Gender, Development, and Edited by Rachel Masika

Oxfam Focus on Gender The books in Oxfam's Focus on Gender series were originally published as single issues of the journal Gender and Development, which is published by Oxfam three times a year. It is the only British journal to focus specifically on gender and development issues internationally, to explore the links between gender and development initiatives, and to make the links between theoretical and practical work in this field. For information about subscription rates, please apply to Taylor and Francis Ltd., Customer Services Department, Rankine Road, Basingstoke, Hants RG24 8PR UK; Fax: + 44 (0) 1256 330245. In North America, please apply to Taylor and Francis Inc., Customer Services Department, 325 Chestnut Street, 8th Floor, Philadelphia, PA 19106, USA; Fax +1 800 821 8312. In Australia, please apply to Carfax Publishing Company, P.O. Box 352, Cammeray, NSW 2062, Australia; Fax: +61 (0) 2 9958 2376; E-mail: [email protected]; http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals

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Front cover: These Sudanese women depend on a hand-dug well, which by March will yield little water. The nearest reliable source lies seven kilometres away. One of the effects of climate change in arid areas will be to increase the workload entailed in collecting resources like water and firewood. Photo: Toby Adamson, Oxfam

© Oxfam GB 2002 Published by Oxfam GB, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ, UK http: / / www.oxfam.org.uk / publications Typeset in Palatino by Oxfam; printed by Information Press, Eynsham Oxfam is a registered charity No. 202918 Oxfam GB is a member of Oxfam International ISBN 0 85598 4791

This book converted to digital file in 2010 Contents

Editorial 2 Rachel Masika Climate change vulnerability, impacts, and adaptation: why does gender matter? 10 Fatma Denton Climate change: learning from gender analysis and women's experiences of organising for sustainable development 21 Irene Dankelman Protocols, treaties, and action: the 'climate change process' viewed through gender spectacles 30 Margaret M. Skutsch negotiations: reflections on the role of women 40 Delia Villagrasa Gender and climate hazards in Bangladesh 45 Terry Cannon Uncertain predictions, invisible impacts, and the need to mainstream gender in climate change adaptations 51 Valerie Nelson, Kate Meadows, Terry Cannon, John Morton, and Adrienne Martin Gendering responses to El Nino in rural Peru 60 Rosa Rivero Reyes The Noel Kempff project in Bolivia: gender, power, and decision-making in climate mitigation 70 Emily Boyd Reducing risk and vulnerability to climate change in : the capabilities approach 78 Marlene Roy and Henry David Venema Promoting the role of women in development in Africa: networking and capacity-building 84 Tieho Makhabane Transforming power relationships: building capacity for ecological security 92 Mary Jo Larson Resources 102 Compiled by Ruth Evans Publications 102 Electronic resources 107 Journals 110 Organisations 110 Videos 112 Editorial Rachel Masika

he global climate is subject to yields and increasing food insecurity in increasing change, and this has much of the developing world; become more evident over recent • increased frequency and intensity of T 1 years. In particular, the atmospheric extreme weather events leading to concentrations of greenhouse gases have loss of life, injury, mass population increased, augmenting global warming. dislocations, and economic devastation These concentrations of carbon dioxide, in poor countries; methane, and nitrous oxide are higher now • a decline in human health as people's than at any time during the last thousand resistance to disease is weakened by years, and the weight of scientific evidence heat stress, water shortages, and suggests that observed changes in the malnutrition. Increases in infectious earth's climate are at least in part due to diseases and waterborne illnesses, and human activities (IPCC 2001a). higher levels of pollution leading to a The latest climate projection models of rise in respiratory illnesses, will be the Inter-governmental widespread (IPCC 2001b; Martens 1998). Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), a high- No one will be immune from the overall level, independent, scientific advisory impacts of climate change, but it will have a body, suggest that if no action is taken now disproportionate effect on the lives of poor to reduce greenhouse gases, air surface people in developing countries, where temperatures could rise to levels that will poverty increases people's vulnerability to significantly alter ecosystems. The IPCC its harmful effects. Poor people in and other forecasters predict that such overcrowded temporary settlements global warming could result in the erected on unsuitable land will be at risk of following changes: flooding and land slides. Those eking out • a rise in sea levels exposing many an existence from subsistence farming will communities to severe flooding from have no savings or assets to insure them storm surges; against external shocks. Lack of sanitation • a decline in water availability with and limited access to clean water, poor diet, billions of people facing water shortages and inadequate healthcare provision will in the Middle East and the Indian undermine resistance to disease. A lack of subcontinent; social status and the remoteness of some • disruptive seasonal rainfall patterns settlements means that some people will which will bring about and not receive adequate warnings of floods, dramatically reducing crop impending disasters, and relief efforts will Editorial be less likely to reach them. Lack of communities are affected by and respond to education, and official neglect, means that environmental problems in different ways. poor and marginalised people will have Gender issues have not been considered little alternative but to remain in, or return in wider climate change discourses and to, disaster-prone areas, with diminished initiatives. The international response to the assets. implications of climate change has largely Adverse changes in climate^are likely to focused on mitigation initiatives (the exacerbate the problems that developing reduction of greenhouse gases), and has countries are already facing, particularly directed less attention to adaptation since 94 per cent of the world's major strategies (assistance with adapting to the natural disasters between 1990 and 1998 adverse impacts of climate change on occurred in developing countries (Oxfam food, livelihood, and human security). 2000, 1). It is important to acknowledge, Predominant approaches and policy however, that some climate changes may responses have focused on scientific and have beneficial impacts. As Terry Cannon technological measures to tackle climate points out in his article in this collection, change problems. They have displayed increased floods - a projected consequence scant regard for the social implications of of climate change - have the potential to climate change outcomes and the threats improve rather than destroy livelihoods. these pose for poor men and women, or for Inundation and silt can improve soil the ways in which people's political and fertility, thus boosting crop yields. Flooding economic environments influence their can also create ponds, improving conditions ability to respond to the challenges of for fish breeding. Cooler, temperate climate change. While scientific approaches climates, particularly in the Northern remain crucial, this collection of articles hemisphere, might also benefit from argues that political and socio-economic warmer temperatures. issues must be taken into consideration, The opportunities and challenges that particularly since the climate change men and women will face in responding to agenda is set by the rich and powerful, and climate change are uncertain and unclear, can exclude the interests of the poor and as are the precise shape, form, scope, time- less powerful within their variously scales, and impacts of projected climate constrained contexts. variability in different environmental The authors in this collection explore the settings. Given this degree of uncertainty, connections between gender, poverty, and many may be tempted to ask of gender climate variability, and debate whether, analysts and planners, why should we why, and how gender and poverty issues worry about this? There are difficulties in matter within the 'climate change policy assessing the gender-differentiated risks process'. Many discuss the vulnerability to and outcomes of ecological changes, the harmful risks of climate change that particularly when the debate takes place gender and poverty bestow, and demonstrate within a highly-charged political environ- why these areas need to be considered and ment where the validity of scientific integrated into climate change interventions hypotheses is questioned, and the threats (policy debates, international agreements, are not fully understood. However, an and national and local programmes). Some understanding of potential gender- explore why these issues have been largely differentiated impacts can be gleaned from neglected in research and analysis to date, studies of gender issues in environmental suggest how they can be most effectively and disasters management, where these tackled, and which approaches can aid this demonstrate how individuals and process. Gender or poverty? inequalities play in women's sensitivity to climate shocks, and their capacity to It is widely accepted that the distribution of respond. Fatma Denton explains why vulnerability to climate hazards and gender matters to climate change processes, environmental degradation is not equal while Irene Dankelman's review across societies and countries. Although demonstrates the significant role that location-specific climatic patterns are key gender relations - through their role in factors in assessing risks and threats, levels influencing which resources women or men of infrastructure, economic development, can access - play in determining sensitivity social equality, and political influence of to climate change and environmental countries and communities will affect the degradation, and their capacity to cope extent of their vulnerability to climate with the outcomes. fluctuations. Adaptation - the ability of There is still a tendency to link women human systems to adapt to and cope with with poverty, and by inference, to change - depends on factors such as vulnerability. This conflation of poverty wealth, technology, education, information, with women masks the underlying skills, infrastructure, access to resources, conceptual and structural underpinnings of and management capabilities (IPCC 2001, gender inequality and poverty which, 8). The adaptive capacity of men and although closely associated, are not women to environmental degradation will synonymous. Roy and Venema illustrate depend largely on the extent to which they how close - and sometimes inextricable - can draw on these variables within varied these associations are, in their article contexts. Those with the least resources presenting the 'capabilities approach' as a have the least capacity to adapt and are the way of reducing poverty and gender most vulnerable. inequalities in people's ability to adapt to The relative importance of gender or climate change pressures. poverty in understanding vulnerability to climate change threats is subject to debate. Gender-specific implications of climate A point of conjecture in this collection is the change outcomes question of how far gender or poverty Some authors explore the gender-specific influences men and women's vulnerability implications of climate change outcomes on to ecological risks and their capacity to human, food, and livelihood security, respond to climate variation in localised drawing on gender analyses of natural contexts, and the extent to which poverty or disasters, environmental conservation, and gender should be the entry point for rural livelihood systems. The implications vulnerability reduction measures. In his of gender divisions in labour for coping article on the gender dimensions of climate with environmental change, and the hazards in Bangladesh, Terry Cannon different ways in which men and women asserts that the evidence for whether the respond to disasters, are examined. These impacts of hazards are worse for women is differences, largely due to unequal social inconclusive and variable. Margaret relations, determine men's and women's Skutsch, also in this collection, suggests roles, behaviour, and responsibilities in the that poverty is the main variable, and that household, workplace, and community. the issue of women's vulnerability to They determine their access to income to climate risks is best tackled through tap into material and productive resources gender-responsive poverty reduction that can provide security, protection, and measures. recovery; and they determine individuals' Other contributions to this collection power to influence or control events highlight the central role that gender and outcomes that affect them. These Editorial differentiated power relations and levels of fetching water, can place them under access to resources are key to under- increasing strain as they trek further in standing men's and women's vulnerability, search of firewood, and face diminishing their exposure to risk, their coping capacity, plant resources and water shortages. and their ability to recover. Trekking long distances for water and fuel More specifically, exposure to risk is also affects the academic performance of influenced by existing nutritional inequalities, young girls. Girls are often kept at home to restricted mobility, and practices associated help with household duties, and this is with understandings of 'appropriate' particularly the case in times of household behaviour for men and women. Cannon stress or high workload. Similarly, a dispro- highlights the case of Bangladesh, where portionately large number of women work women's lower nutritional status in pre- in the informal sector, and informal sector disaster situations worsened during crises. jobs are often the worst hit and slowest to Nelson et al. cite the example of how a recover when disasters strike. disproportionate number of women died in Climate changes have the potential to the 1991 cyclone in Bangladesh because of create widespread additional health cultural norms concerning the preservation problems. These are likely to increase of female honour that meant they left it too women's workloads still further, since late to leave their homes, and were less women have traditionally had responsi- likely than men to know how to swim. bility for caring for the sick and the elderly. The capacity to cope and the potential to Women's health may also suffer as a result recover from climate shocks are affected by of their existing lower access to health access to material and productive resources services, reduced nutritional status, and the such as income and employment. Nelson requirement on them to juggle multiple et al. point out how in the aftermath of roles. Men's mental health may also suffer, Hurricane Mitch in Honduras and Nicaragua, as men are less likely to seek counselling for it was more difficult for women to return to trauma, a possible outcome of experiencing work because of increased domestic and disaster. Rosa Reyes highlights the case of care responsibilities. Where and the 1997-8 El Nino events in Peru, where desertification, considered to be slow-onset malnutrition among women was a major disasters, make male migration in search of cause of peri-partum illness. employment necessary, women's domestic and care responsibilities can increase, making it difficult for them to engage in Current responses: income-generating work. Nonetheless, the mitigation and adaptation widely-held view that male out-migration International responses to climate change makes women more vulnerable is question- risks have tended to reflect the priorities able because in some instances male and interests of wealthier countries, with migration can give women greater decision- the majority of the responses focused on making powers, and open up new mitigation at country level, livelihood possibilities for them. at the expense of adaptation measures and Considering gender divisions of labour support. Mitigation has revolved around in agriculture, fisheries, the informal sector, the reduction of greenhouse gases (through the household, and the community, can large-scale technical initiatives) and the assist us in pinpointing where vulnerability enhancement of natural carbon sinks - to ecological threats lies. Women's particularly forests - to absorb them. dependence on communal tree and plant However, attempts to develop mitigation resources, and their responsibility for strategies expose the power inequities within the international system. The attention to equity and poverty issues. unilateral position taken by the USA, a While gender advocates have played a key major greenhouse gas emitter, in refusing to role in highlighting gender disadvantage endorse the Kyoto agreement, demonstrates and its influence on the success or failure of how the 'big' business and economic environmental and relief interventions, considerations of powerful countries can assumptions about men and women derail mitigation efforts, and the importance continue to translate into initiatives that of political and economic power in the place greater burdens on women's time success of mitigation efforts. and labour without rewards, and do not The significance of equity issues (social provide them with the inputs (education, status, wealth, and power) in the resilience information, and land rights) they require. of human systems and security (food, Where gender issues have been considered, livelihoods, health, and survival) to their integration into programmes has been environmental change has often been over- insufficient in addressing the transformative looked in climate change interventions. requirements of social change that are A focus on technical solutions to climate inherent in addressing gender inequality change problems has ignored the social and and giving greater visibility to women's political aspects of finding appropriate contributions to environmental conservation. solutions. Many of the concerns of poor Natural resource management pro- countries fall within the 'adaptation' grammes tend to rely too heavily on scenario, in part due to their dependence on women's conservation capacities because it the physical environment for their food and is assumed that they are naturally livelihood security, and their limits in predisposed to serve their community by providing adequate protection against protecting the environment on which the shocks of climate disasters such as they depend for their livelihoods. As the recent floods in Mozambique and Dankelman's article demonstrates, rural Bangladesh. women in developing countries are Adaptation is a key focus of this disproportionately adversely affected by collection, and is also the area where environmental degradation. Nelson et al., gendered differences are most stark. however, caution against assumptions that Assisting those most vulnerable to climate rural women are 'closer to nature', since risks requires an understanding of the such ideas can entail that development complex and often intertwined influences projects rely too heavily on women's that power, wealth, and social status have unpaid labour. In addition, Denton cautions on who is most affected, who has the against using women as promotional capacity to cope, and who decides on what agents for environmental conservation and action is to be taken. Ignoring these tree-planting schemes without addressing variables in environmental interventions other aspects that are" important to good risks exacerbating human suffering and resource management and environmental reinforcing inequality between men and conservation, such as women's ability to women and across countries. Including own land. these considerations in the formulation Initiatives that fail to address the and implementation of adaptation and transformations required for social change, mitigation measures can enhance adaptive or to challenge gender discrimination and strategies and assist in promoting gender disadvantage, reinforce gender inequality equality. and miss the opportunity to utilise and Environmental NGOs and other pro- enhance poor rural women's and men's poor climate change lobbyists have played skills and indigenous knowledge effectively. a central role in drawing policy-makers' Emily Boyd demonstrates how a climate Editorial mitigation project in Bolivia contributed to gender concerns are most stark, and where gendered differences in outcomes, and gender advocates can meaningfully contribute traces the patriarchal relationships, from to developing gender-sensitive policies and global decision-making processes to local initiatives. impacts, that contributed to this. In this There may be opportunities for women particular case, although women's practical to acquire wider development benefits needs were at least partially met by the through the climate change process. project, their strategic interests were Skutsch and Denton suggest that the Clean overlooked. Reyes shows that whereas Development Mechanism (CDM) may offer women take responsibility for community new and additional opportunities for organising at local levels in Peru, their gender-redistributive initiatives. The CDM under-representation in wider political is one of the three flexible mechanisms2 rights-based movements, and at official introduced in the Kyoto Protocol and the national and regional levels, means that the United Nations Framework Convention on impacts of their experience, skills, and Climate Change Co-operation (UNFCCC) environmental knowledge can be limited. as a co-operative instrument to promote sustainable development in developing countries, as well as cost-effective greenhouse Strategies for gender- gas mitigation. If women can access CDM responsive policy and funds for climate action (mitigation, practice adaptation, and capacity-building), then they could gain some benefits, for Because the major causes of human-related example by acquiring cleaner technologies climate variability are linked to energy use, for cleaner household energy usage greenhouse gas mitigation has been an (such as the UPESI stoves in Kenya and essential part of international strategies to battery-operated lamps in Bangladesh). offset the risks of climate change. Natural Such small-scale measures may not have mechanisms for absorption of greenhouse a significant impact on greenhouse gas gases, such as 'sinks' (forests and ), mitigation, but may serve to reduce and greenhouse gas emission reduction respiratory illnesses, and provide an entry targets at country level through cleaner and point for educating communities about the energy-efficient technologies, and carbon threats of climate change. Also, such steps trading, have been prioritised. In her could decrease women's time and labour assessment of the efficacy of considering spent in firewood collection. gender issues in international processes At present, however, women's capacity aimed at developing climate change policy, to influence international decisions and Margaret Skutsch explains why these issues outcomes over climate efforts remains are not always significant at the global limited. Participation in international level. For example, apportioning blame or negotiations on climate policy and responsibility by sex for the cause of interventions, such as the UNFCCC and , on the basis of Kyoto Protocol, is of strategic importance to energy practices and consumption, is not women if international initiatives are to effective. This is because most greenhouse address their concerns. Capacity-building gas emissions stem from industrial patterns for women in this area requires equal of production and consumption, and access to education, training, and tech- require technical and scientific solutions to nology in developing countries, and more offset or decrease them. The role that female professionals and male experts who gender issues play in global efforts is more have received gender training in the fields significant in adaptation measures where of engineering and other technical areas, who could potentially contribute to a more Development Organisation (WEDO), gender-sensitive CDM policy. It also means which has played an important facilitating equipping women with the expertise to role in the WSSD consultation process and negotiate, and to conduct climate-related preparatory meetings, and has developed a research relevant to their needs and resource book as a tool for the process. interests. Strategies to overcome financial Together, Tieho Makhabane, Irene and time-investment barriers to partici- Dankelman, and Delia Villagrasa illustrate pation in climate fora, which can deter women's positive contributions to local, newcomers and particularly poorer national, and international processes participants and women, are essential. around energy, sustainable development, Including women in climate change and climate change issues, demonstrating negotiations can enhance the process, how women's efforts have changed over particularly where they can draw on the years. Makhabane provides an example strengths such as networking, inter- of two energy networks, SAGEN and personal skills, and an ability to co-operate. ENERGIA, which promote the role of Delia Villagrasa provides examples of how women in sustainable energy development women were able to influence climate in Africa. She provides two case study negotiations to some extent because of examples of sustainable energy networks, such skills. Mary Jo Larson suggests and their achievement in networking approaches that can assist disadvantaged around sustainable energy issues and groups in negotiating and transforming building women's capacity. power relations. Drawing on an analysis of power relationships and climate change negotiations, she discusses how capacity- Conclusion building can be a flexible and multilateral This collection of articles explores some of approach to sustainable development. the complex and nebulous political and Proactive, co-operative approaches such as socio-economic issues linked to climate those taken by the Association of Small change. While there is increasing consensus Island States (AOSIS) for climate around the scientific hypotheses suggesting negotiations demonstrate how low-power an upturn in major climatic events, policy- groups can transform threatening systems makers are faced with major difficulties in by building alliances, developing extensive assessing how gender-differentiated communication networks, and advocating outcomes of climatic threats may be with a united voice. mitigated. Firstly, the exact nature, scope, Many articles in this journal highlight and timescale of local impacts cannot be how women are not 'victims' or inactive accurately determined. Secondly, the issue political agents. Dankelman provides is highly politicised, with major political examples of women organising and and corporate interests at play. Thirdly, influencing sustainable development although potentially cataclysmic, the threat initiatives by lobbying for more gender- of climate change may not be perceived as sensitive policies during the United demanding immediate attention by poor Nations Conference on Environment and communities and countries with other, Development (UNCED) process, with some more immediate, practical concerns. success. Women are also continuing their However, in many parts of the world, lobby efforts towards preparatory meetings extreme climatic events and climatic for the World Summit on Sustainable changes are already being experienced, Development (WSSD). One such organi- albeit on a smaller scale and with less sation is the Women, Environment and frequency than can be expected in the Editorial 9 future. Risk management is a necessary Notes response to this reality. The articles in this journal demonstrate that gender and 1 Changes in climate occur as a result of poverty considerations need to be included both internal variability within the in all adaptation efforts. A better climate system and anthropogenic - or understanding of the connections between human-induced - factors. While the gender and poverty, the ways in which global climate system has always they increase vulnerability to climate experienced natural fluctuations over hazards, and their implications for the time, anthropogenic factors are today impacts of climate change on livelihood creating considerable and widespread and survival strategies, is essential. changes (IPCC 2001a). Reducing poverty requires ensuring that 2 The Kyoto Protocol, one the main the poor and vulnerable have access to instruments for tackling climate change, productive resources, land and property has three main mechanisms: Inter- rights, adequate information, sound national (IET), Joint technologies, and relevant skills. All of Implementation (JI), and Clean Develop- these are crucial to natural resource ment Mechanisms (CDM) (Humphreys management, and all represent structural 1998). constraints faced by women in many societies. These are also the kinds of areas covered in 'traditional' development References agendas. Humphreys, S. (1998) 'Equity in the CDM', Minimising vulnerability linked to Dakar: Enda, http//www.enda.sn/ climate change impacts will require energie/cc/ cdmequity.htm (last checked sustainable development interventions in by author May 2002) multiple sectors (agriculture, health, IPCC (2001a) IPCC Third Assessment Report employment, education, and so on) to - Climate Change 2001: Summary for address the incipient threats. Further Policymakers, http:/ / www.ipcc.ch/ research is required into the gender- (last checked by author April 2002) differentiated impacts and vulnerabilities IPCC (2001b) Climate Change 2001: Impacts, of climate threats, and policy discourses Adaptation and Vulnerability, Summary for need to shift to accommodate the equity Policymakers, http: / / www.ipcc.ch / and sustainability implications of climate (last checked by author April 2002) change. Martens, P. (1998) Health and Climate Change: Modeling the Impacts of Global Warming and , London: Earthscan Oxfam (2000) 'Climate Change: The Implications for Oxfam's Programme, Policies, and Advocacy', unpublished paper, Oxford: Oxfam 10

Climate change vulnerability, impacts, and adaptation: why does gender matter? Fatma Denton

Gender-related inequalities are pervasive in the developing world. Although women account for almost 80 per cent of the agricultural sector in Africa, they remain vulnerable and poor. Seventy per cent of the 1.3 billion people in the developing world living below the threshold of poverty are women. It is important that the consequences of climate change should not lead already marginalised sections of communities into further deprivation. But key development issues have been at best side- tracked, and at worst blatantly omitted, from policy debates on climate change. The threats posed by global warming have failed to impress on policy-makers the importance of placing women at the heart of their vision of sustainable development. This article argues that if climate change policy is about ensuring a sustainable future by combining development and environment issues, it must take into account the interests of all stakeholders. The Global Environment Facility and the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol can play a role in ensuring sustainable development, provided they are implemented in a way that does not disadvantage women and the poor.

hat have unequal power between and the bigger nations, get to define the women and men, and global basis on which they participate and contribute Winequality, got to do with an to the reduction of growing environmental environmental crisis as monumental as the problems, while women, and smaller and possible negative impacts of climate change poorer countries, look in from the outside, - which are predicted to have far-reaching with virtually no power to change or implications for women and men? The influence the scope of the discussions. answer to this question is not immediately More than a decade since it began, the obvious. Hurricanes, floods, and other climate debate continues to be fraught with incidents related to climate change affect difficulties. Protagonists have gradually whole communities, and should presumably awakened to the fact that the underlying therefore affect the lives of women and men capitalist and market forces are too equally. Moreover, ecosystems and extreme important to ignore. The debate has swayed climate events are oblivious to boundaries. from an initial commitment to greenhouse The planet is a global concern incorporating gas mitigation to trying to get recalcitrant a multitude of ecosystems, peoples, and countries such as the USA to toe the line cultures. As such, it requires collective and ratify the Kyoto Protocol. Climate input in its management, protection, and change negotiations such as those leading ultimately, its sustainability. Yet climate to the Kyoto Protocol reflect Northern negotiations could be seen as a parody of priorities and interests. Issues facing people an unequal world economy, in which men, living in poverty - such as the question of Climate change: why does gender matter? 11 how they can adapt to climate changes - management. Hence, women and their have been side-tracked or omitted. livelihoods activities are particularly Whilst delegates dwell on the 'shoulds' vulnerable to the risks posed by environ- and 'woulds' of the Kyoto agreement,1 mental depletion (Denton 2001). The need poorer communities in Mozambique and to diversify energy resources and introduce other developing countries know that it alternative fuels for household use will take more than semantics to reverse constitutes an essential part of adaptation some of the most catastrophic outcomes of strategies. climate variability and environmental Taking preventive measures well in degradation. Most less-developed countries advance has more benefits than reacting to (LDCs) feel that their need for adaptation unexpected catastrophes. To plan these, strategies has not been met or received it is important to consider sectors of sufficient attention. In the interim, whilst production, such as agriculture and international agencies haggle over who is fisheries, in terms of the division of labour best able to oversee adaptation projects, between women and men, and to identify rich industrialised countries keep a steady the different degrees of vulnerability of eye on the costs. Endless discussions ensue women and men to the negative effects of over what some see as a miserly adaptation climate events. Building this analysis will fund,2 but which others, in the North, require more research, but this would consider to be generous. Ordinary people enable policy-makers to put measures in in rural Africa and other parts of the place to combat environmental degra- developing world are left to find their own dation, with the aim of minimising the ways of cultivating their land and resisting vulnerability of the women and men further environmental degradation, as affected by them. In planning such ecosystems become more fragile and measures, much can also be learned from affected by climate variability. existing mechanisms for drought control by Climate change is likely to accentuate regional groupings such as the Permanent the gaps between the world's rich and Inter-States Committee for Drought Control poor. It is widely accepted that women in in the Sahel (CILSS). These help to build developing countries constitute one of the resilience, identify warning signs to give poorest and most disadvantaged groups in advance warning of problems, and create a society. A number of human practices are sense of preparedness among women and likely to worsen the current scenario of men. environmental degradation, and increase the build-up of greenhouse gas emissions Ignoring women's in the atmosphere. Among these are energy contribution to intensity, deforestation, burning of vegetation, population growth, and, ultimately, environmental resource economic growth. management Women's contribution and participation Women's absence from decision-making can help or hinder in all the above processes scenarios. It has been well documented that Women are patently absent from the rural women in particular play a key role in climate change decision-making process. environmental and natural resource manage- The climate debate has not sought to ment. Women's active involvement address the existing marginalisation of in agriculture, and their dependence women, nor their need to be integrated in on biomass energy, makes them key environmental policies. Nor have the stakeholders in effective environmental immediacy of global warming, the magnitude 12

of such a phenomenon, or even extreme fungibility and certified emissions events such as the floods in Mozambique, reductions. In addition, decision-makers, succeeded in impressing on decision- policy-makers, researchers, and develop- makers the importance of placing women ment planners alike claim to represent the at the heart of sustainable development. interests of 'the people', but use language Increasing participation of women in that is seldom understood by the very UNFCCC bodies and the Kyoto Protocol is people they intend to serve or represent. essential if policies are to promote rather If addressing the negative effects of climate than hamper gender equity. At the Seventh change is a prerequisite to sustainable Conference of Parties (CoP7)3 under the development, then it is imperative that the United Nations Framework Convention on debate is given a people's perspective. Climate Change (UNFCCC) held in The United Nations Conference on Marrakech, Morocco from 29th October- Population and Environment recognised 10th November 2001, the delegate from the value of women in natural resource Samoa called for a more equitable represen- management, and their intrinsic importance tation of women within the organisational was reflected in the Agenda 21 document- and decision-making structure of the ation. However, women are for the most UNFCCC (UNFCCC 2001). Consequently, part not well-represented in environmental and as a result of other dissenting voices, policy formulation. The climate debate is the CoP7 thought it necessary to improve perpetuating the under-valuation and the representation and participation misunderstanding of women's contribution of women in bodies established under to environmental management. While the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. a great deal of lip-service has been paid However, ensuring women's participation to women's indigenous knowledge of in these debates will not guarantee that the environmental management and soil many issues faced by women in poverty preservation, little is being done to will be addressed. integrate this local knowledge into main- Poverty is linked in a complex way to stream policy. The African Women Leaders exclusion and marginalisation, and this in Agriculture and Environment (AWLAE) results in the absence of people living in came together partly to ensure that poverty, and a lack of analysis of the issues women's contributions in agriculture do they face, in macro-economic policy- not go unrecognised by policy-makers, making. Poverty leads to poor women and researchers, and development planners. men being unable to make choices that might improve their socio-economic Mainstreaming gender perspectives conditions, and protect natural resources. within conservation and natural resource Hence, reducing poverty must be about management ensuring that the poor have access to As highlighted earlier, poor women are reproductive resources, control over and generally on the receiving end of the effects access to fertile land, adequate information, of increasing environmental degradation sound technologies, relevant skills, adequate and depletion of natural resources, because sanitation, good irrigation strategies, and of their involvement in, and reliance on, access to clean water. All of these are livelihoods activities which depend directly crucial to resource management and on the natural environment. For example, conservation of biodiversity. environmental degradation surrounding In many cases, international debates rural communities may increase the have sidelined the priorities of the poor - distances that women have to walk in particularly women - in favour of 'highbrow' search of clean water and firewood in order discussions on technicalities including to perform their daily household chores. Climate change: why does gender matter? 13

The development sector as a whole, trade, their inability to control prices on the from energy to agriculture, seems to world market, and ineffective national 'mainstream' gender issues as an after- policies that seek to make profits from thought. In addition, mainstreaming is agricultural earnings. While the relation- done in small doses, with considerable time ship of land ownership to productivity, and elapsing between times at which different its potential for economic development, development sectors adopt a gender cannot be underestimated, efforts should analysis. In such an environment, policies be made to understand and ultimately which evolve from a gender perspective address the causes of environmental tend not only to be minimal and degradation from a holistic standpoint, unenforced, but are also created in isolation rather than conflating the single issue of from other key development sectors, and lack of land ownership with women's therefore offer little potential for poor rural growing poverty. To return to the example women to optimise their skills and make of tree-planting projects, scant attention significant gains. tends to be given to other gender issues For example, the 1980s witnessed a new important to the success of these inter- form of green revolution in Africa, ventions. For instance, while women have including within the Sahelian countries. often been used as promotional agents for Here, environmental management is tree-planting schemes, little attention has hampered by the existence of fragile been given to the primacy of education in ecosystems and natural hazards such as ensuring good resource management and drought and desertification. Policy-makers environmental conservation. Minimal have particularly advocated work, if any, is undertaken to hone projects. However, in addition to the women's indigenous knowledge and wealth of services provided by forests to expertise. Through close interactions with the rural poor, forests are known to be forest and other ecosystems over many huge depositories of methane, nitrous years, women have developed a wealth of oxide, and carbon dioxide. indigenous knowledge of plants and their There is little logic in involving women medicinal value. Sadly, this component of in environmental conservation and tree- local knowledge has not widely been planting schemes when only a small tapped into by policy-makers, and could be percentage of women have control over lost if it is not used (Agarwal 1992). land. Development policy has still not addressed the structural constraints that Peeling through different curtail women's access to control and layers of vulnerability: ownership over resources. Nor has it been able to ensure that women's expertise in potential impacts of climate land or resource management is recognised, change or their effort compensated, through Climate change is a threat to human ownership of that land or resource. security in general. A key priority in the Of course, it should be pointed out that current climate-change discussion is to while some analysts have emphasised the ensure that decision-makers and key importance of women owning their own stakeholders alike understand the different land as if land ownership in itself is a types of vulnerability to climate change guarantee of economic prosperity, this is that women and men face, and their not the case in Africa. The majority of gendered implications. farmers in Africa are poor and getting According to Robert Watson, chair of poorer, mainly due to declining terms of the IPCC, 'vulnerability' can be defined as: 14

'...the extent to which the natural or socialaccess to safe water, a sustainable system is susceptible to sustaining damage livelihood, minimal exposure to health from climate change and is a function of thehazards, and education. magnitude of climate change, the sensitivity While links between human security of the system to changes in climate. Hence, ana d environmental change may not lend highly vulnerable system is one that is themselves very easily to concrete examples, highly sensitive to modest changes and oneland degradation is clearly connected to for which the ability to adapt is severely economic and food insecurity. Africa, as a constrained.' (Olmos 2001, 3) continent, is highly vulnerable to the effects of desertification and desiccation, since 85 Vulnerability and adaptation to the adverse per cent of its water is used for agricultural impacts of climate change are the most purposes, and this agriculture ensures food crucial environmental concerns of many subsistence and food security for millions developing countries, and particularly of of people. It is estimated that agricultural those in the Sahel region. Different regions yields could reduce by up to one-tenth in and countries face differing levels of some situations (UNEP/IUC 2001a). vulnerability to climate changes, with Already, many women have to take short- commensurate differences in the vulnerability cuts in food preparation as a result of of communities and services affected by the energy poverty, and have to resort to less changes. It is envisaged that climate change nutritive meals in order to compensate for will affect a whole host of areas, including increasing fuel shortages. Consequently, habitats, wildlife, terrestrial and aquatic they have to reduce the energy expended in ecosystems, and hence the production of their quest for fuel and fodder. goods and services which depend on these Climate change is also predicted to natural resources. Climate change will exacerbate existing shortfalls in water result in severe adverse changes in soils, resources. The large river basins of the arid-lands, coastal zones, and tropical and Niger, Senegal, and Lake Chad have boreal forests (Downing et al. 2000). In experienced total water decrease of addition, wetlands and vulnerable species between 40-60 per cent (UNEP/IUC 2001b). would be under severe threat. More water shortages would cause further The greenhouse gas emissions of difficulties for women in health and African countries are insignificant in global sanitation, as rural women in Africa live terms; the major sources of emissions that mainly in water-stressed areas, and are exist arise from land-use changes and already bearing the brunt of water deforestation. However, West Africa, and shortages. Increased water contamination particularly the Sahel, is one of the most as a result of human activities increases vulnerable areas to climate change, due to vulnerability to diseases such as trachoma its propensity to drought and deserti- and scabies. Rivers and dams have become fication, and its dependence on subsistence major dumping-sites for agricultural agriculture. Vulnerability to poor rainfall is and industrial waste - yet these are also the most striking feature of the Sahelian invariably the only form of water that countries in West Africa (Denton et al. women and children have at their disposal. 2002). Climatic uncertainty and rapid In West Africa, changes in seasons and population growth mean that the Sahel climatic conditions mean that women and region is continually under threat of a children have to use water supplies from breakdown in natural balances. This poses dirty ponds, as these tend to dry up during a threat to Sahelian peoples' access to the the dry season, increasing their exposure basic human rights of food security and to water-borne diseases. Further, the Climate change: why does gender matter? 15 increased time taken to fetch water may under the Convention. The GEF was entail that young female household established to forge international co- members are additionally required to help operation and to finance actions to address with household duties, increasing the four threats to the global environment: likelihood of their missing school. biodiversity loss, climate change, degra- Health problems, such as cardio- dation of international waters, and ozone vascular and other respiratory diseases, are depletion. Measures to halt land degradation likely to increase as a result of climate are also eligible for GEF funding. change, and increased temperatures could The Clean Development Mechanism entail loss of lives. Although women in (CDM) is a mechanism in the Kyoto most countries have a longer average life Protocol conceived to allow for, and expectancy than men, the quality of ultimately address, divergent objectives women's health is low compared to that of and priorities between the North and the men in their households and communities. South. It is a bilateral agreement between While health threats related to global an industrialised country that must reduce warming linger, women are faced with its greenhouse gas emissions under the more immediate health risks than men, due Convention, and a developing country. to their role in the gender division of Under the CDM, industrialised countries labour. As fuel-collectors and cooks, they invest in projects that increase economic face respiratory problems caused by indoor productivity and may reduce local environ- pollution due to their direct contact with mental problems in developing countries. traditional fuels. As water collectors, they CDM projects will produce commodities face high exposure to malaria, endemic in for a market in emissions reduction credits. many parts of Africa. Women also share Energy-efficiency projects in a non-Annex I with men the risk of contracting water- country will be a more effective method of borne diseases, such as dysentery, diarrhoea, emissions reduction than the production of and cholera. The latter are widespread in a similar system in an Annex I country. If many parts of Africa, especially in the CDM is properly managed, it could extremely deprived areas, where the allow non-Annex I countries to orient their availability of clean drinking water is non- goals towards development paradigms that existent. They are likely to suffer increased, are inseparable from sustainable develop- nutritional problems due to their low ment trajectories. The CDM encourages income status. Increased poverty and food developing countries to integrate the insecurity will also cause problems relating concept of sustainability into their overall to anaemia, common in pregnant women, development priorities. CDM has huge and health risks accentuated by paucity of potential, yet poses an undeniable challenge: resources in both pre- and post-natal care. how can we allow developing countries to outline and achieve their hopes of sustainability while enabling Northern Adaptive capacities and countries to reach their objectives of mechanisms emissions reductions? The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is For example, CDM projects could aim the financial mechanism of the UNFCCC. It to bring about greater sustainability by was created to assist non-Annex I Parties4 promoting cleaner fuels. Projects promoting in the management of the global environ- the use of improved stoves were popular in mental commons, by providing financial the 1970s and 1980s as a way of reducing assistance to developing countries to deforestation and helping poorer house- comply with their obligations, as stipulated holds move up the energy ladder. In a 16

UNDP case-study on generating energy- project finishes. Governments and the related opportunities for women, rural private sector need to find ways of women in Bangladesh who have been able identifying potential project portfolios and to use battery-operated lamps have made of making sure that the main stakeholders significant reductions in indoor pollution, a are included at all stages of project problem which primarily affects women development. and children through cooking with CDM has great potential to create and firewood and biomass resources in confined support energy infrastructures that could spaces. The large-scale use of batteries benefit large populations within the instead of polluting energy resources such African continent. It could also enhance as kerosene have the potential to reduce regional and sub-regional co-operation. greenhouse gas emissions (Khan 2001). Such an opportunity will be immensely Likewise, Upesi stoves (cleaner, more fuel- beneficial in the areas of transport, efficient, faster cooking stoves, designed housing, and electricity provision. Projects and disseminated in Kenya) have not only could be transposed and emulated from created savings in fuel and time for one country to another, in a North-South- women, but have also created a greater South triangle. awareness that energy and soil conser- vation are central to environmental sustainability (Njenga 2001). Socio-economic Some authors believe that the CDM sustainability and the might constitute a double-edged sword, in equity dimension that it will benefit those countries and individuals best able to take advantage of It is quite clear that building the necessary it. CDM projects would best serve countries capacity to enable the least-developed that have the necessary capacity and countries to cope with extreme events, such institutional arrangements to take advantage as major flooding, is of absolute importance. of energy projects. Least-developed It is important to note that there is no countries are least likely to gain from these scientific evidence of any direct causal initiatives, because their economies are linkage between specific extreme climate weak, their institutions feeble, and their events and climate change. However, human resources minimal. By the same because extreme events are liable to have token, although increased prominence in considerable impact on human beings in biomass energy could open up opportunities future, because there is a high probability for entrepreneurs and attract businesses, of climate change being linked with an the opportunities would go to people who increase in extreme climate events, and are most able to take advantage of these because the effects of day-to-day climate (Kammen 1995). Structural constraints such change will be similar to these very as lack of education and entrepreneurial extreme events, it is judicious to monitor skills, and cultural restrictions, tend to extreme events and learn to cope with inhibit women's efforts in entrepreneurial them. activities (Colletah 2000). CDM projects Promoting resource management in a should support existing initiatives like the sustainable manner, against a background two outlined earlier, and strengthen the of globalised economic change and capacity of those involved in them. Too economic austerity brought about by often, projects are designed without prior structural adjustment policies, poses many consultation with women, and environ- different challenges. Ineffective, gender- mental and other benefits end when the blind policies, and entrenched patriarchal Climate change: why does gender matter? 17 traditions, are to a large extent responsible Conclusion for the numerous constraints women face in transport, access to land, income, and There is enough evidence to show that other resources, agricultural practices, women are at the centre of sustainable education, health services, credit facilities, development, and that ensuring greater and a litany of structural, technological, gender equalities in all sectors would mean and cultural barriers. that society as a whole will benefit. Yet mainstreaming gender issues into debates Gender inequalities continue to exist in on climate change and sustainable develop- terms of access to land, control over ment is happening piecemeal, extremely resources, ability to command and access slowly, with varying degrees of success, paid labour, capacity, and strategies for and often as an afterthought. This is made income diversification, as well as time more complex by women's lack of partici- spent on agricultural or forestry-based pation in decision-making at all levels, and activities. States must promote gender- the fact that the climate debate so far has sensitive policies with regard to land made little effort to package the issues in a tenure. Legal and structural barriers need way that ordinary people can even to be overturned in order to encourage and understand, let alone participate in. promote equitable access to land and Poor economies find it difficult to meet resources, boost productivity, and manage sustainability criteria, whether they be environmental and soil conservation. social, economic, or technological. Power Landlessness is forcing women to adopt dynamics characterise the relationships other income-generation activities to between richer and poorer nations, and complement their earnings. Commercial- these have gendered implications. If poorer isation of agriculture also means that nations are finding it difficult to get richer women need to find alternative sources of nations to meet their obligations and work income. For women who lack the education towards climate mitigation, poor women to filter through the different channels of have an even bigger problem in promoting bureaucracy to take advantage of credit their agenda. If smaller and poorer nations facilities and employment prospects, have difficulties in mounting the necessary communal resources may be all they have infrastructure to take advantage of CDM at their disposal. projects, poorer women have even fewer Unequal power relations between means and less scope to diversify their women and men lead to their differential livelihood and look after their families. access to environmental resources and Women are usually left subsidising opportunities for income diversification, economies through the energy that is entailing that environmental vulnerability, expended in the agricultural, forestry, and and indeed security, affect women and men industrial sectors. Environmental manage- differently. The increasing movement of ment is highly gendered, therefore male migrants to 'greener pastures' has conservation should also take into account tended to compound the poverty that many gendered divisions of labour in order to rural women have to contend with. Policies achieve greater equity. Climate change is to curb migratory flows through rural treated as a scientific event, yet its implications development, provide markets for local will have far-reaching human dimensions. products, diversify livelihoods, and So far, it has been given an economic promote good business initiatives, are emphasis, resulting in polemical debates critical for gender equality and resource and power dynamics. Thus, rich nations management. continue to dodge the real issues, while 18

smaller or less powerful states ensure that environmental degradation. Climate they stay in line and accept whatever change is likely to worsen their already concession they deem necessary to keep the precarious situation, and leave them even Kyoto agreement together. Within this more vulnerable. More efforts should be debate of pure economics, technicalities, made to give climate negotiations a people- and muscle flexing, the gendered centred approach, and to give women their implications of global warming are totally rightful place within the sustainable ignored. development circle. Women have taken a Adaptation funds should be more than keen interest in environmental resource merely a 'paper victory' (Najam 2001), but management, and have generated a great should be put into operation, to allow deal of wealth in terms of indigenous marginalised sections of communities to environmental knowledge, which needs to move out of poverty. CDM projects should have its value to medicine and other find a way of building the capacity of poor fields acknowledged. Policy-makers have men and women, to ensure that self- continued to make specific reference to this reliance is attained and that future knowledge, but very little effort is made generations are spared the task of cleaning to utilise it, or to make using this knowledge up an environmental mess they did not a fundamental part of main-stream policy. generate. It is certainly not enough to look This would build women's capacity and at adaptation from a merely welfaristic give them greater scope to utilise their perspective, as this would ignore the roles potential. Unless efforts are taken to played by different stakeholders, and incorporate indigenous knowledge into would consequently entrench and accentuate mainstream policy, it will continue to be a the very inequalities it is seeking to blur. case of standing knee-deep in the river and Climate equity is about ensuring that some dying of thirst. voices are not muffled at the expense of Adaptation projects should not only the more vociferous and powerful ones. serve as an inventory to 'peel off the Human adaptation to climate change is a different layers of vulnerability of different very practical concern. Discussions must areas and people, but also to ensure that not only reflect a cross-section of society, the relevant incentives are provided so that but should also aim to ensure that people women and men can complement their with low resilience are given the necessary efforts, and build a sustainable future tools to adapt and ultimately sustain through using their comparative advantages. themselves. Women's invisibility, and the diminution Climate change policy is based on a of their roles, has been cited as one of the 'survival of the fittest' philosophy. There is reasons why gender asymmetries have been very little either in the Kyoto Protocol or so stark, particularly in the developing the Convention to protect the migrant world. Yet changes at micro-level, however farmer faced with drier soils, heat stress, welcome, do not even begin to scratch the and lower productivity. Equity matters, in surface of much-needed policies at macro- that climate change, through its policies, level. Climate change policies should should not open the floodgates of enable developing countries to get it right consumerism in the North if this is going to the first time, through the use of smart be at the expense of Southern fishermen or and clean technologies whilst avoiding agriculturalists faced with problems greenhouse gas emissions. The 'no regret' relating to sea-level rise and loss of principle5 is today a fundamental tenet of livelihoods. the climate negotiating policy. Policy- Women are already paying huge prices makers within the climate debate must for globalisation, economic depression, and ensure that this tenet is extended to Climate change: why does gender matter? 19 marginalised groups by giving women and References men an opportunity to build their capacity, Agarwal, B. (1992) 'The Gender and Environ- lower their vulnerability, and diversify ment Debate: Lessons from India', their sources of income. Feminist Studies 1 (Spring) Colletah, C. (2000) 'Culture as a barrier to Fatma Denton is Researcher and Project rural women's entrepreneurship: Co-ordinator in the Energy Programme at Enda experience from Zimbabwe', Gender and Tiers Monde. Contact: Energie Programme, Development 8(1): 71-7 54 Rue Carnot, Dakar, Senegal. E-mail: Denton, F. (2000) 'Gendered impacts of [email protected] [email protected] climate change. A human security dimension', Energia Nezvs 3(3):13-14, http:/ / www.villagepower2000.org/ africa / aem2000 / presentations / ondiaye Notes abstractenglish.doc (last checked by 1. A lot of time and energy was spent in author May 2002) analysing the document on compliance Denton, F. (2001) 'Climate change, gender and debating whether the text should and poverty - academic babble or be left as it is or changed with new realpolitik?', Bulletin Africain: Point de emphasis on words such as 'should' and Vue 14, Dakar: RABEDE 'would' that other parties felt Denton, F., J.P. Thomas, and Y. Sokona uncomfortable with. (2002) Climate Change and Sustainable Development Strategies: An Agenda for 2. At CoP7 (the Seventh Conference of Long Term Action, OECD Environment and Parties), it was decided that in order to Development Co-operation, Paris: OECD strengthen existing national climate Downing T.E., Y. Sokona, and J.B. Smith change secretariats, build capacity in (2000) 'Action on Adaptation to Climate language and negotiating skills among Change', presentation to the UNFCCC Least Developed Countries (LDCs), and workshop 'Article 4.8 and 4.9 of the facilitate the process of National convention: adverse effects of climate Adaptation Programmes of Action change', Bonn, Germany, 9-11 March (NAPAs), some funds needed to be set 2000, Oxford: Oxford Environmental aside. Change Institute 3. The Conference of Parties comprises 185 Kammen, D. (1995) 'From energy efficiency members and is made up of the majority to social utility: improved cookstoves of world states who act as members. It is and the small is beautiful model of the supreme body of the Climate Change development', in J. Goldemberg and Convention and it meets once a year. T.B. Johansson (eds.), Energy as an 4. Non-Annex I countries are developing Instrument for Socio-Economic Development, New York: UNDP nations that do not have to agree to the Khan, HJ. (2001) 'Battery-operated lamps Kyoto Protocol emissions caps. produced by rural women', in G.V. 5. The 'no regret principle' means green- Karlsson (ed.), Generating Opportunities: house gas emission reduction options Case Studies on Energy and Women, New that constitute negative net costs. This is York: UNDP because they generate direct or indirect Najam, A. (2001) 'Good and Bad News', benefits that are considerable enough to in Equity Watch - Green Future, outweigh and offset the costs of http: / / www.cseindia.org/html/ cmp/ implementing the options. climate/ew/art20011130 1/htm 20

Njenga, B.K. (2001) 'Upesi rural stoves UN Environment Programme Information project', in G.V. Karlsson (ed.), Unit for Conventions (UNEP/UC) Generating Opportunities: Case Studies on (2001b) 'Water Resources', Climate Energy and Women, New York: UNDP Change Information Kit, Sheet 13, Geneva: Olmos, S. (2001) 'Vulnerability and UNEP Information Unit for Conventions, Adaptation to Climate Change: http: / / www.unep.ch / conventions / Concepts, Issues, Assessment Method UNFCCC (2001) 'Improving the Paper', Climate Change Knowledge participation of women in the Network Foundation Paper, representation of Parties in bodies http://www.cckn.net (last checked by established under the United Nations author May 2002) Framework Convention on Climate UN Environment Programme Information change', draft decision proposed by the Unit for Conventions (UNEP/IUC) President, Conference of the Parties, (2001a) 'Human settlements, energy and Other Matters, Seventh session, industry', Climate Change Information Kit, Marrakech, 29 October-9 November Sheet 15, Geneva: UNEP Information 2001, Agenda item 13, France, UNFCCC Unit for Conventions, http://www.unep.ch/conventions/ 21

Climate change: learning from gender analysis and women's experiences of organising for sustainable development Irene Dankelman

This article argues that climate change not only requires major technological solutions, but also has political and socio-economic aspects with implications for development policy and practice. Questions of globalisation, equity, and the distribution of welfare and power underlie many of its manifestations, and its impacts are not only severe, but also unevenly distributed. There are some clear connections, both positive and negative, between gender and the environment. This paper explores these linkages, which help to illustrate the actual and potential relationships between gender and climate change, and the gender-specific implications of climate change. It also provides examples of women organising for change around sustainable development issues in the build-up to the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), and demonstrates how women's participation can translate into more gender-sensitive outcomes.

limate change1 is not an occurrence human activities continue to alter the in the distant future, but a atmosphere. Higher concentrations of Cphenomenon that is taking place greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide now. The Intergovernmental Panel on and methane, warm the earth's surface. Climate Change (IPCC), established by the About three-quarters of the human United Nations in 1988 to gather data and emissions of carbon dioxide are due to develop knowledge about climate change, burning; the rest is due to land- presented its Third Assessment Report use change, especially deforestation. More (Working Group I) in 2001. It concluded than half of the increase in methane that global warming was a reality, and that emissions is caused by human activities, there was new and stronger evidence that such as use of fossil fuels, cattle, rice most of the warming observed over the last agriculture, and landfills. 50 years was attributable to human This raises the question of who is activities. An increasing body of observations responsible for causing climate changes, gives a picture of a warming world and and what are the main effects of these other changes in the climate system. These changes on different sectors of the changes are presented in Box 1. population and environment. A response to this demonstrates why climate change is a The human dimensions of development issue, and proves that it climate change has a political character. Historically, industrialised nations have emitted 80 per It is clear that human interventions are cent of their greenhouse gases due to their largely causing these changes in the global rapid industrialisation. Social and economic and local climate systems (IPCC 2001b). developments in the industrialised Emissions of greenhouse gases due to countries took place at the expense of the 22

Box 1: Observed and projected climate-related changes

• The earth's average surface temperature has increased by about 0.6°C over the 20th century. This results in higher maximum and minimum temperatures, and more hot days. • Snow cover and ice extent have decreased. • Global average sea level has risen, and heat content has increased. • More frequent precipitation, linked to warming, will cause increased flooding in some parts of and Africa. • The frequency and intensity of droughts is projected to increase. Source: IPPC 2001a

colonised world. Most of the greenhouse number of environmental refugees, who are gases today are emitted into the atmosphere still not recognised by the UN (CJN 2001). by these same industrialised countries, which consume large quantities of fossil Projected outcomes for livelihoods and fuels. At the same time, industrialised human security countries including the USA, Canada, The IPPC Second Working Group Report Japan, and Australia are the main blocks to (IPPC 2001b) concludes that recent regional progress in the UN climate change climate changes, particularly temperature negotiations (CJN 2001a). increases, have already affected many physical and biological systems. There has Who is most affected? been increasing frequency of floods and Ironically, climate change effects and droughts in some areas. Projected adverse related disasters have occurred pre- impacts on livelihoods and human security dominantly in the developing world: in include: 1998 the melting of snow in China and • a general reduction in potential crop India caused 5550 deaths. Typhoons, yields in most tropical and sub-tropical cyclones, and hurricanes in the Philippines, regions, posing a major risk to food Bangladesh, and the Caribbean and Central security; America caused 15,800 deaths. In 1999, • decreased water availability for 50,000 people died in Venezuela due to populations in many water-scarce heavy rains and mud floods. In 2000, a regions, particularly in the sub-tropics; major disaster occurred in Mozambique • an increase in the number of people when rains, floods, and cyclones affected 800,000 people, caused 700 deaths, made exposed to vector-borne diseases such 250,000 homeless, increased the incidence as malaria, and water-borne diseases of malaria and other tropical diseases, and like cholera, and an increase in heat- impacted negatively on food production. stress mortality; People with low incomes affected by such • a widespread increase in the risk of disasters have very little to fall back on: flooding for tens of millions of inhabitants they lack insurance, savings, or adequate of human settlements as a result of social welfare structures to cope with such increased heavy rainfall and sea-level dramatic events. As a result, they suffer rises. death, injury, illness, become homeless, and The IPPC concludes that those with the are forced to seek refuge in other areas or least resources are the most vulnerable to countries. This contributes to a rising the negative effects of climate change, and Climate change, gender analysis, and organising for sustainable development 23 have the least capacity to adapt to these particular, interact more directly with their effects. Vulnerability to the negative effects environment, and are disproportionately of climate change of human populations adversely affected by environmental and natural systems differs substantially degradation. The Centre for Science and across regions and populations within Environment (CSE), based in regions. Populations inhabiting small (India), argued in their The State of India's islands and low-lying coastal areas are at Environment Report in 1985, 'Probably no particular risk of severe social and economic other group is more affected by environ- problems arising from sea-level rise and mental destruction than poor village women. storm surges (IPPC 2001b). Every dawn brings with it a long march in This indicates that there are major search of fuel, fodder and water... disparities between those who cause As ecological conditions worsen, the long climate change, and those who are affected march becomes even longer and more by it. The impacts of climate change will tiresome. Caught between poverty and fall disproportionately upon developing environmental destruction, poor rural countries and poor people within all countries, could well be reaching the and will exacerbate inequalities in health limits of physical endurance.' (CSE 1985, and access to adequate food, clean water, 172) and other resources. As the Several publications, illustrated with Network concludes, 'There is certainly an many case studies, have since described the environmental justice aspect to climate different roles that women have in the change; and it is necessary to see the links management and use of land, water, between the environmental issue of climate energy, and biodiversity. According to change and social injustices, like racism and feminist analyses such as that of Esther economic inequity.' (CJN 2001a, 1) Issues of Boserup (1989), it is actually 'woman-the- unequal distribution of welfare and power gatherer' and not 'man-the-hunter' who are behind the main causes, manifestations, was traditionally a source of sustainable and effects of climate change. food supply. It has also been stressed that women play a major role in actions to safeguard the environment, and therewith Gender analysis and the their communities' livelihoods and survival. physical environment This is not a new phenomenon. In the 18th Is there a gender dimension to climate century, women under the leadership of change? IPPC concludes that, 'Climate Amrita Devi were actively involved in an change impacts will be differently distributed environmental struggle for survival in among different regions, generations, age Rajasthan, India (Shiva 1998). When, in the classes, income groups, occupations, and 1970s, Cape Verde was struck with severe genders.'(IPPC 2001b) In order to determine droughts, a women's organisation, Acao the gender dimensions of climate change, it Democratica Feminina Gaiicha - which is helpful to consider studies of the had originally focused on social and relationship between gender and the educational issues - put environmental environment. issues high on its agenda. It has now Since the mid 1980s, several studies become Friends of the Earth Brazil have indicated that the relationship (Dankelman and Davidson 1988). between communities and their physical In her article on ecological transitions environment is not gender-neutral. Much and the changing context of women's work, emphasis has been placed on the fact that Geeta Menon (1991) describes work as the rural women, in developing countries in active, labour-based interaction of human 24

beings with the material world. The relationships between women and Historically, this interaction has been their environments are not always positive. intricately based on the natural environ- In the policy documents 'Gender and ment in which human populations Environment: A Delicate Balance Between survived. Many traditional economies were Profit and Loss', and 'Rights of Women to founded on a gender division of labour in Natural Resources, Land and Water' which women typically had primary (NEDA 1997a and b), it is argued that responsibility for certain areas of resource differentiation on the basis of gender is of management. This has meant that women's crucial importance to an analysis of how connection to the environment has largely environmental measures and changes affect been rooted in their work. gender relationships, and how changes in Writers like Dankelman and Davidson the relative position and status of women (1988), and Kelkar and Nathan (1991), and men have an impact on their livelihoods. argued that it is wrong to talk about Measures that appear to have a positive women as one homogeneous group, because short-term effect from a gender perspective of the vast economic, cultural, and social might also be positive in the long run for differences between women. Differentiating sustainable development. But this is not factors such as class and caste, kinship, age, always the case, for example, where income- nationality, and socio-cultural group are generating activities for women demand a important variables. Analysing these high input of local energy resources. differences is as crucial as looking into the differences between women and men (Kelkar and Nathan 1991). Is climate change gender Greater insight into the problem was neutral? gained with the perception that it is not Climate change is often seen as a technical enough to look at the position of women problem, requiring technical solutions. But and the environment in isolation. Power in fact there are many social and political relations between both sexes are deter- aspects to this complex issue. Similarly, it is mining factors. often argued that climate change is gender- Access to, and effective control over, neutral - that is, that it affects women and natural resources such as land, water, and men in the same ways. Yet, in many cases, forests, are important indicators of gender communities interact with their physical positions. The use and management of environment in a gender-differentiated these resources, as well as decision-making way. at micro-, meso-, and macro-levels, are We need to look specifically at the gender-differentiated. It might be clear that gendered aspects of climate change. In this, if the quality or quantity of the resources we can draw on studies conducted on upon which managers depend are affected, gender-specific aspects of disaster this also affects their work, effort, and the prevention and mitigation, such as those energy which is needed for that manage- presented during the Expert Group ment, and thus limits their other Meeting on 'Environmental Management development options. Not only is control and the Mitigation of Natural Disasters: a over resources, re-distribution of roles and Gender Perspective', organised by the tasks, and a shift in stereotypes needed to United Nations Division for the Advance- improve women's situations (compared to ment of Women (DAW) and the Inter-Agency those of men), but these changes are also Secretariat of the International Strategy for required to sustain a healthier and more Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR), held in productive environment. November 2001 in Ankara. Case studies Climate change, gender analysis, and organising for sustainable development 25 from different regions in the world mitigation and environmental management presented at that meeting showed how (see Kumar-Range 2001 for an example). women have different positions and Women often cope with disasters in assume different roles to men in the different ways to men. For example, a case prevention and mitigation of natural study in the charlands (pieces of land disasters (UN DAW 2001). resulting from the accretion of silt in river Below, I set out several areas where channels, which are very flood-prone) of gender roles and relations interact with Bangladesh showed that women's indigenous climate change causes and impacts to knowledge and practice of environmental varying extents (adapted from Wamukonya management play a crucial role in the and Skutsch 2001). management of these lands, but that their contribution often goes unnoticed. Their 1. Gender-specific resource-use patterns technological ability to cope with the that can degrade the environment changing circumstances is demonstrated as Although women are the main energy they carry out a number of innovations and managers in many households in the South, adaptations, which are generally embedded it is often male-dominated organisations in their daily lives (Chowdhury 2001). that make decisions affecting energy policies and programmes. The power and 4. Gender and decision-making on petroleum sectors in North and South are climate change male-dominated, and the majority of the As we have seen, women play only a funding organisations are also male- limited role as producers in the energy dominated. With regard to usage of energy sector or in energy policies. During the resources, Wamukonya and Skutsch (2001) climate change negotiations, almost no argue that the gender distribution of usage attention has been paid to the need to of the services of these industries is involve women, or gender aspects, fully in changing, with women using cars and the deliberations. In Marrakech, during making consumer decisions more than has CoP7 (Conference of Parties) 2001, the previously been the case. delegation from Samoa presented a resolution that called for more equal 2. Gender-specific effects of climate participation of women in the negotiations. change Minister Jan Pronk, chairman of the The Women's status and activities make them Hague CoP6 meeting (November 2000), experience poverty differently to men, and stressed, '...the widest participation in the they are often more vulnerable than men to process of promoting and co-operating in climate change and its effects. Therefore, education, training and public awareness there is certainly a gender dimension to related to climate change is crucial. In climate change (Denton 2000). It is not only developing country households women are large-scale disasters that affect women's often the primary providers and users of lives and livelihood. Other less dramatic energy. Therefore, the participation of problems might occur as a result of a heavy women and women's organisations is rainy season or a drought that would have crucial.' (Wamukonya and Skutsch 2001, 1) a negative impact on women's daily roles Although the percentage of women and tasks, and thereby increase their burdens. ministers of the environment has certainly 3. Gendered aspects of mitigation and increased, in CoP6 only 20 per cent of the adaptation delegates were women, and in the economic Several disaster-related studies have argued sector - where many of the relevant climate that there is a gender dimension to disaster change decisions are made - this number 26

might even be less. Good practice is easily century. It was specifically designed to followed. Since the Netherlands delegation promote women's active and equal was successfully led by a woman in C0P6, participation in preparation for the other countries followed in CoP7. UNCED, and in implementing its expected plan of action, Agenda 21 (WEDO 1992). 5. Human capacity WAA21 proved to be an effective Wamukonya and Skutsch (2001) argue that, lobbying document for a more gender- while capacity-building is a major area of sensitive UNCED process, and an focus to enable implementation of the important common point of reference and UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol, there are source of inspiration for women's groups still major gender-based inequities in worldwide. Its strength lay in the access to education, training, and worldwide process through which it was technology. They conclude that it is developed, and the facts that it was based important to design gender-sensitive on women's own experiences, views, and capacity-building programmes for mitigating visions, and that it was linked to the climate change. UNCED process. Also, the document's broad scope, and its analysis of different Women organising for thematic areas, enabled its wide use and application. Another important factor was sustainable development that the Director General of UNCED, There is a tendency to talk about gender Maurice Strong, was a strong supporter of aspects of climate change as if women are women's involvement in the UNCED only victims. Many studies show, however, process, and was present at the congress. that women have been instrumental in Women leaders, for example Bella Abzug, organising themselves around environ- the founder of the Women's Environment mental issues and sustainable development. and Development Organisation (WEDO),took For example, in the preparatory process for the document to the most relevant fora. the United Nations Conference on The document's weakness lies in the Environment and Development (UNCED), fact that it was developed at one meeting of held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, women 'only' 1500 women, and not through a organised themselves in an unprecedented worldwide process of consultation, with way. In 1991,1500 women from 83 countries the result that local groups and regional assembled in Miami in the first World networks lacked a strong sense of ownership Women's Congress for a Healthy Planet. over it. Although attempts were made to At the congress, women from every include regional perspectives in region- region in the world presented dramatic specific supplements, the document has testimonies of their battles against mainly been perceived as having a global ecological and economic devastation, focus. The use of the WAA21 after UNCED before a tribunal of five eminent women was hampered because there was no strong judges. From this evidence and their own follow-up plan connected to its further experiences, the participants in the implementation. However, the WAA21 has congress developed the Women's Action served as an important lobbying document. Agenda 22 (WAA21). The action agenda, At UNCED many women's organisations which contained recommendations and gathered and shared experiences and actions for a healthy planet, was intended views on environment and development to form a blueprint for incorporating a in the 'Women's Tent' or Planeta Femea. gender dimension into local, national, and The Women's Tent was a co-production international decision-making into the next of Brazilian women's groups and WEDO. Climate change, gender analysis, and organising for sustainable development 27

Its main aim was to offer a physical space 'Women's Dialogue Paper for the WSSD' for women's groups and networks to host (see below), showed that implementation at daily meetings at the NGO Forum on the international and national levels is still themes presented in the WAA21. The tent, limited (UN ECOSOC/CSD 2001). the largest in the Flamingo Park, was very In the present process towards the successful in giving visibility to the energy World Summit on Sustainable Development and commitment of many female (and (WSSD), to be held in Johannesburg in some male) participants towards just 2002, women's organisations are once again sustainable development. To the participants, giving voice to their main concerns and it offered an important opportunity to visions, and sharing their experiences in network and strengthen their global efforts. almost all areas of sustainable development It also served as a valuable stimulus for over the past ten years. Not only is a Brazilian women's organisations after revised Women's Action Agenda for a Peaceful UNCED. and Healthy Planet 2015 being developed A major problem for all NGO activities through a worldwide consultation process, in the NGO Forum was the considerable but women's groups are actively partici- physical distance between the forum and pating in the preparatory meetings at the the official UN meetings, which made the United Nations - in which WEDO plays a official conference almost unreachable for facilitating role. Nationally and regionally, most of the NGO activists. The Women's many women's organisations have organi- Tent was only in place for two weeks, and sed meetings to prepare for the WSSD the Women's Action Agenda only the meeting. A Resource Book on Gender and product of a limited representation of Environment has been developed by the global women, but both formed an Stakeholder Forum for a Common Future inspiring source for further actions in (Hemmati and Seliger 2001) as a tool for the specific areas, such as on women and process. biodiversity (and later the establishment of Apart from these international processes, 'Women in Diversity'), and in some regions there has been a great deal of regional and (the establishment in Europe of 'Women in thematic organising among women for Europe for a Common Future'). sustainable development. Since the beginning The success of these efforts is shown by of the 1990s, networks such as the Women UNCED's outcome, Agenda 21. In this and Water Alliance, Diverse Women for official document, 'women' are distinguished Diversity, and ENERGIA (see the article by as one of the nine 'major groups' for Tieho Makhabane in this collection), have implementation of Agenda 21. This been established. In Central America, efforts recognition of the role of women in by the IUCN (International Union for sustainable development, and the identi- Conservation of Nature) led to the fication of specific actions to improve strengthening of gender analysis in environ- women's position and enhance their role, mental ministries. In these areas, the has been very helpful for the women's participation of women is not only becoming movement. Since 1992, many women's more visible, but is also contributing to organisations have appealed to this specific analyses of gender aspects of specific areas. chapter in Agenda 21 to underline their Women living and working at the 'grassroots', own concerns and activities. Although such as those organised in GROOTS (see clear commitments were made in Agenda Resources in this volume), bring the concept 21, a review of the progress on women's of sustainable livelihoods and habitat position in sustainable development during aspects to the local, national, and inter- the decade since 1992, presented in the national agendas. In this context, the 28

'engendering' of Local Agenda 21, to which context of this article it is impossible to many women's groups as well as local refer to all the hundreds of other examples authorities have committed themselves, is of women who are active at local, national, an important process. and international levels. For many of them it is a new challenge to become active in the Conclusions field of climate change and global justice. The above analysis shows that there is Although women's organisations were potential for women to work together on already active in the field of environment issues of gender and climate change. and development fifteen years ago, many of these efforts have now matured, and Irene Dankelman is Co-ordinator in Sustainable new ones have developed over the past Development at the University of Nijmegen, decade. Lessons can be learned from these. and Senior Adviser in Sustainable Development Experience over the past decade has to the Women's Environment and Development showed that it is essential to work in well- Organisation (WEDO), Hatertseweg 41, 6581 established organisations, with committed KD Maiden, Netherlands. Tel: 00 31 24 and experienced women from many 3564834; E-mail: [email protected] or different backgrounds. [email protected] WEDO runs programmes in the areas of governance and gender, economic and social justice, and sustainable development. Notes Co-operation and networking in specific 1 Climate change in IPCC usage refers to areas between local, national, regional, and any change in climate over time, international groups is very valuable. whether due to natural variability or as a Communication between all levels, such as result of human activity. This usage has been facilitated since 1992 by widespread differs from that in the Framework use of information and communications Convention on Climate Change where technologies, is an important tool. climate change refers to a change of It is necessary to be able to connect climate which is attributed directly or macro-issues with the reality of people's indirectly to human activity that alters lives, and the lives of poor rural women the composition of the global atmosphere, in particular. It is essential for women to and which is in addition to natural be involved in official processes such as variability observed over comparable the multi-stakeholder dialogues in the time periods. WSSD process. Similarly, co-operation between women in official delegations can be very helpful. In this context the References establishment of the network, Women Boserup, E. (1989) Women's Role in Economic Leaders on the Environment, in March Development, London: Earthscan 2002 in Finland, is a helpful development. CSE (Centre for Science and Environment) One of the most inspiring benefits of the (1985) The State of India's Environment network is that women activists of different 1984-1985: The Second Citizens' Report, backgrounds and regions, and different New Delhi: CSE ages, can work together and offer each CJN (Climate Justice Network) (2001a) other support. Climate Change and Colonialism, These are just some experiences of http://www.risingtide.nl/issues/ women and their organisations active in colonialism.html (last checked by author the area of sustainable development. In the April 2002) Climate change, gender analysis, and organising for sustainable development 29

CJN (Climate Justice Network) (2001b) Menon, G. (1991) 'Ecological Transitions Hidden Statistics: Environmental Refugees, and the Changing Context of Women's http://www.risingtide.nl (last checked Work in Tribal India', Purusartha 14: by author April 2002) 291-314 Chowdhury, M. (2001) 'Women's Tech- NEDA (Netherlands Development nological Innovations and Adaptations Assistance) (1997a) 'Gender and for Disaster Mitigation: A Case Study of Environment: A Delicate Balance Charlands in Bangladesh', paper between Profit and Loss', Working prepared for the UNDAW/ISDR Expert Paper on Women and Development Meeting on 'Environmental Manage- no.l, The Hague: Ministry of Foreign ment and the Mitigation of Natural Affairs Disasters: A Gender Perspective', NEDA (Netherlands Development Ankara, 6-9 November 2001 Assistance) (1997b) 'Rights of Women to Dankelman, I. and J. Davidson (1988) Natural Resources, Land and Water', Women and Environment in the Third Working Paper on Women and Develop- World: Alliance for the Future, London: ment no.2, The Hague: Ministry of Earthscan Foreign Affairs Denton, F. (2000) 'Gender impact of climate Shiva, V. (1998) Staying Alive: Women, change: a human security dimension', Ecology and Development, London: Zed Energia News, 3(3):13-14 Books Hemmati, M. and K. Seliger (eds.) (2001) UN DAW (United Nations Division for the 'The Stakeholder Toolkit: A Resource for Advancement of Women) (2001) Women and NGOs', UNED Forum, Environmental Management and the http:/ /www.earthsummit2002.org/ Mitigation of Natural Disasters: A Gender toolkits / women / index.htm Perspective, Report of the Expert Group (last checked by author April 2002) Meeting, Ankara, Turkey, 6-9 November IPPC (International Panel on Climate 2001, New York: UN DAW Change) (2001a) 'Summary for UN ECOSOC/CSD (2001) 'Dialogue Paper Policymakers', report of Working Group by Women', multi-stakeholder dialogue I of the IPCC, http://www.ipcc.ch (last segment of the second session of the checked by author April 2002) Preparatory Commission for WSSD, IPPC (International Panel on Climate New York, 28 January-8 February 2002 Change) (2001b) 'Summary for Wamukonya, N. and M. Skutsch (2001) Policymakers. Climate Change 2001: 'Is there a Gender Angle to the Climate Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability', Change Negotiations?', paper prepared report of Working Group II of the IPCC, for ENERGIA for the CSD9 (Commission http://www.ipcc.ch (last checked by on Sustainable Develop-ment, Session 9), author April 2002) New York, 16-27 April 2001 Kelkar, K. and D. Nathan (1991) Gender and WEDO (1992) 'World Women's Congress Tribe: Women, Land and Forests in for a Healthy Planet', report of congress, Jharkhand, New Delhi: Kali for Women 8-12 November 1991, Miami, including Kumar-Range, S. (2001) 'Environmental 'Women's Action Agenda 21' and Management and Disaster Risk 'Findings of the Tribunal', New York: Reduction: A Gender Perspective', paper WEDO prepared for UN DAW Expert Meeting on 'Environmental Management and the Mitigation of Natural Disasters: A Gender Perspective', Ankara, 6-9 November 2001 30

Protocols, treaties, and action: the 'climate change process' viewed through gender spectacles1 Margaret M. Skutsch

This paper starts by assessing the extent to which gender considerations have been taken into account in the international processes concerning the development of climate change policy. Finding that there has been very little attention to gender issues, neither in the protocols and treaties nor in the debates around them, the paper goes on to consider whether there are in fact any meaningful gender considerations as regards (a) emissions of greenhouse gases, (b) vulnerability to climate change, and (c) participation in projects under climate funding. It concludes by suggesting some areas where attention to gender could improve the effectiveness of climate interventions and also benefit women.

t takes no more than a simple word- written on the subject. A scan of a number search of the UN Framework of prominent journals dedicated to the IConvention for Climate Change climate issue reveals not a single article on (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol, the two the gender-differentiated implications of most important treaties which relate to climate change in recent years.2 An global efforts to combat climate change, to exception is the article by Denton (2000), in discover that the words 'gender' and which, among other things, the author 'women' are not mentioned in either. One points out that owing to the feminisation of might ask oneself whether the absence of poverty, women in developing countries reference to gender considerations in such are more vulnerable to the effects of climate documents matters at all; they are legalistic change than men. tracts designed to provide a general Similarly, gender issues have not been framework under which much more widely discussed in the so called 'climate detailed plans have to be worked out. They change process', that is, the debates that do not mention 'poverty' or 'deprivation' surround the formulation of climate change either, and refer only in very general terms policy. At the Sixth Conference of Parties to to social and economic development. the UNFCCC meeting (C0P6) in The Hague More alarming, perhaps, is the fact that in November 2000, the topic was hardly there has been almost no attention to mentioned, although the Chairman of gender issues in the discourse around CoP6, Jan Pronk, when interviewed after climate change, and particularly in areas the proceedings, said that, 'Encouraging the where a gender factor could be anticipated widest participation in the process of to be important, for example where the promoting and co-operating in education, effects of climate change are linked to training and public awareness related to poverty. Very little appears to have been climate change is crucial. In developing The 'climate change process' viewed through gender spectacles 31 country households women are often the ment, Nature Conservation, and Nuclear primary providers and users of energy. Safety [BMU] and the Heinrich Boll Therefore, the participation of women Foundation 2001). Participants at this and women's organisations is crucial.' meeting called for the development of a (Wamukonya and Skutsch 2001,13) gender analysis in all international energy- While this is undoubtedly true, there are related processes, and, more immediately, many other aspects of climate change for a Women and Climate Change Forum which might well have gender dimensions to be held at the resumed CoP6 in July but which are not included in this 2001. However, just prior to this, President statement. The fact that the gender Bush announced the USA's decision to opt dimension was evidently not a burning out of the Kyoto Protocol, pushing other issue at the Hague meeting is perhaps all concerns, including gender issues, to the the more surprising given the fact that the background. spokespeople for three of the major NGOs - Despite women's caucus participation World Wildlife Fund, Friends of the Earth, in the UN Commission for Sustainable and Climate Action Network - were Development process (CSD), they had women, and nearly 20 per cent of all the limited influence in integrating decisive environment ministers present were text relating to gender issues into the 3 female, some of whom had key negotiating energy draft decision text deliberated by roles. Indeed, the success of earlier meetings, the ad hoc Open-Ended Intergovernmental particularly the Kyoto meeting itself, is put Group of Experts on Energy and Sustainable down by some observers to the excellent Development in Feb 2001. The group was, networking done by female delegates however, able to persuade the G77 and committed to action on climate change China to introduce the issue of women and (see Delia Villagrasa in this collection). energy no fewer than five times in the Their lack of attention to gender issues may Outcome Document at the CSD-9 meeting perhaps be attributed to their perceived in New York in April 2001. Their persistent need to focus on universal issues and not advocacy has thus borne some fruit. At the divert attention towards gender aspects, CoP7, held in November 2001 in Marrakech, given the limited human resources for a draft decision was reached (UNFCCC negotiation, and the crisis in which the 2001) on improving the participation of whole debate on the Kyoto Protocol found women in the Parties' representatives. itself at that time. In 1995, a Women's The decision invites Parties to give Climate Coalition called, rather wonderfully, active consideration to the nomination of 'Solidarity in the Greenhouse' was set up, women for elective posts in any body and was pushing for special attention to established under the Convention and the 4 But today their women's energy needs. Protocol. In addition, the Secretariat is website is no longer active, and the group requested to maintain records on the cannot be contacted by phone, fax, or e-mail. 6 gender composition of the various bodies. All sight of it has been lost by the UNFCCC Perhaps the election of a woman as the Co- in Bonn, and it was certainly not present at ordinator of the African Negotiators Group, CoP6.5 from the term starring after CoP7, will help However, the need for a gender analysis to bring some gender issues into the did come up as one of the very first mainstream of the climate negotiations of conclusions at a preparatory meeting for the CoPs in future, although whether there WSSD 2002, which was held in Berlin is a positive relationship here remains to be shortly after the Hague CoP6 meeting seen; past experience, as noted above, has (German Federal Ministry for the Environ- not been very positive in this respect. 32 Potential areas of gender fuels, most people hold that the developed concern in the climate countries should shoulder the burden of discourse the problem, hence the allocation of emission reduction quotas to all developed Apart from ensuring that there are more countries. women on the various commissions within A more radical idea is that every the climate change policy development individual on earth should be given one process, gender considerations need to be and the same quota, and that through included explicitly in future policy 'contraction and convergence' (Meyer 2000) formulations and activities. Two rationales we would eventually stabilise the levels of may motivate this: firstly, the idea that greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This inclusion of gender considerations may measure would imply much greater increase the efficiency of the climate change reductions in emissions in developed process, and secondly, the concern that if countries than are provided-for under the gender considerations are not included, current agreements, while allowing gender equity may be threatened, both of developing countries to increase their which are valid principles. There are three emissions to a certain extent. Under this areas in the climate debate in which gender system every individual is, in the long run, 'spectacles' might assist in promoting equally responsible, but in the short term efficiency and equity, namely: responsibility the problem has to be solved by those for emissions, vulnerability to climate whose per capita emissions are highest. change, and participation in climate- The contraction and convergence idea change-related funded activities. still does not solve the problem of how the responsibility for action is to be sub-divided within any nation. To what extent can one Responsibility for group in a given economy be said to be greenhouse gas emissions more responsible for greenhouse gas emissions than another, or to be using Responsible as nations or as individuals? more, or less, than their own individual Although the debate on what causes global quota? The only way in which it might be warming may not yet be entirely resolved, possible to administer a system by which the position taken here is that depicted in all individuals, or groups of individuals, the IPCC reports and by the majority of are in some way made directly accountable scientists, which considers that human for their own greenhouse emissions would activities producing carbon dioxide and be via some kind of on all other greenhouse gases are responsible for products. In the context of gender issues, is a large share of the measured and predicted it reasonable, or expedient, to argue that climate change. When discussing responsi- men and women may differ in this bility for the emission of greenhouse gases, responsibility? however, one could raise the question of who, exactly, is responsible. At present this Gendered responsibility for primary is being dealt with in the climate change emissions negotiations with nations as the unit of On the one hand, it has been argued that consideration. Since the larger part of the major and global environmental threats greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere stem primarily from industrial patterns of is the result of combustion of fossil fuels, production and consumption. They are not and since the developed countries have due primarily to gender relations, nor will large economies which use (and have in the they be solved by improving gender past used) the lion's share of these fossil relationships (Martine and Villareal 1997). The 'climate change process' viewed through gender spectacles 33

From this point of view, there is no need to in Eastern Europe, it is evident that cars are take a gender position on 'responsibility' still used more by men than by women, for climate change. One can contrast this with the side-effect that women are often with the ecofeminist school, which explicitly disproportionately dependent on public relates modern economies and their transport (the situation in developing production processes to a male-dominated countries is even more extreme in this culture, arguing that economies based on regard). So men - but of course not all men 'feminine' - rather than 'masculine' - - are more responsible for greenhouse gas principles would look very different and emissions produced by cars than women - would be much more environmentally or at least, some women - are. One could friendly (Shiva 1989). Whether or not this is argue that the responsibility for emissions so, and whatever may change as regards resulting from production of most the economy in the future, the fact is that manufactured goods must ultimately lie we are currently stuck with the economic with the consumer, so that the question of and industrial structures we have, with the responsibility depends on who the problems that they entail, and with the consumer is considered to be, making a need to clean up the mess they have gender analysis difficult. When it comes to produced. other uses of energy, household energy-use The primary sources of greenhouse in the developed countries is mostly related gases in the developed economies are the to heating and cooling, and is thus power industry, household energy use, and presumably consumed equally by men and transport, followed by various industrial women (although in most countries women processes. Primary sources in the developing spend more time at home than men). countries are the power industry, and land- Basically, it is very difficult to make a use change, including clearing of forests. strong case for a real gender difference, not It would not be difficult to show that the least because income factors may have a power and the petroleum industries, and much more important and confounding many industrial processes, are managed by influence on energy use than gender. men, both in the North and in the South. The situation in developing countries is If a shareholders' survey is made, the also difficult to assess clearly. Land clearance probability is that the majority of their of forest for agriculture is traditionally a ownership will also be found to be male (in male activity, although much of the farm that more capital is in the hands of the male work that follows is carried out by women. population in general). The question is, Much of the benefit is for the household as should men be considered more responsible a whole, even in cases where the cash crop than women for the problem? To answer profits accrue to men. To distinguish this, we need to look at the services and gender responsibilities becomes not just products that these carbon-producing difficult but pointless. Besides, as they are industries provide, and who uses them. the majority of household cooks, women could be blamed for greenhouse gas Gendered responsibility for use of emissions from unsustainably managed products and services fuelwood supplies! And who is responsible There is some uncertainty surrounding the for the garbage problems in cities such as gender distribution of the services of Nairobi, where the Dandora dump alone these industries. Consider car ownership: holds over 1.3 million cubic metres of although it has become increasingly less garbage? Tonnes of methane emissions are skewed over the last few decades in Europe produced from such dumps, and these and North America, and is slowly changing cannot be allocated particularly to men or 34

to women. Perhaps one could blame the doubt that these are valid points. We need local government officials (mainly male!) to ask however, whether the particular who have failed to provide an adequate vulnerability of women to the effects of alternative for trapping the methane. There climate change is due more to the fact that are dangers in using this kind of argument they are, on average, poorer than men, or to attribute responsibility by gender. more to the fact that they are women, with Responsibility for the direct or indirect particular roles and responsibilities which production of greenhouse gases is more or are especially prone to the effects of climate less proportional to financial shares in the change? Should we approach vulnerability economy. In that women have a smaller from the point of view of gender, or more financial share in the economy, one could generally from the point of view of poverty! argue that they are proportionately less The view taken here is that analyses of responsible. However, using this as a vulnerability should explicitly recognise principle on which to levy funds to cover poverty as the primary variable. There is the cost of global warming is fraught with ample evidence at global and local levels difficulty. Such a policy would not increase that it is the poor who will suffer most from the efficiency with which the problem of loss of livelihood related to gradual climate global warming can be tackled, nor would change, and also from sudden disastrous it easily serve to bring about greater gender climatic events (such as floods and equity. In the long run, it is evident that the droughts), as they have little scope for costs of control of greenhouse gas emissions adaptation, resistance, and insurance. This will have to be paid by the consumers of all would seem to over-ride most other goods or services via some kind of taxation considerations. Most of the gender-specific system which reflects the real environ- characteristics that make people vulnerable mental costs of the whole lifecycle of that to climate change (heavy dependence on particular good or service. Thus women, if local natural resources, lack of alternative consuming less, will pay less. income possibilities, responsibility for care of the sick, and so on) are in fact Vulnerability to climate characteristics of women in societies of change outcomes: extreme poverty. In better-off societies, the effects of climate change will have less determinants and variables gender differentiation. What is important, Denton (2000, and see also her article in therefore, is to recognise that poverty is not this collection), makes a strong argument gender-neutral, and to understand and that women in the South are more highlight the particular gender aspects of vulnerable than men to the effects of climate change vulnerability of the poor. climate change. Her point, briefly, is that Such recognition will lead to more efficient women are in general poorer than men, programmes for dealing with the effects of and more dependent on the kinds of climate change, but also to greater gender primary resources that are most threatened equity. by climate change, both in agriculture and In practice it should not be difficult to in fisheries. As 'climate refugees' they will follow this course once the principle is also be disproportionately affected. Women recognised. Poverty research in general is bear the burden of caring for the sick, and increasingly becoming sensitive to gender because increased levels of sickness are issues, and recognition of the feminisation expected to result from climate change, of poverty is a central issue in many women will bear the costs of climate development programmes. Methodologies change disproportionately. There is no and frameworks for such analyses (such as The 'climate change process' viewed through gender spectacles 35 the Harvard method) are now widely scientific papers and the funding is available in the development literature. therefore essentially research funding. The What is important is that such methods are scientific community, particularly in taken on board and used in any climate developing countries, is of course more change vulnerability studies that are male than female but this is a general undertaken in the context of the climate gender issue and not one that can be convention. In order to ensure that this tackled specifically for the case of climate happens, there is an urgent need that change. this be explicitly mentioned in the inter- More important will be the funds for nationally accepted texts, which define the mitigation, for adaptation, and for capacity contents of such studies. building.

Mitigation funds Participation in funded In the climate change negotiations, it is activities to mitigate, and foreseen that mitigation (that is to say, adapt to, the effects of reduction of greenhouse gases in the climate change atmosphere) will mainly occur not through reduction of production and economic Combating the climate change problem is growth, which many environmentalists becoming a multi-billion-dollar business see as essential, but through economic with funds for all kinds of projects in the growth where new, cleaner technologies private and public sectors. The question are substituted for the old. The countries here is whether women are likely to be able to take an equal share in this, and what that are held responsible internationally for needs to be done to ensure that they do. A reduction of emissions (Annex 1 countries - reasonable aim might be for women to the developed countries) have, with the access funds for climate purposes which at exception of the USA, accepted reduction the same time have beneficial gender quotas, and plan to achieve these reductions effects, for example opening opportunities not only in their own economies but by a for women to acquire technology which number of so called flexible mechanisms would otherwise be out of their reach abroad. The mechanism that concerns co- financially. This would be beneficial from operation with developing countries is the the efficiency point of view - cleaner Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), technology spread, thus more carbon under which carbon saved by the transfer reduction - as well as the equity point of of clean technology to a developing county view, in that there would be more technology can be deducted from the quota of the for women. The funds under the climate developed country, which sponsors at least umbrella fall into a variety of types, which part of the costs of this clean technology. need to be addressed separately, since the The kinds of technologies most likely opportunities for this type of 'win-win' to be involved are those with the lowest strategy vary. cost per tonne of carbon saved, and include First, a number of donors are providing energy conservation technology (for example, funds for so-called 'climate studies', which in power generation, transport and manu- include the National Communications that facturing, fuel switching, and substitution all countries are required to produce under of fossil fuel equipment by renewable the UNFCCC, and other reports which energy technology where this is economic - document both the emissions of greenhouse although solar PV technology cannot gases and the effects of climate change on compete price-wise in the carbon stakes at local populations. These are essentially present). Under CDM, the setting up of 36

'sinks' (carbon sequestration in the form of investments in industry, despite the forests) is also allowed, but only for the additional financial bonus that is implied case of 'afforestation' and 'reforestation', by the emission reduction. They are which in practice means putting up forests unlikely to decide that targeting women where there were none before. CDM will result in greater efficiency in offsetting projects have to demonstrate that they have carbon. This is despite the fact that there 'development effects' before they can be are obvious equity reasons for wishing to certified, but the definition of 'development promote technologies to women. effects' will be locally determined by individual developing countries. There is Adaptation funds no specification in the law that CDM From the beginning, there have been claims projects have to have any particular gender from many Southern countries that what is consideration: this is an aspect of needed, even more than reduced development that also has to be emissions, is assistance with adaptation to determined by the host country. the inevitable damaging effects related to Despite the fact that projects are climate change (raised sea levels, changing supposed to have a development effect as run-off patterns, increased disease levels, well as a carbon mitigation effect, the more weather turbulence, and so on). reality is that carbon mitigation will be Some developing countries have prepared uppermost in the minds of the sponsors, National Communications, and it is who will select the cheapest and 'most expected that this will be the basis on efficient' ways of reducing greenhouse gas which adaptation programmes will be emissions. The cheapest ways of saving developed and implemented. Funds are to carbon are large-scale projects in the power be provided for adaptation projects by a and manufacturing sectors, and forestry small levy on all CDMs, and by two special sink projects. Although women might be funds under the UNFCCC. At present, involved in any of these as employees, these funds are very small in comparison there is no specifically gendered benefit to with the scale of the problems to be solved, be gained from them (though like everyone particularly due to the withdrawal of USA else, women will hopefully enjoy increased from the Protocol and thus from the CDM access to electricity, reduced power mechanism. Moreover, the parameters or outages, etc.). criteria under which a project may be considered an adaptation project have not Much more interesting for women, and yet been defined. particularly for poor women, would be the development and dissemination of a range Nevertheless, taking a long-term view, of technologies in the areas in which they there may be other opportunities for use energy now. These areas have received project financing for climate adaptation, very little attention as regards project and it is likely that more of the developed finance in the past. They include household countries will pledge contributions bi- energy, agricultural and food-processing, laterally. There are various kinds of forest management, and water-pumping in investments likely to be considered: civil rural areas, and energy appliances and engineering work to shore up dikes and processing equipment in peri-urban areas. seawalls, and projects in agriculture and in The problem is that while in theory the forestry to enable vulnerable populations CDM offers a whole new opportunity to to maintain their livelihoods despite rapidly- market technology to changing climatic conditions. These are women, in reality this may not be as areas in which women are deeply involved attractive to carbon investors as large one-off and where, if treated in a gender sensitive The 'climate change process' viewed through gender spectacles 37 manner, there might be real benefits to be The need to address the likely bias of gained, both in efficiency and in equity CDMs towards large-scale industrial terms. An example would be forest projects and large-scale sinks, which are of management. Local community forest little direct interest to most poor women, management projects already exist in many has already been mentioned. This implies countries (India, Nepal, Mali, Burkina Faso, that one aspect of capacity-building should Uganda, to name but a few) in which be to assist women's groups to lobby for a women play an active role. In some cases, more 'women-friendly' CDM policy, at women are able to earn considerable income least in the long term. There is also a need from continued sustainable harvesting of for attention to women's specific needs and forest products to supplement meagre capabilities as regards adaptation projects. agricultural earnings. Such projects could Cleaner technologies in the agricultural and easily be promoted as climate adaptation water sectors should target women as far as projects, in the sense that they modify possible, and this may require gender- micro-climates and protect water catchments, sensitive training for those responsible. at the same time as diversifying income This could be justified both on efficiency opportunities and thus protecting and on equity grounds. livelihoods (Skutsch 2002). They are much more likely to be directly beneficial to rural women than the sinks allowed under CDM. Conclusions There are many gender issues related to the Capacity-building funds UNFCCC and the instruments therein. The pool of women professionals in the fields of engineering, energy, and other Some, however, seem to be more interesting technical areas at all levels is small. Few from a strategic point of view than others. women own, or are involved in managing, While there is little to be gained by looking large businesses. Lack of financial and at the responsibility for emissions on a management capacity has been the main gendered basis, there would be benefit in cause for this imbalance. If women are to be publicising the fact that mitigation able to tap climate-change-related finances activities under the CDM are unlikely to at all, it is clear that capacity-building bring much benefit to women unless that focused on their needs will be necessary, policy is explicitly adopted, and measures including the need to lobby for their own are taken to counter the flow of investment interests within the climate negotiations. funds to the cheapest, large-scale investments Specifically within the context of tech- for carbon saving. The opportunities to nology transfer and the flexible mechanisms, 'hijack' climate funds to direct renewable capacity will be needed to identify, assess, energy technologies towards women's real access, and assimilate technologies as well needs, so long under-estimated or ignored, as to implement them. should not be lost, even if this requires insertion of special clauses in the texts, and Capacity-building has been seen by the international community as essential to special sub-funds to finance them. Special enabling implementation of the UNFCCC, attention also needs to be paid to the and the Kyoto Protocol. Funding has been, opportunities in adaptation investment and will continue to be, allocated in which, based on assessments of vulner- increasing amounts. The question is, to ability to climate change, will allow what extent women, and particularly populations to survive the inevitable women with low incomes, can benefit from changes in the climate that are to come. this, and what steps need to be taken to Since these will to a large extent involve ensure that they do? land-use solutions in rural areas, there is a 38

lot of scope for women to be involved in (as this is a means of trying to shift the these, and therefore gender-sensitive blame for environmental degradation approaches in their design and imple- from the industrialised to the developing mentation are important. Capacity-building, countries). Within industrialised countries, both of women themselves and of those the Coalition argued, responsibilities entrusted with the development of policy must not be shifted to private house- and projects, is therefore essential at all holds entirely, as this will only conceal the levels in the international climate change role of industrial production processes process. Perhaps it is time to suggest that (Solidarity in the Greenhouse 2001). gender issues are specifically mentioned in 5 I am grateful to Sharon Taylor of the the next international climate change Climate Change Secretariat for this treaty. information. 6 The newly established 20 member CDM Margaret M. Skutsch, Technology and Executive Board includes two women. Development Group, University of Twente, The Technology Transfer Expert group PO Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, Netherlands. has 15 members, which includes three E-mail: [email protected] women.

Notes References 1 This paper draws on an earlier Denton, F. (2000) 'Gender impact of climate publication, Wamukonya and Skutsch change: a human security dimension', (2002). 'Gender spectacles' is a reference Energia News 3(3) to Caren Levi (1992). I am grateful to German Federal Ministry for the Environ- N. Wamukonya for comments on this ment, Nature Conservation, and Nuclear new paper. Safety (BMU) and the Heinrich Boll 2 For example, Climate Policy, Joint Foundation (2001) 'Gender Perspectives Implementation Quarterly, and Climate for Earth Summit 2001: Energy, Change. Transport, Information for Decision 3 Female ministers were representing Making', Report on the International Bangladesh, Bulgaria, Chile, Costa Rica, Conference at Jagdschloss, G., Berlin, Egypt, El Salvador, the EU, France, http:/ /www.earthsummit2002.org/ Gambia, Guinea, Honduras, Iceland, workshop (last checked by the author Iran, Japan, Mexico, Norway, Surinam, April 2002) Tunisia, Venezuela, and South Africa. Levi, C. (1992) 'Gender and environment: 4 The platform of the coalition had been to the challenge of cross-cutting issues promote women's participation in policy in development policy planning', and expert levels of UN decision- Environment and Urbanization 4(1) making, to reject Joint Implementation Martine, G. and M. Villareal (1997) Gender and as climate strategies; and Sustainability: Re-assessing Linkages to ensure that women's needs were and Issues, Rome: FAO explicitly dealt with at CoPl; and to Meyer, A. (2000) The Kyoto Protocol and lobby for financial support for women's the emergence of "Contraction and renewable energy networks. They Convergence" as a framework for further stated that environmental policy- international political solutions to makers should not instrumentalise greenhouse gas emissions abatement', in women of the South by holding them O. Hohmeyer and K. Rennings (eds.), responsible for population growth Man-Made Climate Change: Economic The 'climate change process' viewed through gender spectacles 39

Aspects and Policy Options, Mannheim: Solidarity in the Greenhouse (2001) Zentrum fur Europaischer Wirtsschafts- http: / / www.alternatives.com / library / forschung env/envclime/wa060015.txt (last found Shiva, V. (1989) Staying Alive: Women, operating January 2001) Ecology and Development, London: Wamukonya, N. and M. Skutsch (2001) Zed Books 'COP6: the gender issue forgotten?', Skutsch, M.M. (2002) 'Access to finance for Energia News 4(1): March 2001 community forest management under Wamukonya, N. and M. Skutsch (2002) Kyoto and the UNFCCC, European 'Is there a gender angle in the climate Tropical Forestry Research Network negotiations?', Energy and Environment, Newsletter 35 forthcoming UNFCCC (2001) 'The Marrakech Accord and the Marrakech Declaration', New York: UNFCCC 40

Kyoto Protocol negotiations: reflections on the role of women Delia Villagrasa

At a first glance, the links between the results of the UN negotiations on climate change and gender issues may not be obvious. However, I believe that gender did indeed play a role in these discussions. This was not a role of the first order, but it was nonetheless a significant one. I would like to explain this impression by analysing briefly the three 'communities' which have shaped the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Kyoto Protocol. The first community consists of the different countries' governmental delegations, the most important players in the negotiations. The second community consists of business and its representatives, and the third consists of environmental NGOs.

omen's participation in the UN and can report first-hand from those. Close negotiations on climate change is observation of the governmental sector has Wimportant. The reason for this is given me a privileged insight into its simple: the negative effects of climate change working during the climate negotiations. will affect women over-proportionally, and The negotiations leading up to the be felt more strongly in the South. The Kyoto Protocol were extremely intense. In health effects (increased malaria and 1997, official negotiations lasting over two dengue cases, for example) of climate months took place, mainly in Geneva, change, and therefore the caring for the ill, before the last two-week-long effort in will fall mainly to women. The expected Japan. Additionally, there were many additional nutritional problems, and food informal workshops and consultations. In and water security issues, will affect the lead-up to Kyoto there was a remarkable women more than men, as they are the consistency in the participants at the main carers in these areas, particularly in negotiations. There were few changes in regions where these are already critical personnel at the decision-making level issues (Vital Climate Graphics 2000). In between 1990 and 1997. These circumstances many countries, women are the main led to a situation where the participants household energy providers, often having knew each other very well, and where to devote a substantial part of their decisions were often made under the working time to this task. The importance influence of strong personalities, or based of women's inclusion in the negotiations on on trust and respect, and not solely based an issue affecting them heavily should on the political and economic 'might' of a therefore be obvious. However this is not negotiating country (though the latter was the case, particularly for women from obviously a major factor). developing countries. This consistency of personnel pertains Since 1990,1 have worked in the environ- to governmental as well as NGO communities, mental NGO and business communities,1 so that the sense of there being a 'climate Kyoto Protocol negotiations: reflections on the role of women 41 family' has been created. This proximity delegations beyond the formal sessions. In has favoured close networking and particular, they were proactive in linking communication between the actors with delegations from developing countries, involved. I believe that the unique who were often greatly outnumbered, and framework and atmosphere of the climate furthering their integration into the negotiations have allowed the gender issue decision-making processes. to become important. My thesis is that The same holds true for the then Dutch women were able to play a strong and Environment Minister, also a woman, who generally positive role for climate actively networked with developing protection based on their networking and country ministers. For many Southern interpersonal skills, and their ability to delegations, it was impossible to follow the think and plan for the long term, even negotiations properly, as sessions often though they were generally under- took place in parallel, making it impossible represented in the decision-making for a one- or two-person delegation to take positions of their respective communities. part in every session. Furthermore, G77 is very diverse, representing interests from The government sector: how women can AOSIS to OPEC,2 and is often bitterly influence negotiations divided on issues. While the German and Each country participating in the climate Swiss leaders obviously had to represent change negotiations sends a delegation their countries' interests in the negotiations, consisting of between one (especially in the their personal integrity and openness case of cash-poor developing countries) earned the respect and trust necessary to and over 100 (in the case of the USA) 'build bridges' between nations. In the G77, negotiators, scientists, lawyers, and other there were women who played a strong specialists. The numbers vary according to unifying and progressive rule, from the perceived importance of the negotiating Zimbabwe and Peru particularly. The session and the financial means of the Philippine leader was notable for not country in question. Countries formed bowing to extreme pressure from the USA negotiating blocks, with the European on several key issues. This type of female Union (EU), the G77 (developing countries interaction helped to forge links and and China), and JUSSCANNZ (then Japan, the USA, Switzerland, Canada, Norway, and mutual understanding, and this allowed New Zealand) being the most important the EU and G77 to build the alliance ones (Newell 2000). necessary to achieve the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in face of the opposition of Women clearly were, and still are, most of the JUSSCANNZ countries. under-represented as formal delegation heads. However, it was some of the women A lack of women's voices in the business in the delegations who played the most sector important roles in shaping the Kyoto A lack of women participants was most Protocol. For example, the German and obvious in the business sector, which was Swiss negotiation leaders, both women, also geographically the least representative through their true commitment to the cause sector of the participants. The business of climate protection, tireless work, and sector was an almost exclusively male 'dub', networking skills, were able to influence especially in the case of the decision- the negotiations positively. Both acted in making lobbyists. Furthermore, the vast ways which differentiated them from their majority of business representatives were male colleagues in a crucial manner: they from the USA, with less than five per cent actively and often went out of their from developing countries. The businesses 'bunker', interacting strongly with other present were mainly representatives of the 42

economic sectors afraid to 'lose' should regional (mainly continental) 'nodes'. The climate protection become a reality, and most active and member-rich of those were therefore, with the exception of e5 (The Climate Network Europe, USCAN, CAN European Business Council for a Sustainable Canada, and CAN UK, later CANCEE, all Energy Future) and the US Business Council led by women. CAN Africa was also led by for Sustainable Energy, they lobbied a woman. consistently and strongly against the Kyoto The NGO community recognised early Protocol. Although, fortunately, it did not on that due to their scarce resources, close succeed in preventing the Protocol, the co-operation was essential. Entrusting the business lobby was strong enough to team-building mainly to women, NGOs weaken the negotiating results considerably. were able to create a cohesive, highly active Their lack of subtlety in negotiating (with force, which, despite being vastly out- one or two notable exceptions), their numbered by the business community, was strident argumentation, and often aggressive able to keep up a consistent flow of infor- style, were detrimental to their lobbying. mation to the public (through the media) Apart from their use of the OPEC countries and to government delegates, ensuring that to further their own agenda, they failed to Kyoto retained a high media profile, and network with the G77. I believe this was a forcing global decision-makers to bring the major cause of their failure, and was negotiations to a successful outcome. probably partially due to a male lack of understanding of how to build networks It was women who ensured that NGOs with people from different backgrounds, worked together, despite their differences cultures, and interests, e5 has in the on some of the issues, and who ensured meantime been working proactively on that debates did not get bogged down in issues such as the flexibility mechanisms of detail and that coherent and strong the Kyoto Protocol, helping to create a messages went out to the world. For 'positive list' of projects to be favoured for example, the female head of USCAN gave sustainable development (e5 2000), and an emotive speech during the high-level working with accession countries from segment of the negotiation, galvanising Central and Eastern Europe towards the widespread media coverage. This type of development of a solid emissions trading co-operation, which also happens in- system. between negotiations, was essential in achieving the Kyoto Protocol. The Climate Action Network: I am not aware of another environ- co-operating for change in the mental issue where such a close environment sector co-operation on a global scale occurs, or Of the three sectors described here, the where women have achieved such environmental NGOs were the most united. prominence in the NGO world. I do not As a group, they were fighting for the believe that it is a coincidence that the issue AOSIS target, a 20 per cent carbon dioxide where women have the most power in the reduction by 2005, based on 1990 levels. NGO sector has also become one of the The majority of the female participants most actively debated ones in the public formed part of this sector, though men arena. It is also notable that this issue, predominated in some of the larger NGOs. which is not easy to explain to the public, However, the environmental NGOs had whose consequences mainly lie in the organised themselves into a unique, global future, whose causes are multifold, and structure: the Climate Action Network where a cause-effect link is invisible, has (CAN). CAN is an informal coalition of attracted so many women. Many women environmental NGOs, co-ordinated by seem to thrive on complexity and Kyoto Protocol negotiations: reflections on the role of women 43 interlinked issues, whereas it has been my Mechanism (CDM) projects really will observation that men have rather been contribute towards sustainable develop- attracted to the straightforward 'battles', ment through, for example, providing clean which may be easier to win. energy solutions for the two billion people who still do not have adequate access to energy. It would be helpful if women's Finding ways forward development groups in the South could be Though women are playing an important alerted by the NGOs now active on climate role in the negotiations, these have now issues, and a network created to promote become much more complex and detailed, the projects that are really needed to making it difficult to attract newcomers to improve livelihoods - as communicated by the process. Newcomers have to invest a lot women's networks in the South - as well as of time before they can be fully up-to-speed climate-relevant for the CDM. However, within the negotiations, and this is very funding this kind of activity is problematic difficult for organisations other than large since it remains difficult to obtain funds businesses or wealthy governments to towards capacity-building and networking finance. Several possibilities exist for on climate change. In the North, women's increasing women's participation in the groups have so far barely been involved in negotiations. Negotiations are an excellent the climate issue or the negotiations. If opportunity to meet other like-minded mobilised, they could put tremendous women and men, and to gather an enormous pressure on wealthier countries to provide amount of climate-related information. the policies and measures needed for Interested women could 'piggy-back' with climate protection, such as a stronger a CAN regional organisation to get development of renewable energy accreditation and information before a technologies. negotiation session starts. Sometimes there Certainly, and on a less resource-intensive is even funding available for travel, though level, an easy way for women and women's this is rare. Another way to enhance organisations to become more involved in participation in the climate negotiations, the issue and the negotiations would be to both quantitatively and qualitatively, learn from the success of CAN. They could would be to introduce a mentoring system. join the existing e-mail networks to learn This could take various forms, such as about key issues, and where access to e-mail providing question and answer sessions for is not available, regular newsletters from newcomers during the climate negotiations, many of the CAN member organisations or enabling newcomers to shadow could be distributed. experienced negotiators. I am aware that these recommendations aren't gender- specific, but I believe they could appeal Conclusions particularly to women, who tend to share I believe that we have no reason to be knowledge more easily than men. complacent. Women's networking strength At present, it is particularly necessary needs to be harnessed even more strongly, to create continued public pressure to within the political, business, and environ- advance the climate issue. At this stage, mental NGO sectors globally, with the aim therefore, a very useful role for women, of preventing climate change as far as particularly in the South, would be in possible, and adapting to it where necessary. mobilising their governments towards Nonetheless, we have existing capacity proactive climate protection. For instance, upon which to build, and young women we need to ensure that Clean Development are joining from the environmental as well 44

as the scientific, development, and legal References communities to win the fight. I am confident 5 that women will continue to contribute e (European Business Council for a significantly to ensuring that the climate Sustainable Energy Future) (2000) 'COP6 Position Statement, November 2000', negotiations will be translated into real 5 action on the ground. Brussels: e Newell, Peter (2000) Climate for Change, Delia Villagrasa is Executive Director of e5 Non-State Actors and the Global Politics of (European Business Council for a Sustainable the Greenhouse, Cambridge: Cambridge Energy Future). Contact: 64, Boulevard de la University Press Cambre, B-1000 Brussels. Tel: +32 2 644 2888;Vital Climate Graphics (2000) The Impacts of Fax:+32 5 687 4641; Climate Change, UNEP/GRID-Arendal, E-mail: [email protected] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), http://www.unfccc.int (last checked by Notes author November 2000) 1 From 1990-4 for WWF International; from 1994-5 for FUNDES, a development organisation; from 1995-9 for Climate Network Europe; and from 2000-02 for e5. 2 AOSIS is the Alliance of Small Island States, a group of states in danger of vanishing as a result of climate change and rising sea levels, which advocates strong greenhouse gas reduction targets. The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) forms a determined opposition to climate protection measures. 3 The European Business Council for a Sustainable Energy Future was the first business association to lobby consistently in favour of the Kyoto Protocol as well as for strong climate protection measures in Europe and globally. 45

Gender and climate hazards in Bangladesh Terry Cannon

Bangladesh has recently experienced a number of high-profile disasters, including devastating cyclones and annual floods. Poverty is both a cause of vulnerability, and a consequence of hazard impacts. Evidence that the impacts of disasters are worse for women is inconclusive or variable. However, since being female is strongly linked to being poor, unless poverty is reduced, the increase in disasters and extreme climate events linked with climate change is likely to affect women more than men. In addition, there are some specific gender attributes which increase women's vulnerability in some respects. These gendered vulnerabilities may, however, be reduced by social changes.

o many from outside, Bangladesh is tens of thousands. Floods are very visible almost synonymous with disasters. and may appear to be a disaster, even TIn a country smaller than Britain, and though they are vital to the livelihoods of with more than twice as many people, almost all of the rural population. Therein around one-third of the land is flooded lies a second paradox: most of the rural every summer. The monsoon rains cover population actually considers it a disaster the low-lying land, and swell the three major when there is no flood. Without the annual river systems that struggle to find outlets to cycle of inundation and silt, the fertility of the sea. In some years, such as in 1998, fields is diminished, and they produce a nearly half of the land area of Bangladesh is much lower yield as a result of lack of water. under water. Tropical cyclones strike the Moreover, fish breeding is disrupted and coast at least once a year, bringing output diminished when flooding does not rainwater floods, salt-water incursions, and create ponds and interconnections between wind damage. Since the 1991 cyclone waterways. This is a severe disadvantage to disaster, effective warning systems, the poor who depend on fish as their main coupled with the use of many more cyclone source of protein (and sometimes income). shelters, have reduced the toll to a fraction This does not mean that floods should of earlier tragedies, and now the number of always be regarded as beneficial, or that deaths each year is usually less than a people do not lose lives, assets, or become thousand. even poorer as a result of them (for example, The inland rain and riverine floods have those who lose land from erosion by the attracted considerable foreign attention and shifting of river channels in floods). aid, as evidenced by the Flood Action Plan However, while a flood can produce an (FAP) of the early 1990s. Yet, paradoxically, obvious deepening of poverty, its absence the deaths caused by these events rarely has invisible consequences that may be just exceed a few thousand - in contrast to the as bad. A distinction is made in Bengali death toll of cyclones - and never reach between 'good' and 'bad' floods to reflect 46

the difference. In general, the majority of and affects women disproportionately. If the rural population would lose out rather there is no serious progress in reducing than benefit from the prevention of poverty, then it can be assumed that flooding, by engineering measures such as women will become increasingly affected embankments and river containment, by the impact of intensified hazards, in envisaged in the FAP. The benefits of 'good' terms of their ability to resist and recover floods outweigh the disadvantages of the from them. This outcome may be modified 'bad' (Blaikie et al. 1994). In a rare sample if there are more general reductions in survey of rural people's attitudes to floods, economic inequalities between men and 86 per cent of households were satisfied women. with the way that they adjusted to normal It is also important that non-economic inundation, and did not want any change ('cultural') factors which produce gender to that situation (Leaf 1997). inequality are also addressed - for instance, so that women can adequately seek shelter Climate change, hazards, without shame and harassment, and are not condemned to poverty and increased and their gender dimensions vulnerability when widowed or divorced. The principal climatic hazards affecting These are issues that are already on the Bangladesh - floods and cyclones - are sustainable development agenda, and so it likely to increase in frequency, intensity, could be argued that reducing women's duration, and extent. The summer monsoon vulnerability to hazards will follow from rainfall is projected to increase, swelling the this agenda. However, such an approach main river systems in the wider catchment, does not adequately address the specific and boosting the rainfall impact within the gender dimensions of disaster preparedness. country. More rapid glacial melting in the Evidence from Schmuck (2002), German Himalayan headwaters will also increase Red Cross (1999), Baden et al. (1994), Rashid spring and early summer flows, further and Michaud (2000), Enarson (2000), increasing the flood risk. In winter, problems Enarson and Morrow (1997), and Khondker of drought will increase. The current winter (1996), all suggest that there are specific dry season (which already limits agriculture gendered factors which it is essential to and particularly affects poorer farmers who take into account in order to reduce the cannot afford to irrigate) is likely to become vulnerability of women. significantly worse ( 2000). Cyclones are low-pressure systems, which means that as well as causing rainfall flooding Understanding disasters and wind damage, they raise sea levels and and vulnerability bring storm surges that flood the coast with Disasters happen only when a natural salt-water. With rising sea levels, it is hazard impacts negatively on vulnerable estimated that within a century the coastline people. The severity of a disaster is will retreat by, on average, about ten therefore a reflection both of the location kilometres, causing the loss of 18 per cent of and intensity of the hazard, and of the the country's land area. This will mean that number of people of given levels and types the impacts of cyclones will be felt further of vulnerability. For instance, tropical inland than they have been to date (op. tit.,ii) . storms of similar intensity affect the USA How these increased hazard impacts and Bangladesh, but with very different will affect women in particular, is extremely outcomes. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew difficult to predict. The link between struck Florida, and caused more than 28 poverty and vulnerability is clearly crucial, billion pounds' worth of damage, but killed Gender and climate hazards in Bangladesh 47 fewer than 20 people (Morrow 1997). The themselves, and provide opportunities to year before, the cyclone that struck the implement measures that can only be south-east coast of Bangladesh killed provided collectively (e.g. codes to improve 140,000 people, and ruined the livelihoods building safety, warning systems). of millions (German Red Cross 1999). This Social protection depends on adequate does not mean that the people of Florida government or non-government systems were unscathed and that they did not suffer being in place, while self-protection (physically and mentally) from loss of generally relies on people having an homes, schools, jobs, and possessions. But adequate income, knowledge of the hazard, the illustration shows how the impact of an and propensity and capacity to take equivalent hazard on different communities precautions. In many hazardous places, is related to differing levels of social people's vulnerability is also reduced if vulnerability. This vulnerability can be they are able to draw on adequate social considered to have five components, which capital. People may need to rely on each vary from higher to lower levels according other, on family, and on organisations, at to political and social factors affecting all stages of a disaster - from search and different groups of people: namely, the rescue after impact, to coping and sharing initial conditions of a person, the resilience in the recovery period. Social capital may of their livelihood, their opportunities for not always be neutral and benign: there are self-protection, and their access to social examples of disaster recovery where some protection and social capital (Cannon 2000; people identified in a particular social group Blaikie et al. 1994). These differ hugely received assistance not made available to between the contexts of Bangladesh and the others, as after the Gujerat earthquake of USA. 2000 (Vidal 2002). To understand a disaster, we need to understand the components of vulnerability Gender inequality, of different groups of people, and relate women's status, and these to the hazard risk (Cannon 2000; Blaikie et al. 1994). Vulnerability differs capacity for protection according to the 'initial conditions' of a How are these components of vulnerability person - how well-fed they are, what their affected by gender relations, and how physical and mental health and mobility different are the vulnerabilities of men are, and their morale and capacity for self- and women in relation to disasters in reliance. It is also related to the resilience of Bangladesh? From an analysis of existing their livelihood - how quickly and easily gendered vulnerabilities, can we project they can resume activities that will earn what may happen in terms of climate money or provide food and other basics. change and the possible increase in The hazard itself must be recognised, and frequency and intensity of climate hazards? the fact that vulnerability will be lower if Vulnerability in Bangladesh correlates people are able to put proper 'self-protection' strongly with poverty, and it is widely in place - e.g. the right type of building to accepted that women make up a dispropor- resist high winds, or a house site that is tionate share of poor people. How much of raised above flood levels. People also women's vulnerability to hazards can be usually need some form of 'social protection' apportioned to them being poor, and how from hazards: forms of preparedness much is due to specific 'gendered' charac- provided by institutions at levels above the teristics of self protection, social protection, household. These supplement what people and livelihood resilience? And how will cannot afford or are unable to do for this be affected by climate change? 48

In fact, it is difficult to separate these Women's domestic burden and increased two aspects of female vulnerability, hardship precisely because gender plays a significant There is evidence that floods increase role in determining poverty. A recent Asian women's domestic burden. The loss of Development Bank report suggested that utensils and other household essentials is a over 95 per cent of female-headed house- great hardship, and floods also undermine holds are below the poverty line. The women's well-being in general because of proportion of female-headed households in their dependence on economic activities Bangladesh was officially reported as ten linked to the home (Khondker 1996). In per cent, but other evidence cited suggests their study of gender in Bangladesh, Baden that a more realistic figure is 20-30 per cent et al. found that women are likely to be less (Asian Development Bank 2001). Many of successful, and find it more difficult to these households consist of women who restore their livelihoods, after a flood. have been divorced or widowed, and who Losses of harvest and livestock have a are culturally discouraged from remarrying. disproportionate impact on women, many Ninety per cent of those who are single as of whom rely on food processing, cattle, the result of bereavement or divorce are and chickens for their cash income (Baden women (ibid.). As a result, vulnerability to et al. 1994). Fetching water becomes much hazards involves a complex interaction more difficult, and it may be contaminated. between poverty and gender relations, in Water-borne illness might be expected to be which women are likely to experience more widespread among women, who are higher levels of vulnerability than men. nutritionally disadvantaged. Women are likely to suffer increased mental strain, and Women's nutritional status and coping bear the brunt of certain social constraints, capacity for instance they are shamed by using Women's poorer nutritional status is a key public latrines, or being seen by men when aspect of their reduced capacity to cope in wet clothing (Rashid and Michaud 2000). with the effects of a hazard. In Bangladesh, women of all ages are more calorie-deficient Women's reduced ability to provide self- than men, and the prevalence of chronic protection energy deficiency among women is the Poverty is a key factor affecting people's highest in the world (del Ninno et al. 2001). ability to provide adequate self-protection, Although this study of the 1998 flood and it is likely that in female-headed found no evidence of any increase in households, the ability of women to create discrimination against females, it is clear safe conditions in the face of impending that the situation is potentially disastrous. floods or cyclones is reduced. The quality 'Given the already precarious nutritional of housing, a location on raised ground, state of large numbers of girls and women adequate storage for food - all are crucial in Bangladesh... any further increase in to self protection, but are more difficult for discrimination against females in food poor women to achieve. Both self- and consumption would have serious conse- social protection are also affected by gender quences.' (op. cit., 64). Women also receive issues related to 'culture'. During cyclones, less and poorer-quality healthcare in women are handicapped by fear of the comparison with men. Bangladesh is one shame attached to leaving the house and of the few countries in the world where moving in public. It may be too late when men live longer than women, and where they eventually seek refuge. Societal the male population outnumbers the attitudes restricting interaction between female (Asian Development Bank 2001). men and women make women more Gender and climate hazards in Bangladesh 49 reluctant to congregate in the public Terry Cannon, Natural Resources Institute, cyclone shelters (raised concrete structures University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, that protect from wind and flood) where Chatham, Kent ME4 4TB. they are forced to interact with other men. E-mail: [email protected] However, NGO activities to increase understanding and make warnings more effective seem to have improved this over the past ten years (German Red Cross References 1999). Women's mobility is restricted as a Asian Development Bank (2001) 'Country result of their responsibility for their Briefing Paper: Women in Bangladesh', children. Their clothing restricts their Manila: Asian Development Bank mobility in floods, and in addition, women Baden, S., C. Green, A.M. Goetz, and are less likely than men to know how to M. Guhathakurta (1994) 'Background swim. It is estimated that 90 per cent of the report on gender issues in Bangladesh', victims of the 1991 cyclone disasters were BRIDGE Report 26, Sussex: Institute of women and children (Schmuck 2002). Development Studies BBC (2001) 'Family planning in Bangladesh', World Service, 1 October, http://www. Social change: a glimmer of BBC.co.uk/worldservice/sci_tech/ hope? highlights/011001_bangladesh.shtml There is evidence that some aspects of (last checked by the author March 2002) social change in Bangladesh are improving Blaikie, P., T. Cannon, I. Davis, and B. Wisner women's lives and reducing gender (1994) At Risk: Natural Hazards, People's inequalities. The average number of Vulnerability and Disasters, London: children that a woman bears has declined Routledge significantly over the last 20 years, from Cannon, T. (2000) 'Vulnerability analysis 6.34 in 1975 to around 3.3 in 2001 (BBC and disasters', in D.J. Parker (ed.), Floods, 2001). This has significantly reduced London: Routledge women's child-care burden. It has also del Ninno, C, P.A. Dorosh, L.C. Smith, and made their lives safer: more women die as D.K. Roy (2001) 'The 1998 floods in a result of childbirth in Bangladesh than Bangladesh: disaster impacts, household anywhere else in the world. Whether the coping strategies, and response', significant cultural shifts inherent in this Research Report 122, Washington DC: decline in fertility rates can have any International Food Policy Research impact in other areas of society, including Institute on gender differences in vulnerability to Enarson, E. (2000) 'Gender and natural climate hazards, is impossible to predict. disasters', Working Paper 1 (Recovery and If progress continues to be made in Reconstruction Department), Geneva: improving women's lives and reducing ILO gender inequalities, through other initiatives Enarson, E. and B.H. Morrow (1997) such as micro-credit schemes for women, 'A gendered perspective: the voices of and associated empowerment activities by women', in W.G. Peacock et al. (eds.), NGOs, then there is potential to reduce Hurricane Andrew: Ethnicity, Gender and women's unequal vulnerability as the the Sociology of Disasters, London: hazards increase with climate change. Routledge German Red Cross (1999) 'Living with cyclones: disaster preparedness in India and Bangladesh', Bonn: German Red Cross 50

Khondker, H.H. (1996) 'Women and floods Rashid, S.F. and S. Michaud (2000) 'Female in Bangladesh', International Journal of adolescents and their sexuality: notions Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 14(3): of honour, shame, purity and pollution 281-92 during the floods', Disasters 24(1): 54-70 Leaf, M. (1997) 'Local control versus Schmuck, H. (2002) 'Empowering women technocracy: the Bangladesh Flood in Bangladesh', http://www.reliefweb.int Response Study', Journal of International (last checked by the author March 2002) Affairs 51(1): 179-200 Vidal, J. (2002) 'Helping hands', The Guardian, Morrow, B.H. (1997) 'Disaster in the first 30 January 2002 person', in W.G. Peacock et al. (eds.), World Bank (2000) 'Bangladesh: climate Hurricane Andrew: Ethnicity, Gender and change and sustainable development', the Sociology of Disasters, London: Report no. 21104 BD, Dhaka: South Asia Routledge Rural Development Team 51

Uncertain predictions, invisible impacts, and the need to mainstream gender in climate change adaptations1 Valerie Nelson, Kate Meadows, Terry Cannon, John Morton, and Adrienne Martin

Vulnerability to environmental degradation and natural hazards is articulated along social, poverty, and gender lines, just as gender is not sufficiently mainstreamed in many areas of development policy and practice, so the potential impacts of climate change on gender relations have not been studied, and remain invisible. In this article we outline climate change predictions, and explore the effects of long-term climate change on agriculture, ecological systems, and gender relations, since these could be significant. We identify predicted changes in natural hazard frequency and intensity as a result of climate change, and explore the gendered effects of natural hazards. We highlight the urgent need to integrate gender analyses into public policy-making, and in adaptation responses to climate change.

lthough 'gender' has been recognised to have ramifications for gender relations. as an important factor within Over longer timescales, broader issues of Adevelopment policy since at least international policy, regional context, and the 1970s, there is still a lack of practice to politics will also affect social change. match the rhetoric. Thus, it is not surprising Extreme weather events are also expected that the gender dimensions of climate to increase in intensity. Some studies of the change have largely been neglected. This is gendered impacts of natural hazards are despite the fact that the effects of climate available, providing clues to the possible change are very likely to be gendered. It is outcomes of climate change. Given the possible to infer this because of the strong uncertainty about how climate change will relationship between poverty and manifest itself in different regions, prediction vulnerability to environmental change, and and quantification of consequent social the stark fact that women as a group are changes will be difficult. Attribution of poorer and less powerful than men. causality is also difficult because over a In this article we will explore some of the similar timescale, major shifts in gender reasons why the impacts of climate change relations have occurred in some countries. on gender relations have not been fully We finish this paper with a discussion of articulated. We consider climate change gender-aware public policy-making on predictions. Long-term climate change will climate change responses, and a call for have an impact on agriculture, and ecological further context-specific research. and human systems, and is therefore likely 52 Neglect of the impacts of regions of the sub-tropics, and an increase climate change on gender in vector- and water-borne diseases, heat relations stress mortality, flooding, and wildfire incidence. The spread of disease, and The impact of climate change on gender reduced drinking water availability in some relations has been neglected, due to the areas, could have gender-differentiated 'gender-blindness' still afflicting much impacts where women have less access to development policy-making, and the slow medical care than men. Positive outcomes response by development agencies to the are also possible - in some regions currently development challenge presented by lacking water (e.g. parts of South-East climate change. This is partly due to the Asia), more water may become available uncertainty of climate change prediction, (IPCC 2001). especially at the regional level (although Climate change consists of both 'short this is improving) (Dalfelt 1998), and the and medium term climate variability lack of mainstreaming of environmental together with long-term gradual climate issues into development thinking. Further, change (changes in annual average many climate change studies focus only on temperature)' (Dalfelt 1998, 2). The increasing very broad-brush areas of environmental frequency of extreme weather worldwide impact. (especially droughts and floods) seems to Environmental degradation can increase be correlated with the El Nino Southern both women's workload and their vulner- Oscillation (ENSO), although further ability, as their access to already scarce research is required to substantiate this resources decreases. Poor or missing gender connection. analysis can mean that planners depend on women assuming a central role in coping strategies, without taking into account the Gender impacts of climate increased burden that this imposes on change on agriculture and women. Assumptions may be made that ecological systems women are 'closer to nature' than men, and therefore that the responsibility for Long-term gradual climate change will environmental protection is exclusively, or affect agricultural and ecological systems. It largely, that of women. Relief and develop- may be difficult to disentangle the effects of ment projects may also rely too heavily on increasing natural hazards, local environ- women's unpaid labour, when it is assumed mental degradation, and long-term climate that women are naturally predisposed to change. Nonetheless, it is clear that there serve their families or communities by will be a complex patchwork of alterations, protecting the environment on which they difficult to predict accurately, which will depend for livelihoods. challenge people's ability to cope, and governments' capacity to adapt. Crop and livestock responses will vary according to Climate change predictions species, cultivar, pests, and so on. A whole Temperature increases are already affecting range of adaptations in cultivation and biophysical systems (IPCC 2001, 3-4). husbandry are possible (IPCC 2001). Certain natural systems are particularly Natural hazards are likely to have a more vulnerable (mangrove forests, small island visible impact on people than the slower states, coastal areas, and so on). Negative onset of changes in temperature and outcomes may include declining crop rainfall regimes, although the latter may be yields in many tropical and sub-tropical more significant in the long run for those areas, decreasing water availability in arid dependent on farming. Mainstreaming gender in climate change adaptations 53

Women in developing countries, who relationships between drought and are often primary natural resource users and desertification (Dregne 2000), and while the managers (for example, collecting firewood, relationships between drought and human forest products, and water), are often vulnerability are complex, there is evidence disproportionately affected by environ- that the impacts of drought are gendered. mental degradation. Households dependent These impacts will be locally specific, on women's labour in subsistence or cash but in different parts of the world, and for cropping or on plantations are also badly different socio-economic strata, they could affected by storms and droughts. include the following: Some less-productive tropical climates • male out-migration, generating increased will become unsuitable for agriculture as a work for women on farms - though the result of climate change (Mendelsohn and effects of this on women's autonomy Dinar 1999). Agricultural GNP (gross can be complex, and female out- national product) may not be significantly migration also occurs; damaged overall (because there are areas of productive temperate farmland in many • cropping changes, with effects on developing countries, even in equatorial gender division of labour and possibly zones), but small-scale farmers may lack income; the capital and resources necessary to • livestock production changes (large- adapt to climate change, especially in stock to small-stock, open-grazing to comparison with larger enterprises pen-feeding), with effects on gender (Mendelsohn and Dinar 1999). Such potential division of labour and possibly income; scenarios, and responses to them, need to • increased difficulty in accessing resources be analysed with a 'gender lens' to try to (in particular fuelwood and water), identify the possible negative and positive hence increased workload for women; outcomes in gender-differentiated terms. • increased conflict over natural resources, exacerbated in some places (e.g. East Drought and gender Africa) by the ready availability of Drought can be considered to be a slow- firearms; onset disaster. The frequency and intensity of drought in great swathes of dryland • health impacts: direct impacts on Africa and West, Central, and South Asia, women's health, and increased work for has increased over recent times and is women as carers. predicted to increase further with climate Besides the direct effects of drought and change. In Iran, Afghanistan, and parts of desertification, government and donor Pakistan and India, there has been severe action in drought situations is now often drought for four successive years. In massive in scale. Despite attempts to design Morocco, ten of the 16 years from 1984-2000 cost-effective mitigation measures to were considered drought years (MADREF/ support peoples' livelihoods at key points World Bank 2000). Northern Kenya in the drought cycle (for pastoral liveli- experienced periods of severe drought in hoods, see Morton 2001a), the backbone of 1983-4, 1991-2, 1996-7 (Hendy 2001), and international drought management is 1999-2001. formed by direct food aid and labour- Beyond the increasing incidence of intensive public works projects. In recent drought, dryland populations are increasingly years, drought has rarely become inter- vulnerable to drought resulting from national news, and hence the vast scale of socio-economic trends and local environ- drought relief operations is not always mental pressures. There are circular appreciated. It would be surprising if such 54

massive interventions were not themselves the difficulties of water and firewood having long-term, gendered effects on collection. Settled women suffer the livelihoods, mediated by social, cultural, greatest resource pressures, but they enjoy and institutional factors. the greatest autonomy. While they have In Morocco, the Government allocated started to earn an income from market sales (from its own resources) over US$400 of firewood, they have to walk further for million for labour-intensive public works to it; although they have considerable control mitigate the effects of drought, in the 15 over small-stock, movement to pasture months from April 2000-June 2001 (a not is difficult. Some also sit on the Environ- exceptional level in recent times) (Morton mental Management Committee. 'These 2001b). The work opportunities created in townswomen were somewhat disdainful of drought-stricken areas in Morocco (e.g. those on the periphery, and [said they had manual labour on roads) are regarded as realised that] "two heads are better than being almost exclusively for males. Project one" in household decision-making. They planners are relatively unconcerned that considered this difference to be a product households without able-bodied males may of "ignorance" among the non-settled.' not benefit directly from these opportunities, (Meadows 1999) because they point to the extended kinship ties that already offer support to widows and to households that are effectively Natural hazards and female-headed as a result of labour migration. gendered impacts The combination of massive expenditure, How will the likely increased frequency and the association of manual labour with and intensity of natural hazards (one of the men only could, however, lead to the outcomes predicted for climate change) reinforcement of existing gender inequalities. affect poor people, and specifically Food relief in drought situations can women? fuse with more direct effects of drought Men's and women's differing experiences and environmental degradation to create a of natural hazards are not well-researched, process of sedentarisation of pastoralists, particularly in developing countries. with complex effects on gender relations. However, it is well known that women In some areas of northern Kenya, food-for- experience high levels of pre-disaster work has become an important part of poverty, often experiencing unequal status livelihoods, and has led to the settlement of in the workforce, being more likely to be previously nomadic pastoralists around employed in the informal sector, and missions or administrative centres (Baxter having 'less equitable access to land and 1993). This has acted as a trigger for longer- other natural resources compared to men' term settlement processes. Differences are (Enarson 2000). The impact of a natural emerging amongst settled, semi-settled, hazard depends upon the social context and nomadic pastoralist women. While within which it occurs. This socially- women in more mobile pastoralist groups constructed vulnerability extends to the consider themselves 'economically' better contextual gender and power relations off, as mobility increases their access to (Blaikie et al. 1994; Enarson 2000). Those pasture and fuelwood, they are in their living in areas most at risk are often those own words 'treated as children', with little with least social and economic power, and input into pastoral movement decisions or who are least able to cope with, and in donor initiatives. Semi-settled women recover from, disasters. Women are often also have low input into major household key to household survival when disasters decisions, while reduced mobility increases strike, although their responsibilities in the Mainstreaming gender in climate change adaptations 55 domestic sphere make them economically showing that relationships between natural vulnerable before such an event occurs. hazards and gender do vary (Delaney and Groups of women likely to be particularly Shrader 2000). vulnerable to natural hazards include Mortality and morbidity are only refugees, those on low incomes, homeless, part of the range of impacts of hazards. elderly, and disabled women, recent Gender relations are unlikely to improve migrants, and so on. spontaneously as a result of increased Women's work can be affected in a hazard risks. There are gender dimensions variety of ways by natural hazards. to what happens in the aftermath of a Productive assets may be lost, pushing hazard strike in the relief, coping, and women into low-wage labour. More recovery phases, where there is strong women than men work in the informal evidence of considerable inequality between sector and in small enterprises. These men and women. sectors are often worst-hit, and least able to recover as a result of disasters. Natural Gender and the aftermath of hurricane hazards cause women to lose jobs and impacts: the example of Hurricane Mitch work-time disproportionately, and conditions Gender differences and inequalities are of work often deteriorate. On the other most pronounced in the aftermath of a hand, some women - middle class women hurricane, and these differences may in particular - can benefit in terms of persist for months and years. These include changed access to employment opportunities many aspects, ranging from the increased (Enarson 2000). workload of women, to their greater In some places and situations, women exposure to violence as a result of raised are more at risk because of culturally- aggression levels in men. The 1998 specific pre-disaster gender norms. Female Hurricane Mitch directly affected more mortality was much higher than male than two million people in Honduras and mortality in the 1991 cyclone floods Nicaragua alone. Damage estimates were in Bangladesh. Of the flood-affected placed at nearly US$5 billion. Those most population in the 20-44 age group, affected were the most marginalised (small 71 females per thousand died compared producers, street children, and female- with 15 males per thousand (cited in Baden headed households) (Delaney and Shrader et al. 1994, 49). Most were drowned. 2000, 5). Women endured a disproportionate Cultural norms relating to the preservation amount of the burden immediately of female honour through seclusion mean following the storm and in later rehab- that women may delay leaving the home to ilitation, because of their triple roles in seek refuge, until it is too late. Norms maintaining the household, engaging in relating to what may be considered community organising, and productive appropriate activities for women and men work in the informal economy. Women had mean that women are also less able to learn the main responsibility of caring for to swim. An increase in flood frequency children and the elderly. Men generally and intensity might thus increase female tried to return to their pre-disaster role of mortality. earning wages outside the home, whilst Gender norms also affect the behaviour women found it difficult to return to of men during disasters. Ideas about waged work. This, combined with the fact masculinity may encourage risky 'heroic' that more men than women had died, led action in a disaster, and may also mean that to large increases in female-headed men are less likely to seek counselling households (rising to 40 per cent of total afterwards (Enarson 2000). More men died households in Nicaragua and half in than women in Hurricane Mitch, for example, Honduras) (ibid.). 56

Household food hierarchies exist Many factors will influence social (placing females below males), and change, including global and regional disasters can reduce the overall amount of political economy. The impact of economic food available, exacerbating the unequal and agricultural policies need to be taken position of women. Women are likely to into account in terms of how they affect the have poorer nutritional status and resistance future resilience of poor peoples' liveli- to disease, and so are likely to be more at risk hoods to climate change. In the past, than men (Blaikie et al. 1994). Combined agricultural policies in developing countries with their poorer access to medical care, have promoted cash- and mono-cropping, the health of women is disproportionately and an export orientation. However, it is affected. During rehabilitation, whilst possible that such agricultural systems are women maintained the household and less resilient to climate change than more social networks, men were involved in diverse agro-ecological systems. The latter dangerous reconstruction efforts; some include a wide band of species, enabling men were also taking part in increased farmers to spread the risks of disease and gambling, increased consumption of crop failure under climatic stress. In Kenya, alcohol, and some were displaying greater for example, colonial and post-colonial aggression (op. cit.). agricultural policies had exactly this The social disruption and altered inter- kind of export-, cash-, and mono-cropping group relations that can occur as a result of orientation, which undermined the a disaster may enable women to challenge intercropping of diverse bean species (e.g. or override existing gender norms. This Lablab niger and Dolichos lablab) by women, may affect traditional divisions of labour, and reduced seed stock diversity (World or enable the organising of new forms of Bank 2000). Women's key role in main- social capital and disaster preparedness taining biodiversity, through conserving and (PAHO 2001, 2). Gender norms are domesticating wild edible plant seed, and challenged when women take on tasks in food crop breeding, is not sufficiently traditionally ascribed to men, gaining new recognised in agricultural and economic skills and changing prevalent views as to policy-making; nor is the importance of women's capabilities. This occurred after biodiversity to sustainable rural livelihoods Hurricane Mitch when women were in the face of predicted climate changes. observed building shelters and wells (PAHO 2001, 2). Social change, climate change adaptation, and Towards gender-sensitive gender climate change policy Further research is required to explore how responses climate changes will manifest themselves Responses to the impact of climate change in different regions and on different time- on agriculture will need to be gender- scales, and how social and natural systems aware, otherwise government policies will co-evolve. There are no 'given or a priori and development programmes aimed at sets of driving forces (such as technologies, supporting adaptation by farmers could markets, policy imperatives, or cultural further exacerbate gender inequalities. values) that generate particular social Public policies need to be more responsive arrangements or patterns of change, only to the livelihood decisions faced by local complex sets of connectivities between people, and the potential impacts of these material, cognitive, social, and non-human on power and gender relations. elements' (Long 1997, 109). This is why Mainstreaming gender in climate change adaptations 57 predictions in patterns of social change and developing adaptation responses is critical future social arrangements resulting from if such responses are to be responsive to (uncertain scenarios of) climate change are their interests. Whilst specific actors can so difficult to identify. Feminist and make decisions, act, and innovate, different environmental anthropology, and the visions of the future and certain courses of already extensive body of knowledge on action are legitimised by others (Long rural gender relations, will provide some 1997). This is true of public policy-making insights as to potential social changes in and has to be borne in mind in terms of the rural areas and in agriculture. Studies on kinds of adaptations that will be legitimised the global forces at work in shaping in relation to climate change, and how agricultural production, rural societies, and these might in turn affect equity in gender food production are also relevant. Further relations. For example, public policies work is required to analyse climate change could rely upon coping strategies that are predictions as they improve, and to dependent upon women's unpaid labour if consider the potential impacts of climate gender-awareness is lacking. change on humans. Rural livelihoods and Deliberative democracy approaches, gender and power relations are embedded (participatory processes and mechanisms, in social, institutional, and cultural such as citizen juries, which enable citizens contexts. Context-sensitive studies focusing to reflect upon and research issues of on on-going struggles over livelihoods, importance to them) have been used to status, and resources are therefore needed. encourage public debate about the conse- These should consider the types of changes quences of complex scientific developments that may be in store as a result of climate and political processes (e.g. genetically- change. modified organisms), and might be an Poverty and environment linkages do option for increasing civil society awareness not inevitably entail a downward spiral. of, and engagement with, climate change. There is a great deal of variability in the Donors have been slow to face up to the ways in which local people relate to and potential significance of climate change, but manage their environments. Local people this is starting to change. The World Bank, may respond to environmental degradation United Nations Development Programme by developing technical and institutional (UNDP), Department for International innovations in natural resource manage- Development (DFID), and the European ment to reduce risks or reverse processes of Union (EU) have recently commissioned degradation (Leach and Mearns 1996). work on how climate change could affect Some changes are not, however, easy to the achievement of the Millennium detect without modern technology (e.g. the Development Goals.2 Since several of these spread of disease-carrying organisms). It is goals relate to gender issues, it is hoped important to avoid assumptions about that the study will address gender issues. how people will adapt to environmental Technical research includes developing change, including climate change, and the new crop varieties tolerant of salt, water, consequences of this for gender relations. and heat stress, which could reduce Public policies formed on the basis of women's workload (e.g. new West African the urgent need to adapt to climate change rice varieties that smother weeds) (DFID will only form a part of the actual response 2002). Research analysing Kyoto-related on the ground, since many are not enforced. projects has found that sustainable forestry, Mechanisms are needed to ensure public land use, and livelihood criteria need to be participation in adaptive planning for integrated into international climate change. Direct representation of policies (DFID 2002). Gender main- poor people, particularly women, in streaming should be added to that list. 58

'No-regrets' measures (providing Public policies need to ensure that gender benefits now and possibly in the future) are analysis is fully integrated to avoid required. Measures are needed that promote exacerbating gender inequalities and to increased resilience of poor peoples' promote gender equity. livelihoods and that tackle gender inequality now, whilst increasing climate change Valerie Nelson (Social Development Specialist), 'preparedness' for the future. A great deal Kate Meadows (Gender and Development of work is on-going in areas such as Specialist), Terry Cannon (Reader in sustainable agriculture, agro-ecology, Development Studies at the School of advocacy for farmers' rights, and disaster Humanities INRI), John Morton (Reader in planning, but more support for such work Development Anthropology and Associate is required, and particularly for gender Research Director), and Adrienne Martin awareness to be integrated. Such measures (Social Anthropologist and Head of Livelihoods should challenge stereotypes about gender and Institutions Group) form part of the roles, women's unpaid time, and their Livelihoods and Institutions Group, Natural centrality in coping strategies, and take Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, account of the varied and changing Medway Campus, Central Avenue, Chatham relationships between people, poverty, and Maritime, Chatham, Kent ME4 4TB, UK. their environments. Government and civil Tel: +44 (0)1634 880088; society capacity-building in poorer countries E-mail: [email protected] and vulnerable regions is urgently needed. Combined with context-specific vulnerability studies, this will assist in the identification Notes of appropriate policy options, regional 1 Thanks to Chris Sear, Natural Resources collaborations, and adaptation mechanisms. Institute, for his comments on draft Importantly, such studies could also versions of this article. contribute to making visible the potential 2 Correspondence with DFID adviser gender impacts of climate change - A. Herbert (2002). otherwise gender inequalities will be exacerbated. References Baden, S., C. Green, A.M. Goetz, and Conclusions M. Guhathakurta (1994) 'Background The impacts of climate change on gender report on gender issues in Bangladesh', relations have not been widely studied to BRIDGE Report No. 26, Brighton: date - they therefore remain invisible. Institute for Development Studies, Despite the difficulties of prediction, it is University of Sussex clear that the impacts of climate change Baxter, P.T.W. (1993) 'The new East African will be gendered, and that these require pastoralist', in J. Markakis (ed.), Conflict further research. Pre-existing vulnerability and the Decline of Pastoralism in the Horn to natural hazards and long-term climate of Africa, Basingstoke: Macmillan/ISS change means that those most at risk of, Blaikie, P., T. Cannon, I.Davis, and B. Wisner and least able to cope with, slow- or rapid- (1994) At Risk: Natural Hazards, People's onset disasters and environmental change, Vulnerability and Disasters, London: are the poorest, including poor women. Routledge There are also possibilities for positive DFID (2002) 'Climate Change: How can changes to occur, as we have seen in the DFID's Natural Resources Research aftermath of disasters, when women take Help?', London: Rural Livelihoods on new roles, challenging gender stereotypes. Department Research Section, DFID Mainstreaming gender in climate change adaptations 59

Dalfelt, A. (1998) 'Climate change and sub- MADREF/World Bank (2000) 'Programme Saharan Africa: issues and opportunities', de Developpement des Zones "Bour"; Newsletter 1998/10/3, World Bank, Rapport Preliminaire d'Identification', http://www.worldbank.org (last Rabat: Ministere de l'Agriculture, checked by author April 2002) Developpement Rural, et des Eaux et Delaney, P.L. and E. Shrader (2000) 'Gender Forets and World Bank and post-disaster reconstruction: Meadows, N. (1999) 'Second Consultancy the case of hurricane Mitch in Honduras Report: Gathering of Information on and Nicaragua', draft report for Currently On-going Activities in Pastoral LCSPG/LAC Gender Team, World Areas and Socio-Economic Study on Bank, http://www.worldbank.org/ Pastoralist Decision-Making Processes aftdr/ik/default.htm (last checked by with regard to Natural Resource author April 2002) Management7, EU Agriculture/ Livestock Dregne, H.E. (2000) 'Drought and Research Support Programme, Kenya, desertification: exploring the linkages', Chatham: Natural Resources Institute in D. Wilhite (ed.), Drought, A Global Mendelsohn, R. and A. Dinar (1999) Assessment, Volume II, London and New 'Climate change, agriculture, and York: Routledge developing countries: does adaptation Enarson, E. (2000) 'Gender and Natural matter?', World Bank Research Observer Disasters', Working Paper 1, Recovery 14(2), 2 August and Reconstruction Department, Morton, J. (ed.) (2001a) Pastoralism, Drought Geneva, September and Planning: Lessons from Northern Kenya Hendy, C. (2001) 'Appendix: Statistical and Elsewhere, Chatham: Natural Resources Frequency of Drought in Northern Institute Kenya and its Effects on Livestock Morton, J. (2001b) 'Annexe 7: Prevention et Population', in J. Morton (ed.) (2001a) lutte contre les effets de la secheresse', in IPCC (2001) 'Summary for Policy Makers. FAO-IC, 'Programme de Developpement Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Rural Integre de Mise en Valeur des Adaptation, and Vulnerability', a report Zones Bour; Rapport de Preparation', of Working Group II of the Inter- Rome: FAO governmental Panel on Climate Change PAHO (2001) 'Gender and Natural Leach, M. and R. Mearns (1996) The Lie of Disasters', Fact Sheet, Program on the Land: Challenging Received Wisdom onWomen, Health, and Development, the African Environment, Oxford: Washington DC: Pan-American Health Heinemann/James Currey Organization Long, N. (1997) 'Commentary on Part I: World Bank (2000) 'Seeds of Life: Women Theoretical Reflections', in D. Goodman and Agricultural Biodiversity in Africa', and M.J. Watts (eds.), Globalising Food IK Notes 23, August, http://www. Agrarian Questions and Global Restructuring, worldbank.org / aftdr/ik /default.htm London: Routledge (last checked by author April 2002) 60

Gendering responses to El Nino in rural Peru

Rosa Rivero Reyes1

Climatic disasters are a recurrent problem in Peru. The impacts of disasters differ between and within regions and communities. Rural upland communities, largely dependent on small-scale agriculture and natural resources for survival, are particularly vulnerable to the negative effects of extreme climate events. Government policies have not only failed to mitigate this vulnerability, but have served to exacerbate it. Women face particular vulnerabilities in the context of extreme climate events. Traditional analysis and government policy approaches have served to obscure these. This article reflects on the gender-specific lessons learned by the Centre for Andean Advancement and Development, CEPRODA M1NGA, during its work with poor rural communities in the Piura region of Peru in the aftermath of the 1997-8 El Nino phenomenon. It focuses on the ways in which rural communities, and women in particular, have traditionally been excluded from policy creation, and considers how they can become influential social and political actors creating their own strategies for sustainable development and disaster mitigation and preparedness.

isasters are a recurrent problem in climate events like the 1997-8 El Nino Peru. Over the past five years, remains unclear, one of the predicted Daround one million Peruvians have outcomes of climate change is that extreme been directly affected by major disasters, climate events will occur with greater and perhaps the same number again have frequency and severity. Existing experiences experienced the negative effects of smaller- of responding to climate-related disasters, scale events (Villarreal 2002). One of the particularly those amongst more vulnerable major disasters to take place in recent years populations, can offer important lessons was the 1997-8 El Nino phenomenon. for informing disaster prevention and El Nino is a regular climatic occurrence. mitigation in the future. It takes place every five years or so, when In Peru, the impacts of the 1997-8 the cold Humboldt current that flows north El Nino phenomenon were particularly from Antarctica along the coast of Chile severe. Over 100,000 homes were either and Peru is replaced with a warmer, damaged or destroyed by floods and southern-flowing current from the tropics. landslides, affecting around half a million This new current raises sea temperature, people. Three-quarters of those affected and causes heavy rainfall, floods, and were from rural areas (Villarreal 2002). landslides in some areas, and drought in The Centre for Andean Advancement others. The severity of El Nino's impact and Development, CEPRODA MINGA, varies from year to year, and from place to is an NGO working in the Piura region place. of northern Peru. This mountainous, While the relationship between global predominantly rural area is particularly processes of climate change, and specific vulnerable to the negative impacts of Gendering responses to El Nino in rural Peru 61

El Nino events. CEPRODA MINGA works rural uplands. As a result, communities in with local communities to build women's upland areas found themselves in a doubly and men's capacities as social and political vulnerable situation at the time of El Nino. actors, and to strengthen local institutions. To survive in these conditions, small-scale CEPRODA MINGA undertakes partici- agriculturalists have to exert considerable pative planning with the region's rural pressure on woods and other natural communities in order to influence the resources in order to supplement formation of local, regional, and national diminishing returns from agriculture. This policies for sustainable development and negative cycle leaves their least powerful disaster prevention. A principal objective of members increasingly vulnerable to loss, this work is to develop a 'gender policy damage, and food insecurity (CLADEM agenda' for the region, and to mainstream 2001). an understanding of gender relations into The losses and damages sustained all policy formation for sustainable during the El Nino event caused household development. income to fall dramatically during 1997, and increased the exposure of rural households to acute food insecurity. During Differential impacts of the the most critical period of El Nino, when 1997-8 El Nino phenomenon many rural communities were flooded or in the Piura region cut-off, food supplies were extremely scarce, and prices increased to levels The impacts of the 1997-8 El Nino beyond the incomes of the poorest phenomenon varied considerably within households. and between regions in Peru. While agriculture in the coastal areas of Piura Analysing the gender-differentiated benefited from improved climatic conditions, impacts of El Nino its upland areas experienced heavy rainfall While the scientific community has causing soil, forest, and crop degradation, developed a better understanding of, and and leading to decreased agricultural ability to predict, El Nino events, this production and capacity (Torres 1998). research has not prioritised a social analysis Small-scale agriculture and natural of the effects of El Nino, or a gender- resources represent the principal source of differentiated understanding of El Nino's food and income for rural upland impacts. Where social data have been communities in the Piura region. Repeated collected, these have often been aggregated experience of severe El Nino events over in a way that obscures gender differences. recent decades, with inadequate environ- The observations below have arisen from mental, economic, and social recovery CEPRODA MINGA's work with rural in-between, has diminished these communities in Piura. communities' abilities to prepare for, and Discrimination against women means cope with, disaster. Food insecurity is an that women in rural Piura typically have ongoing problem in the region, exacerbated, low access to education, specialist technical rather than created, by El Nino. The absence assistance, healthcare, or control over the of an agrarian development policy with a family's productive resources. These focus on small-scale agriculture has led to widespread and profound inequalities put food insecurity, increased rural-urban poor women (and their children) in a migration, and environmental degradation. situation of particular vulnerability to In addition, before the disaster, national food insecurity during El Nino. Gender economic policies had favoured develop- inequalities in food distribution and ments in coastal areas over those in the consumption within households were 62

common, including during periods where major oil industry and irrigation infra- households as a whole appeared to have structure projects. Communities in rural sufficient food. Widespread malnutrition upland areas have largely been excluded also exposed women and children from these processes of development, and disproportionately to epidemics (acute have suffered from the absence of an respiratory and diarrhoeal infections, agrarian development policy focused on malaria, dengue, and cholera), which the needs and realities of subsistence increased significantly during El Nino. farmers. National economic policy is Pregnant women were at particular risk dependent on primary exports of minerals, from malaria, which causes serious fish, and agricultural products, tending to complications during pregnancy, and other marginalise considerations of environ- peri- and post-partum illnesses. mental protection, sustainability, or Increased migration of men out of the small-scale production for local consumption. area into the coastal valleys and cities The concentration of economically- in search of employment increased the important industry in the coastal region numbers of temporarily female-headed also entailed that the majority of emergency households. Female-headed households and reconstruction interventions taking place during and following El Nino were faced particular challenges in their attempts focused on coastal areas. to survive the effects of El Nino. Women heads of households were typically not Understanding and responding to recognised as such by the major rural disasters - the failure of top-down community organisations (largely led by responses men).2 Equally, the increased burden of The mainstream view of El Nino events is household and agricultural work placed on to consider them as isolated and bounded women in the absence of men posed an disasters, arising from natural causes, acute limitation to their ability to seek paid 3 which must be scientifically understood, employment. predicted, controlled, and prevented using Nonetheless, as we shall see, women in large-scale technical interventions (Wilches- Piura were able to develop various survival Chaux 1998). The Peruvian government's strategies and capacities with which to response to the threat of El Nino has tackle the problems generated by El Nino. typically been to prioritise the construction of preventative physical infrastructure and Government responses other technical responses, and to focus this to El Nino and disaster on regions of greater national economic importance. A view of disasters as isolated prevention in Peru occurrences creates an approach to civil defence that is restricted and temporary, The El Nino policy context and prevents its institutionalisation as a Peruvian regional authorities have barely part of everyday life. There has been little acknowledged the differentiated effects of attempt to mobilise the population in El Nino in the Piura region. This disaster prevention. The 1997-8 El Nino differentiation has political implications, event highlighted the gross weaknesses in and is connected with regional processes of the National Civil Defence System, as local development. Over the past 50 years, and regional actors had practically no regional development models have involvement in decision-making processes. favoured the development of agro-export The inevitable result of this has been the industries (cotton and rice) in the coastal creation of a widespread sense among the valleys, along with the development of population that disaster response is a Gendering responses to El Nino in rural Peru 63 matter for the state, and not for Mainstreaming gender in development communities themselves to confront work and humanitarian response (Rivero and Cuba 2001). While it is clear that there have been efforts A contrasting approach, taken by on the part of public and private institutions CEPRODA MINGA and others, is to view in Piura to incorporate a gender perspective El Nino and other disasters as the outcome into their work, this has commonly been of long-term social and political processes. treated as a technical aspect of the planning These disasters expose the vulnerability of and analysis of development projects. This people faced with environmental threats, approach impedes the development of a caused by natural events or human activities. better understanding of women's empower- This approach accounts more effectively for ment as a social and political process aimed the pattern of differentiated effects of at transforming the unequal relationships El Nino, within and between communities between men and women, within house- and households. It also accounts for the holds, communities, and society at large. long-term accumulation of vulnerabilities amongst rural upland communities that Women organising locally have been repeatedly affected by disasters, for survival with little opportunity or assistance to rebuild their capabilities. The political During recent decades, women in the Piura invisibility of these communities has left region have been active in forming a range them excluded from wider development of women's organisations locally; these processes. This, combined with repeated include the Comites de Vaso de Leche ('glass severe El Nino shocks, the lack of a of milk committees'), Comedores Populares (canteens), and Clubes de Madres ('mothers' powerful civil defence movement, and a clubs'). All of these forms of organisation lack of access to government emergency are intended to improve food security and responses, has locked both men and nutrition within rural communities. Within women, and particularly women, into a these organisations, women members have cycle of environmental degradation of full participatory rights to vote and voice increasingly marginal lands, and resulting their opinions. continual food insecurity (CEPRODA During the critical period of El Nino, MINGA 1999). women leaders from Alta Piura assumed a El Nino events are an inevitable aspect decisive role. They took a lead in re- of the Peruvian climate. They bring both housing families who had lost homes, opportunities and threats in accordance managing the distribution of emergency with their severity, and the geography aid, and forming local work groups. There of specific places. It is essential for were many opportunities for women to communities to adapt to these in order to demonstrate their skills as community survive and to develop sustainably.4 In the leaders and protectors, despite their view of CEPRODA MINGA, this can only increased vulnerabilities. come about through the transformation of However, this process of formation of the social and political processes that women's survival organisations, and their generate disasters into processes creating high profile during the disaster, was only sustainable development. This requires the very weakly linked with wider processes of full participation of all community political or social empowerment of women members (CEPRODA MINGA 2001). (Rivero, Afonso, and Eggart 2002). While women were active in leading inter- ventions locally, they were largely absent 64

from institutions at the district, provincial, CEPRODA MINGA - and regional levels. While they were developing strategies for accustomed to having voice and vote civil defence within the dedicated women's organi- sations, the 'principal' community CEPRODA MINGA considers that the organisations like the Comunidades and management of disaster risk is one of the Rondas Catnpesinas (civil guards) only gavecentral concerns of disaster prevention. voting participation to widows, single When disasters are viewed as the result of women, and other women without a man long-term imbalances between societies to represent them. Although women's and their environment, disaster risk- contributions to community survival management also becomes a long-term within the emergency context were widely commitment. This approach emphasises recognised, men held all the technical, the management of risk and vulnerability management, and decision-making roles in before disaster occurs (Rivero and Cuba the civil defence committee, the principal 2001). We use the term 'disaster risk- organisation charged with responding to management' to refer to the technical and the disaster. political capacity of women and men, and their organisations and institutions, to While disasters like El Nino can offer transform the social processes that generate women opportunities to assume new disasters and convert them into processes of leadership roles and activities at a local sustainable development. Democracy is level, the experience of the 1997-8 El Nino essential to this transformation.5 event showed that this increased local visibility was not translated into wider Capacity-building with rural people to transformations in gender relations. When enhance their full participation in political combined with the increased pressures and and social processes, and particularly in the vulnerabilities that poor rural women in creation of regional development policy, particular faced during the El Nino crisis, has been the main focus of CEPRODA there is a real danger that women are MINGA's work following the El Nino simply burdened with extra tasks for no event. We have been able to take advantage of wider political changes in Peru that have political or social reward. Project planners followed the end of the Fujimori in disaster situations need to take care that government, including a renewed emphasis encouraging women's greater participation on democracy and decentralisation, and the in community-level initiatives does not strengthening of national civil defence load them with additional tasks and systems. From the outset, we knew that responsibilities, while failing to accord overcoming discrimination against women them with greater power and access to would be crucial if women, and poor formal political bodies and national women in particular, were not to be development processes. excluded from the benefits of these CEPRODA MINGA realised that in the changes. context of disasters, women's needs change. This is a result of the ways in The CEPRODA MINGA interventions which women's increased role as The CEPRODA MINGA capacity-building protagonists within the emergency response projects were implemented during the combines with the disproportionate risk reconstruction period following the 1997-8 that women will suffer chronic El Nino, in Chalaco, a very remote malnutrition or illness (see Table 1). mountain district in Piura. The outcomes of El Nino in this district included forest and Gendering responses to El Nino in rural Peru 65

Table 1: Capacities and vulnerabilities of rural women in the context of the 1997-8 El Nino disaster

Vulnerability Capacity

Citizenship and social * Increased numbers of women • Educators organisation face a double burden of • Social sensitivity and capacity responsibility, as both income- for solidarity generators and carers for • Transparent management of children and the elderly resources • Women frequently do not have • Willingness to learn and to control of resources (water, land, housing). As such, they share may be limited in their ability to make decisions in these areas during an emergency. • Women have limited access to training, information, or education • Domestic violence is frequent and widespread, as a result of economic difficulties • Women often feed their families in preference to themselves and are thus at increased risk of malnutrition • Women are not able to participate in the 'principal' decision-making organisations

Psychological attitude * Women perceive themselves • Women have a strong sense to be dependent on their of family and community husbands responsibilities • Women experience increases • Women have the capacity to in stress as a result of food mobilise their organisations insecurity and epidemics • Women exhibit strong • Women perceive themselves pragmatism to be marginalised

Physical and material factors ' Pregnancy • Women as protectors of their • Illness community • Lactation in a context of • Women search for means of widespread malnutrition survival

crop destruction, increased soil erosion, Chalaco communities. These processes and an increase in illnesses as a result of were intended to go beyond technical food insecurity and shortages of clean discussions of disaster prevention and water. management to consider how communities CEPRODA MINGA initiated partici- might build new kinds of social and patory planning processes within the political relationships and institutions. 66

These relationships and institutions would and creating gender policies at the regional involve all their members in decision- level. A key aspect of this is the making and consensus-building. empowerment of women to demand Creating sustainable risk-management accountability in relation to these policies, mechanisms among disaster-ridden to ensure that gender policies are not communities is dependent upon 'social simply reduced to empty declarations of capital': the intricate web of social relations principles or tools for technical analysis, or and networks that characterise those filed away in the offices of bureaucrats. communities. One aim of the participatory A key part of the promotion of the planning processes was to identify these regional gender policy agenda, which is relationships and networks, and to enable ongoing, involves building on the base of communities to use them as a basis for the women's widespread local organisational development of strong rural institutions. processes to create regional representatives Another aim was to explore and value who can negotiate gender-specific demands different forms of local knowledge and in decision-making fora at all levels. culture, and to consider how this 'cultural Currently, CEPRODA MNGA is promoting capital' might be valuable in the the 'gender policy agenda' at a regional management of disaster risks. level in an electoral context: for the first time, regional elections are being held in all The importance ofmainstreaming gender regions of Peru. Through consultation with relations into participatory planning public and private institutions, CEPRODA Gender perspectives were integrated into MINGA is supporting a regional central- all stages of the planning process, as part of isation process for women's organisations. the process of valuing different kinds of It sees these as as important emerging knowledge and cultural and social actors in the country's democratic capacities. However, we noted from the transition. early stages of our intervention that when However, we realise that we need to men and women interact, women have a create a permanent regional-level gender tendency to subordinate their gender- post if the gender policy agenda is to specific needs and demands within the become reality. wider discussion. Through the intervention we learned that it was necessary to empower women in articulating their Increasing women's gender-specific needs to enable them to participation in local negotiate solutions in participatory organisations decision-making fora. While women have been able to The participatory planning processes, and participate in decision-making bodies at the development of women's capacities to the level of their community or district, articulate their strategic gender needs, are they have typically been absent from other, beginning to increase women's visibility in higher, levels of decision-making. We community decision-making spaces. realised that local-level plans to articulate Women are increasingly participating in and respond to women's gender-specific decision-making spaces that would have needs would fail unless they were linked to been 100 per cent masculine just a few higher-level changes in public policy. For years ago. Men have increasingly learned this reason, we realised that, in addition to to listen to and take into account women the local participatory planning processes, leaders' opinions as a result of the it would be important to create a 'gender consultation and participatory processes. policy agenda', with the aim of influencing As a result, the women of Piura have made Gendering responses to El Nino in rural Peru 67 significant advances in participating household division of labour. Women have in wider development processes, and traditionally considered the productive ensuring that their needs and interests are activities that they undertake to be a form being included in development strategies. of support to male producers. Typically, Local systems for sustainable development women who undertake agricultural and disaster prevention have been activities declare themselves to be house- strengthened through women's participation. wives or petty traders at the time of the From the beginning of our inter- census. As a result, women's role in ventions, existing women's organisations productive activities has been invisible in such as the 'glass of milk' committees, registers and statistics, and has not been mothers' clubs, and the Rondas Campesinas widely recognised or appreciated. Femeninas, actively participated in Since the beginning of the CEPRODA meetings, guaranteeing the representation MINGA interventions, women have begun of their households and localities. In some to make themselves more visible within cases, women have taken on major these organisations, as producers involved responsibilities, for example in the hamlet of in all aspects of production. Increasingly, Nogal Chalaco, where for the first time in women are assuming leadership posts in history a woman was elected president of the central directive, and promoting the Committee for Small-Scale Producers of technological innovation in their small- Coffee and Sugar Cane. holdings, which is in turn strengthening There have been changes within local- the capacities of new female leaders. level community organisations, where women have taken on more leadership Rural women -front survival strategies positions representing women's interests, to regional development and gained voting powers and a voice in For rural women there has been a district assemblies. There has also been significant shift from focusing on survival greater recognition of women's rights in strategies within local community groups local judicial systems. In the 'principal' to engaging in wider development processes. local organisations like the District Women have moved from expressing Assembly of the Chalaco Rondas demands linked to their practical needs, Campesinas, women and men now both such as improvements in feeding have a right to vote, with women also programmes and service delivery, to assuming some leadership roles. Where the making their 'strategic' gender needs and Rondas Campesinas are involved in local their role as social actors increasingly judicial processes, there have been visible in local consultation processes. advances in their willingness and ability to Today, women are demanding to be recognise women's rights, something considered as workers equal to men, within which has not taken place widely in the development programmes; they express formal justice system. the need to build capacity in the exercise of In mixed organisations like the small- their rights in order to confront situations scale coffee and sugar-cane producers' of gender violence and abuse, and to committees, women have became more challenge instances of unjust rulings and conscious of their role as producers and decision-making by authorities in favour of citizens. In Peru, as elsewhere, there is a men. According to statistical data from the widespread devaluation and lack of area, boys and girls have now got equal recognition of women's role in productive access to public education, which is an activities. This is considered at most as a important change compared with 1990 supportive role within the traditional when girls had very limited access. 68

Conclusions Notes Sustainable development in Piura will be a 1. This article has been translated from long-term process. Similarly, we realise Spanish and adapted by Kate Kilpatrick. that there is a long way to go in achieving 2. These organisations typically only real equality between women and men in recognise women who do not have a all areas. Nonetheless, as a result of the man to represent them, such as single CEPRODA MINGA interventions, a better women and widows. When a woman's understanding of disaster prevention husband is absent from the community has developed within the Chalaco for migratory work or some other communities. Where, previously, the idea reason, she is not usually recognised by of rural development was associated with these organisations as the acting physical infrastructure and centralised household head. decision-making, CEPRODA MINGA's 3. Rural women who migrate to the larger interventions have contributed to the towns in the region usually obtain creation of a widespread new under- income through domestic work or through standing of how people can develop their petty commerce. During El Nino, these own capacities to transform their situation. opportunities decreased considerably as At an assembly meeting, both male and households across the region were female participants spoke of how they now affected by the disaster. felt able to talk directly with authorities, 4. In fact, communities in Peru were whereas before they went through previously better-adapted to El Nino intermediaries. This, they felt, had enabled events than they are today. Agricultural them to claim their rights as citizens and changes and humanitarian aid packages take their proposals to larger political fora have created widespread dependence on that have hitherto been considered as external inputs, displacing traditional excluding and ignoring rural people's native plant varieties (for example, the concerns. Importantly, the participative yacon [Smallanthus sonchifolius], and planning process has enabled rural people native bean and potato species) which - women and men - to create and promote are often better adapted to the climatic their own proposals for democratic conditions. government and local development in a 5. The communities that displayed a better context of decentralisation. organisational response to El Nino were those where participative processes and Rosa Rivero Reyes is the Executive Director of grassroots NGOs were in existence long CEPRODA MINGA. Contact: Centro de before the disaster. These institutions and Promocidn y Desarrollo Andino CEPRODA communities appeared to emerge MINGA, Residencial Grau F-201, Piura, Peru. strengthened rather than undermined Tel: +51 (0)74 309701; Fax: +51 (0)74 309703; from the El Nino emergency and E-mail: [email protected] reconstruction period. Those communities and institutions with scant experience of popular participation typically fell prey to welfarism and clientelism. Gendering responses to El Nino in rural Peru 69 References CEPRODA MINGA (1999) 'Plan Rivero, Rosa, Klara Afonso, and Luisa Estrategico para el Desarrollo Sostenible Eggart (2002) Guia Metodologica: y la Gestion de Riesgos de Desastres de Construyendo una Agenda Politico de la Microcuenca Nogal Chalaco', Piura, Genero en la Region Piura: Los Derechos Peru: CEPRODA MINGA Humanos de las Mujeres, Piura, Peru: CEPRODA MINGA (2001) 'Plan CEPRODA MINGA Estrategico del Distrito de Chalaco para Torres, F. (1998) 'Efectos de "El Nino" en el Desarrollo Sostenible y la Gestion de Cultivos y la Productividad Primaria Riesgos de Desastres', Piura, Peru: Vegetal en la Sierra Central de Piura', CEPRODA MINGA paper presented at a workshop on CLADEM (2001) 'Peru Diagndstico de la '"El Nino" in Latin America: its Situation de los Derechos Sexuales y los Biological and Social Impacts. The Derechos Reproductivos 1995-2000', Basis for Regional Monitoring', Lima: CLADEM Peru 9-13 November 1998 Rivero, Rosa and Severo Cuba (2001) Villarreal, L.A. (2002) 'Vulnerabilidad, '"Primero es la Gente": Prevention de desastres y desarrollo en el Peru', in Desastres, Borrador de Documento de Pobreza y Desarrollo en el Peru, Lima: Sistematizacion', Piura, Peru: CEPRODA Oxfam GB MINGA Wilches-Chaux, Gustavo (1998) Guia de la Red para la Gestion Local del Riesgo, Lima: ITDG Peru and Red de Estudios Sociales en Prevention de Desastres en America Latina 70

The Noel Kempf f project in Bolivia: gender, power, and decision- making in climate mitigation Emily Boyd

A focus on land-use and forests as a means to reduce carbon dioxide levels in the global atmosphere has been at the heart of the international climate change debate since the United Nations Kyoto Protocol was agreed in 1997. This environmental management practice is a process technically referred to as mitigation. These largely technical projects have aimed to provide sustainable development benefits to forest-dependent people, as well as to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, these projects have had limited success in achieving these local development objectives. This article argues that this is due in part to the patriarchal underpinnings of the sustainable development and climate-change policy agendas. The author explores this theory by considering how a climate mitigation project in Bolivia has resulted in different outcomes for women and men, and makes links between the global decision-making process and local effects.

y and large, climate mitigation planting or conserving trees, we are projects have been informed by engaging in a debate driven by men, who BWestern ideas of science and are biased towards providing technical development, and predominantly driven by solutions to the climate-change problem, the 'masculine' interests of forestry, and who have little understanding of, or accounting, agriculture, and policy-making. regard for, the concerns or interests of This article aims to articulate some of the women. concerns arising from this agenda, and This article is based on my doctoral demonstrates how a patriarchal system of research, which was undertaken on one decision-making exists at all levels, from of the world's largest UN carbon global decision-making frameworks to the sequestration pilot projects: the Noel local implementation of climate mitigation Kempff Climate Action Project in the projects. The predominant decision-makers Bolivian Amazon. The research took place at all levels of decision-making are men: between March and September 2001.1 used bureaucrats negotiating on behalf of their a qualitative approach, drawing on governments; NGO representatives; informal interviews, participant observation, extension workers; and decision-makers in rapid rural appraisal, participation in local organisations. Concern about the lack meetings, and an evaluation workshop. The of a gender discourse within debates about key research objective was to establish how climate change debate has been raised by carbon sequestration projects contribute to writers such as Vandana Shiva (1988). local sustainable development, and to When we discuss global carbon-trading by assess the compatibility of local institutional The Noel Kempff project in Bolivia 71 arrangements with the highly politicised Embedded patriarchy: goals and rules of external interventions. the absence of a feminist The research focused predominantly on the social, institutional, and development perspective in existing contexts within which the project was climate change frameworks established, i.e. the framework within Mitigation through forest management which the project took place. Growing international concern about In the process of the research, it became climate change has resulted in a number of clear that the project was weaker in some United Nations agreements, including the areas than others. These weaknesses can be United Nations Convention on Climate understood within a framework of practical Change, and the Kyoto Protocol, which and strategic gender needs (Moser 1993), came out of it. The Protocol was created in and have been highlighted as important 1997, with the aim that it should be ratified across a range of projects and programmes by 2002. It is the first legally binding global (Regmi and Fawcett 1999; Sardenberg et al. commitment to tackling developed countries' 1999). 'Practical gender needs' refer to the greenhouse gas emissions. A key green- immediate necessities that women perceive house gas is carbon dioxide (CO2), which is themselves as lacking in a specific context, chiefly emitted into the global atmosphere which would enable them to perform the through the burning of fossil fuels (industrial activities expected of them: for example, a emissions are estimated to account for health post, vegetable gardens, or a water five billion tonnes of carbon emissions, and pump. 'Strategic gender needs', in contrast, deforestation 1.6 billion tonnes). refer to that which is necessary for women Tropical forests absorb carbon dioxide to change their status in society. These might through the process of photosynthesis. This include: access to and ownership of land or knowledge led to the inclusion of forest other property, control over one's body, equal 'sinks'1 within the policy debate, and wages, or freedom from domestic violence. initiated a project pilot phase that would The Noel Kempff project has been test the possibility of mitigating (offsetting) operating for five years. During this time, CO2 emissions through sustainable forest opportunities have been provided for the management, conservation of forests participation of both men and women. (avoided deforestation), or planting trees It would be fair to say that women have (afforestation and reforestation). These successfully participated in some aspects of projects aim to reduce pressure on forests the project, fulfilling practical gender needs by improving the management of land and such as trying new varieties of legume forests. The Protocol formally establishes crops or accessing credit, but that they have the possibility of reducing carbon emissions predominantly been recipients of charity. through the flexibility mechanisms, which Addressing strategic needs has not been a allow trading of carbon dioxide on an key factor in the project design and imple- international market through developed mentation. It was evident during the country investments (primarily industry) research process that a gender perspective in carbon mitigation projects in developing was lacking. In particular, a perspective countries, such as clean energy substitution was needed which recognises the difference in China or forest projects in Brazil. There between practical and strategic gender are also informal discussions ongoing needs, and the existence of gendered about an alternative carbon market, which institutions, power structures, and hierarchies. would trade carbon from a wide variety of I consider these concepts in more detail in forestry projects. Forest-based CO2 mitigation the following section. projects were established to provide 72

'win-win' solutions under the umbrella of hierarchical structure. Denton observes how sustainable development. an overall assessment of the climate change debate to date shows that women are 'Masculine' bias of mitigation absent from decision-making processes, approaches and that decision-making and policy The new and emerging field of climate formulation at environmental levels, within change mitigation through project activities conservation, protection, rehabilitation, and in developing countries is based on modern environmental management, follow pre- scientific concepts. According to Vandana dominantly male agendas (Denton 2001, 1). Shiva, the approach is based on a world- Not only are the bureaucrats representing view that supports, and is supported by, the their nations predominantly men, but more socio-economic and political systems of importantly, the underpinning approach is Western capitalist patriarchy, which 'masculine'. The power of an alternative dominate and exploit nature, women, and 'feminine' approach to environmental the poor (Shiva 1988). This section gives a governance and management should not be feminist perspective on the climate change underestimated. Increased gender aware- debate at global and local levels, and uses a ness within global decision-making on 'feminine', human-centred, and rights- climate change should allow for inclusion based approach. If we look at the rules, of different socio-economic groups, rather norms, and aspirations of the institutions than professionals only, and should which are involved in the debate through a encourage the participation and repre- feminine framework, we can understand the sentation of those women most vulnerable inequalities which exist in global decision- to climate change (ibid.). In her foreword to making and power structures, and see how Staying Alive (Shiva 1988), Rajna Kothari the legacies of colonialism still shape the suggests how such an approach might look. main institutions in developing countries 'The struggle for femininity is a struggle for today. a certain basic principle of perceiving life, a Historically, the Western mode of philosophy of being. It is a principle and a development has reinforced a patriarchal philosophy that can serve not just women style of decision-making. This is reflected in but all human beings. Femininity by the predominantly technical approach of definition cannot and should not be a employees of conservation and sustainable limiting value but an expanding one - development projects. Denton (2001, 1) holistic, eclectic, trans-specific and notes that, 'The climate change debate is an encompassing of diverse stirrings.' (Kothari indicator of how gender issues tend to be 1988, xiii) omitted, leaving room for complex market- A key characteristic of international- driven notions equated in terms of emissions level interventions is the exclusion of social reductions, fungibility, and flexible mech- groups, such as indigenous groups and anisms.' These highly technical terms women, from decision-making. At inter- reflect the extent to which complex issues national climate negotiations, we still see are glossed over and simplified within global disparities between rich and poor nations, responses to climate change. Solutions to women and men, NGOs and government the problem might instead be found policy-makers. The balance of women and through focusing resources on under- men directly taking part in the decision- standing how climate change will affect making remains an issue to contend with, women and men differently, and what as exemplified at a recent UN climate measures are necessary to ensure adaptation. meeting, when the numbers of male The UN, a key decision-making body in to female professionals elected to climate change issues, has a male-dominated, the executive board to oversee future The Noel Kempff project in Bolivia 73 forestry and energy projects had a ratio of CO2 fluctuations inside and outside the 11:1.2 This balance is replicated down the park, establishing a forest management chain, from policy to project. plan, and ensuring community partici- Within carbon mitigation projects, the pation in its implementation. Agricultural inclusion of a feminist analysis would assist activities include land-use planning, testing in the pursuit of the 'win-win' situation new crop varieties, and establishing model that scientists, policy-makers, and NGOs agro-forestry farms. Conservation activities consider forest mitigation projects to have predominantly involve eco-tourism in one the potential to exemplify. In addition, community, and some minor sales of matters of participation, access to handicrafts to tourists. These activities information, and control over decision- overlap with the community development making are also important. programme, Apoyo Communitario (APOCOM). To summarise, the key characteristics of the project are: Case study: the Noel Kempff Climate Action Project • a primary focus on land-use, land-use change, and forestry; The Noel Kempff Climate Action Project • the aim of reducing CO2 emissions with was established in 1996 in Bolivia, in the additional biodiversity benefits; region of San Ignacio de Velasco, Santa • sustainable development objectives, Cruz. The project's primary objectives were manifested through locally-focused to purchase logging concessions from project activities. companies and thereby expand the Noel Kempff National Park to 1.5 million hectares (almost double its original size) to Assessing the project's meet conservation aims and earn carbon credits. The project also aimed to contribute impact on gender relations to local development benefits through Gender-based inequalities in improved local agricultural and forest employment opportunities management practices, to stimulate The forestry programme provided short- employment, and to obtain 400,000 hectares term employment for between 30 and of communal land for three key 50 men from the local communities, to communities (Florida, Porvenir, and Piso establish forest inventories and plant Firme). These are predominantly Chiquitano nurseries. They received a salary of up to indigenous communities,3 of approximately US$6 per day for their efforts. A small 2000 inhabitants. Funding was obtained number of women were employed to cook primarily from an electrical utility for the forestry workers. The men received company in the USA, with some financial a salary for acting as community support from the Nature Conservancy technicians and providing technical (an international NGO), and Fundacion training, and were part of the technical Amigos de la Naturaleza (a local NGO). team that managed and drove the The government of Bolivia was also closely community forest concessions in the land involved as a broker and partner with the titling process (which is still ongoing). private sector for the carbon credits There was some effort to encourage the accrued from the project. presence of women in the forestry team, The project has a four-component but this did not succeed. Women are structure, comprising forestry, agriculture, rarely present at forestry programme conservation, and community develop- meetings and workshops (personal ment. Forestry activities entail monitoring observation). 74

As part of the conservation activities, committees. There was a woman mayor in approximately 30 men were employed the village, whom project staff said had annually for a number of weeks to clear the done a lot for women. Her political roads into the national park, and two appointment by the municipality, however, women from one village were employed as had created a divide between political cooks when tourists came to the main park factions in the community, so there was camp. The park also employed six or seven little identification with her as a role model local men as park guards. These men (personal observation). earned up to US$100 per month, which was There was a clear distinction between a very reasonable local salary. project activities associated with women Aside from the female cooks, one female and those associated with men. Women forestry consultant involved in training the primarily associated themselves with forestry team, and the female co-ordinator activities linked to meeting practical gender of the eco-tourism activities, all the needs, which had been designed by technical staff directly involved in the planners with women in mind. Women project were male. Although the work generally spent their time in the fields provided much-needed income and status harvesting maize or rice, collecting fire- to these community members, the majority wood and medicinal plants, and growing of women were not able to benefit directly fruit trees and vegetables in their home- from this. steads. They did not work in the sawmills, extract timber, or hunt, and rarely fished. Gender inequalities in power and All these are activities typically associated decision-making with men. The NGO and National Park directors were Neither in the context of the project, nor both men, and were overseen by govern- at community meetings, was there any ment technicians based in La Paz, who evidence of a focus on the socio-political were all men. At the local level, the project and economic roles of women in decision- has successfully reinforced the power of making, or their relationship with their traditional councils (cabildo) by entrusting environment. For example, there are no them with the land titling process. These women on the national park management are all-male councils consisting of a committee, which is an important forum headman (cacique) and a council of 11 men, for participation in decisions on the future each with a different task. An attempt was of the park, land title, and other related made in one community to encourage the activities. Public meetings were often participation of two women in the cabildo, dominated by a small number of men. but they didn't stay for long, saying, 'We During a discussion on the communal got fed up with the meetings, and you water pump in one village, a problem that know what men are like - we didn't enjoy women had voiced informally about it.' The project has also assisted the creation livestock dirtying the water source was not of the region's own indigenous organi- voiced in the general discussion. Instead, sation CIBAPA (Central Indigena de Bajo there was a male-led discussion about Paragua), with a male president and his credit for cattle and a boat, and the issue male assistant. raised by the women was pushed down the At the community level, power lay with list of priorities. community members who had influence, Observations such as this raise concerns financial resources, or ties to the old patron about the prioritisation of issues, the action and the headman. The other key groups in subsequently taken, and the invisibility of the community were the fishing and cattle women and their interests within these The Noel Kempff project in Bolivia 75 prioritisation processes. Women would months of the year. Alcohol consumption often comment, 'My husband knows about and drunkenness among men were a these issues - he attends meetings.' Lack common sight within the communities of voice was something that more (personal observation). marginalised men in the communities also The main communal activity that experienced. In the smaller communities, women tried to engage in was working on women spoke more openly in public, yet the vegetable plots in each community. The still required a great deal of encouragement NGO brought seeds for the women to use to speak openly about what they wanted communally in their 'mothers' clubs' (clubes from the project and in their lives more de madres), but they were not successful. broadly. Women commented that, 'The communal gardens have failed because we don't like Meeting women's needs but not working in groups, we fell out over who advancing their interests was taking gains from the garden and now The project, like many development people plant seeds in their individual projects, focused on women's practical gardens.' Or that, 'People stole from the gender needs, such as health, education, communal garden, that is why it failed.' income-generation, and food production, The agroforestry farming initiative was and neglected the strategic gender needs only taken up by a small number of that could empower women, challenge the families. Many young men remained existing gender division of labour, and convinced that large-scale cattle ranching bring about greater gender equality was the solution to their poverty. There (Momsen 1991). were no female-headed households One of the most appreciated project involved in the establishment of a model activities, according to many women, was farm, although they would have benefited the presence of a doctor, and the access to from the credit of a bull or cow for the flying doctors in an emergency. However, production of milk for their children. they recognised that the emergency flights Although this initiative was open to all were unsustainable, and that the doctor community members, the model plots were was a temporary presence, which would very labour-intensive and would have last only as long as the funds were required female-headed households to pay provided by the charity. Across the labourers or rely on charity from other communities, I observed that project male family members to clear plots of land. activities focused on infrastructure Some women took up small income- provision, such as a health post and an generating activities, such as manu- improved school building. Medicines were facturing chicken coops, and bread making. scarce: women generally obtained credit to Those involved expressed pride and purchase medicines, and had difficulty satisfaction at having their own activities, repaying. but the management of funds and repay- At the time of the research, national ment rates was less successful. In one economic crises were hitting these remote community a large number of women were communities hard, and their usual employ- involved in a palm-canning factory, which ment opportunities with the sawmills in received indirect contributions from the the region were scarce. The wet season project. proved a difficult time for communities in finding income and resources, such as fish, and the poor conditions of the roads isolated the communities for several 76

A lost opportunity for Improving women's access women's participation and to information empowerment Access to information, and what people do If we are to ensure sustainable develop- with that information, is an important ment associated with the interventions of aspect of empowering marginalised sectors these multi-component projects, they must within communities. In one community, address the strategic interests of women. many women living in the poorer areas Townsend et al. (1999) suggest that these noted that they did not attend the technical interests include political strengthening, or other meetings, but that their sons or ensuring gender equity in access to husbands might have. However, infor- education, ending gender violence, mation is not consistently disseminated decreasing maternal mortality and within the household or at the community morbidity, and ending the economic level. A number of women pointed to the inequalities between women and men that fact that their husband knew about the leave women bearing the brunt of poverty. project but that they were not told about The project's enforcement of existing what went on at meetings. In this social structures and wide reliance on community, men were also called upon to traditional norms of decision-making has help answer questions about the types of weakened women's ability to participate project activities going on in the within or influence it. The project could community. In the smallest of the three have benefited from strengthening women's communities, women noted that they groups and addressing women's strategic attended all types of meetings, and 'learned interests. For example, discussion groups a lot from them'. Where the women around the issues of women's social and participated more in the meetings and took political participation might have created a a greater interest, they were also the most new dynamic. This idea is inspired by a outspoken in public meetings. The results one-day trial workshop on sexual education suggest that although there are differences for young people, which attracted almost in the levels of information flow between all of the adults in two communities. This different communities, across the board it demonstrates the widespread interest that is fair to say that the flow of information exists in a subject that is commonly between the project, the park, the higher- considered to be 'taboo' in the communities level decision-makers, the CIBAPA, and (personal observation). the women in the communities could be In the final participatory evaluation of significantly improved. the project, few women were involved from each community, despite efforts to Conclusions timetable the sessions around women's household duties. Education was high on In conclusion, if there are to be 'win-win' women's list of priorities, and the project solutions linking the poverty, deforest- provided small grants (US$100) per family ation, and climate crises in climate for school tuition for boys and girls. mitigation projects, these projects will have However, concerns were raised about 'girls to take into account cross-cutting issues, going away to the city and coming back such as the fact that the current framework with a swelling belly'. is predominantly managed and imple- mented by men at all levels; that male- dominated social organisation is reinforced by Western scientific and development approaches; and that project activities are The Noel Kempff project in Bolivia 77 predominantly targeted towards men, or Notes towards women's practical rather than strategic gender needs. 1. Terrestrial 'sinks' refer to carbon We can begin to 'bundle' these issues absorption outside of intentional human together. One bundle is concerned with action. In particular, carbon uptake from equity (including the realisation of non-managed terrestrial areas is thought women's strategic needs), and another with to be the result of three processes - the strengthening of women's role in local increased CO2 fertilisation, increased governance, participation, and institutions. nitrogen deposition, and impacts The technical and top-down nature of attributed to a changing climate, projects can be problematic, preventing the http: / / www.wri.org / climate / sinks.html development of participatory and inclusive 2. Personal observation from the Seventh structures. Therefore, design, imple- Conference of Parties (COP7) meeting in mentation, and monitoring should be Marrakech, November 2001. considered from a gender perspective to 3. For more information about Chiquitano include men's and women's needs and culture and livelihood strategies, see interests. Challenges ahead include the G. Birk (2000) Owners of the Forest: questions of how local institutions and Natural Resource Management by the organisations can ensure that women are Bolivian Chiquitano Indigenous People, incorporated into the decision-making Santa Cruz, Bolivia: APCOB/CICOL framework and consider strategic gender needs, and, at the higher decision-making References level, of how to incorporate a gender analysis within climate change frameworks. Denton F. (2001) 'Climate change, gender At the community level, we need to and poverty - academic babble or consider how to raise the issues of strategic realpolitik?', Point de Vue, 14, Dakar: needs through gender workshops. In the ENDA example cited in this paper, the local Kothari, R. (1988) 'Foreword', in V. Shiva organisation CIBAPA has an important role (1988) in ensuring that it encourages women onto Momsen, J.H. (1991) Women and its committee. At the technical level, female Development in the Third World, London: foresters and extension workers should be Routledge encouraged to work with the communities. Moser, C. (1993) Gender Planning and At the international policy-making Development, London: Routledge level, gender perspectives should be Regmi, S.C. and B. Fawcett (1999) incorporated into the culture of decision- 'Integrating gender needs into drinking- making, which should include a broad and water projects in Nepal', Gender and inclusive perspective on the one hand, and Development 7(3): 62-72 mechanisms for the inclusion of women in Shiva, V. (1988) Staying Alive: Women decision-making on the other. Ecology and Development, London: Zed Books Emily Boyd is a doctoral student at the School Sardenberg, C, A.A. Costa, and E. Passos of Development Studies at the University of (1999) 'Rural development in Brazil: East Anglia, Norwich. She is researching social Are we practising feminism or gender?', and economic aspects of carbon sequestration Gender and Development 7(3): 28-38 projects in Bolivia and Brazil. She also works asTownsend, J. et al. (1999) Women and Power: a writer/editor for the Earth Negotiations Fighting Patriarchies and Poverty, London Bulletin. E-mail: [email protected] and Oxford: Zed Books and Oxfam 78

Reducing risk and vulnerability to climate change in India: the capabilities approach Marlene Roy and Henry David Venema

This paper argues that the ability of women to adapt to climate change pressures will be enhanced by using the 'capabilities approach' to direct development efforts. By using this approach, women will improve their well-being, and act more readily as agents of change within their communities. This argument is supported by previous research on gender and livelihoods, and a study conducted in rural India. Examples are based on the experiences of poor, rural women in India, who are particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts. Their survival is dependent on their being able to obtain many essential resources from their immediate environment. Yet these women lack many of the requirements for well-being, such as access to healthcare, literacy, and control over their own lives. Gaining these would reduce their vulnerability to their changing environmental circumstances.

he need to respond and adapt to division of labour, rights, and assets leaves climate change has become widely women more vulnerable to - and less able Trecognised, and people will have to to cope with - the additional stress and deal with its impacts, with or without the deprivation brought about by climate help of government. The roles and activities change. of women and men are socially constructed, and gender-differentiated. Climate adaptation The situation of poor rural and mitigation strategies need to appreciate women in India the different realities of women and men, in order to identify positive solutions for both. Rural men and women in India are As Amartya Sen and others have shown, historically bound to its agrarian landscape, poor rural women in India generally have with which they have co-evolved throughout fewer rights and assets than men. They centuries of change. Today, unprecedented experience inequalities in such areas as challenges, including a growing population, healthcare and nutrition; are more likely to environmental hazards in the form of suffer sex-selective abortion or infanticide; climate change and land degradation, and are less likely to receive an education; have the globalisation of markets, are driving the lower access to employment and promotion need for fundamentally different social in occupations; lack ownership of homes, arrangements. land, and property; and take disprop- The millions of rural income-poor of ortionate responsibility for housework and India, of whom 50 per cent are concentrated child-care (Patel 2002). This asymmetrical in the states of Bihar, , and Reducing risk and vulnerability to climate change in India 79

Uttar Pradesh, are caught in the middle of of work necessary to maintain the home, this sea-change without compass or rudder contribute manual labour to the cultivation (UNDP 1997, 51). Since 1950, they have been of plots, and care for farm animals rocked by the privatisation of communal (Venkateswaran 1995, 24). There is some land, the Green Revolution, and the intro- variation within India, however. For duction of often expensive agricultural example, in both hill and mountain regions, technologies, and have been pushed onto and in arid and semi-arid areas where marginal land, resulting in decreased yields forests have disappeared and agriculture and increasing out-migration to non-farm employment, particularly amongst men. remains poor, women spend between six and ten hours daily collecting the resources Marginalisation of poor rural women they need to meet their basic survival needs Increasingly, women are sustaining their (Centre for Science and Environment 1999). livelihoods as farm labourers rather than as Those in the rich plains areas, where forest cultivators, with their knowledge and biomass has been replaced by agriculture labour largely marginalised as a result of biomass, spend less time on these tasks, mechanisation and other technical inter- though poor women in these areas who ventions, which they are traditionally don't own land or whose landholdings are excluded from using. In addition, their slight, find themselves at the mercy of workload has increased, as the switch to major landowners to meet their fuel and high-yielding varieties of grains has created fewer crops and animal wastes for animal fodder needs (op. cit.). fodder and household fuel, the provision of which is largely the domain of poor High female illiteracy rates peasant and tribal women (Venkateswaran Rural women have few options, especially 1995 Agarwal 1997). Moreover, the traditional with the loss of usufruct rights to community usufruct rights that women held to land. Education, which could increase their community land were lost after land choices and opportunities, remains limited reforms, thus denying them access to these or non-existent. Even though there has lands where, 'the landless and landpoor been an increase in the literacy rate for [had] procured over 90 per cent of their Indian women overall, over 161 million firewood and satisfied 69-89 per cent of rural women (approximately 70 per cent) their grazing needs' in the 1980s (FAO 1997; are still illiterate ( Agarwal 2001,1625). 2001). While many children attend school Women's labour linked to household until the age of ten, girls usually drop out welfare and income earlier to help at home. In addition, rural Of the total Indian female work force, 89.5 Indian women have little power within the per cent works in rural India, and household, and their contribution, especially contributes extensively to household in family enterprises, is often hidden from welfare and income (FAO 1997). According public awareness (Simmons 1997). This lack to Venkateswaran, women are estimated of power extends beyond the family, as to contribute on average between 55 to 60 women rarely participate in community- per cent of the total labour of farm level decision-making, and are consequently production (Venkateswaran 1995, 20). They less able to act as agents of change to better often start contributing to household their situation. economic activities before they are 15, with some putting in a full day's work by the time they are ten. They undertake the bulk 80 The impacts of climate and for wheat between 25-55 per cent), change on the rural poor rainfall decreases, and conditions more conducive to pest infections, are created by Low-caste, tribal, and poor rural women, rising temperatures. Consequently, researchers dependent as they are on their natural have made conservative estimates that farm environment for water, fuel, fodder, and incomes will decrease by 8.4-12.3 per cent food, are immediately and adversely (Sanghi 1997; Kumar and Parikh 1998). affected by all forms of environmental A decline in farm-level income alone degradation, including climate change will have deleterious effects on the rural impacts. The Intergovernmental Panel on poor, particularly women, who are among Climate Change (IPCC) considers India, the lowest-paid agricultural labourers with its large, agrarian population, to be (Venkateswaran 1995). In addition, women acutely vulnerable to the impacts of climate whose livelihoods depend on cultivating change, and recent extreme weather events small plots and gathering fodder and fuel such as the cyclones in Orissa in 1999, and will be even more vulnerable as climate the severe drought in northern and central change advances, as they do not presently India in 2000, support this view. In have access to the necessary resources or addition, a 1998 World Bank report on the and impacts of climate change on Indian social status within households agriculture maintained that these impacts communities (Adger and Kelly 1999). What would be region-specific, and could be can be done to reduce their vulnerability significant for poor people living on and help them adapt to their changing marginal land. circumstances? While severe weather events such as cyclones, monsoons, and drought cannot be Increasing capabilities and directly attributed to climate change, they reducing risk do, nevertheless, illustrate the very real and probable impacts of climate change on the According to Amartya Sen, there are five rural poor. The drought in Orissa, for instrumental freedoms that, if present, and example, forced many small and marginal if women have access to them, will provide farmers to give part of their landholdings to opportunities for women to act in their own moneylenders, with unofficial estimates self-interest and reduce their vulnerability. indicating that another half million people Access to these instrumental freedoms, were forced into distress migration. namely political freedom, economic facilities, According to a briefing paper presented social opportunities, transparency guarantees, to the Indian Parliament by the Centre for and protective security - is necessary for Science and Environment in 2000, climate women to gain a better quality of life and change manifestations in India will include acquire the capabilities they need to act as increased temperatures, along their own agents of change (Sen 1999). coastal regions, changes in monsoon rain Commonly referred to as the 'capabilities patterns such as a decline in summer approach', Nussbaum (2000) describes this rainfall, increased flooding in the Himalayan approach as, 'an approach to the priorities catchment, and water resource problems in of development that focuses not on arid and semi-arid regions (Agarwal 2000; preference-satisfaction but on what people IPCC 2001). These impacts will affect are actually able to do and to be'. Central to agriculture and forestry, as well as human this approach is the idea that freedom is health. Agriculture, in particular, will more than citizens having rights 'on paper': experience decreased yields, as crop cycles it also requires that citizens have the shorten (for rice between 15-42 per cent resources to exercise those rights. Thus, the Reducing risk and vulnerability to climate change in India 81 capabilities approach goes beyond asking Recently, the government started a 'land about satisfaction of people's preferences to literacy' programme known as the ask what women's opportunities and 'People's Resource Mapping Program', in liberties actually are, as well as how the which local villages map their local available resources work or do not work in resources. These community maps are then enabling women to function. combined with scientific maps to guide According to Sen, this 'capabilities local environmental and social planning, approach' to development has considerable with villagers taking and implementing the potential for enabling and empowering decisions (McKibben 1996). poor rural women. Village women as agents of change 'These different aspects (women's earning The provision of Sen's five instrumental power, economic role outside the family, freedoms is, however, dependent on cultural literacy and education, property rights and norms and rules that are manifested in a so on) may at first sight appear to be rather myriad of ways, including through roles diverse and disparate. But what they have in and responsibilities within families, and common is their positive contribution in through policies, practices, and legislation adding force to women's voice and agency - at community and state level. In India through independence and empowerment.' there exist numerous formal and informal (Sen 1999,191-2) arrangements and institutions that shape Development in and the the different capabilities of men and capabilities approach women. One well-known example is the The state of Kerala in southern India caste system, which is still prominent in provides some insight into the usefulness many areas of rural India, and which of Sen's approach, as several aspects of greatly influences individuals' access to Kerala's development path bear similarities rights. For example, people from scheduled to those advocated as part of the capabilities castes form 'the weakest economic segment approach. Despite its low per capita of rural society with limited access to income, Kerala is notable because it has the education and financial institutions, and lowest birth rates, highest literacy rates, little effective voice' (Simmons and Supri and longest life expectancy in India and, 1997, 311). hence, is a low-consumption economy that Informal institutional reform, whereby delivers a high quality of life. Civil rights individuals at the community level become campaigns and caste reforms began in agents of change, appears to be a good Kerala during the nineteenth century. option for increasing the ability of the poor Equitable access to education spread in the to adapt to climate change. Chopra and early twentieth century, and again in the Duraiappah (2001) indicate how vested 1960s, and the success of a campaign for interests work to prevent institutional universal literacy resulted in the newly change. They argue that the best develop- literate writing letters to government ment approach is through improved offices demanding better services such as environmental and land management in paved roads and hospitals (McKibben communities, based on Sen's concept of 1996). five freedoms, which challenges the status Affordable healthcare is also widely quo. Two case studies conducted in Bihar available in Kerala, along with nutrition and Rajasthan indicate that this type of programmes. In addition, there appears to development can be successful (Chopra and be much less gender discrimination, and a Duraiappah 2001). In Bihar, an informal robust media and political structure. institution called 'Chakroya Vikas Pranali' 82

was formed to negotiate a set of rules to the most vulnerable, must be specially govern the use of local land and water considered in such development efforts, resources. The success of Chakroya Vikas however, and their right to participate in Pranali was attributed to transparency in decision-making must be promoted and decision-making and sharing benefits, risk protected. minimisation, and increased protective security through the distribution of Marlene Roy is a researcher on gender and economic and social opportunities amongst sustainable development at the International individuals over time. Institute for Sustainable Development, 161 Certainly, better environmental manage- Portage Ave. E. - 6th Floor, Winnipeg, ment at the community level is seen by Manitoba R3B 0Y4, Canada. many experts as essential to efforts aimed Tel: 1 (204) 958 7724; E-mail: [email protected] at minimising climate change impacts. However, women may not benefit from Henry David Venema is a research officer at the such community-led change unless these International Institute for Sustainable local and informal institutional arrange- Development, 161 Portage Ave. E. - 6th Floor, ments are shaped by the specific and often Winnipeg, Manitoba R3B 0Y4, Canada. different needs, roles, and responsibilities Tel: 1 (204) 958 7706; E-mail: [email protected] of men and women. Research conducted by Agarwal (2001) on participation in joint References forestry management projects indicates that Adger, W.N. and P. Kelly (1999) 'Social while women may be active in all-women vulnerability to climate change and the community groups, their participation in architecture of entitlements', Mitigation other community-based organisations is and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change generally low. In some cases, women were 4(3-4), 253-66 actively excluded by men even though Agarwal, A. (2000) 'Climate Change: a spaces were reserved for women on the Challenge to India's Economy. A Briefing local councils. This lack of participation by Paper for Members of Parliament', women indicates that political freedom, occasional paper, Centre for Science and one of Sen's five freedoms, is not generally Environment, New Delhi: CDE, available to women, thus restricting what http: / / www.cseindia.org / html / cmp / they are able to do and to become. cse_briefing.pdf (last checked by author Moreover, the absence of political freedom April 2002) is critical, as it is a prerequisite for many of Agarwal, B. (1997) 'The gender and the changes necessary for women to take environment debate: lessons from India', an active part in shaping rural develop- in N. Visvanathan et al. (eds.), The Women, ment that meets their needs (Chopra and Gender and Development Reader, London: Duraiappah2001) Zed Books Agarwal, B. (2001) 'Participatory exclusions, Conclusions community forestry, and gender: an analysis for South Asia and a conceptual By using the capabilities approach to direct framework', World Development 29(10): land and environmental management changes 1623-48 in communities, the well-being of the rural Centre for Science and Environment (1999) poor can be improved. This has the potential State of India's Environment: The Citizen's to go a long way towards reducing their Fifth Report, New Delhi: CDE vulnerability to the risks of climate change. Chopra, K. and A.K. Duraiappah (2001) Poor rural women, who are already among 'Operationalizing Capabilities and Reducing risk and vulnerability to climate change in India 83

Freedom in a Segmented Society: the Nussbaum, M. (2000) 'Women and work - Role of Institutions', paper presented at the capabilities approach', The Little a conference on 'Justice and Poverty: Magazine 1(1), http://www.littlemag. Examining Sen's Capability Approach', com/martha.htm (last checked by Cambridge, UK, June 2001, Winnipeg: author April 2002) International Institute for Sustainable Patel, V. (2002) 'Of famines and missing Development women', Humanscape 9(4), FAO (1997) SD Dimensions: Asia's Women in http://humanscapeindia.net/humanscape Agriculture, Environment and Rural / new/aprilO2/culturematters.htm Production: India, http://www.fao.org/ (last checked by author April 2002) sd/WPdirect/WPre0108.htm Sanghi, A. (1997) 'Global Warming and (last checked by author April 2002). : Brazilian and Indian Government of India (2001) Census 2001 Agriculture', unpublished PhD thesis, (provisional), http:/ /www.censusindia. Department of Economics, University of net / results / 2001_Census_Data_Release_ Chicago, Chicago IL List.htm (last checked by author April Sen, A. (1999) Development as Freedom, 2002) New York: Anchor Books IPCC (2001) Climate Change 2001: Impacts,Simmons, C. and S. Supri (1997) 'Rural Adaptation, and Vulnerability, Geneva: development, employment, and off-farm Intergovernmental Panel on Climate activities: a study of rural households Change in Rurka Kalan Development Block, Kumar, K. and J. Parikh (1998) 'Climate north-west India', Journal of Rural Studies change impacts on Indian agriculture: 13(3): 305-18 the Ricardian approach', in Dinar et ah, UNDP (1997) Human Development Report, Measuring the Impacts of Climate Change New York: UNDP on Indian Agriculture, World Bank Venkateswaran, S. (1995) Environment, Technical Paper 402, Washington DC: Development and the Gender Gap, World Bank New Delhi: Sage Publications McKibben, B. (1996) 'The enigma of Kerala', Utne Reader, March-April: 103-12 84 Promoting the role of women in sustainable energy development in Africa: networking and capacity-building Tieho Makhabane

The issue of sustainable energy development is a key consideration for climate change mitigation and adaptation initiatives, and is an integral component of Africa's ability to achieve the inter-related economic, social, and environmental aims of sustainable development. Nearly one-third of the global population lacks access to energy-efficient services that do not degrade the ecosystem or contribute to environmental change. Climate change is likely to affect everyone in some way: from rising temperatures, increased floods, and changing rainfall patterns, to the spread of diseases like cholera and malaria (Wamukonya and Skutsch 2001). African countries are likely to be severely affected because of the already high levels of poverty and vulnerability. The impacts of environmental change on men and women are likely to be different with regard to their different roles and responsibilities. This article discusses women's initiatives in the sustainable energy field, highlighting the efforts of two networks that work globally and regionally to strengthen the role of women in sustainable energy development. I highlight some of the challenges that the networks face, and propose strategies for effective networking and capacity-building. Much of the focus of development be explored and addressed, and an interventions in Africa has been understanding of women's particular on energy-use at community knowledge and usage of energy resources level. For example, many interventions should be integrated into mitigation have promoted the use of improved stoves, initiatives (Wamukonya and Rukato 2001). which end the drudgery of wood-fuel Networks such as ENERGIA and SAGEN, collection by women. The different kinds of organising around energy issues, have impact on men and women of climate networking resources, relevant expertise, change, international energy policies, and and an awareness of realities on the ground climate change mitigation activities, have that can contribute to this task, not been articulated or researched in In the developing world, 1.3 billion depth at national and regional levels people now live below the poverty (Wamukonya and Skutsch 2001). These threshold, 70 per cent of whom are women impacts, and the roles that men and women (Denton 2001, 4; Misana and Karlsson can play in mitigation activities at local 2001). Energy-use is a yardstick for socio- levels, have largely been ignored in economic development, and it is clear that international negotiations such as those energy poverty and inefficiency are undertaken through the United Nations widespread in Africa. Energy-use is closely Framework Convention on Climate Change linked to a range of social issues: poverty (UNFCCC). The gendered implications of alleviation, population growth, urbanisation, climate change and energy policies need to and a lack of opportunities for women. Promoting the role of women in sustainable energy development in Africa 85

The connections between energy-use and meet women's economic needs. None- an array of other issues make a focus on theless, the gender-related challenges energy a key means of achieving greater within energy provision remain largely social justice, including reducing current unresolved. While energy providers and disparities in power between women and policy-makers often consider provision of men. energy as an end in itself, studies have In both developed and developing shown this to be of little value, and that the countries, the challenge ahead requires main focus of energy policy should be on political will, as well as commitment to the services derived from energy. Focusing innovation, and the application of energy- on service provision means asking whether efficient, environmentally-sound, cost- energy services are accessible, reliable, and effective technologies and systems in all affordable, and whether choices and sectors of the economy. Energy resources options are available to energy users, in are plentiful, and environmentally sound particular the poorest. In Africa, the bulk of technological options are available to make policies relating to energy are formulated a sustainable energy future a reality for all. outside the energy sector, within other However, ensuring adequate access to development sectors such as agriculture, sustainable energy for all will require transport, health, and industry (Denton considerable effort, and substantial investment. 2001). These policies consider energy-use as Women's and men's everyday experiences a secondary issue. The result of this type differ in many ways as a result of their of approach is to ensure that little differing gender roles and responsibilities. consideration is given to the energy- The traditional gender roles of men and provision needs of poor people. women mean that women typically juggle There has been some progress in multiple responsibilities in the home, in the developing energy solutions for women, workplace, and in the community. As part and in recognising women's role in of their household role, many women are sustainable energy development. In Africa, intimately involved in energy-related there is a high dependence on traditional activities, and have a unique knowledge of fuels. Women are primary users, providers, the environment and the importance of and managers of energy despite the fact sustainability. Yet, the demands on women's that their access to 'modern' energy sources time and labour, together with widespread and technologies is limited (Makhabane social constraints on women's freedom to 2001). Environmental degradation increases participate in public action, often leave the time that women spend collecting and them with few opportunities for political using household fuels for cooking and involvement. This leaves women without a heating, and intensifies their workload. voice in the decision-making processes that Reducing women's workload and the affect on their lives and, in particular, their amount of time they sp\end on it is ability to contribute fully to sustainable important for meeting sustainable develop- development. ment goals, and issues around energy are of critical importance within this. Developing energy solutions Early development interventions did attempt to move towards sustainable forms for women's empowerment of energy-use, taking into account gender- Since the energy crisis of the 1970s, there differentiated needs in the developing have been considerable advances in world. However, the interventions of the addressing the energy-gender gap, as well 1970s and 1980s concentrated mainly on as attempts to solve the energy bias and 'technological fixes', which were seen as the 86

best solution to the energy problems Concerns over gender and energy problems relating to gender and energy concerns can be traced back to the United Nation's (Denton 2001). These 'technological fixes', Third World Conference on Women, held or supply-side schemes, gave rise to new in Nairobi, Kenya, in 1985. Here, women technologies such as biogas, improved from around the world began to promote stoves, social forestry schemes, low-grade their role in sustaining the environment. solar energy systems, wind energy, Two years later, as a result of the lobbying biomass, and gasifiers. In a bid to assist efforts of women, the United Nations African women to move towards self- commissioned a global study on the sufficiency in the field of energy, micro-credit environment, from the World Commission schemes and other financial mechanisms on Environment and Development (WEDO with a focus on income-generating activities 1998). The Commission's team of experts were introduced. spoke to a broad range of people in all These early interventions did not tackle regions about environmental concerns. The the 'real' energy concerns of the users and team discovered no single priority issue; managers of energy at household level. At a people identified living conditions, gender practical level, interventions to provide issues, lack of resources, population improved, energy-efficient stoves to pressure, international trade, education, women can reduce the risks of indoor air and health as all being important. As a pollution, accidents from open fires, and result, the commission recommended the other related effects on health, as well as organisation of an inter-governmental reducing time spent by women in gathering conference, preceded by a participatory firewood. However, the real energy crisis in discussion process involving civil society. developing countries, particularly in the Popularly known as the World Summit, rural areas, is related to women's lack of the UN Conference on Environment and time. Gender-sensitive energy policies and Development (UNCED) took place in June interventions must address women's needs 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. and concerns, taking into account the For women worldwide, UNCED was an amount of time that women spend in important step in establishing global firewood-collection, food-processing, and recognition of their crucial role in achieving collecting water, and not just the provision a different type of development - a role of improved wood-burning stoves. that is socially, economically, politically, Gender-equality activists recognise that and environmentally sustainable. All women's needs, and their overall socio- UNCED documents included specific economic aspirations, go beyond the recommendations for strengthening women's provision of improved stoves. Gender- participation in decision-making processes. sensitive policies and considerations in the design and implementation of new tech- Networking for change nologies are crucial. It is argued that if energy provision is to assist women, it must One advantage of networking is that people provide technologies and energy services with the same vision work together to share that make women self-sufficient. Self- resources and expertise, while providing sufficiency is a critical element in women's each other with support to achieve the empowerment. desired results and bring about change. In International debates and activities my experience, networking initiatives in focusing on sustainable development have which people realise their capacities and also recognised the role of women, capabilities, without underestimating the and given significant attention to this. problems that arise, are most successful Promoting the role of women in sustainable energy development in Africa 87 when they are underpinned by a shared As a result of numerous requests for vision and commitment. In the next section other technical services, in 1998 the ENERGIA I provide two case studies of initiatives that Consultative Group recommended a have attempted to promote the role of number of new and expanded activities for women in sustainable energy development. the secretariat and the network. Thus, in July 1999 the ENERGIA programme, with Case Study 1: ENERGIA - the Global support from the Dutch and Swedish Network on Gender and Sustainable governments, established a network with a Energy permanent secretariat, and a resource ENERGIA, the Global Network on Gender centre to support publications and and Sustainable Energy, was established in information services. With over 1550 June 1995 by an informal group of women subscribers, two-thirds of whom are based involved in energy inputs to the Fourth in the South, ENERGIA has undertaken United Nations Conference on Women, in regional networking activities and initiatives Beijing, in 1995. It was established in in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, and response to the fact that there was then no been actively involved in capacity-building international institution or programme activities such as training, visits, and needs- with the principal objective of promoting assessments. Research, including the the role of women in sustainable energy production of case studies on gender and development (ENERGIA 2002). The group energy issues, and advisory support to felt that setting up an international energy gender and energy programmes such as organisation to ensure that gender and those run by UNDP and the World Bank, energy issues were placed on the main- have also been important aspects of stream agenda of relevant organisations ENERGIA's work. was critical, and that it would be most ENERGIA's goal is to 'engender energy appropriate coming from the South. With and empower women', through the encouragement from the Netherlands promotion of information exchange, Development Co-operation (DGIS), the research, advocacy, and action aimed at group established a network to catalyse strengthening the role of women in interest and activities, and a newsletter as a sustainable energy development. The net- means of communication. work's long-term objective is to promote Though global in scope, the ENERGIA women's active participation in all areas of network has done most of its initial work in energy-use, supply, and management, Africa. Having learnt from its experiences aiming at redirecting energy policies, in Africa, the network is currently research and development, and practice expanding to the rest of the Southern towards the needs of the majority of regions. From 1996-8, the central feature of people, and sustainable development. the network was the production of the ENERGIA newsletter. In 1999, a topping-up Achievements of the ENERGIA Network phase was approved by DGIS, aimed at ENERGIA has been successful in imple- intensifying involvement of the ENERGIA menting most of its objectives, and has Support Group through annual meetings, continued to enjoy benefits and support creating a directory of members, and from its members and donors. The establishing an on-line presence for following are some of the network's ENERGIA, including disseminating tangible outcomes and achievements: ENERGIA News (ENERGIA 2002, and see • The network has created a fully-fledged http:/ / www.energia.org/resources/ secretariat, currently hosted by ETC newsletter/ index.html). Foundation, the Netherlands, with two 88

directors, a full-time project manager, • increasing women's participation in the a full-time project co-ordinator, and two energy sector, at research, intellectual, part-time staff. and practical levels; • The network has established one • advocating for the increased inclusion regional, two sub-regional, and nine of the issue of income-generation in national focal points, all of which are in policies on energy provision, and the Africa. These national and regional need to consider income-generation and networks adhere to ENERGIA's basic energy together; principles, which are to empower • sharing information and expertise on women and engender energy for energy and gender; and sustainable development. • collaborating on energy and gender • The network provides continued projects. support to members of its consultative group as well as to other networks and To date, the network has focused on collaborators. capacity-building for its members, advocacy for gender mainstreaming, and • The network has achieved consistency further research and development work. in delivering the desired services, as well as in information sharing and exchange. Understanding the challenges that networks Case Study 2: The Southern African Gender and Sustainable Energy Network face (SAGEN) In addition to highlighting, and responding The Southern African Gender and to, the huge energy problems that women Sustainable Energy Network (SAGEN) face at grassroots level, networks and organi- emanated from the ENERGIA network, sations working in the area of gender and after the Gender and Sustainable Develop- energy have also faced their own internal ment meeting that took place in Nairobi in and external challenges highlighted below. March 2000. The network subscribes to ENERGIA's principles, and its activities Short-term versus long-term goals have been co-ordinated with those of the A major challenge for networking sister network, filtering down to the organisations has been the question of how regional and country levels. With support to harmonise their activities with those of from the sister network, SAGEN has policy-makers to enable planned change, commissioned and managed three back- and particularly when policy-makers are ground papers which take a gender operating in a crisis-management situation. perspective on climate change, regional Research is urgently required, but research environmental change, rural electrification, takes time, and policy-makers are not and power sector reform. always in a position to wait for findings to The network's aims and objectives implement change. Another problem is the include (amongst others): fact that the organisations and networks in • highlighting the importance and developed and developing countries have relevance of gender-sensitive policies not fully addressed concerns of relevance and practices in Southern Africa; to specific countries and groups. • paving the way for the increased involvement of women in energy- related processes and projects; Promoting the role of women in sustainable energy development in Africa 89

Investment and benefit ratios realised. Further, greater efforts must be The sustainability of any project or network made to find ways to include project depends on the ratio between the benefits beneficiaries as partners in planning and that can be derived from such a project and policy-making. New vision is required to the investment that must be made to realise realise this in the field of gender and those benefits. The investment includes energy, where local-level participation is both financial expenditure, and the time still under-researched. and resources that partners are willing to put in. It is important for those involved Governance issues with projects to provide financial Governance is of overwhelming importance, contributions for continuity. The benefits, especially when it comes to networks and however, should justify the investment. project implementation. It involves trans- They should be valued and quantified, so parency, reporting, conduct, bureaucracy, that they can be matched to the investment. structures, implementation mechanisms, No project can survive without funding, so and so on. Excessive bureaucracy and either the initiating partners must make a corruption are the biggest threats to commitment at the beginning of the project projects worldwide. Bureaucracy causes to continue funding activities at such a delays, escalates costs, and erodes morale. time as the main sponsor pulls out, or the Organisations and institutions are different, project itself must generate revenue and but it is important to control governance opportunities from its activities and hurdles so that they do not affect projects services. negatively.

'Brain-drain' and loss of personnel Unclear objectives and plans Experts and personnel move constantly, Clear objectives are extremely important and projects often lose valuable personnel. when embarking on any project. Plans that This affects the continuity of projects, and are poorly thought-through or unrealistic relationships between project members. will not deliver the intended results. Training and inductions for new personnel Realistic plans will take into account the require time and money, and affect the availability of resources, and will reduce duration of the desired outputs. In some the risk of the project falling behind cases, people become part of the project just schedule. It is extremely important that because the issue that is being dealt with is plans are closely monitored, and that fashionable and liable to receive funding, reporting takes place frequently. The without having the necessary long-term person who bears the financial burden is vision to make a difference in the field. the one who is most emphatic about reporting and producing results. This is all the more Selection criteria of partners reason why all partners should make a The number of researchers in the field of financial commitment to the project at gender and energy are currently very few, some point. Project planning at the outset is especially in developing countries. The crucial to ensuring that all obstacles to challenge therefore is to move from sustainability are removed. If funding has traditional compositions of energy been released to meet a particular set of researchers - predominantly male engineers - to a broad base of researchers in aligned objectives that makes the project unsus- fields, including those with social, tainable, then this should be clarified at the economic, and cultural dimensions. start of the project so that there is no Networks also have to create a relationship illusion that the project can be sustainable. with policy-makers, for their efforts to be 90

Communication problems can arise household energy use need more research, Communication and information- including more case studies to examine sharing provide fora for a shared vision and household energy-use patterns, and to common goals. Without these, a network explore how women's unrecognised labour cannot function at all. In most cases, can be incorporated into national develop- partners rely on the secretariat to initiate ment policy. A policy is needed that assists and communicate ideas, and there can be a by setting out steps towards co-ordination resulting lack of ownership around the and strengthening of the complementary implementation of proposed ideas. roles that NGOs and local institutions can play in the field of gender and energy. More studies are needed in the field of Strategies for gender energy into ways of strengthening local integration into local women's participation within NGOs and policies for sustainable government. development A compilation of gender-disaggregated data could assist in creating activity The service of gender and energy networks profiles, including women's household will only be of value if their operations and productive roles in the energy sector, reach the beneficiaries. Therefore, networks as a basis for lobbying and to facilitate on- must identify practical strategies to achieve going research in gender and energy this. (Wamukonya and Rukato 2001). This must Networks must find ways and means be made available in a user-friendly form. to advocate for the establishment of Networks must strive to reach poor rural 'focal points' in energy departments, with a women in order to assist in identifying clear mandate and adequate resources. projects, and to encourage local women's Governmental focal points for gender and initiatives in a drive towards decentral- development in most countries have no isation of the network and a move away mandate, and no strategy guidelines for from top-level operations. The networks their activities on energy and gender. must have roots that reach the local level, Many are not given adequate budgetary in order to address micro-level needs. allocations for their work. Networks must Networks must strive to run gender strive to strengthen their contacts and and energy-related programmes, and collaboration with these actors. provide training to sensitise staff and The importance of energy to sustainable policy-makers within energy-providing development needs to be widely recognised, and government institutions. In particular, with sufficient research and resources they need to provide training in applying directed toward sustainable energy policies gender analysis appropriately within and interventions (DFID et al. 2001). An energy-related work. This training would understanding of energy as a development help in the implementation of projects that issue has only gained prominence in recent address gender issues. Effort is needed in years, particularly in relation to rural lobbying for an increase in the number of development initiatives. As stated earlier, women working in the energy sector and in most rural development strategies have policy-making, and ways need to be found never brought the issue of energy to the to encourage and support more women in fore. When it has been included, it has been this area. This could be through the subsumed in sectors like agriculture or identification of career development transport. Because of this, there has been programmes, and the involvement of very little attempt to consider energy issues women in the government and non- in their own right. The gender issues in governmental sectors. Promoting the role of women in sustainable energy development in Africa 91

Energy is not a sectoral issue, and References because of this, networks need inter- disciplinary and multi-sectoral staff and Denton, F. (2001) 'Gender and Energy teams. Laws and other legal instruments Workshop: Moving Towards Practical that hamper women's empowerment and Solutions for Meeting Gender development, or that encourage and Differentiated Energy Needs Within an perpetuate gender discrimination and Integrated Development Approach', Dakar: ENDA Tiers-Monde impinge on women's position and participation, should be amended. DFID, EC, UNDP, and the World Bank (2002) 'Linking Poverty and Environ- mental Management: Policy Challenges Conclusion and Opportunities', discussion document Concerted action to address the connections for contribution to WSSD, Johannesburg, between gender, energy, poverty, and 2002 climate change is possible through the ENERGIA (2002) 'Progress Report: July sharing of existing knowledge and 1999 to December 2001', Leusden, resources. We need to create and support a Netherlands: ENERGIA secretariat network of organisations working on Makhabane, T. (2001) 'Gender and Energy climate change and energy issues, through in Southern Africa, Draft Proposal the commissioning of background papers developed for the Southern African to influence national, regional, and Gender and Energy Network (SAGEN)', international climate change policy-making South Africa: MEPC processes. These organisations need to Misana, S. and G. Karlsson (2001) Generating participate at all levels of political advocacy Opportunities: Case Studies on Energy and and policy-formulation, including the Women, UNDP: New York forthcoming World Summit on Sustainable Wamukonya, N. and H. Rukato (2001) Development, to be held in Johannesburg 'Climate Change Implications for Southern in 2002, and the preceding preparatory Africa', background paper prepared for committee meetings. the Southern African Gender and Energy It is particularly important that efforts Network, South Africa: MEPC should consider carefully where and how Wamukonya, N. and M. Skutsch (2001) gender issues need to be addressed in the 'Is there a Gender Angle to Climate climate change debate and focus on these, Change Negotiations?', New York: rather than tackling the problem broadside. Commission for Sustainable Development In particular, it is necessary to develop a WEDO (1998) Women Transform the strategy that is practical, incorporating Mainstream, 18 Case Studies of Women general concerns expressed in terms of the Activists Challenging Industry, Demanding need to involve women in decision-making, Clean water and Calling for Gender Equality and the need to respond to women's needs in Sustainable Development, New York: for real opportunities for development. Commission for Sustainable Development

Tieho Makhabane is a consultant in the field of gender, energy, and development. Contact: Gender and Energy Programme Specialist, Gender, Energy, and Development (GED), P.O. Box 747, Buccleuch, 2066 Sandton, South Africa. Tel: +27 11 656 0601; Fax: +27 11 802 0041; Mobile: +27 73 237 2683; E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected] 92

Transforming power relationships: building capacity for ecological security Mary Jo Larson

The risks that climate change poses for the environment and for development are well-documented, yet it has been difficult to build a consensus on measures to reduce global threats to ecological security. How can communities, NGOs, and policy-makers representing less powerful nations overcome objections to measures that aim to mitigate the global threat to environment and development? In climate change negotiations, vulnerable communities and disadvantaged groups meet around the same table as more powerful interests. Using systems theory,1 this article analyses the ways in which low-power groups can transform disadvantageous power relations to overcome threats to sustainable development.

n this article, I propose a holistic, The second uses a conflict resolution integrated, flexible approach to ecological systems approach to investigate the Isecurity, which would strengthen the priorities of 43 small island nations from power (symbolic, social, and material) of the Pacific, Caribbean, and Indian oceans, disadvantaged groups. This would potentially in UN climate change negotiations. Situated enable them to overcome barriers to in a position of low power within the healthy, sustainable development. Systems international system, these nations have theory suggests that capacity-building can formed the Alliance of Small Island States contribute to ecological security by (AOSIS) to heighten global awareness of enabling low-power groups to appreciate, the threats to their ecological security. The influence, and manage their strategic section maps the ways in which AOSIS tries interests. Lessons from analyses of multi- to transform threatening and unequal lateral negotiations are relevant to women, relationships. The third section analyses the and to any group whose lack of power small islands' proposals, in order to results in threats to their ability to live and identify their strategic interests, before develop sustainably. adopting a systems approach to discuss the The article is structured in three sections. ways in which capacity can be built in The first describes the risks of climate order to promote ecological security. The change to vulnerable small island article is based on a combination of communities in the Pacific. Island and academic research on climate change coastal nations are among the populations negotiations, and international development most at risk of the effects of climate change. experience. Building capacity for ecological security 93

Threats to basic needs in islands are susceptible to hurricanes, the Pacific islands typhoons, floods, and tidal waves. The loss of coastal habitats, such as mangroves and Climate change is associated with major coral reefs, reduces the natural barriers to health risks and irreversible environmental ocean fluctuations. People, homelands, damage. In the Pacific islands, warming is local cultures, and political independence destroying coral reefs, reducing precipi- are at risk. As the Vice-President of Palau tation, and causing sea levels to rise. Each has stated, 'This high sea level rise has of these environmental changes has direct literally caused islands to disappear and and indirect social consequences. Climate others are in eminent danger of disappearing.' change threatens the basic needs of island (Remengasau 1999, 4) communities for land, fresh water, food sources, and livelihoods. This in turn affects community health. Poor women, Analysing power and men, and children, who have limited access relationships to land, potable water, cash, or credit, are AOSIS faces three major challenges in least able to adapt. The effects of climate climate change negotiations. The first change were reported by small island challenge has a symbolic dimension. This representatives as follows: alliance is concerned with the creation of Wanning trends cause rising sea levels. global ecological understandings and » Rising tide tables cause lands to be commitments. The effort to mobilise the inundated. international community in support of » Salt infiltration destroys farm crops. sustainable ecological policies rests Warming trends reduce precipitation. primarily on the capacity to generate a » Drought dries water reservoirs. commitment to shared meanings (Rapoport » Drought destroys root crops. 1997). Warming trends in water temperatures cause Climate change is an abstract threat to extensive . security, and the needs of the 43 coastal and » As coral reef communities die, the loss small island states in AOSIS do not have affects marine habitats. high international visibility. The 1992 » Access to coastal fish decreases Framework Convention on Climate Change accordingly. does acknowledge that climate change is a The patterns above demonstrate the human-induced threat, and that the complexity of the links between the environmental changes adversely affect environment and development. The decline coastal and small islands nations. However, in agriculture and fishing limits people's the powerful parties most responsible for access to cash. Reduced access to cash high levels of greenhouse gas emissions limits the availability of technical goods have used contradictory studies to dispute and services. The socio-economic risks of the scientific analyses of global environ- these changes are exacerbated by poverty, mental changes. Reports purveying mixed and women are disproportionately messages contribute to public confusion, represented among the poor and less- and have undermined efforts to mitigate educated. They and their dependants are the threats through policy-making. among the most vulnerable community The second major challenge to AOSIS members. has a social dimension. Small island and The inter-relationships between environ- coastal states are often isolated geograph- mental habitats and human security extend ically, and they function on the margins of beyond the issues noted above. Small international policy-making structures. 94

Despite the fact that 43 nations have Figure 1: Levels of flexibility1 enhanced their social power by forming the AOSIS alliance, AOSIS lacks the political Integrative mechanisms to regulate the international Collaboration: high integration practices that threaten its constituents' valued; concern for core ecological security. Powerful industrialised shared values; addressing nations have resisted international efforts issues within interdependent systems; to regulate greenhouse gas emissions. They are keen to avoid policies, laws, regulations, Co-operation: equity valued; concern for group rights; or other structures that might reduce the acknowledging and responding benefits of current practices. to common but differentiated Finally, there are tangible constraints to group capabilities and the security of small island nations. AOSIS responsibilities; does not have the technical or financial Co-ordination: equality valued; resources to mitigate the threats of climate concern with harmonising party values and interests; change. While attempting to build ecological interactions based on security, small islanders face the most sovereign positions and powerful corporations on Earth - in particular, responsibilities; those in energy, transport, and agriculture. Competing: relative Party gains These powerful groups have differing and status valued; struggling perspectives on the causes of climate over the distribution of exclusively held interests; change, the extent of environmental threats accepting unequal access and to human security, and the most effective development; responses to undesirable conditions. Avoiding: autonomy valued; To summarise, the parties engaged in preference for separateness climate change negotiations are in conflict, and non-participation; struggling for significant symbolic, social, Distributive and material resources (Docherty 1998). As noted above, the effort to reduce fossil The figure above demonstrates a continuum fuel emissions is just one dimension of of options in response to conflicts. the complex negotiations. Other factors Integrative responses, such as collaboration contributing to the conflict and its resolution and co-operation, develop common include differing beliefs and values, and understandings, structures, and interests. differing approaches to authority. An example is the UN's recognition of Conflict is a means of responding to the climate change as a common global concern security threats associated with climate to humankind. Distributive approaches, change. 'As a stimulus for the creation and such as competition, reinforce autonomy modification of norms, conflict makes the and relative advantages. readjustment of relationships to changed Research indicates that flexible conditions possible.' (Coser 1956, 128) (integrative and distributive) behaviour is Reactions to conflict can be viewed on a at the heart of the conflict resolution taking continuum, with aggression on one end of the place in negotiations (Druckman and spectrum, and collaboration at the other. Mitchell 1995). My analysis of the 1992 and Between these extremes are flexible options, 1997 climate change agreements supports including co-operation and competition. the proposal that multilateral negotiations Parties prefer differing levels of integration contribute to the resolution of ecological (inclusion and exclusion), depending on the conflicts through functions that are both form of power under consideration. integrative (collaboration and co-operation) B u Ming capacity for ecological secu rity 95 and distributive (co-ordination and AOSIS Draft Protocol to the UN competition). Most of the statements in the Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992 Framework Convention on Climate (AOSIS 1994). Figure 2 shows the conflict Change and 1997 Protocol are integrative. resolution systems framework that I chose Technical experts, particularly NGO to use. The conflict resolution systems representatives, are uniquely situated to framework is a tool used to categorise and facilitate flexible, multilateral approaches to compare the interests of various parties in ecological conflicts. Respected facilitators negotiations. It can be used to monitor are women and men with access to both changing preferences over time. The approach recognises that preferences may policy-makers and stakeholders at the vary, depending on the substantive issues grassroots levels (Lederach 1997). They are under consideration. most effective when they are able to build relationships across diverse interests, ages, The nine options in the matrix relate regions, professional groups, genders, three dimensions of power to three levels of flexibility. cultures, and socio-economic classes. Mediated interventions contribute to Most of the statements in the 1994 position paper proposing to enhance AOSIS symbolic conflict resolution when agreements power (28.6 per cent) are at the collaborative strengthen the most vulnerable groups level of integration. The 1994 position within the multilateral system (Clements paper begins with statements of principles, 1993). common ecological understandings, and definitions. Analysing strategic 'Acknowledging the ultimate objective of the interests Convention is to achieve stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that What are the strategic preferences of small would prevent dangerous anthropogenic island nations as they negotiate to build interference with the climate system...' ecological security? I analysed the 1994 (AOSIS 1994, 3)

Figure 2: Using the conflict resolution systems framework to analyse the strategic interests ofAOSIS

Symbolic power Social power Material power

28.6% 0% 1% Collaboration Common ecological Centralised laws Core UN funding understandings with sanctions

9.2% 44.9% 4.1% Co-operation Equitable group rights Equitable roles Equitable exchanges and responsibilities and rules of technical, financial, and other materials

1.0% 11.2% 0% Co-ordination and Equal stakeholder Sovereign authority Equal benefits and competition rights and relative and responsibility competitive interests interests 96

'The Meeting of the Parties shall review andAOSIS gives to equity reflects a strategic revise the commitments of the Annex 1 interest in maximising technical support to Parties... in accordance with the dis-advantaged parties. For example: precautionary principle and the best 3 'Annex I Parties shall ensure that every available scientific information...' practicable step is taken to support the (op. cit., 5) development and enhancement of the AOSIS is reaffirming meanings established endogenous capacities and technologies of in the 1992 Convention. developing country Parties.' (op. cit., 7) A notable percentage of the symbolic It should be noted that AOSIS has not statements (9.2 per cent) are co-operative proposed that the UN have sanctioning proposals that apply principles of equity power. In fact, none of the statements in the to the establishment of rights and 1992 Convention or 1997 Protocol support responsibilities. Examples of AOSIS' coercive mechanisms. Instead, through UN equitable approach include: climate change negotiations, delegates from 'Reaffirming that per capita emissions in AOSIS have formed a global alliance of 43 developing countries are still relatively lownations, gained access to vital information, and that the share of global emissions influenced conflict resolution mechanisms, originating in developing countries will and initiated preventative measures at local grow to meet their social and development levels. Some of their initiatives have been needs.' {op. cit., 3) more successful than others. The challenge to AOSIS, and to other vulnerable groups, Most of the statements in AOSIS' 1994 is to learn from this capacity-building position paper address social power. These experience. are statements prescribing policies, procedures, roles, and dispute resolution From research to practice mechanisms. AOSIS is attempting to In this section of the paper, I apply the establish predictability and regulate lessons from the analysis of climate change threatening emissions levels. A high negotiations to the issue of capacity- percentage (44.9 per cent) of these prescriptions building. The success of capacity-building focus on equitable roles and rules. They are is related to the leadership capacities of the co-operative efforts to establish authority participants. Local stakeholders require the and accountability. Examples include: confidence, knowledge, and skills to 'Each of the Annex I Parties shall reduce its strategise and communicate effectively 1990 level of anthropogenic emissions of with policy-makers, the media, and other carbon dioxide by at least 20 percent by the opinion leaders. Policy-makers must be year 2005.' (op. cit., 4) capable of understanding and responding to the values, beliefs, and security interests 'A Meeting of the Parties shall at its first of disadvantaged groups. Meeting, agree upon and adopt by consensus, Within the context of systems theory, I rules of procedure and financial rules for view capacity-building as a flexible, itself and for any subsidiary body.' (op. cit, 7) multilateral approach to sustainable The 1994 AOSIS position paper does not development. Capacity-building is flexible emphasise material power. Only 4.1 per cent when integrating strengths and respecting of the statements propose equitable different interests. Approaches are exchanges of resources. They support multilateral when involving policy-makers, technology transfer, co-operative approaches NGOs, and community leaders in self- to natural resources, and equitable access to determined approaches to development. economic incentives. The emphasis that This enhancement of knowledge, skills, and Building capacity for ecological security 97

Figure 3: Relating the strategic interests ofAOSIS to capacity-building

Symbolic power Social power Material power

Collaboration Policies improving Policies and laws Policies managing common ecological with sanctions government and understandings* donor funding

Co-operation Establishing Developing Managing equitable equitable rights and equitable roles exchanges of technical responsibilities* and rules* and financial materials*

Co-ordination and Defining equal rights, Establishing local Managing sovereign competition and sovereign and authority and resources and competitive interests responsibility* competitive interests attitudes is supported through technical Symbolic power resources, including basic tools and 1. The first strategic interest is to improve sophisticated systems, such as the Internet. common understandings. This symbolic A conflict resolution systems frame- form of empowerment establishes a rationale work provides a way of prioritising the for action. As noted above, NGO facilitators capacity-building interests of parties in are able to contribute to ecological security multilateral negotiations. It serves as a by building respectful commitments resource for identifying common ground, among policy-makers and representatives acknowledging differences, visualising of local stakeholders. The parties should options, and strategic planning. The establish common ground early in the framework is able to highlight strengths consensus-building process. At this level, and barriers within the negotiations. It also capacity-building is the inclusive enhance- provides support for monitoring and ment of awareness, knowledge, respect, evaluation. and commitments. The emphasis on Ideally, the different parties in collaboration is an effort to increase multilateral negotiations can use the transparent access to knowledge about systems framework to identify their own perceived security threats, scientific research, capacity-building priorities. For illustrative socio-economic indicators, political events, purposes, I will discuss the strategic proposed policies, and technical initiatives. interests of AOSIS as they might relate to capacity-building. I believe that these 2. A second strategic priority is the interests are relevant to many disadvan- development of equitable rights and taged groups. In Figure 3, the conflict responsibilities. The emphasis on principles resolution systems framework serves as a of equity recognises that parties in complex graphic organiser for the development of a ecological negotiations have common yet systems approach to capacity-building. different needs, responsibilities, and What are the priorities of disadvantaged capabilities. To address imbalances in groups as they respond to threats to their status and knowledge, capacity-building environment and development? The five provides opportunities for disadvantaged strategic interests of AOSIS are highlighted groups to build research, strategic above with asterisks (*). They are organised communication, and knowledge-management under three dimensions of power. systems. 98

It is important that the participants relationships. Those most responsible for expect and explicitly recognise uncertainty, threats should take immediate steps to and have the capacity to cope with mitigate the risks. ambiguity. 'Courtesy is one of the great The challenge to disadvantaged groups human inventions for bridging uncertainty.' is to transform the structures that support (Bateson 1994, 13) The following questions existing power imbalances. When high- help to elicit the multiple views of and low-power groups are engaged in situations held by participants, including policy-making, the advantaged parties perceptions of power relationships: tend to defend their territory and status. Inclusive, transparent approaches to rule- • What are the major concerns or issues? making enhance the leverage of Are women's and men's perspectives disadvantaged groups. By influencing equally represented? policies and laws, they are able to improve • Who are the significant stakeholders? access, predictability, and accountability. What are their primary interests? Questions relevant to the transformation of • What are the risks - from diverse social structures include the following: perspectives? How are the risks distributed among the parties? • Who has authority? Under what circumstances? • Who benefits from the current situation? What are the constraints to resolution? • Do women and men participate equally in the decision-making? • What are the optional solutions? What are the recommended next steps? • Which policies and laws contribute to fairness and predictability? A multilateral approach expands the flow • Which governance structures are of information from high- and low-power missing? perspectives. Donor communities enhance • Do laws foster equitable (fair) capacity-building by supporting transparent multilateral partnerships? data collection and analysis, and by • How can threats to security be disseminating best practice. Accurate and regulated more effectively? transparent data-collection systems reduce the possibility of wastage, corruption, and inefficiency. The challenge is to assure that It should be noted that disadvantaged dialogue leads from information exchange groups are not advocates for centralised to strategic adaptations, including oppor- power with sanctions. Instead, most of the tunities for women and men to build their proposals to regulate threatening behaviours own data-collection systems within their involve consensual agreements. Strategic own jurisdictions. priorities include developing the capacities required to mobilise coalitions. Social power 3. The majority of the propositions in 4. The fourth strategic interest is the multilateral negotiations are prescriptive. establishment of sovereign authority and Disadvantaged groups are attempting to responsibility. This priority addresses the address their strategic interests through the need to build effective local governance development of equitable roles and rules. structures. It suggests that all parties have The emphasis on equity in policy-making equal responsibility to mitigate ecological has a re-distributive purpose. The strategic risks within their own jurisdictions. interest is to create more balanced power Capacity-building initiatives enable Building capacity for ecological security 99 disadvantaged groups when they systems, they need the attitudes, knowledge, strengthen participatory approaches to and skills required for assessment, governance. Policies that are developed by implementation, monitoring, trouble- women and men closer to the realities on shooting, and creative innovations. In order the ground are more effective than those to exchange goods and services, developing that are based on distant versions of local economies also need access to the possibilities and preferences. By co- consumer markets of wealthier nations. ordinating national and local exchanges of information about best practices early in the policy-making process, capacity- Lessons learned building reinforces effective structures and The analysis of small island experiences in avoids unnecessary conflicts. climate change negotiations provides lessons for any vulnerable or marginalised Material power group determined to re-align power 5. Finally, disadvantaged groups have a relationships. Existing power asymmetries strategic interest in the equitable exchange may be the result of discrimination on the of material resources. This requires the basis of gender, race, religion, or some capacity to manage technical, financial, and other categorisation. To summarise, the human resources. Historically, the transfer analysis above indicates that disadvantaged of technologies has been criticised for being parties addressing ecological security donor-oriented. There has been a tendency negotiate to enhance five strategic interests: to supply local communities with whatever technologies are available, rather than what • common ecological understandings; is actually wanted or needed. Investments in technical resources address the needs of • equitable rights and responsibilities; the disadvantaged when they facilitate • equitable roles and rules; partnerships and foster self-reliance. • sovereign local authority and Questions relevant to effective, efficient responsibility; technology transfer include: • equitable exchanges of technical and financial materials. • Which local technologies are working? What adaptations are needed? The first strategic interest is the develop- • Are creative local initiatives ment of common understandings. This encouraged? What are the incentives? symbolic form of empowerment is • What are the benefits of new financial addressed through collaborative approaches and technical interventions? to research and communication. The • How are the benefits of technical and /or establishment of common meanings financial interventions distributed? provides a rationale for action. Moving • Who gains? Who loses? from rhetoric to action, the transformation of power relations takes place through the • Do women and men participate equally equitable exchange of resources. in planning and managing? Do they Disadvantaged groups are advocates for also share equally in the benefits? equitable access to scientific knowledge, the consensual construction of rules regulating At the local level, the priority is to increase threats, and the equitable transfer of women's and men's capacities to adapt technical resources from developed to technologies to their changing environ- developing nations. This co-operation ments. In order to build sustainable transforms power relations when 100

disadvantaged women and men are able to 'If we can find ways of responding as make choices that enhance the resources individuals to multiple patterns of meaning, within their own jurisdictions. The strategic enriching rather than displacing those interests above are relevant to gender in a traditional to any one group, this can make a wide range of development situations, momentous difference to the well-being of including efforts to address complex individuals and the fate of the earth. What environmental and health issues. would it be like to have not only color vision, but culture vision, the ability to see the multiple worlds of others?' (Bateson 1994,53) Conclusions A systems approach brings together In climate change negotiations, small island diverse policy-makers, NGOs, and nations are contributing to the resolution of community leaders to enhance the 'culture ecological conflicts through proactive, co- vision' of all stakeholders. The multilateral operative approaches. To transform dialogue offers less-powerful groups the threatening systems, leaders are building opportunity to describe their own regional alliances, developing extensive situations, prioritise strategic interests, and communication networks, and advocating implement meaningful adaptations. The as one voice for the security interests of the 4 most effective capacity-building initiatives Earth's ecological system as a whole. build long-term partnerships among Identifying the strategic interests of small advantaged and disadvantaged stake- island communities provides lessons for holders. These relationships facilitate the the transformation of power relationships, equitable exchange of resources, and create including those between women and men. the synergy for innovative adaptations. Disadvantaged groups in climate change negotiations lack status, influence, and Mary Jo Larson completed her doctoral thesis at control. These factors mirror gender-based the Institute for Conflict Analysis and barriers to health and development. Resolution, George Mason University. She is A systems approach to capacity- currently Director of Capacity Building at building ensures that disadvantaged CEDPA. Contact: 6427 Cavalier Corridor, groups advance through self-determined Falls Church, VA 22044, USA. approaches to development (adapted from E-mail: [email protected] International Women's Conference 2000). It is an adaptive learning and relationship- building process. The most effective Notes interventions value and integrate the 1 Systems theory is the holistic study of strengths of diverse social groups. They how systems and their sub-systems are facilitate the transfer of knowledge and organised, how they adapt to changing foster the implementation of inclusive situations, and how the interests of the policies. Systems theory supports the sub-systems fit or conflict with those of proposition that capacity-building contributes the whole. According to this theory, a to sustainable development when it sub-system is a set of inter-related strengthens the most vulnerable sub- elements, each of which is connected systems within the global ecological system directly or indirectly to every other as a whole. element, and often with extreme Conflict resolution research indicates sensitivity. Localised causes within sub- that the first step in building sustainable systems may have effects within the multilateral relationships is to develop system as a whole. I should emphasise common understandings. In dosing, I would that no system can be known completely like to highlight the significance of this. (Richardson 1998). Any study of Building capacity for ecological security 101

complex, multi-party negotiations brings Druckman, D. and C. Mitchell (eds.) (1995) certain variables to the forefront, and Flexibility in International Negotiation and may overlook others. Significant factors, Mediation, London: Sage such as cultural influences or structural International Women's Conference (2000) manipulation, may not be documented 'International Women's Conference to in this analysis (Avruch and Black 1996). Redefine Security', proposal developed 2 I am grateful to Patrick Triano for by Women's Caucus for Gender Justice, helping me to visualise these June 22-25 2000, Naja, Okinawa, Japan relationships. Larson, M.J. (2001) 'Conflict Resolution in 3 The Annex I Parties include the 24 Ecological Negotiations: How Multi- original OECD members, the European lateral Negotiations Contributes to the Union, and 14 countries with economies Resolution of Environment and in transition. Development Conflicts', unpublished 4 Interviews (1997-2001) with UN Ambassador doctoral thesis, Virginia: Institute for Slade from Samoa, Chair of AOSIS. Conflict Analysis and Resolution, George Mason University Lederach, J.P. (1997) Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided References Societies, Washington DC: United States AOSIS (1994) 'AOSIS Proposal for a Institute of Peace Protocol on the Reduction of Greenhouse Rapoport, A. (1997) 'Conceptions of World Gases', paper presented at Inter- Order: Building Peace in the Third governmental Negotiating Committee Millennium', paper presented at the (INC) 10, Geneva Tenth Annual Vernon M. and Minnie I. Avruch, K. and P.W. Black (1996) 'ADR, Lynch Lecture, Institute for Conflict Palau and the contribution of Analysis and Resolution, George Mason anthropology', in A.W. Wolfe and University, Virginia H. Yang (eds.), Anthropological ContributionsRemengasau, T. (1999) 'Remarks by Vice to Conflict Resolution, Athens: University President of Palau on the Opening of the of Georgia Press 54th Session of the General Assembly of Bateson, M.C. (1994) Peripheral Visions, the United Nations', Washington DC: New York: Harper Collins Embassy of Palau Clements, K. (ed.) (1993) Peace and Security Richardson, K.A. (1998) 'Towards an in the Asia Pacific Region: Post-Cold War Analytical Methodology for Considering Problems and Prospects, Japan: United Complex, Poorly Defined Problems', Nations University Press paper for Defence and Evaluation Coser, L.A. (1956) The Functions of Social Research Agency, Salisbury, UK Conflict, New York: Free Press Docherty, J.S. (1998) When the Parties Bring Their Gods to the Table: Learning Lessons from Waco, published doctoral thesis, Virginia: Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, George Mason University 102

Compiled by Ruth Evans

Introduction Survival Emissions: A Perspective from the South on Global Climate Change Negotiations As many of the articles here note, to date, (1999), Mark J. Mwandosya, Centre for the literature discussing climate change Energy, Environment, Science and Technology from a gender perspective is rather scarce. (CEEST-2000), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Resources on this subject are mainly web- based, and unpublished. There are, In this book, Mwandosya shares his however, more resources and publications perceptions and insights on the climate available on aspects of gender and disasters, change negotiations, based on his and on gender, the environment, and experience as chair of the Group of 77, and sustainable development. These have been speaker for the Group and China during included here, alongside general resources the climate change negotiations in Bonn about the effects of climate change, or and Kyoto in 1997. The book gives related to organisations working on these background information on the issues. negotiations, as well as the author's analysis and understanding of the negotiations from a Southern perspective. In Publications particular, it discusses the strength of the Responding to Global Warming: The Technology, unity of the Group in linking climate Economics and Politics of Sustainable Energy change negotiations with the development (1994), Peter Read, Zed Books, 7 Cynthia agenda. St., London Nl 9JF, UK Taking a multi-disciplinary policy Global Climate Change: The International perspective that integrates engineering, Response (1996), Richard E. Benedick, economics, and decision theory, the author Discussion Paper 19, October 1996, London proposes an innovative strategy in global School of Economics, Centre for the Study efforts to limit climate change, linking of Global Governance, Houghton Street, energy and forestry, North and South. Read London WC2A 2AE, UK argues that the problem of global warming This discussion paper outlines the develop- can be tackled much more affordably than ment of the international response to commonly realised, and in ways likely to climate change, from the establishment of provide incentives to energy corporations, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate and to improve the development prospects Change in 1988, and the UN Framework of many countries in the South. Convention on Climate Change, signed in Resources 103

Rio in 1992. The paper examines in more New York, NY 10017, USA detail the options for reducing greenhouse This collection of contributions from NGOs gas emissions, discusses North-South around the world highlights dimensions of tensions, and outlines key factors for the Agenda 21 implementation at the local level post-2000 phase. that might not otherwise be captured by the international dialogue. In their articles, Fair Weather? Equity Concerns in Climate contributors describe NGO projects and Change (1999), Ferenc L. Toth (ed.), Earthscan other activities focused on the Publications, 120 Pentonville Road, London implementation of the 1992 UN Conference Nl 9JN, UK on Environment and Development (UNCED), http:/ / www.earthscan.co.uk and discuss how UNCED's new approach Taking a cross-disciplinary assessment of to sustainable development affected fairness and equity issues in the context of thinking, programmes, and strategies. global climate change, this book explores the policy dimensions and analytical needs Coping with Changing Environments: Social of the negotiation process. Contributors Dimensions of Endangered Ecosystems in the debate a range of equity issues in the global Developing World (1999), Beate Lohnert and climate change negotiations, such as: how Helmut Geist (eds.), Ashgate Publishing should responsibility for adapting to Ltd., Gower House, Croft Road, Aldershot, climate change be distributed? Who should Hants., GU11 3HR, UK bear the costs of mitigating its impacts, and http://www.ashgate.com how should these costs be measured? Their This collection of articles takes a multi- responses to these questions differ, often disciplinary approach to the social dimensions varying according to the vulnerability, of global environmental change. Drawing wealth, and level of industrial development on regional case studies from many of the country in question. developing countries, the collection explores vulnerability, coping strategies, and societal The Way Forward: Beyond Agenda 21 (1997)response, s to drought hazards, changing Felix Dodds (ed.), Earthscan Publications land use, and deforestation, amongst other This book outlines the successes and environmental changes. The editors offer failures of the first five years following the readers a comparative perspective on global Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. environmental change. Drawing on the experience of a range of experts, it provides an analysis of the The Climate Change Negotiations: Berlin and agreements that were reached, and the Beyond (1995), Ian H. Rowlands, Discussion stakeholders who are charged with Paper 17, July 1995, London School of implementing them. It reviews the progress Economics, Centre for the Study of Global made so far at the inter-governmental, Governance, Houghton Street, London national, and grassroots levels, and offers a WC2A 2AE, UK summary of the major issues that need to be This discussion paper provides an over- addressed in the future. view and analysis of the First Conference of the Parties to the Framework Convention Implementing Agenda 21: NGO Experienceson Climate Change (FCCC) held in Berlin in from Around the World (1997), Leyla Alvanak1995. It pays attention to the specific and Adrienne Cruz (eds.), United Nations outcomes of the conference, and analyses Non-Governmental Liason Service (NGLS), more general emerging trends. Palais des Nations, CH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland, and Room 6015, 866 UN Plaza, 104

Climate Change and Human Health (1996), Climate Change and World Agriculture (1990), A.J. McMichael, A. Haines, R. Slooff, and Martin Parry, Earthscan Publications S. Kovats (eds.), assessment prepared by a In this book, Parry analyses the sensitivity Task Group on behalf of the World Health of the world food system, and examines the Organisation (WHO), The World Meteor- variety of ways in which it will be affected ological Organisation (WMO), and the if climatic changes occur in line with most United Nations Environment Programme scientific predictions. After describing the (UNEP), available from WHO, CH-1211 effects on agriculture, estimating the Geneva 27, Switzerland impacts on plant and animal growth, and This assessment study, addressing the examining the geographical limits to health implications of climate change, was different types of farming, the author initiated after consultations took place in considers a range of possible approaches 1993 between representatives of the WHO, for agriculture to adapt and so mitigate the WMO, UNEP, International Panel on impacts of climate change. Climate Change (IPCC), and United States Environmental Protection Agency The Potential Socio-Economic Effects of (USEPA). The consultations revealed an Climate Change: A Summary of Three Regional urgent need for a comprehensive study, Assessments (1991), M.L. Parry, A.R. based on IPCC's newer scenarios and Magalhaes, and N. Huu Ninh (eds.), United predictions. The study examines the Nations Environmental Programme, various possible impacts of climate change PO Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya and stratospheric ozone depletion upon http:/ / www.unep.org human health, ranging from summertime This report summarises the major con- heat stress, increased production of air clusions of three regional studies (in Brazil, pollutants, vector-borne diseases, water- in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand, and borne and food-borne infections, in Vietnam) of the potential impact of agricultural productivity, extreme weather climate change undertaken by national hazards, sea level rise, and exposure to governments with the support of the ground-level ultraviolet radiation. Finally, United Nations Environment Programme. the implications of global climate change for research, monitoring, and social-policy Footprints and Milestones: Population and response are explored. Environmental Change (2001) The State of World Population 2001, United Nations C1AT in Perspective 2000-2001: Getting the Population Fund, 220 East 42nd Street, Better of Global Change (2001), Gerry New York, NY 10017, USA Toomey and Nathan Russell, International http:/ / www.unfpa.org Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) This UN Population Fund report includes http://www.ciat.cgiar.org coverage of environmental trends, with This issue of the International Center for regard to water, food, climate change, Tropical Agriculture research newsletter, forests, habitat and biodiversity, poverty CIAT in Perspective, focuses on global and the environment, women and the environmental change. It includes an article environment, health and the environment, entitled, 'Risky farming in a hotter world', and action for sustainable and equitable on a new method devised by scientists for development. It also includes an appendix predicting how global climate change will of global agreements on human rights, affect tropical farming fifty years from environment and development, now. reproductive health, and gender equality. Resources 105

Climate of Hope: New Strategies for Stabilizing women and other marginalised groups. the World's Atmosphere (1996), Christopher Agarwal provides a typology of partici- Flavin and Odil Tunali, World Watch Paper pation, outlines the gender equity and 130, June 1996, World Watch Institute, efficiency implications of such exclusions, Washington DC, USA and analyses factors underlying exclusions. This paper discusses the growing evidence A conceptual framework is developed to of climate change, and examines approaches help analyse the process of gender exclusion and how it might be alleviated. to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and stabilising the climate. 'Gender and the environment: traps and Earth Summit 2002: A New Deal (2000), opportunities' (1992), M. Leach, Development Felix Dodds (ed.), United Nations in Practice 2(1): 12-22 Environment and Development and This article highlights the dangers of Earthscan Publications essentialising women's roles and relation- ship with the environment, and argues for As preparations for Earth Summit 2002 an alternative approach examining dynamic proceed, this book provides a progress- gender-differentiated activities, rights, and report and agenda for Earth Summit 2002 responsibilities in the process of natural and beyond. Experts from around the resource management. Drawing on a case world present an assessment of progress to study from Gola forest, Sierra Leone, Leach date, set goals, and examine the mechanisms demonstrates how this approach can help that will enable the international to ensure sustainability and equity in the community to complete the tasks set in Rio, design of projects concerned with the and prepare for future challenges. environment.

Climate Change Co-operation in Southern Engendering the Environment? Gender in the Africa (1998), I.H. Rowlands (ed.), UNEP World Bank's Environmental Policies (2000), and Earthscan Publications P.A. Kurian, Ashgate Publishing Ltd. This book shows how co-ordinated action This book uses feminist theory and among neighbouring countries could concepts to understand the gendered reduce greenhouse gas emissions in ways nature of environmental policy and that are environmentally, economically, environmental policy analysis. Based on and socially beneficial. It presents a frame- research on the World Bank's Narmada work for analysing regional mitigation Dam project in India, this gender analysis options among developing countries, and of the World Bank's policies offers a critical examines particular proposals for Southern interrogation of the practice of Environ- Africa. mental Impact Assessment, and argues for better understanding of the process in 'Participatory exclusions, community which gender, class, and culture interact to forestry and gender: an analysis for South influence environmental policy-making. Asia and a conceptual framework' (2001), B. Agarwal, World Development 29(10): Global Environmental Outlook: UNEP's 1623-48 Millennium Report on the Environment (1999), Based on extensive fieldwork among UNEP, Earthscan Publications community forestry groups in India and The Global Environment Outlook (GEO) Nepal, and using existing case studies, this Project was launched by UNEP in 1995, in article demonstrates how seemingly response to the need for comprehensive, participatory institutions can exclude integrated, policy-relevant assessments of 106

the global environment. This extensive Women and the Environment (1994), report includes background information on A. Rodda (ed.), Zed Books Ltd. the GEO Project, global perspectives, This practical handbook focuses on regional analyses of the state of the women's roles as users, producers, and environment, regional policy responses, managers of the earth's resources, and future outlook, and recommendations. shows how environmental degradation affects women's health and basic needs. 'Climate change, gender and poverty - It demonstrates how women can be a academic babble or realpolitik?' (2001), major force for environmental change, Fatma Denton, Bulletin Africain - Point de Vue, particularly through their important roles No. 14, ENDA-TM, available on-line at: as educators and communicators, and it http:/ /www.enda.sn/Bulletin highlights the varied ways in which Africain/010 Fatma DENTON.pdf women are involved in the implementation This short article by Fatma Denton in the of environmental projects. Includes a Environment and Development Action in glossary of environmental terms, a guide to the Third World (ENDA-TM) newsletter, education and action, and a bibliography Bulletin Africain, addresses the question, and resource guide. 'What has gender got to do with climate change?' Denton comments on the pre- Women, the Environment and Sustainable dominately male agenda, and women's Development (1994), R. Braidotti et al., lack of participation in policy formulation Zed Books Ltd. and decision-making on environmental issues, such as conservation, protection, This book examines alternative visions of development, including 'women, environment, rehabilitation, and management of the 7 environment. and development (WED), and ecofeminism, aiming to disentangle the various positions Environment, Development and the Gender put forward by major actors, and to clarify Gap (1995), Sandhya Venkateswaran, Sage the political and theoretical issues at stake Publications India, M-32 Block Market, in the debates on women, the environment, Greater Kailesh-1, New Delhi 110 048, India, and sustainable development. and 6 Bonhill St., London EC2A 4PU, UK Feminist Perspectives on Sustainable In this comprehensive study, Venkateswaran Development (1994), Wendy Harcourt (ed.), discusses women's roles in activities Zed Books Ltd. relating to the environment, the differential impact of environmental degradation on In this book, researchers, activists, and diverse groups of women, and their almost policy-makers from the North and South complete marginalisation from policies and propose different ways of challenging programmes that seek to manage the dominating knowledge systems and environment. Drawing on case studies and development institutions. The contributors empirical data from government and NGO discuss themes such as situating the development programmes in India, a range feminist position in the sustainable of issues are explored, including those development debate; gendered alternatives related to croplands, common lands, forest to dominant knowledge systems; politics and water resources, domestic energy, and resistance in the sustainable develop- social forestry, technology, the urban ment debate; and population. environment, and pollution. Resources 107

Environmental Policies and NGO Influence Climate Change Information Kit, UNEP/IUC, (2001), A. Thomas, S. Carr, and D. Geneva Executive Center, CP 356, 1219 Humphreys, Routledge, 11 New Fetter Chatelaine, Switzerland. Lane, London EC4P 4EE, UK E-mail: [email protected] This book examines why NGOs are at Available on-line at: http://www.undp.org/ times able to exert influence on policies to seed / eap / Publications / 2001 / 2001a.html conserve and use natural resources This information kit, published by the UN sustainably in sub-Saharan Africa. After Environment Programme Information Unit developing a conceptual framework and for Conventions, provides a series of exploring land resource issues in sub- papers introducing the impacts of climate Saharan Africa, the authors examine case change, the Climate Change Convention, studies of NGO activity and conclude with limiting greenhouse gas emissions, and a summary of lessons to be learnt from useful facts and figures, updated in 1999. studies of NGO campaigners and policy specialists. The Stakeholder Toolkit for Women, M. Hemmati and K. Seliger (eds.), UNED Forum, Sustainable Development and Integrated 3 Whitehall Court, London SW1A 2EL, UK. Appraisal in a Developing World (2000), E-mail: [email protected] N. Lee and C. Kirkpatrick (eds.), Edward Available on-line at: Elgar Publishing Ltd., Glensanda House, http: / / www.earthsummit2002.org / toolkits Montpellier Parade, Cheltenham, GL50 1UA, / women / index.htm UK and 136 West St., Suite 202, Northampton, This toolkit is intended to help monitor the Massachusetts 01060, USA progress made in implementing the Global An international group of authors from a Plans for Action, which have been agreed range of disciplinary backgrounds present at the UN Global Summits and Confer- alternative perspectives and methods for an ences since the Earth Summit in Rio in integrated approach to sustainable 1992. This UNED Forum initiative is aimed development. They apply integrated at women's groups and NGOs working to appraisal to a variety of case studies from implement the global agreements and use developing and transitional countries. them in their work, as well as those who contribute to policy-making at local, national, or international levels. The Electronic resources website contains UN documents from the Gender Perspectives for Earth Summit 2002, cycle of World Conferences, NGO position international workshop, available on-line at: papers, examples of good practice, training http:/ / www.earthsurnmit2002.org/workshop materials, campaign information, net- This workshop provided an overview of, working, and useful links. and developed recommendations on, gender perspectives from developing and Just a Lot of Hot Air? A Close Look at the Climate developed countries on energy, transport, Change Convention (2000), The Panos Institute, and environmental decision-making issues, 9 White Lion Street, London Nl 9PD, UK. addressed during the UN Commission on Available on-line at: Sustainable Development (CSD) Ninth http://www.panos.org.uk Session in April 2001. The website provides This briefing provides an accessible reports, background papers, and resources introduction to the Climate Change related to the three workshop issues. Convention, appealing to a wide range of audiences. It includes research carried out in the UK as part of the Global 108

Environmental Change Programme of the Gender, Environment and Development Guide, UK's Economic and Social Research Irene Dankelman, UNIFEM. Council. Available on-line at: gopher: / / gopher.undp.org/11 / unifem/ Environmental Management and the poli-eco / eco / susta / ged Mitigation of Natural Disasters: A Gender This guide, aimed at UNIFEM staff and Perspective (2001), UN DAW (United consultants, provides a framework for the Nations Division for the Advancement of evaluation of projects and programmes Women), Report of the Expert Group from an environmental perspective. An Meeting, Ankara, Turkey, 6-9 November overview of how environmental issues 2001. Available on-line at: impact on UNIFEM-supported projects http: / / www.un.org / womenwatch / daw / focuses on how women gather and process csw / env_manage / index.html natural resources, the environmental This report discusses the linkages between impact this has, and how to do a cost- gender, environmental management, benefit analysis of these activities, natural disaster reduction, risk manage- incorporating economic, ecological, and ment, and the role of different actors. social perspectives. Organisational tools for It adopts a number of recommendations on gathering information about the gender, policies, legislation, participation, infor- environment, and development (GED) mation, capacity-building, research, and aspects of projects are presented, including the role of the international community. checklists of questions, and sample projects with recommendations to improve environ- Generating Opportunities: Case Studies on mental aspects of the project. Models for Energy and Women (2001), Gail V. Karlsson analysing information gathered from the (ed.), United Nations Development checklists are provided, and measures for Programme (UNDP). Available on-line at: mitigating negative environmental effects http:/ /www.undp.org/seed/eap/ are explored. Environmental and social Publications/2001 /2001a.html indicators for monitoring project develop- This book of case studies was prepared as ments are also identified. part of a UNDP project entitled 'Energy and Women: Generating Opportunities for Gender, Conservation and Community Development', initiated in February 1999 Participation: The Case of the Jau National with support from the Swedish Inter- Park, Brazil (1999), R. Oliveira and national Development Co-operation S. Anderson, Managing Ecosystems and Agency and the UNDP's Sustainable Resources with Gender Emphasis (MERGE), Energy Global Programme. The publication Case Study No. 2, Center for Latin looks at critical policy and programme American Studies, University of Florida. design options to improve women's access Available on-line in English, Portuguese, to modern energy services based on the and Spanish at: lessons learned in the eight case studies http: / / www.latam.ufl.edu / publications / presented. publisting.html The Fundagao Vitoria Amazonica (FVA) is a local NGO which has carried out pioneer work on gender, community participation, and partnership building in their conser- vation activities in the Jau National Park (PNJ). They are part of the MERGE (Managing Resources and Ecosystems with Resources 109

Gender Emphasis) programme, funded by Intended to support agencies' imple- USAID and co-ordinated by the University mentation of the OECD Development of Florida. PNJ is the largest National Park Assistance Committee's policy statement, in Brazil, and the largest protected area of 'Shaping the 21st Century: the Contribution tropical forest in the world. During the of Development Co-operation' (1996), this consultation process, participatory and report presents the key findings and good gender-sensitive approaches such as practice from the reports of seven bilateral informal interviews, gender analysis, and agencies. These efforts are discussed gender mapping of natural resource use, in relation to: policy; institutional/ were used to measure men's and women's organisational level; policy dialogue; tools use of natural resources in subsistence and methodologies; monitoring and fishing, hunting, and agriculture and their evaluation; and donor agency capacity. commercial use of natural resources such Five key areas for future attention are as vines and Brazil nuts. The findings discussed: (1) getting agency fundamentals helped FVA to re-evaluate and adjust their right, particularly in areas of leadership, work to involve the community in resource allocation of responsibility to all staff, and management. dedication of resources; (2) documenting the key linkages/rationales for the Development and Gender in Brief (1995), consideration of gender equality and BRIDGE, Institute of Development Studies, environmental sustainability; (3) moving University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9RE, the analysis and focus up from the UK. Available on-line at: community level to include broader http: / / www.ids.ac.uk / bridge / dgbl .html spheres of activity, such as gender issues in This issue of 'Development and Gender in institutions involved in decision-making Brief asks whether recent changes in around environmental issues; (4) bringing a environmental policy have produced real gender-equality perspective to capacity benefits for women, and presents evidence development in environment; and (5) that suggests that many projects fail to moving towards mainstreaming strategies promote women's interests. It highlights with an 'agenda-setting' focus. how, for example, attempts to address the wood shortage in Ghana have been biased Pro-Poor, Gender- and Environment-Sensitive towards men, and how special efforts are Budgets Project (1999), United Nations required to extend women's participation Development Programme (UNDP). in water and sanitation activities beyond Available on-line at: their traditional roles. The same is true of http: / / www.undp.org / poverty / initiatives responses to environmental disasters such / budgets.htm as the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone; women's This UNDP project examines various needs were neglected leading to higher initiatives from different countries which mortality among women than men. have attempted to review the impacts of national development strategies and Reaching the Goals in the S-21: Gender budgets on structural injustices such as Equality and Environment, Vol. Ill (1999), gender inequality, poverty, and environ- Swedish International Development Co- mental degradation. Drawing on lessons operation Agency (SIDA), OECD Develop- learned from such international initiatives, ment Assistance Committee, Working Party the project identifies appropriate future on Gender Equality. Available on-line at: strategies and synergies with other policy http://www.oecd.org/dac/Gender/pdf/ areas, with the objective of reorienting wid993e.pdf macroeconomic policies to meet the needs 110

of marginalised groups. Activities include for local women's groups and leaders to co-hosting of national and regional network directly across national boundaries. workshops with the United Nations Fund for Women (UNIFEM), input into Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change international conferences, publication of (IPCC), http://www.ipcc.ch/ working papers, development of a budget The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate resource book, and an interactive web Change (IPCC) was established by the space for budget-related resources and United Nations Environmental Programme discussion groups. (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988 to assess the Journals scientific, technical, and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding Women and Environments International of human-induced climate change, its Magazine, associated with the Institute for potential impacts, and options for mitigation Women's Studies and Gender Studies, and adaptation. The IPCC publications New College, University of Toronto. include assessment reports of the three Available on-line at: working groups on the science, impacts, http:/ / www.weimag.com/ adaptation and vulnerability to, and Women and Environments International mitigation of climate change, as well as Magazine is an on-line Canadian journal guidelines and methodologies, special that examines women's relationships to reports, and technical papers. their environments - natural, physical, built, and social - from feminist pers- Foundation for International Environmental pectives. It provides a forum for academic Law and Development (FIELD), 52-53 Russell research and theory, as well as professional Square, London WC1B 4HP, UK. Tel: +44 practice and community experience. (0)20 7637 7950; Fax: +44 (0)20 7637 7951; E-mail: [email protected] Organisations http:/ /www.field.org.uk/ The Foundation for International Environ- Grassroots Organisations Operating Together mental Law and Development (FIELD) was in Sisterhood (GROOTS) International founded in 1989 in order to tap the Communications, 249 Manhattan Avenue, potential of law at the international, Brooklyn, NY 11211, USA. Tel: +1718 388 8915; regional, and domestic levels, and to Fax: +1 718 388 0285; E-mail: [email protected] encourage environmental protection and http:/ /www.groots.org sustainable development. FIELD provides advice to governments, non-governmental GROOTS operates as a flexible network organisations, inter-governmental organi- linking leaders and groups in poor rural sations, and industry. and urban areas in the South and North. The network is open to grassroots groups Pew Center on Global Climate Change, 2101 and their partners who share a commitment Wilson Blvd., Suite 550, Arlington, to: strengthening women's participation in VA 22201, USA. Tel: +1 703 516 4146; the development of communities; helping Fax: +1 703 8411422 urban and rural women's groups identify http://www.pewclimate.org/ and share successful development The Pew Center on Global Climate Change approaches and methods; focusing inter- is a non-profit, non-partisan, and inde- national attention on women's needs and pendent organisation that aims to educate capabilities; and increasing the opportunities the public and key policy-makers about the Resources HI causes and potential consequences of action and training to help put into place climate change, and to encourage the the United Nations Conventions on domestic and international community to Climate Change and Desertification in reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. Its Africa, and to develop alternative energy activities include releasing reports on technology. Working in partnership, environmental impacts, economics, and through co-ordinating networks and policy issues; educating the public through jointly-led projects, is an important aspect advertising, public-speaking events, and of Enda Energy's work. The team collects conferences; and co-ordinating policy, information on energy, and implements industry, and government discussions to local-level as well as regional-level projects. advance international negotiations on climate change. Stakeholder Forum for Our Common Future, 3 Whitehall Court, London SW1A 2EL, UK; International Institute for Sustainable Tel: +44 (0)20 7839 1784; Fax +44 (0)20 7930 Development, 161 Portage Avenue East, 5893; http:/ / www.stakeholderforum.org 6th Floor, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada The Stakeholder Forum for Our Common R3B 0Y4. Tel: +1 204 958 7700; Future, formerly the UNED Forum, was Fax: +1 204 958 7710; E-mail: [email protected] established in 1998 as an international The International Institute for Sustainable initiative to support international civil Development is concerned with advancing society organisations concerned with policy recommendations on climate change, sustainable development. It includes as well as international trade and invest- organisations representing all the major ment, economic policy, and natural groups recognised by the UN including resource management, to make develop- business, labour, parliamentarians, local ment sustainable. Engaged at both the government, NGOs, indigenous peoples, national and international levels in women, youth, farmers, and scientists. The addressing climate change and adaptation, United Nations Association of Great Britain it co-ordinates the Climate Change and Northern Ireland provides the Knowledge Network and, in collaboration secretariat for the forum. The forum's work with ENDA-Energy, the Climate Change in preparation for Earth Summit 2002 Capacity Project-Africa. comprises building partnerships and networks, researching and influencing Environment and Development Action in the policy, providing and disseminating infor- Third World (ENDA-TM), 4-5 Rue Kleber, mation, training, and capacity-building. BP 3370, Dakar, Senegal. Tel: +221 (8) 21 60 27 / 22 42 29; Fax: +221 (8) 22 26 95; Women's Environment and Development E-mail: [email protected]; Website in English Organization (WEDO), 355 Lexington Avenue, and French at: http: / / www.enda.sn 3rd Floor, New York, NY 10017-6603, USA. ENDA-TM is an international NGO based Tel: +1 212 973 0325; Fax: +1 212 973 0335; in Dakar, Senegal. It is an association of E-mail: [email protected]; autonomous entities co-ordinated by an http:/ /www.wedo.org Executive Secretariat, and includes teams WEDO is an international advocacy and programmes focused on various network concerned with increasing the themes in development and environment. power of women worldwide as policy- The work carried out by Enda's Energy makers in policy-making institutions, Programme is centred on the use and forums, and processes at all levels, to development of energy in Africa. The achieve economic and social justice, human programme uses the principles of research- rights, and a sustainable environment for 112

all. The Sustainable Development Program advocacy, and action. Its quarterly focuses on integrating gender issues into newsletter, ENERGIA NEWS, includes the global by: useful resources, and can be accessed strengthening international networking through its website. between women's and environmental Women's Environmental Network, P.O. Box groups; mobilising women's involvement 30626, London El 1TZ, UK. Tel: +44 (0)20 in environmental and sustainable develop- 7481 9004; Fax: +44 (0)20 7481 9144; ment decision-making; and advocating for E-mail: [email protected] gender mainstreaming in international http://www.wen.org.uk forums like the World Summit on WEN campaigns on issues linking women, Sustainable Development. the environment, and health. Current campaign issues include health, local foods, Commission on Sustainable Development nappies, waste, genetic engineering, and (CSV) NGO Women's Caucus sanitary products. http:/ /www.earthsummit2002.org/ wcaucus / csdngo.htm United Nations Development Programme The CDS Women's Caucus grew out of the http://www.undp.org 1991 Miami Conference, organised by The Sustainable Energy and Environment Women's Environment and Development Division (SEED) of UNDP contains several Organisation (WEDO), and its outcome papers, reports, and tool kits on gender document, 'Women's Action Agenda for a mainstreaming in natural resource Healthy Planet'. It is a working group of manage-ment. Most materials are available women and men who are working towards in French, English, and Spanish. the mainstreaming of gender into sustainable development policies and practical implementation strategies. The Videos women's caucus meets at the CSD Sessions, Questions of Difference - Participatory Rural organises side events, and takes part in Appraisal (PRA), Gender and the Environment other caucuses to ensure gender main- (1996), Rosanna Horsley for the Inter- streaming of NGO work. It operates an national Institute for Environment and open listserve to prepare positions and Development (IIED), 3 Endsleigh St., lobbying strategies, networking globally London WC1H ODD, UK. Tel: +44 (0)20 with interested organisations and 7388 2117; Fax: +44 (0)20 7388 2826 individuals. This training video draws on experiences from PRA training workshops held in ENERG1A Brazil, Burkina Faso, and Pakistan. It is part http:/ /www.sms.utwente.nl/energia/ of a trainer's pack, which includes a index.html trainer's guide and slide set. It explores the Founded in 1995 by an informal group of links between gender and the environment women involved in energy inputs at the through case studies of biodiversity in Beijing Conference on Women, ENERGIA Brazil, drylands use in Burkina Faso, and is an international network on women and mangrove use in Pakistan. Available in sustainable energy, linking individuals and English, French, and Portuguese. groups concerned with energy, environ- ment, and women. ENERGIA aims to strengthen the role of women in sustainable energy development through information exchange, training, research,