), it can be con- duced cutbacks, means that rural women have even more cluded that women will be unjustly exposed to the pres- responsibility for caring for dependents, both young and sures of climate change. old (Winson and Leach). Combined with the increased Margaret Skutsch argues addressing rural women and levels of illness, as well as responding to food shortages, gender concerns in climate change policies will increase nutritional problems, and food and water shortages be- the efficiency of climate change responses, and ensure that cause of climate change women's burden will likely in- work toward gender equitywill not be threatened. Clearly, crease exponentially (Villagrasa; Wamukonya and feminist research and advocacy on climate change in Skutsch). general, and rural women in particular, needs to do more to develop comprehensive knowledge to direct equitable Agriculture Production and gender-sensitive policy development, as well as to contribute to energy efficiency, and mitigation and adap- Agricultural sectors are seeing the impacts of warmer tation strategies being planned to respond to climate temperatures, moisture loss, and extreme weather condi- change. Situating Skutsch's argument within a Canadian tions affecting soils, livestock, pests and weeds, and water context, and recognizing that there is no one rural wom- resources (Lemmen and Warren). Despite the extreme en's experience, the following discussion outlines how vulnerability of agriculture to climate change, scientists rural women, already experiencing disparity, will be fur- continue to construct debates in such a way as to marginalize ther vulnerable if policy development in areas as diverse as other forms of situated knowledge and practices about health, agriculture, natural resources, energy conserva- farming (Holloway). Lewis Holloway argues that to re- tion, technology, and transportation continue to neglect spond to climate change gender and rural inequalities. recognition must be given to the way that the envi- Health ronment is constructed in locally specific ways by farmers through their experiences of physical and Health Canada's Climate Change and Health Office biological processes understood within particular predicts that the increased smog episodes, heat waves, social, economic and cultural contexts. (2030) water and food borne contamination, vector borne dis- eases, stratospheric , and extreme weather Women, while active in all aspects of agriculture, are events that result from climate change will compromise even more marginalized and underrepresented in deci- the general health and well-being of Canadians. The sion-making about agricultural policy and global issues impact of these changes will be adversely experienced by (Angeles). Therefore, scientists and climate change adap- the most vulnerable of our society. Most affected will be tation specialists must also strive to include the situated

VOLUME 24, NUMBER 4 51 experiences of rural women in polices and strategies. led families spending at least 20 per cent of their income Carolyn Sachs (1996) argues that the concept of situated on heating and electricity, especially since poverty is knowledges proves particularly useful when grappling linked to less energy-efficient housing and reliance on with issues and questions related to rural women. Includ- older inefficient appliances (Clancy and Roeher). Specifi- ing the situated knowledges of rural women provides cally, in rural areas, women have unique housing issues access to disaggregated information into the decision- related to affordability, suitability, maintenance, and prop- making process within the household on farm production erty management that have been ignored in housing choices and strategies,- offering- a rethinking of how local policies (Steele). The only conclusion that can be drawn knowledge can be used to organize alternative approaches from this situation is that if women are being put in a to agriculture (Feldman and Walsh). position to contribute to stabilizing the levels of green- house gases in the atmosphere than women should clearly Natural Resource Management be in a position to be active participants in determining energy conservation policies and strategies. In Canadian society, rural women's dependence on natural resources is practically invisible. While fewer Technology women workdirectly in natural resource extraction, women and their families livelihoods depends on their labour in Strategies to respond to climate change are currently after-extraction processing, and in most of the general not about reducing production and economic growth, but support services in local communities. The invisibility of aimed toward the adoption of clean, green. and renewable women's role in natural resources, compounded by wom- energy technology. Historically, households, farms and en's relatively low organizational status in North America communities in rural areas have experienced that advances natural resource management, has meant that women in technology have uncoupled production from employ- have had little influence in decision-making and in public ment (Reed) and increased women's domestic workload forums (Davidson and Black). For example, in the Atlan- (Riney-Kehrberg). Gender imbalances related to technol- tic fisheries women have been excluded from decision- ogy had "clearly done more to alleviate the workload in the making about their future (Christiansen-Ruffman) and in barn than in the farm" (Fleming 32) confirming that British Columbia forestry "technology merely served as a tangible, countable symbol ofwomen's secondary status on the family farm" (Jellison planning initiatives and transition programs first 183).This trend continues today where technology devel- segregated issues into gender categories and second opment is still aimed toward men, as they are considered assign the greatest need for and support of interest the decision-makers and users of the technology (Skutsch). attributed to men. (Reed 190) Women's role in technology is largely overlooked result- ing in many technological innovations that are inappro- Including women's perspectives in natural resource priate for women's lives (Cecelski). Working toward management provides access to a "wholistic approach to gender-sensitive policies in technology development have problems-considering family, community and environ- the potential to include women as active participants and ment-as their starting point" (Christiansen-Ruffman promoters ofsustainable technologies and challenge domi- 60) and a broader understanding ofhow land and resource nant technological practices (Milne 2003b). use is linked to daily life ofproduction, reproduction, and community caregiving (Reed). As climate change re- Transportation sponses in rural areas will involve comprehensive land and resource use solutions, gender-sensitive approaches in the Climate change will likely affect roads, rail, air, and design and implementation are important for enabling water transportation corridors (Lernmen and Warren), populations to survive inevitable changes in the climate while responding to the Kyoto Protocol will change the (Skutsch). way we currently use and design transportation systems. Rural areas already have significant transportation prob- Household Energy Conservation lems. Most areas are not serviced by public transport, and travel is often on treacherous roads that may be unpaved Canada's climate change plans are challenging citizens (Reed). Rural women have to travel long distances to to reduce their by one tonne by access employment, healthcare, and other necessities. taking actions at home, at work, and on the road (Govern- There are extreme financial, emotional, and social costs of ment of Canada 2005). Women, as primary caregivers of living without adequate transportation services. For ex- the household, will be placed in a position to reduce ample, being away from the family, especially during a household energy consumption and teach children how to health crisis, where basic travel costs may not be covered conserve energy. However, the feminization of poverty is very stressful (Centres of Excellence for Women's has resulted in single women, senior women, and women- Health). Transportation is already an obvious barrier to

52 CANADIAN WOMAN STUDIESILES CAHIERS DE LA FEMME rural women's equality and will need to be considered in Wendy Milne has a PhD. in RuralStudiesJComthe Univer- climate change policy development. sity of Guelph. She works as a sustainable community and socialdevelopment consultant andis apart-time instructor in Conclusion: Engaging Rural Women in Climate gender equality and social justice at Nipissing University. Change References Climate change is not gender, class or geo-political neutral. Therefore, all international, national. and local Abowitz, K. K. "Reclaiming Community." Educational polices and strategies need to consider equitable ap- Theory 49 (2) (1999): 143-159. proaches to reducing greenhouse gases and responding to Angeles, Leonora C. "Reflections on Feminist Policy changes in the climate. To ensure a more gender-sensi- Research on Gender, Agriculture and Global Trade." tive approach there is a need for more women on the Canadian Woman Studies/les cahiers de hfemme 21 122 various commissions within the climate change policy (411) (2002): 34-39. development process, and gender considerations need to Centres ofExcellence for Women's Health. Rural, Remote be included in future policy formulations and activities and Northern Women j Health: Poliy and Research (Villagrasa). Specifically, as Njeri Wamukonya and Directions. Winnipeg, 2004. Margaret Skutsch argue, rural women should be targeted Brandth, B. and M. Haugen. "Rural Women, Feminism and included as active participants in policy decision- and the Politics of Identity." Sociologia Ruralis 37(3) making, mitigation activities, vulnerability studies, (1997): 325-344. projects for adaptation, technology transfer and capac- Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment ity-building. (CCME). Climate, Nature, People: Indicators of Engaging rural women in climate change policy and Canada's Changing Climate. Winnipeg: CCME. strategy development will require working through con- Cecelski, Elizabeth. The Role of Women in Sustainable flicts, diversity, and entrenched interests. While some Energy Development. Golden, Colorado: National rural women are very active in maintaining the status quo Laboratory, 2000. in rural areas and frequently fight environmental activism Christianson-Ruffman, L. "Atlantic Canadian Coastal that threatens traditional ways oflife (Brandth and Haugen; Communities and the Fisheries Trade: A Feminist Reed) other rural women are at the forefront of environ- Critique, Revaluation And Revisioning." Canadian mental activism and social change (Sachs 1994). How- Woman Studies/les cahiers de h femme 21/22 (411) ever, there is also precedence in rural areas of women (2002): 56-63. working across vast differences, learning from each others Clancy, Joy and Ulrike Roehr. "Gender and Energy: Is experiences, and working collaboratively in the interests there a Northern Perspective?" Energyfor Sustainable of the community. As Margaret- Grace and June Lennie Development 7 (3) (2003): 44-49. argue, including rural women in problem-solving and Climate Change and Health Office. Climate Change and decision-making processes provides alternative and inno- Health and WellBeing:A Policy Primer. Ottawa: Health vative perspectives. Canada, 200 1. Dankleman, I. "Climate Change: Learning from Gender The diversity of rural women's personal identities, Analysis and Women's Experience of Organizing for skills and knowledge, and in terms of the wide range Sustainable Development." Gender and Development of issues they bring to public forums, is one of the l0 (2) (2002): 21-29. their greatest strengths and needs greater recognition Davidson, Penny and Rosemary Black. "Woman inNatural .. . rural women bring a holistic and future-oriented Resource Management: Finding a More Balanced perspective to complex social, environmental and Perspective." Society and Natural Resources 14 (2001): economic issues. We would argue that such a per- 645-656. spective is necessary in our rapidly changing world Denton, Fatma. "Gender and Climate Change: Giving where innovative solutions to problematic issues is the 'Latecomer' a Head Start." IDS Bulletin 35 (3) urgently needed. (366) (2004): 42-49. Denton, Fatma. "Gender Impact ofclimate Change: The There is little doubt that climate change is the most Human Security Dimension." ENERGIA News 3 (3) complex social, economic, and environmental problem (2000): 13-14. that will be faced this century. Including rural women in Duncan, C. M. and N. Lamborgini. "Poverty and the the climate change policy and strategy process not only Social Context in Remote Rural Communities." Rural ensures equity, innovation, and access to situated Sociology 59 (3) (1994): 437-461. knowledges, but it goes a long way toward ensuring the Dupuis, M. E. and P. Vandergeest. Creating Countryside: very health of rural communities and peoples across the The Politics of Rural and Environmental Discourse. planet. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996.

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