Denali National Park and Preserve Alaskan Wilderness Wilderness Values Southern Africa INTERNATIONAL Journal of Wilderness

Home , George Parks Highway, Government of Alaska, Kantishna River, Southwest Alaska, The Bush (Alaska)

AUGUST 2005 VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2

FEATURES SCIENCE AND RESEARCH EDITORIAL PERSPECTIVES 28 Social Science Research and Planning 3 Denali National Park and Preserve in the Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex A Different Kind of Wilderness BY STEPHEN F. McCOOL BY ALAN E. WATSON PERSPECTIVES FROM THE ALDO LEOPOLD SOUL OF THE WILDERNESS WILDERNESS RESEARCH INSTITUTE 4 Voices from Denali 30 Research on the Relationship between “It’s Bigger Than Wilderness” Humans and Wilderness in Alaska BY ALAN E. WATSON, KATIE KNOTEK, and BY ALAN E. WATSON NEAL CHRISTENSEN EDUCATION AND COMMUNICATION STEWARDSHIP 31 Humility in the Alaskan Wilderness 8 Legislative Direction for a BY DARYL R. MILLER Conservation System Unit in Alaska The Case of Denali National Park and Preserve 35 Science and Learning in the Alaska Wilderness BY ADRIENNE A. LINDHOLM and MICHAEL J. TRANEL BY INGRID NIXON 37 Minimizing Mountaineering Impacts in Denali 11 Denali National Park and Preserve National Park and Preserve A Federal Conservation System Unit BY WHITNEY C. WARD in an Owner State BY ADRIENNE A. LINDHOLM and MICHAEL J. TRANEL INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES 15 Customary and Traditional 41 Transfrontier Land Use Planning in A Continuing Way of Life at Denali Southern Africa BY MIKI COLLINS and JULIE COLLINS BY WILLEM VAN RIET JR. and NADIA VAN DER MERWE

19 Native People and Wilderness Values at Denali WILDERNESS DIGEST BY HOLLIS TWITCHELL 43 Announcements and Wilderness Calendar 46 Letter to the Editor 23 Symbolic Values BY MIKE TURNER The Overlooked Values That Make Wilderness Unique Book Reviews BY DAVID N. COLE 47 Landscape Ecology and Resource Management: Linking Theory with Practice edited by John A. Bissonette and Isle Storch FRONT COVER Mount McKinley, Denali National Park, Alaska, in September REVIEW BY JOHN SHULTIS colors. Photo by Cathy Hart. 47 Voyageurs National Park: The Battle to Create INSET Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) in Alaska and Canada do the biggest Minnesota’s National Park migration of large mammals in North America. Photo by Cathy Hart. by Fred T. Witzig REVIEW BY JOHN SHULTIS International Journal of Wilderness The International Journal of Wilderness links wilderness professionals, scientists, educators, environmentalists, and interested citizens worldwide with a forum for reporting and discussing wilderness ideas and events; inspirational ideas; planning, management, and allocation strategies; education; and research and policy aspects of wilderness stewardship.

EDITORIAL BOARD Perry Brown, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont., USA Vance G. Martin, WILD Foundation, Ojai, Calif., USA Alan Watson, Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, Missoula, Mont., USA John Shultis, University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George, B.C., Canada Steve Hollenhorst, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, USA Wayne A. Freimund, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont., USA Rebecca Oreskes, White Mountain National Forest, Gorham, N.H., USA

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF John C. Hendee, Professor Emeritus, University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center, Moscow, Idaho, USA

MANAGING EDITOR Chad P. Dawson, SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, N.Y., USA

ASSOCIATE EDITORS—INTERNATIONAL Gordon Cessford, Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand; Karen Fox, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; Andrew Muir, Wilderness Foundation Eastern Cape, South Africa; Ian Player, South Africa National Parks Board and The Wilderness Foundation, Howick, Natal, Republic of South Africa; Vicki A. M. Sahanatien, Fundy National Park, Alma, Canada; Won Sop Shin, Chungbuk National University, Chungbuk, Korea; Anna-Liisa Sippola, University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland; Franco Zunino, Associazione Italiana per la Wilderness, Murialdo, Italy.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS—UNITED STATES Greg Aplet, The Wilderness Society, Denver, Colo.; David Cole, Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, Missoula, Mont.; John Daigle, University of Maine, Orono, Maine; Don Fisher, USFS, Washington D.C.; Joseph Flood, East Carolina University, Greenville, N.C.; Lewis Glenn, Outward Bound USA, Garrison, N.Y.; Glenn Haas, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colo.; Troy Hall, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho; William Hammit, Clemson University, Clemson, S.C.; Greg Hansen, U.S. Forest Service, Mesa, Ariz.; Dave Harmon, Bureau of Land Management, Portland, Oreg.; Bill Hendricks, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, Calif.; Ed Krumpe, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho; Jim Mahoney, Bureau of Land Management, Sierra Vista, Ariz.; Bob Manning, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.; Jeffrey Marion, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va.; Leo McAvoy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.; Michael McCloskey, Sierra Club; Christopher Monz, St. Lawrence University, Canton, N.Y.; Connie Myers, Arthur Carhart Wilderness Training Center, Missoula, Mont.; Roderick Nash, University of California, Santa Barbara, Calif.; David Ostergren, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Ariz.; Marilyn Riley, Wilderness Transitions Inc., Sausalito, Calif.; Joe Roggenbuck, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va.; Holmes Rolston III, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Colo.; Susan Sater, U.S. Forest Service, Portland, Oreg.; Tod Schimelpfenig, National Outdoor Leadership School, Lander, Wyo.; Rudy Schuster, SUNY-ESF, Syracuse, N.Y.; Elizabeth Thorndike, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.; Jay Watson, The Wilderness Society, San Francisco, Calif.; Dave White, Arizona State University, Tempe, Ariz.

International Journal of Wilderness (IJW) publishes three issues per year Submissions: Contributions pertinent to wilderness worldwide are (April, August, and December). IJW is a not-for-profit publication. solicited, including articles on wilderness planning, management, and allocation strategies; wilderness education, including descriptions Manuscripts to: Chad P. Dawson, SUNY-ESF, 320 Bray Hall, One of key programs using wilderness for personal growth, therapy, and Forestry Drive, Syracuse, N.Y. 13210, USA. Telephone: (315) 470-6567. environmental education; wilderness-related science and research from Fax: (315) 470-6535. E-mail: [email protected]. all disciplines addressing physical, biological, and social aspects of wilderness; and international perspectives describing wilderness Business Management and Subscriptions: WILD Foundation, P.O. Box 1380, worldwide. Articles, commentaries, letters to the editor, photos, book Ojai, CA 93024, USA. Telephone: (805) 640-0390. Fax: (805) 640-0230. reviews, announcements, and information for the wilderness digest are E-mail: [email protected]. encouraged. A complete list of manuscript submission guidelines is available from the managing editor. Subscription rates (per volume calendar year): Subscription costs are in U.S. dollars only—$35 for individuals and $55 for organizations/ Artwork: Submission of artwork and photographs with captions are libraries. Subscriptions from Canada and Mexico, add $10; outside North encouraged. Photo credits will appear in a byline; artwork may be signed America, add $20. Back issues are available for $15. by the author. All materials printed in the International Journal of Wilderness, copyright World Wide Website: www.ijw.org. © 2005 by the International Wilderness Leadership (WILD) Foundation. Individuals, and nonprofit libraries acting for them, are permitted to make Printed on recycled paper. fair use of material from the journal. ISSN # 1086-5519.

SPONSORING ORGANIZATIONS • Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute • Conservation International • National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) • Outward Bound™ • SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry • The WILD® Foundation • The Wilderness Society • University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center • University of Montana, School of Forestry and Wilderness Institute • USDA Forest Service • USDI Bureau of Land Management • USDI Fish and Wildlife Service • USDI National Park Service • Wilderness Foundation (South Africa) • Wilderness Leadership School (South Africa)

2 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 FEATURES

EDITORIAL PERSPECTIVES

Denali National Park and Preserve A Different Kind of Wilderness

BY ALAN E. WATSON

nce again, the IJW has ventured into new terri- the highest. With increasing numbers of people attempting tory. In previous issues, the Journal has featured to summit its 20,320-foot (6,193-m) peak each year dur- O various countries (such as Finland, Canada, and ing a limited climbing season, the park faces many complex South Africa), continents (such as Antarctica and South management issues, including human waste, air traffic, America), and topics (such as wild rivers and monitoring). safety, and competition for space. One issue even had a focus on the state of Alaska in the We hope, however, that after reading these articles read- United States, but this is the first issue concentrated on one ers will think about more than the mountain when they place. Denali National Park and Preserve is that place. hear “Denali.” About 500 people make it to the summit Whereas one issue of the IJW could never communicate all of Mt. McKinley each year, and they each have a story to of the information of interest about this place, several tell. They often dream of this trip for years, and they come articles were developed specifically to provide readers with from all over the world. There are people who make their some understanding of Denali’s wilderness character. We living flying these climbers in to a base camp at 7,200 feet suspect that most people coming to the 8th World Wilder- (2,195 m), and flying other people in just to look at the ness Congress in Alaska in the fall of 2005 know something many glaciers and mountains in the Alaska Range. These about the park and the mountain officially called Mt. pilots have a unique relationship with the visitors and the McKinley, but known by the local name, Denali, to many. park. There are also people who hunt, fish, trap, pick ber- We hope these articles increase readers’ awareness of some ries, and live in sight of the mountain, and visitors come of the park’s wilderness characteristics. from around the world to backpack and see the wildlife At three times the size of Yellowstone National Park, its from buses that carry visitors along the single road that 6 million acres (2.4 million ha) make it a giant among extends nearly 90 miles (145 km) into the park. School- giants. Our national parks in Alaska include the largest U.S. children in Alaska also have tremendous opportunities to park, Wrangell-St. Elias, at 13 million acres (5.2 million study vegetation and wildlife in the park, and modern ha), Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve at over technology allows them to share this place with others 8 million acres (3.2 million ha), and several parks over 2 around the world. million acres (0.8 million ha) (e.g., Katmai, Glacier Bay). It Denali is a special place in this world. Get to know it is not its size that distinguishes Denali, however, but the a little. mountain. Among mountains in North America, Denali is

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 3 FEATURES

SOUL OF THE WILDERNESS

Voices from Denali “It’s Bigger Than Wilderness”

BY ALAN E. WATSON, KATIE KNOTEK, and NEAL CHRISTENSEN

“Is the mountain out?” Someone on the right side of the plane wanted to know. In so many mountains, there was one mountain. The mountain was a megahedron—its high white facets doming in the air. Long snow banners, extending eastward, were pluming from the ridges above twenty thousand feet.” —John McPhee’s voice, in McPhee, 1979, p. 97

enali National Park and Preserve, at over 6 mil- where where they cannot see other people. But, lion acres (2.5 million ha) contains the highest I mean, 90% of the people that go up there, es- D point in North America. Mount McKinley, at more pecially on Denali, realize it’s a pretty social than 20,000 feet (more than 6,000 m) above sea level, route. (An air-taxi voice) watches over thousands of caribou, moose, packs of wolves, grizzly bears, and Dall sheep, as well as many other moun- [It’s] unlike anything they’ve ever done before, tains and a vast amount of rare plant life. Research was and there’s no way you can describe what you’re conducted at Denali in 2004 as a way to understand the going to see. You can show pictures…show vid- experiences people have when they either fly into the park eos, but until you’re actually there and to climb Mt. McKinley or the surrounding peaks, or just to experience it, it’s unlike anything that you’ve see the glaciers and mountains within the park. Here is a ever done. (An air-taxi voice) Alan E. Watson glimpse of this place from the perspectives of the people who travel great distances to experience it and the pilots I didn’t really have too many expectations. I guess I just kind of from Talkeetna, Alaska, who make their living flying visitors knew I was going to the Alaska Range and it was the big to the mountain (see figure 1). wilderness…I haven’t been to Alaska before. So I didn’t really expect too much. I mean, I know that Denali base camp’s a bit What Do Visitors Expect? of a circus and there’s a lot of people there, but I kind of didn’t The cold is extreme on that mountain. When we fly figure there’d be too many people in the rest of the range. (A in the first week of May, it’s minus forty every night. climber’s voice) And then in June it warms up to about minus twenty-five.” On the scenic tour, people aren’t there for a wilderness —Peter Hackett’s voice, in Strickland, 1992, p. 73 experience…we’ll take two or three planes up at a time and I expected a very cold mountain. (A climber’s voice) land, and people get together and talk and sometimes they meet people from their hometown on the Ruth Glacier, 4,000 or 5,000 You know, it’s hard to tell. A lot of them come up here with abso- miles away from their home. (An air-taxi voice) lutely no real idea what they’re going to see. (An air-taxi voice) Climbers, they’re only there for one reason, to climb the mountain. For the most part, people don’t really come here to be up there (An air-taxi voice) alone…in some cases the climbers, they’ll want to go some-

4 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 How Do Visitors Describe It? One of our team members had refused to climb higher than 14,300 feet because he had seen himself dying in a dream…I admired him for being more in touch with his feelings, more willing to ex- press his fears and his respect for the mountain than any of the rest of us. —Jonathan Waterman’s voice, in Waterman, 1998, p. 37

My husband said, even though he’s over there sick in the car, he said, that was a once in a lifetime...it was sort of like, even though I’m sick I’m really glad we did that. (A flightseer’s voice)

Denali National Park’s gorgeous. It was really interesting to see it from the south Figure 1—“You zoom in and then you’ll look at that thing you zoomed in on and zoom in again.” A climber’s voice in Denali side as opposed to the north side. I think National Park and Preserve. Photo by Neal Christensen. when you take the bus in from the north side you get a much different perspective of the park because it’s green, it’s tundra, ego down a bit when they see that because People see the glaciers and the ground there’s flowers everywhere, there’s animals they just couldn’t believe it’s so big. (An stuff a lot more when they can’t see the everywhere. But on the south side, on the air-taxi voice) mountains. … They don’t really see what mountain, you know, there’s not a stitch you’re flying over on a clear day when It’s like being on the moon; you’ve never of green, there’s not an animal to be had. you can see everything because they’re seen it before. (A climber’s voice) It’s just such a different landscape. (A busy looking at McKinley and the other climber’s voice) It’s kind of like flying into a whole other mountains and forget to look down and world. And I’ve had people describe it as see all the other stuff (An air-taxi voice) The thing they most often say is that they going into orbit around another planet, couldn’t believe that it was so big…they and I’ve described it as flying indoors. I It’s the beginning of everything. It’s where could just not believe the vastness of it. mean it’s huge. (An air-taxi voice) everything stops. All animals. You For most people it’s a very humbling ex- know…it’s like looking at a galaxy in the perience because they’ve never been Maybe one of the most beautiful experi- universe. You’re looking back in time and around or near anything that big. (An ences in my life. It was very, very emotive looking at the glaciers. You’re looking air-taxi voice) for me to fly in the plane and watch those back, you know, those glaciers have been glaciers and very, very beautiful landing, there millions of years and you’re look- It’s awesome. Like you look at it in a whole the surrounding mountains, Hunter, ing back into the Stone Age, and it’s right view and then you look at the same thing Foraker, Huntington, and, of course, now. (A climber’s voice) again and zoom in and then you’ll look Denali. One of the most beautiful expe- at that thing you zoomed in on and zoom riences I ever had, and also the hardest Most of the time the weather was pretty in again. (A climber’s voice) one I ever had. (A climber’s voice) bad in terms of the wind. It was blowing too hard, 50-to-80-mile-an-hour aver- They’ve just gone and seen something I cried. I cried on the way in and on the age winds. So that never allowed us the that’s way bigger than they could ever way out because…that experience of fly- opportunity to try and summit. (A think of being, which really knocks them ing is just fantastic, just fantastic. I love climber’s voice) kind of on their ass. It really knocks their it. (A climber’s voice)

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 5 just be safe, in order to be there and to There’s only one mountain that looks like witness a 20,000-foot mountain and what that. …It’s unique. (A flightseer’s voice) that entails. All the glaciers, all the rocks. It’s a dynamic environment. It’s changing One morning…we got up really early and all the time. It’s moving, it’s breathing, it’s we could see the light was just coming off, falling apart, it’s avalanching. I think it just coming onto Foraker and Hunter and just, it’s good for people to step out of their the shades of different colors of blue and little safe zone and to go to these places white and red coming off sides of the so it helps them realize who they are and mountain. It was quite spectacular. A what it means to be alive in this place. (A camera wouldn’t have done justice, but climber’s voice) I’ve seen it and I can always imagine it. (A climber’s voice) It’s actually one-dimensional when you’re flying. But when you land and get out and It’s such an extreme place, you know. I Figure 2—“You see a spot, you think, oh that’s 20 actually the engine stops and you hear can’t really think of anywhere in the States minutes’ walk and you’re there in four hours, so the the silence and the occasional avalanche that’s actually that intense of a place to scale’s just absolutely astonishing.” A climber’s voice in Denali National Park and Preserve. Photo by rumbling in the background…having go to. Usually there’s trails and off-gla- Fernando Ferrer. your feet in the snow and just looking cier terrain. There’s nowhere in the Alaska around at the vast scale…it will be the Range that’s off glacier. The whole expe- In Alaska you have to wait for the good only time in most people’s lives that they rience is kind of a step above anything weather. You have to stay in the tent for ever are able to get into a mountain scene else. (A climber’s voice) four, five, six days…be strong in your like that. (An air-taxi voice) mind…it’s really boring to wait. (A It is huge…just the immensity and the climber’s voice) What Makes Denali Unique? scale is just really blowing me away. You So I started off the next morn- see a spot, you think, oh that’s 20 min- The cold, the wind, the vast nothingness, ing, short of dog feed and with utes’ walk and you’re there in four hours, you know, just, sort of isolation from ev- only a vague notion of where I so the scale’s really just absolutely aston- erything and then the physical effect of was going. But over on my ishing. (A climber’s voice) right, far away, rose lofty only getting about half as much air with Mount McKinley, called by the a breath that you normally do down here Indians Denali (”The Highest You use your lower-48 scale and it just at sea level make you wonder whether One”), and Mount Foraker be- doesn’t quite pan out...it’s always twice you’re going to actually be able to get out side it. These would guide me. as high or twice as far or twice as what- of there or not. (A climber’s voice) By going eastward, I hoped to ever. It’s one of the most amazing places reach the Kantishna River by in the world really, that I’ve ever been. It’s really subtle in a lot of ways and re- the end of March. I had good It’s definitely the biggest place I’ve ever fortune. I came upon an occa- ally powerful in a lot of other ways and sional Indian camp and moved been. (A climber’s voice) you really have to think about who you along steadily. are, why you’re there, and what you need —Olaus Murie’s voice, in Hedin There’s no other place like this. …Stand- to do in order to exist in that place and and Holthaus, 1989, p. 95 ing at 5,600 feet and you’re showing them a mountain that’s three vertical miles above them, now tell me where else you’re Research was conducted at Denali in 2004 as a way going to do that. (An air-taxi voice) to understand the experiences people have when they On the Wilderness either fly into the park to climb Mt. McKinley or the Character of Denali If I go to the range and there’s a surrounding peaks, or just to see the glaciers and little turbulence, I can feel it as I go in and see little signs in the mountains within the park. sky. I may see a little bit of snow drifting across one of the ridges

6 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 and be able to anticipate which terms of the mountains of the world. And way the wind is blowing and Denali is one of the mountains of the whether it is sinking or rising. I world rather than a park. So it’s sort of, try to anticipate the flow of the air around the peaks and it’s more rugged and cold and scarier than through the passes just like you’d a wilderness area. (A climber’s voice) watch water flowing in a brook.” —Doug Geeting’s voice, air- There’s nothing there, other than the taxi operator, in Strickland, mountain house and then the climbers’ 1992, p. 66 tents. Definitely wilderness. And it’s wilderness that’s really unlike any other Figure 3—“It’s like walking on the moon.” A Wilderness beyond what most people con- climber’s voice in Denali National Park & Preserve. wilderness that most people have been sider wilderness, I guess, if that makes Photo by Fernando Ferrer. exposed to. (An air-taxi voice) any sense. It’s bigger than wilderness. …There’s, like, really no life other than People often ask, you know, they see Conclusion yourself there…you can make shelter, but what the glaciers have done up there and These Denali voices are not the only ones you can’t make warmth, you can’t make often ask whether man has piled the that can describe human experiences food. (A climber’s voice) gravel up there or whether it’s natural. there (see figures 2 and 3). Besides the …It does look like it’s been contrived in climbers and flightseers, there are back- It was 21 days without seeing or speak- a sense, that man could have possibly packers, skiers, campers, dog mushers, ing to anyone other than in our group, so done a few things up there. …Once they people viewing wildlife, scientists, edu- that was to me a rather rare experience. get a handle on where they are and just cators, managers, and people engaged in (A climber’s voice) the immensity of the type of work that’s subsistence activities in this large, remote been up there over millions of years, then area. Denali has many meanings to many It’s like walking on the moon. There’s noth- you realize, well, nobody could ever do different people. We have only glimpsed ing there but ice. So I guess it’s a wilderness. that. (An air-taxi voice) a few of these meanings here. IJW It’s just a different kind of wilderness than I’m used to. (A climber’s voice) REFERENCES By the time I unloaded and whoever I Hedin, R., and G. Holthaus. 1989. Alaska: It’s a noninhabited area. You can’t live was taking in there, and loaded up the Reflections on Land and Spirit. Tucson: The there…it is the back of beyond. You get people that were wanting to go home, University of Arizona Press. why the fog builds up on the runway or McPhee, J. 1979. Coming into the Country. New out there by flying and you take in with York: Bantam Books. you what you need to survive and when something and you just can’t go, and Strickland, R. 1992. Alaskans: Life on the Last that runs out you’re pretty much game there you are. And so, it is, in fact, wil- Frontier. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books. over. You’ve got to get out. (A climber’s derness and you figure that out pretty Waterman, J. 1998. In the Shadow of Denali: quick if you have to spend any time there. Life and Death on Alaska’s Mt. McKinley. voice) New York: Dell Publishing. (An air-taxi voice) Wilderness to me means you can’t just ALAN E. WATSON, KATIE KNOTEK, and NEAL CHRISTENSEN are, respectively, walk out of there. That’s kind of my defi- Well, by definition I think wilderness is research social scientist, research assistant in certainly devoid of mankind. There’s no nition. It’s going to be a major, major effort social science, and social science analyst at the to try to walk out of someplace. So to me presence, or the presence of human life is Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, wilderness means remoteness, and that confined, you know, to a dot here and a Box 8089, Missoula, MT 59807, USA. certainly qualifies out there. (A climber’s dot here that’ll get pointed out to you. But Alan E. Watson e-mail: [email protected]. voice) the rest is just, I mean, it’s owned by nature. It’s not owned by, owned or Denali has many meanings Even beyond wilderness. I don’t think controlled by anything but nature work- much about the park aspect of it…it’s one ing its course. That’s wilderness. (A to many different people. of the great mountains. So I think of it in flightseer’s voice)

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 7 STEWARDSHIP

Legislative Direction for a Conservation System Unit in Alaska The Case of Denali National Park and Preserve

BY ADRIENNE A. LINDHOLM and MICHAEL J. TRANEL

recreation purposes by the public and for the preservation of animals, birds, and fish and for the preservation of the natural curiosities and scenic beauties thereof” (39 Stat. 938). The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA) (Public Law 96-487) in 1980 established 104 million acres (42.1 million ha) of federal conservation system units (CSUs) in Alaska and more than doubled the acreage of the Article co-authors Adrienne J. Lindholm and Mike Tranel, both of the National Park Service. National Park Service photo. U.S. National Park System (NPS 1991; Williss 1985; Landres and wo-thirds of National Park System acreage and over Meyer 1998). This act nearly tripled the size of the origi- half of the U.S. National Wilderness Preservation nal park and redesignated it Denali National Park and TSystem is located in Alaska. In some units, such as Preserve. Of the new 6-million-acre (2.4 million ha) Denali Denali National Park and Preserve, history spans many unit, nearly two million acres (0.8 million ha) (most of the decades. Federal legislation enacted from 1916 to 1980 old park) was designated wilderness. According to the Wil- describes the purposes and values that guide management derness Act (Public Law 88-577), designated wilderness at Denali National Park and Preserve. lands are to be The 1916 National Park Service Organic Act outlines the purposes of national parks and the National Park Ser- administered for the use and enjoyment of the Ameri- vice and the range of values to be protected for the American can people in such manner as will leave them unim- people: paired for future use and enjoyment as wilderness, and so as to provide for the protection of these areas, To conserve the scenery and the natural and historic the preservation of their wilderness character, and objects and the wild life therein and to provide for the for the gathering and dissemination of information enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such regarding their use and enjoyment as wilderness. means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations. (U.S.C., Title 16, sec. 1) One of ANILCA’s purposes of the park additions and preserves is to “preserve for the benefit, use, education, and In 1917 Congress established Mount McKinley National inspiration of present and future generations” (ANILCA Park as a “game refuge” (see figure 1) to be “set apart as a 1980). public park for the benefit and enjoyment of the people...for

8 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 Conflicting Interpretations which states that the Committee of ANILCA amendment guarantees access subject Congress debated over ANILCA for to reasonable regulation by the Secre- several years, and the final version in tary “…for traditional or customary 1980 included a mix of preservation activities, such as subsistence and and utilitarian purposes, leaving value- sport hunting, fishing, berrypicking, laden choices to the administrative and travel between villages.” Other process (Ross 2000). Many conflicts stakeholders believe that varying types over Alaska national park manage- of recreational activities should also be ment decisions hinge on interpretation considered traditional. Since no statu- of ANILCA Section 1110. This section tory definition for “traditional provides for special access and access activities” exists, and only the unique Figure 1—Mount McKinley National Park was established in to inholdings. Of particular interest are Old Park area of Denali National Park 1917 as a game refuge. Photo courtesy National Park Service. the guarantees for special access— and Preserve has a definition in regu- including motorized access—across lation, federal land managers grapple public lands that are not generally with appropriate ways to manage habitat, unaltered ecosystems, historic allowed in national parks or wilder- motorized access to national parks and archaeological sites, wilderness ness areas outside of Alaska. under ANILCA. resource values, wilderness recre- Subsection (a) reads in part: ational opportunities, scientific Competing Values on research, and opportunities for rural Notwithstanding any other Federal Lands in Alaska residents to engage in a subsistence provision of this Act or other Managing federal lands in Alaska is way of life. law, the Secretary shall challenging because state residents Planning processes at Denali have permit…the use of snowmachines (during periods of and visitors often value areas for dif- brought out advocates for a wide range adequate snow cover, or frozen ferent and sometimes competing of values that include tangible re- river conditions in the case of reasons. Many of the protected values sources such as scenery and wildlife, wild and scenic rivers), motor- of Denali National Park and Preserve and intangible resources such as in- boats, airplanes, and non- are described in Title I and II of spiration and opportunities for motorized surface transportation ANILCA and in the park’s enabling challenge and self-reliance (Tranel methods for traditional activities (where such activities are legislation. Section 101 of ANILCA 2000). The National Park Service is permitted by this Act or other describes the broad purposes of the committed to protection of this full law) and for travel to and from new conservation system units range of values. villages and homesites. Such throughout Alaska, including enlarged Fran P. Mainella, 16th director of use shall be subject to reasonable national parks and preserves such as the National Park Service, wrote for the regulations by the Secretary to Denali. These purposes and associated Seattle Post-Intelligencer on January 20, protect the natural and other values of the conservation system values include benefit, use, education, 2005: units…and shall not be pro- inspiration, scenic and geological Americans long have recog- hibited unless, after notice and values associated with natural land- nized that history endows hearing in the vicinity of the scapes, wildlife populations and certain places with special affected unit or area, the Sec- retary finds such uses would be detrimental to the resource Planning processes at Denali have brought out values of the unit or area. advocates for a wide range of values that include The debate over what types of activities are “traditional” and thus tangible resources such as scenery and wildlife, subject to Section 1110(a) is ongoing. Some stakeholders believe “traditional and intangible resources such as inspiration and activities” refers to activities mentioned opportunities for challenge and self-reliance. in the Senate Report on ANILCA,

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 9 National Park Service. 1991. The National Parks: Shaping the System. Washington, DC: Managing federal lands in Alaska is challenging U.S. Department of the Interior. Public Law 88-577. Wilderness Act. 88th Con- because state residents and visitors often value areas gress, 2nd session. Sept. 3 1964, codified at U.S. Code 16(2000), sec. 1131–1136. for different and sometimes competing reasons. Ross, Ken. 2000. Environmental Conflict in Alaska. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado. Tranel, Michael J. 2000. Incorporating non- meaning. Our national parks recreational, humanitarian, intellectual, material values in wilderness planning for shelter some of our most rich mystical, scientific, and spiritual value in Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska, USA, Parks 10 (2): 35–48. natural and cultural resources, wilderness, whereas other advocates as- sites that help shape us as a Tranel, Michael J., and Adrienne Hall. 2003. cribe value to the place only if it can be people and define us as a Parks as battlegrounds: Managing conflicting values. In David Harmon and Allen D. nation. These special places used for economic benefit. Others see opportunities to merge economic devel- Putney, eds., The Full Range of Values: From provide a home for wildlife, a Economics to the Intangible (64–70). New playground for outdoor enthu- opment and the continuation of a York: Rowman & Littlefield. siasts, a place to reflect upon our self-reliant way of life in remote, aestheti- Williss, F. G. 1985. Do Things Right the First greatest battles and a venue for cally pleasing frontier settings. IJW Time: The National Park Service and the historic moments. Our national Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation park system is the key to pro- Act of 1980. Denver, CO: National Park tecting our nation’s heritage. REFERENCES Service, Denver Service Center. ANILCA. 1980. Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act codified at U.S. Code 16 ADRIENNE A. LINDHOLM is park planner at As is common in other protected ar- (3170) sec. 1110(a). Denali National Park and Preserve, working eas (Tranel and Hall 2003), challenges at Landres, P., and S. Meyer. 1998. National Wil- out of Anchorage, Alaska (Adrienne_Lindholm@ Denali arise when some of these intan- derness Preservation System database: Key nps.gov), and MICHAEL J. TRANEL is chief gible values compete with economic and attributes and trends, 1964 through 1998. General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-18. of planning at Denali National Park and other “use” values. For example, some Rocky Mountain Research Station, Forest Preserve, also working in Anchorage people find aesthetic, artistic, educational, Service, US Department of Agriculture. ([email protected]).

From SYMBOLIC VALUES on page 27

a sense of humility is better than ma- Threats to wilderness ecosystems: Impacts embodied in America’s last great wilderness. nipulating wilderness with a heavy and research needs. Ecological Applications In Stephen F. McCool, David N. Cole, William 6: 168–84. T. Borrie, and Jennifer O’Loughlin, comps., hand and a mind full of hubris, but it Ehrenfeld, David W. 1981. The Arrogance of Wilderness Science in a Time of Change Con- still defiles wilderness and leaves me Humanism. New York: Oxford University Press. ference, Volume 2: Wilderness within the Con- with a heavy heart. IJW Graber, David M. 2003. Ecological restoration text of Larger Systems. USDA Forest Service in wilderness: Natural versus wild in National Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-P-15-VOL-2: 73–80. Park Service wilderness. The George Wright Scott, Douglas W. 2001. “Untrammeled,” “wilder- REFERENCES Forum 20(3): 34–41. ness character,” and the challenges of wilder- Brown, James K. 1992. A case for management Harvey, Mark W. T. 1994. A symbol of wilderness: ness preservation. Wild Earth 11(4): 72–79. ignitions in wilderness. Fire Management Echo Park and the American conservation Zahniser, Ed., ed. 1992. Where Wilderness Preser- Notes 53–54: 3–8. movement. Albuquerque: University of New vation began: Adirondack Writings of Howard Cole, David N. 2000. Paradox of the primeval: Mexico Press. Zahniser. Utica, NY: North Country Books. Ecological restoration in wilderness. Ecological Hendee, John C., and Chad P. Dawson. 2002. Restoration 18(2): 77–86. Wilderness Management: Stewardship and ———. 2003. Agency policy and the resolu- Protection of Resources and Values, 3rd ed. DAVID N. COLE is a research geographer tion of wilderness stewardship dilemmas. The Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing. at the Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research George Wright Forum 20(3): 26–33. Kaye, Roger W. 2000. The Arctic National Wild- Institute, Box 8089, Missoula, MT 59807, Cole, David N., and Peter B. Landres. 1996. life Refuge: An exploration of the meanings USA; e-mail: [email protected].

10 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 STEWARDSHIP

Denali National Park and Preserve A Federal Conservation System Unit in an Owner State

BY ADRIENNE A. LINDHOLM and MICHAEL J. TRANEL

ut of a statewide total of approximately 365 mil- Managing a Federal Conservation lion acres (147.7 million ha), the state of Alaska System Unit Owill soon own more than 100 million acres (40.5 Managing a federal CSU in Alaska does not elegantly fit million ha) of land, not counting land beneath navigable into the Owner State model, and the relationship between waterbodies and extensive tidal and submerged lands. the federal government and the state of Alaska since pas- Alaska is the only state in the union that can be described sage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation as an Owner State; that is, the state retains most state-owned Act (ANILCA) in 1980 remains challenging, even while land and waters for the benefit of all citizens of Alaska. communications have steadily improved over the years. Unlike most states where a large percentage of land within Since statehood in 1959, Alaska has focused on resource the state’s boundaries is privately owned, only 13% of land development, improving the state economy, and preserv- in Alaska is under private ownership. Native corporations, ing its self-reliant, rural way of life. It has, however, been however, own 44 million acres (17.8 million ha), which reluctant to embrace the federal obligation to the American constitutes most of the private land in Alaska (Anchorage people to protect the more intrinsic, or nonuse, values of Alaska Public Lands Information Center 2001). As stated their parks and wilderness, especially to the extent they are in the Alaska Constitution, Article 8, “The legislature shall perceived to thwart the mission of the owner state. provide for the utilization, development, and conservation One reason the state is reluctant to protect nonuse val- of all natural resources belonging to the State, including ues is because it does not currently receive the same level land and waters, for the maximum benefit of its people.” of economic benefit from resource protection as it does from No other state has comparable language in its constitution. resource development. This situation is changing however, According to former Alaska governor Walter Hickel as tourism is the only industry in Alaska that has grown (2002), champion of the Owner State concept, a locally continuously since statehood (Colt 2005). Preservation of oriented, democratic government can harness the natu- wilderness and its related values is part of the foundation ral resources it owns and the efficiency of the private on which the tourism industry will continue to grow. sector to provide its citizens opportunity and an envi- Federal land managers are often challenged when they able quality of life. The government of Alaska holds engage the Alaskan public in their planning processes. They Alaska’s fish, wildlife, waters, and minerals in common find the public is relatively unaware of the legal obligations ownership for the benefit of the people of Alaska. Alaska’s government and citizens are then tasked with the care of its natural resources in a manner that benefits all Alas- Most federal management actions are kans. If managed and developed responsibly, Hickel based on some level of involvement believes that all Alaskans will have an opportunity to prosper, and the state can provide government services with affected publics. without taxing its residents.

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 11 land management agencies are headquartered in Washington, DC, federal employees have been viewed as coming in from outside the state to impose inappropriate policy on local people. This concern persists, even though an increasing number of managers and park employees are knowl- edgeable members of their respective local communities. At times, federal land managers have attempted to make long-term decisions without a full understanding of Alaska’s unique characteristics.

Principles to Guide Federal Land Management From experience in dealing with many Figure 1—Federal land managers grapple with appropriate ways to manage motorized and nonmotorized access to national of these issues in backcountry man- parks. Photo courtesy National Park Service. agement planning at Denali National Park and Preserve, we suggest these federal land managers have when 1. Alaska residents most affected by nine principles to guide federal land managing federal CSUs. It is often dif- rules that govern access to, and use management in an Owner State. ficult to understand that just as the of, federal lands have a diluted role governor of Alaska is tasked with in the process by which the rules 1. Increase communication with all managing the Alaska commons (state- can be changed. When advocating constituents to exchange ideas owned land, waters, fish, and wildlife) for a particular position on an is- about the legislated purposes and for maximum benefit for the people sue, local Alaskans must voice their values of the unit. It is imperative of Alaska, federal land managers are opinions in a forum that includes that the public understand the tasked with ensuring that a range of opinions from the entire country, purposes of the park unit, which values important to the American people not just from Alaska. Alaskans are are described in ANILCA and the are accommodated in federally desig- accustomed to having access to enabling legislation for the indi- nated CSUs. At the same time, national managers and politicians due to vidual unit. Federal land managers constituencies often have difficulty the state’s small population, but must clarify for the public the understanding all of the provisions they may sometimes feel like their framework within which manage- within ANILCA, especially those related voice is lost in a public arena that ment decisions must be made. to traditional activities. This dual chal- includes the entire nation. This Planners at Denali National Park lenge requires new understandings view can lead to feelings of pow- hold regular informational meet- by both Alaskans and federal land erlessness and sometimes a distrust ings in local communities and managers. for and unwillingness to work with begin the discussion by outlining Most federal management actions federal land managers. the purposes of the park and legal are based on some level of involvement responsibilities for management. with affected publics. Alaskans some- 2. Active management (for example, In this way, the public gains an times have a difficult time with the monitoring programs, enforcement understanding of what aspects of federal public involvement process for of park rules by field personnel) is management are nonnegotiable so two reasons. often perceived as an intrusion by they can more effectively contribute outside interests. Because the federal to the decision-making process,

12 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 and managers continue to improve about. It is easier to quantify the look for opportunities to facilitate their understanding of local values revenue generated by the increased funding for local communities to and needs. value of homes that are located plan for their futures (see figure 2). near parklands; food, lodging, gas, Denali National Park and Preserve 2. Acknowledge the full range of val- and retail purchases associated has provided funding and facilita- ues in management decisions. It is with tourism to parklands; ex- tion for local communities to important that land managers ac- panded infrastructure in local undertake comprehensive plan- knowledge all values that fit within communities that results from ning in Talkeetna, Trapper Creek, the legal framework for which the being located next to a national and the Y Area. These planning unit was established (see figure 1). park; and increases in jobs that are efforts empower local residents to In Denali’s Draft Backcountry Man- provided by the park or park-re- manage traffic, crowding, eco- agement Plan, the goal is to lated tourism. National parks nomic growth, and seasonal provide a range of opportunities provide long-term and short-term population fluctuations that are for all Americans, with the under- economic benefits to local Alas- associated with gateway commu- standing that every use can’t kans; land managers must take a nities. The National Park Service happen everywhere. Management more active role in helping local also sponsored a Gateway Com- zoning ensures that all appropri- communities capitalize on tourism munity Workshop in April 2005 to ate values will be protected opportunities and plan for long- help local leaders make decisions somewhere within the park and term growth of their community. that will support sustainable com- preserve. Managers can provide munity growth and development opportunities for visitors who are 4. Demonstrate support for the while retaining the community very self-reliant and have a desire people and communities most af- qualities that made the area desir- for extended expeditions in ex- fected by the park. Federal land able in the first place. tremely remote locations. In other managers must recognize that na- regions of the park, managers can tional parks impact local 5. Make sure local voices are heard. provide for a greater intensity and communities. Land managers can It is important that Alaskans feel variety of appropriate recreational activities and can provide more services and facilities.

3. Improve understanding of incentives for Alaskans to participate. Many Alaskans do not see direct economic incentives in managing parklands to protect intrinsic values. Managing parklands to protect wilderness resource values often involves self-restraint and sacrifice on the part of individuals. Unless Alaskans value its protection, they will be reluctant to make those sac- rifices. Parks contribute to an enviable quality of life for local communities. It is difficult to mea- sure the value of clean air, clean water, and the good feeling that many residents have from living Figure 2—Regular informational meetings give agencies and constituents an opportunity to exchange ideas about the future next to a place that some visitors of Denali National Park. Photo courtesy National Park Service. spend their entire lives dreaming

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 13 In a study of environmental values Alaska’s tradition as an Owner State, and federal and ethics, Manning, Valliere, and Minteer (1996) measured support for land management in which the final say in decision intrinsic values in addition to several values associated with public use. making comes from Washington, DC, add a level They concluded that visitors value of complexity that is not the case in National Park parks for many different reasons, and that intrinsic values are not only rated Service units in other parts of the country. as important, but may comprise a majority of total park value. invested in the planning process. where it holds the same values. Managers and residents should take Recent experiences in U.S. national 7. Work closely with state and local advantage of the low population of parks outside Alaska show that governments on a regional solution. the state, which affords residents ecosystem restoration is extremely It is important to maintain good easy access to land managers. Lo- expensive. Wilderness character communication with state and local residents have the opportunity holds symbolic value—even if fish cal governments and look at to be more engaged in management populations are restored or a recreational and development op- decisions than in areas with high stream bank rehabilitated, in the portunities for Alaskans in a populations. At Denali National minds of many Americans the regional context. Federal managers Park and Preserve, managers hold character of the area has been per- must question whether an activity regular informational workshops in manently scarred. Some values is compatible with the purposes for local communities, attend meetings cannot be restored. which the unit was established. As in local communities to stay abreast part of the backcountry planning of community issues that affect the Managers must realize that some process at Denali National Park and park and its relationship with the uses are incompatible with park pur- Preserve, the National Park Service community, respond to all com- poses and must not be afraid to restrict consulted regularly with the state ments received, and incorporate that use. Clem Tillion, a perennial of Alaska. These discussions have local ideas into planning efforts spokesperson for commercial fishing been fruitful and led to a Revised wherever possible. interests and a former state legislator, Draft Plan that broadens the range stated, “If you’re afraid to put pressure of alternatives. In addition, the Na- 6. When necessary, take decisive ac- on people, you shouldn’t be manag- tional Park Service provides partial tion to protect the full range of ing a resource. The living resource is funding for a position in the state’s values. To protect the values for most important. If you have to inflict ANILCA Coordination office to fa- which the conservation system pain [on people] to take care of the cilitate state review of park planning unit was originally established, resource, inflict pain.” initiatives throughout Alaska. managers must be prepared to take Management of the Old Park area decisive action, especially in the of Denali (the former Mount McKinley 8. Support the local labor force. The face of conflict. Hardin (1968) National Park, most of which was des- critique of the federal government warns that the values that visitors ignated as the Denali Wilderness in as outsiders can be partially alle- seek in the parks are steadily be- ANILCA) uses a quota and permit sys- viated by hiring more local people ing eroded, and this change tem, which is generally accepted as for federal positions. A majority of threatens parks as commons, for reasonable. And, as the National Park employees at Denali National Park they will be of no value to anyone. Service heard in 2004 during scoping and Preserve are longtime Alaskans Managing national parks demands for the South Denali Implementation and have lived in local Denali com- an approach that errs on the side Plan, “Some kind of land management munities for many years. This of conservation because once a re- restrictions should be implemented to connection to community helps source such as wilderness keep the area’s natural values for the the National Park Service make character is damaged, it cannot future…without some conscious con- easily be rehabilitated to a level trol we will forever lose this.” Continued on page 48

14 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 STEWARDSHIP

Customary and Traditional A Continuing Way of Life at Denali

BY MIKI COLLINS and JULIE COLLINS

uring the summer, the sun rises over our home country from the faraway northeast, its golden light Dilluminating a glorious mosaic of flatlands that extends from our remote cabin south through Denali Na- tional Park and Preserve to the rugged foothills and soaring mountains of the Alaska Range. Intricate systems of gold and green swamps and azure lakes segue into a broad ex- panse of black spruce, muskeg, and taiga broken intermittently by lakes, glacial rivers, old burns, and the vegetated ridges of ancient sand dunes. In midwinter, this wilderness lies in the shadow of the range until late morning, when the sun finally rolls along the rim of Denali or Mt. Foraker to make a brief, diluted appearance. Moose, caribou, wolves, bears, and smaller Article authors: Miki Collins (left) and Julie Collins (right) in Denali National Park and Preserve. game move freely through the land, for there are no signifi- Photo courtesy of Miki and Julie Collins. cant human-made structures to divert them. Even the boundaries demarcating the park are invisible, figments of the human mind except where they follow rivers. the wilderness as independently as possible, touching the This is where we live. The area wedged between the land lightly while preserving a way of life that has grown McKinley and Foraker Rivers provides the two of us with increasingly rare. It’s a life that has fulfilled and sustained our vocation, our groceries and supplies, and our emotional us for decades. Our parents lived it to a lesser extent, and and spiritual well-being. we completely devoted ourselves to it after graduation from the University of Alaska in Fairbanks in 1981. The Life We Choose In addition to harvesting wild provisions, we range 1 “August 6, 1984. Picked raspberries on spit—1 & /3 gal. Caught widely for other resources: cabin logs, moss, and bark; birch salmon—3rd King, 1 dog so far.” and spruce for lumber and firewood; peat for garden soil Although entered in Miki’s diary more than 20 years ago, enrichment, and wildflowers, sand, stones, and willow twigs she might have made this same report in 1974 or 2004. for numerous projects. Our water comes from untreated Throughout this vast untrammeled wilderness, from Hult local sources, and much of our electricity is provided by Creek to Spencer Creek to the Twelve-Mile, we move qui- wind and solar systems. Furbearers provide materials for etly, year-round, searching to fulfill our needs. Unlike those warm clothing and cash income from sales of raw fur and who visit a wilderness seeking diversion and rejuvenation, value-added handcrafts; they also furnish meat for human our requirements are more complex and diverse, for we are or sled-dog consumption. Nets produce fish for dog and a permanent part of the land, dependent on it for basic human consumption, garden fertilizer, and trapline bait. survival as well as needs of the heart and soul. The subsistence lifestyle requires ranging and harvesting The subsistence life flows with the seasons and the har- over extensive areas. Even a few newcomers could greatly vest varies yearly, but the goals remain the same: to live in impact certain resources.

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 15 “September 12, 1994. Pulled half the The Importance of life. This knowledge motivates us to potatoes, some carrots. To P.O. with Conservation keep our impact as light as possible. Daddy. Hauled freight w. pack horses… . “December 18, 2000. To WX (trapline In this regard our motives directly 9:30 too dark to shoot [cloudy].” tent camp), wolves scratched bait out of align with those of the National Park The harvest culminates by early almost every set & ate 2 marten. p.m.— Service. When the Park Service was winter, when the freezer, meat shed, split wood, tied tent up better, put damper mandated to permit customary and root cellar, and larder are packed with in stove; sewed on baby hat [a fur item traditional subsistence in the Alaska moose meat, canned fish, garden veg- for sale].” National Interest Lands Conservation etables, and five-gallon buckets of wild Although we are not native—our Act (ANILCA) additions of Denali Park berries; stacks of firewood and frozen parents came to Alaska in the 1940s and in 1980, it allowed us to continue pre- whitefish for dog food fill nearby sheds we inherited our trapline from a Swede serving an ancient and fundamental (see figure 1). The gratification and in- who arrived in the early 1900s—much way of life, while ANILCA helped to dependence gained from providing for of the Native culture has filtered natu- protect this landscape from the en- one’s self in such a fundamental way rally into our life, from skin-sewing to a croaching civilization that can destroy gives us a strong sense of identity, self- spiritual respect for the wilderness. One wilderness and hence a lifestyle. worth, and pride as well as a powerful of the important indigenous principles From our aspect, conservation connection to the wilderness. we adhere to is avoiding waste. Fish guts means more than using and recycling We live this way by choice. Some go to the dogs, moose viscera and hooves every scrap of a resource (see figure 2). subsistence users find the life too dif- make trapline bait, animal skulls can be We select large mature birch trees for ficult or isolating; some wish to escape marketed, and even tiny fur scraps are firewood but leave some of the more but cannot; some love the life but must utilized for small handcrafts that sell ancient ones for bird habitat. We take abandon it because the Alaskan bush smartly. The tops of trees cut for cabin care not to damage berry bushes to gets too expensive. You literally can- logs can be used for other projects. ensure future production. not afford to take the time required to Composted garden refuse and manure When trapping marten, our main live off the land if you have medical produces fertilizer. catch, we run 60 to 80 miles of the 120 or education bills to pay. This conservative approach in- miles of trail that we maintain, leaving cludes recognizing the stewardship we the rest fallow to ensure vigorous popu- feel for the thousand square miles that lations of this abundant but vulnerable we range across. The wilderness is our furbearer. Carefully recording each garden, our supply store, our place of animal’s sex and age tracks the health worship. Although the home cabin is of local populations: a high ratio of old outside Denali Park, the whole area is females indicates that we’re impacting our home on a very personal level. the breeding population and need to This wilderness has provided human move or pull out to ensure a sustain- sustenance for millennia, but in the able yield. In this inaccessible area, modern context human impacts are animal populations fluctuate far more potentially so great that the delicate in response to environmental pres- ecological dynamics can be easily and sures—weather, predation, starvation, permanently unbalanced. We must disease—than to human impacts. A therefore tread more cautiously than consistent sustained yield is those before us. In a way, this is easier unachievable in most animals, espe- than in the past: If a resource may be cially those such as lynx that swing jeopardized by harvesting it, we can through extreme natural cycles. back off and turn to commercial The subsistence life is highly oppor- goods, whereas in the past, ”backing tunistic; the time and work invested off” might have been synonymous must yield a payback or it would not

Figure 1—Using the windspeed of the moving boat, Miki with starvation. be worthwhile, resulting in a naturally winnows leaves from her blueberry harvest. Photo courtesy of If we were to damage this land, we conservative approach. If the net isn’t Miki and Julie Collins. would be damaging our own way of catching enough fish to be worth

16 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 checking, we pull it, reducing pressure on the population. If grouse numbers decline, we don’t invest much time hunting them. When blueberries are scarce, we shift our efforts to cranberries, but pursue blueberries seriously during productive years. If the wolf population skyrockets, an increase in trapping effort yields a greater number of pelts, with the added benefit of reducing predation on moose. This ultimately enriches the wolves, as more moose become available.

Evolving Relationships with the National Park Service When our subsistence harvest areas Figure 2—Moss makes good insulation on cabin roofs. Miki uses her Icelandic horses to pack moss to an old trapping cabin were engulfed by the park expansion, whose roof is being repaired. Photo courtesy of Miki and Julie Collins. we found ourselves increasingly con- nected to the Park Service and its cognizant of the consequences when This rapport with the Park Service employees. Information and assistance outside perceptions of our activities do has proved enlightening and mutually flows in both directions. The Park Ser- not reflect reality. People who feel that beneficial. The effort we invest in the vice clarifies regulations and helps us every individual animal life must be relationship has been well worthwhile, through permitting processes. They protected at all costs will never sym- especially when confusion or conflicts provide study and survey results so we pathize with our activities, but those arise, because trust has been built over better understand animal movements who understand that habitat protec- decades of cooperation. and population cycles. The sled dogs tion and population dynamics from their kennel inject fresh blood holistically are environmentally more A Changing Place into our aging team, and their air- important on a global scale usually “May 24, 1985. [Paddled canoe] down Old planes provide glorious overflights en appreciate our small efforts to work Channel, up Igloo Cr. to cabin [and back] route to meetings and programs. and live in synchrony with our wil- home. 7 moose. Water up 5 ft. in 1 wk.” Conversely, we have participated in derness environment. Over the 45 years we’ve lived in this studies ranging from traditional cabin Being intimately and intrinsically wilderness, some facets of our life have use to subsistence harvest. We com- dependent on the land has given our been subject to change, both natural and ment orally and in writing on Park familiarity with it a depth unachievable human induced. Flexibility, adaptabil- Service proposals that affect us or the by seasonal park employees and non- ity, tenacity, and optimism are important Northern additions. We have helped resident scientists who rarely see the in maintaining our way of life. with wolf studies, provided marten- backcountry. When an anthropologist Weather often dictates our schedule. trapping records, and have donated wondered why prehistoric aboriginals Warmer weather, whether due to global biological specimens ranging from chose a particular winter site, we knew warming or natural cyclic variations, af- body tissues to whole animals and that location provided year-round open fects us significantly. Since the late 1980s, prepared skulls. water. When a botanist initiating a cli- late freeze-ups have delayed hunting Perhaps most importantly, we help mate study marched deep into a birch success and impeded trapping. Highly educate park employees, both man- forest and wondered whether his cho- variable snow conditions slow our dog agers and interpreters, explaining the sen site had been altered by human team (see figure 3), affecting fur catches responsible harvest of wild resources, activity, we pointed to a scarred tree as much as furbearer populations. The the importance of our relationship beside him whose bark had been har- increased rate of permafrost melt makes with the wilderness, and how we are vested decades ago. trails rough and has the potential to

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 17 Increasingly, high-altitude air pollu- the knowledge that a lifetime in the tion drifting in from distant countries wilderness brings: Banking a cabin with exacerbates springtime arctic haze that snow insulates it against -50° weather; obliterates the uplifting views we nor- the heat of decomposition can rot ice mally enjoy. Only recently have studies in swamps; shaking a small tree might been initiated to determine if persistent intimidate a bear when noisemakers do organic pollutants from distant areas are not; wolves travel a frozen stream point contaminating our wild foods. to point, otters hug the bank, lynx cross On a more local scale, increasing perpendicularly. tourism has impacted our lives as well. Then, too, we wish to share some- After a life of solitude it is shocking to thing of the life and the wilderness see tourists on an isolated trapline trail. itself, the daily sense of enjoyment and During our rambles when we dip into accomplishment. A day’s work in the the Wilderness Area of Denali Park, bush can yield three gallons of berries, the persistent drone of flightseeing a repaired sod roof, or a three-week traffic and Park Service aircraft makes supply of firewood. us appreciate heavy-weather days that Our lifestyle provides an intimate ground the planes. knowledge of many hundreds of square Figure 3—Although travel sometimes occurs on skis, on miles. On a bend of a river where the snowshoes, and on a snowmachine, the dog team is the primary Wilderness Lifestyle scent of silt mingles with the rich boggy form of transportation on the trapline. Photo courtesy of Miki and Julie Collins. as a Legacy smell of the swamp, we once lured a bull “February 25, 2005. –5/+5° early/late. Ran moose across a hip-deep marsh to the dogs to GCC, snsh [snowshoed] about 4 riverbank near our boat where we har- completely change local habitats and miles HTT (trapline trails) pulling traps. 2 vested him. Thirty miles distant, Shell population dynamics. The garden can marten GC, poor sign; 7 on HTT, good sign. Creek emerges from the frozen muskeg, be planted earlier, but fish move less in Bear & MiteyMan [dogs] loose up HTT to flowing year-round with bright spring warmer water. teach them the trail. Snsh 5 _ hours. Dogs water, harboring water ouzels through- Global events impact our small lives fast—45 GCC-SCC, Clarence in single lead out the winter. In another location an to a surprising degree. The world (1st time) but 3 loose leaders [set the pace]. ice lens created giant permafrost banks, economy dictates fur prices, thus we 7:50 total. Beautiful sunny day.” great scalloped cliffs that slowly melt and have been personally touched by the We hope this lifestyle perseveres and slump into the river. Over one lake, a disintegration of the Soviet Union, the people in congested localities value that wolf trailed the dog sled. On a stream September 11 crisis, and the rapid ex- some wilderness areas sustain small 20 miles south, a winter grizzly charged pansion of the Asian economy. The value numbers of people who immerse them- the dog team. Cranberries produce pro- of our furs varies greatly; over the years selves in natural cycles. Although we lifically in one spot during hot years, and a prime marten has ranged from under fear that writing about the life might another spot in wet years. $30 to more than $100 per pelt. Fluc- encourage an influx of imitators that It is important to us that distant tuating values combined with overwhelms the delicate ecology, we do people understand this subsistence unpredictable weather makes our pur- want to preserve local traditions way of life and appreciate the value of suit of this cash crop speculative at best. through our writing. We wish to share its protection. IJW

MIKI and JULIE COLLINS, twin sisters, The area wedged between the McKinley and studied biology and journalism before graduating from the University of Alaska– Foraker Rivers provides the two of us with our Fairbanks to continue life at their bush home. They have authored several books vocation, our groceries and supplies, and our and numerous articles depicting the subsistence way of life. They can be emotional and spiritual well-being. reached by U.S. mail at Lake Minchumina, Alaska 99757, USA.

18 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 STEWARDSHIP

Native People and Wilderness Values at Denali

BY HOLLIS TWITCHELL

udgel-Holmes (1999), summarizes early Native occ- their locations in the upper Kuskokwim and upper upation of the Denali area, stating that for more Kantishna River areas and they returned to those places Gthan 12,000 years the resources of what is now repeatedly. The Alaska Range played a key role in the yearly Denali National Park and Preserve have supported human cycle. The mountainous regions were inhabited by Dall occupation (see figure 1). The earliest evidence of human sheep, and the foothills were occupied by caribou and occupation is found in the surviving stone tools that were grizzly bears in the summer and fall, and more recently used to kill large mammals on the steppe tundra. More have become important habitat for moose. There were other complex technologies appearing in the archaeological record advantages to hunting in the mountains of what is now about 6,000 years ago heralded the advance of the boreal Denali National Park and Preserve. The firm ground of the forest and post–ice age animal populations. The appearance of forest, however, required adaptation. People developed new ways of living based on large game hunt- Athabaskan understanding of the ing, but with fewer species than before. Survival was the reward for making appropriate responses to environmen- wilderness and its fellow inhabitants tal or resource fluctuations. Distinctive archaeological artifacts suggest that the ancestors of current interior Alas- often runs counter to Western ways of kan Native people were present in the Denali Park region thinking about the world. at least 1,000 years ago. The cultures were never static, but always in the process of changing, just as they are today. mountains and foothills made traveling cross-country less Athabaskan Culture challenging than in the lowlands and boreal forested areas Collins (1998) suggests that the mountainous areas of Denali where numerous swamps and bogs drain into small streams National Park and Preserve were often used by more than that flow into creeks and major rivers. The rivers are the one band of Athabaskans. The Athabaskan people adapted main highways for travel both in summer and winter. to this country by organizing themselves into small bands A yearly cycle for these people might begin with relocat- of 25 to 100 people who maintained kinship ties with sur- ing to a fishing site in the late spring to take advantage of rounding bands. Each band had the exclusive use of an the fish runs that began moving upriver at breakup (Collins area that often stretched along major rivers to the distant 2004). Chinook (king salmon) was one of the prime fish mountains. In order to survive, they had to have an exten- sought because of its large size and nutritional value. The sive knowledge of large areas of land, knowledge of the original method for catching these fish was by construct- seasonal presence of fish and wildlife, and the skills to make ing a fence and weir in a shallow side stream that was utilized the necessary tools to harvest them. for spawning. Nets were made of babiche or willow bark Athabaskan people moved frequently to locate and har- and required substantial maintenance. If left in the water vest seasonally available resources as a matter of survival. for very long they would rot and fall apart, so they had to Over time, people identified dependable food sources and be taken out and dried frequently.

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 19 Haynes, Andersen, and Simeone (2001) describe the Native cultural changes that have taken place since Western contact:

Amazingly, survivors [Native peoples] of this era coped with these challenges by concentrat- ing at or near settlement locations, integrating into the market economy by participat- ing in wage employment opportunities, and utilizing technological innovations such as the fishwheel and outboard motors to maintain resource harvesting activities and traditional ties to the land. What emerged from these decades of remarkable change is the village-based framework of contemporary Athabaskan culture Figure 1—More than 10,000 years ago people followed caribou trails through what is now Denali National Park and and society in Interior Alaska Preserve. Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute photo. is still present today.

Athabaskan Views After a good supply of fish was cut, beaver and muskrat provided some on Nature dried, and stored for the winter, the food as well as fur. By midspring, the Changing economic and social oppor- men, women without small children, rivers would begin to thaw and ducks tunities in some communities have and children old enough for the walk and geese returned, fat from a winter influenced the level of use and depen- headed for the park area to hunt. Af- of feeding in the south. The dence on subsistence resources. Still, ter upstream travel by canoe was Athabaskan people knew the lands infor many Native residents these natu- constrained, each person would pro- timately. Their total dependence on the ral resources ensure more than ceed with just what they could carry land and its resources gave them a survival, they sustain a traditional way in a pack, walking the river bars of the powerful bond to it that was both of life. Athabaskan understanding of then-braided stream toward the physical and spiritual. Traditionally, the wilderness and its fellow inhabit- mountains. There they would hunt they are taught respect for all living ants often runs counter to Western and dry meat until they had enough things, taking only what is needed and ways of thinking about the world. Fa- hides to make a skin boat and enough sharing with family and friends. ther Oleska (2002) gives us an meat to fill it up, then rejoin those who Athabaskan cultures of Denali un- interesting Native cultural perspective had remained in other camps derwent a period of immense change regarding wilderness. He writes: downriver. After freeze-up the young after Western contact, with the arrival men would be sent back out to the of explorers; missionaries; traders and Most of us learned in grade foothills to hunt for meat for the en- trade goods such as firearms; trappers school about the hunting tech- tire village (Collins 2004). and the fur industry; prospectors and niques and prowess of Native At times there were periods of star- gold rush boomtowns; new perma- Americans. We were told that vation in the late winter when nent settlements and mandatory Indians could move silently and resources were depleted. Some food attendance at schools; development of stealthily through the forest, and I’m sure they assumed that was was obtained by snaring rabbits the Alaska railroad; establishment of necessary for them to succeed in around the camp and hunting grouse Mt. McKinley National Park; and ex- surprising and overpowering and ptarmigan. In spring, when the periencing firsthand the ravages of their prey. Noisy hunters would fish and other meat supplies ran low, epidemic disease in their homeland. scare all the game away.

20 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 But Father Oleska (2002) quickly curse from which the victim can es- mean the end of your culture learned in rural Alaska that this is not cape only with the magic of true love. and possibly your life. Not only why traditional tribal peoples tried to But in Native American stories, being outside culture, but many of its least desirable products—spe- move silently into the wilderness. able to change into an animal is often cifically cheaper alcohol and il- viewed as a positive transformation. licit drugs—will flow into your Traditional hunters believe that To become an animal is a promotion. town like poison into blood the animals are smart. They see For Europeans, conquering the wilder- along that highway. things humans can’t see. They hear things humans can’t hear. ness and putting it to human use is a They smell things humans can’t God-given right, but for traditional National Park Service and smell. They therefore know tribal peoples, trying to subdue or con- Subsistence Use things humans don’t know. trol the earth constitutes the height of With the passage of the Alaska National And besides this, they are in arrogance. The appropriate human re- Interest Lands Conservation Act cahoots. They understand one lationship to the ecosystem, in their (ANILCA) in 1980, the American another’s languages, so that if people made a promise that is impera- the moose with his huge nose view, is not one of dominance but of and ears did not somehow de- cooperation and mutual respect. tive to keep: to preserve and protect tect the presence of a human So what about roads into the Alas- some of our nation’s most splendid predator, the sparrows or squir- kan wilderness? Oleska (2002) relates, natural ecosystems and treasured land- rels warned him. Nowadays, scapes while providing the opportunity hunters make no pretense of To Europeans, a road is a social for those engaged in a traditional sub- sneaking up on animals. They and economic path way estab- sistence way of life to continue to do drive four-wheelers and lished by humans for their con- so. ANILCA also directed the establish- snowmachines. In summer venience, prosperity and their outboard motors can be pleasure. They have every right ment of Subsistence Resource heard miles away. Only deaf to carve a road anytime, any- Commissions for most national parks animals could be surprised where, as their needs and de- and monuments in Alaska to provide when encountering a hunter in sires dictate. But for Native meaningful participation and involve- this century. But in the tradi- peoples, a road is a threat to the ment of local subsistence users in tional perspective, deceiving ecosystem that has nourished planning and management decisions af- them was never an option. and sustained them for millennia. A road brings humans into fecting subsistence. According to Father Oleska, Native an area they otherwise would American hunters enter the wilderness not have had access to, and silently not because they are trying to therefore noise, disruption and, potentially, the destruction of trick their prey but because they are the plant and animal species. A aware that they are entering their home. road scatters the game, drives The forest and tundra are their birth- animals from their natural place, and humans come only as closely home, and destroys their habi- watched guests—who all too often mis- tat. And if the animals leave, behave. Ungrateful, wasteful humans those who depend on their self- offering cannot survive there cannot succeed in locating or harvest- any longer either. ing game. The animals will withhold themselves from such disrespectful Oleska concludes: creatures. And hunters believed that without the cooperation, the self-offer- To city residents, roads may be ing and sacrifice of the animals, they a great blessing, the means by had no chance of success. which you are linked to the rest Father Oleska also describes the of the world and to the frontier up to which the roads extend. European view of animals as inferior But, if you live in a village, the life-forms, of lesser sensitivity and in- Figure 2—The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act idea of connecting your com- (ANILCA) created new additions to the park and designated 2 telligence than humans. To be turned munity to a city frightens and million acres (0.8 million ha) of wilderness. into an animal is often described as a torments you. A road could

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 21 One of the aspects of Denali National In spite of use by traditional Athabaskans for the last Park and Preserve that should be re- membered and honored by those who few thousand years, the natural landscapes and currently use and appreciate the park is that it is part of the heritage of the ecosystems of the park have remained much the Interior Athabaskan people. Their re- same, showing little trace of their presence. cent relatives and their ancestors used these lands for hundreds, if not thousands, of years but left a very light Denali’s National Park Subsistence users, to resource impacts or vandalism, footprint. The park retains much of its Resource Commission, made up of which could result in hardship to sub- original wilderness character, not be- both Native and non-Native subsis- sistence users. cause it has been protected from human tence users, have addressed their The commission is also concerned use, but because the people who used concerns about new roads or railroads about impacts to Denali’s natural land- it for thousands of years did not attempt in Denali National Park and Preserve scapes. Even if such an access route were to change its basic nature. IJW (see figure 2) and have stated their con- open only seasonally, it would bring such cerns in a letter to the secretary of the an increase in the human population REFERENCES Collins, R. 1998. The Athabaskan legacy. Denali interior of the United States. The com- that the object of the visit—to see wild- Alpenglow XX (summer): 18. mission met on February 21, 2003, and life and experience wild landscapes for Collins, R. L. 2004. Dichinanek’ Hwt’ana: A His- once again discussed North Access pro- which the park was established—would tory of the People of the Upper Kuskokwim posals to build either a railroad or a road be diminished. Development of a North who live in Nikolai and Telida. Denali National Park and Preserve, National Park from the George Parks Highway near Access route would be extremely expen- Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Healy to Kantishna within Denali Na- sive, not only to construct, but to Gudgel-Holmes, D. 1999. Traditional Use of tional Park. The commission has maintain, and would require additional Cabins and Other Shelters in the North. Additions to Denali National Park and Pre- expressed strong opposition to any new management responsibilities on the serve: Ethno-Historical Context and Back- roads within Denali National Park and part of the National Park Service. Mem- ground, Ownership and Transfer Norms, Preserve through a formal Hunting Plan bers of the commission believe that a and the Choice of Cabins or Tents as Winter recommendation passed in 1986. The new road is not necessary and would Trapline Shelters. Denali National Park and Preserve, National Park Service, U.S. De- commission reviewed North Access is- be a permanent, irreversible feature of partment of the Interior. sues in 1993 and 1995 and passed the landscape, with a potential to im- Haynes, T. L., D. B. Andersen, and W.E. motions to oppose any new access pact customary and traditional Simeone. 2001. Denali National Park and roads or railroads through Denali Na- subsistence uses. Preserve: Ethnographic Overview and Assessment. Denali National Park and tional Park. Collins (1998, 2004) sums up the Preserve, National Park Service, U.S. The commission is concerned that Native land use ethic. The Department of the Interior. developing new access routes and roads Athabaskans were able to live here for Oleska, M., Father. 2002. A new road through the wilderness can be dangerous thing. An- into areas traditionally used for subsis- thousands of years with minimal im- chorage Daily News, November 17, 2002. tence purposes would alter the character pact on their environment. Both their of traditional use patterns and could tools and the items they made with HOLLIS TWITCHELL of Denali National Park negatively impact important subsistence them were from local materials, and and Preserve serves as coordinator for the resources. Specifically, the commission the harvest was very selective. In spite park’s Subsistence Resource Commission by members are concerned about moose, of use by traditional Athabaskans for providing technical and administrative caribou, furbearers, and chum salmon the last few thousand years, the natu- support. He is a good source of information about subsistence hunting and populations and habitats in the North ral landscapes and ecosystems of the trapping in the park and preserve. E-mail: Access area. Increased access could open park have remained much the same, [email protected]. areas, presently used by local subsistence showing little trace of their presence.

22 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 STEWARDSHIP

Symbolic Values The Overlooked Values That Make Wilderness Unique

BY DAVID N. COLE

Introduction and grazing, should be kept The symbolic values of wilderness have been largely over- to a minimum (Cole and looked, compared with the ecological and experiential Landres 1996). values of wilderness. The prominence of the word untram- The experiential values of meled as a descriptor of the wilderness ideal suggests that wilderness stem from the the primary general symbolic value of wilderness is as a provision that wilderness symbol of a human–environment relationship character- “shall be administered for the ized by restraint and humility. This value is compromised use and enjoyment of the when wilderness is manipulated for human purposes. This American people,” subject to article notes several ways in which the symbolic values of the constraint that these wilderness are mischaracterized and trivialized as being a lands remain “unimpaired matter of philosophy (as opposed to science), as being for future use and enjoyment merely aesthetic, and as being only a temporary concern. as wilderness” (The Wilder- Symbolic values need to be legitimized and better articu- ness ACT, P.L. 88-577) lated so their importance can be fairly considered in Wilderness experiences are attempts to prioritize management and to resolve discord most commonly conceived between conflicting wilderness values. as being recreational, but for Figure 1—Backpacking in the Buckskin Gulch of the Wilderness has many different values. Some of the values of many the experience is bet- Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness managed by the Bureau of Land Management in Arizona and wilderness are readily apparent and easy to describe; others are ter described by other terms, Utah. Photo by Peter Druschke. not. Some values were prominent reasons for creating the Na- including spiritual, educational Wilderness Preservation System in the United States (and tional, and transcendental. are reflected in the language of the Wilderness Act); other val- Few words in the act are devoted to the nature of wilderness ues (e.g., economic values and biodiversity values) are ancillary experiences, and those few words are not well defined. The benefits of wilderness designation. The most commonly recog- type of recreation that should be available in wilderness is to nized values that are clearly articulated in the Wilderness Act be “primitive and unconfined.” This suggests a minimum of are the ecological and experiential values of wilderness. Eco- development to make access and recreational use easy and logical values derive from the preservation of natural conditions convenient. It also suggests that, to the extent possible, regu- and lack of interference with the free play of natural processes. lations and restrictions on behavior should be kept to a The Wilderness Act states that wilderness is “land retaining its minimum (Hendee and Dawson 2002). The only descriptor primeval character and influence” and is “protected and man- of experience contained in the act is the word solitude, and the aged so as to preserve its natural conditions.” To maximize the act merely says that wilderness is an area that “has outstand- ecological values of wilderness, anthropogenic influences on wil- ing opportunities for solitude.” derness ecosystems must be minimized. To the extent possible, natural fires should not be suppressed, invasive species should Symbolic Values be eliminated, pollutants should be kept from the wilderness, Most management attention has been devoted to protect- and the impacts of allowed wilderness uses, such as recreation ing the ecological and experiential values of wilderness.

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 23 Much less attention has been devoted than they currently receive. To narrow “Too often, this word has been mis- to protection of the less commonly the scope of discussion further, I dif- read as untrampled, or misinterpreted articulated symbolic values of wilder- ferentiate between the symbolic values as some synonymous variation of ness. A symbol is something that has of wilderness in general and the sym- untrampled, with the erroneous meaning and value far beyond what is bolic values of individual wildernesses. connotation that it describes physical and tangible. The Statue of Each individual wilderness has varied the...ecological condition of the land” Liberty, for example, is a symbol of idiosyncratic meanings to different (Scott 2001, p. 74). When drafting the freedom in the United States. Its sym- groups and individuals. Symbolic val- language of the Wilderness Act, bolic value—as an expression of ues vary among cultural and religious Howard Zahniser purposely rejected freedom—greatly exceeds the value of groups, as well as among individuals. the word undisturbed, choosing the the metal and concrete from which it For example, wilderness lands in the word untrammeled instead. “Synony- is constructed. Through time and southwestern United States have sym- mous with unconfined, unfettered and across cultures, societies have often set bolic meaning for aboriginal unrestrained,” untrammeled suggests lands aside for symbolic purposes. The populations as well as for “New Age” “freedom from human control rather designation of wilderness in the groups. Kaye (2000) describes a num- than lack of human influence” (Cole United States follows in this tradition ber of symbolic meanings that various 2000, p. 78). Understood in this way, (Harvey 1994). Such places embody people ascribe to the Arctic National keeping wilderness “untrammeled’’ is (are symbolic of) significant intangible Wildlife Refuge. My interest in this seen to be a very different notion from values. Among their other qualities, article is with the symbolic values and keeping wilderness “natural.” There is symbols allow humans to connect meanings that can be generally ascribed some overlap. But wilderness as un- with times and places they may never to all wilderness lands. trammeled is about means more than be able to physically experience. Much of this general symbolic value ends—about how humans interact My intent in this article is not to stems from the idealized definition of with wilderness ecosystems more than provide a definitive treatment of what wilderness in the Wilderness Act as the effect of that interaction. That is the symbolic values of wilderness are. “an area where the earth and its com- why the extent to which wilderness is My less ambitious goal is to argue for munity of life are untrammeled by untrammeled has more to do with the the importance of better understand- man.” Untrammeled is among the most symbolic value of wilderness than ei- ing and articulating these values and important and the most misunder- ther the ecological or experiential for giving them more consideration stood words in the Wilderness Act. values of wilderness. By choosing the word untrammeled as the primary descriptor of ideal wilderness, Zahniser makes it clear that, above all else, wilderness designation is a symbol of human restraint and humility. Wilderness lands are the only lands where humans refrain from say- ing that they know best. To maintain the symbolic value of wilderness as untrammeled, wilderness should not be intentionally manipulated for human purposes. Manipulation of lands for human economic gain is ubiqui- tous, and wilderness is commonly recognized as a contrast to that. But the notion of untrammeled goes beyond this difference. Manipulation for any human purpose—even to mimic Figure 2—The Arregetch Peaks in the Gates of the Arctic Wilderness managed by the National Park Service in Alaska. Photo a natural fire regime or to compensate by George Wuerthner. for the effects of acid precipitation—

24 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 trammels wilderness and compro- derness than with attempting to ma- wilderness. Whichever course of ac- mises its symbolic value. The nipulate conditions within wilderness tion is taken—allowing management arrogance of science, the belief that we toward a desired state. The purpose ignitions or not—something will be know enough to correct problems cre- of igniting fires in wilderness, in con- lost. Similar dilemmas abound in wil- ated by earlier managers, or to trast, is usually to intentionally mold derness, with ecologists promoting the compensate for environmental im- wilderness conditions to be more in addition of lime to streams to raise pH pacts, is often considered to be a line with the way humans think wil- that has been lowered by acid deposi- hallmark of modern society (Ehrenfeld derness ought to be. This represents a tion, and promoting the breeding and 1981). Wilderness can only be a con- much more severe degree of trammel- planting of rust-resistant whitebark trast to the arrogance of modern ing, taming, and engineering the pine to replace populations decimated society if we refrain from manipulat- wilderness than fire suppression—ac- by the alien pathogen, white pine blis- ing wilderness—even to enhance its tions that are clearly opposed to the ter rust. ecological or experiential values. notions of humility and restraint from Another unfortunate assertion that human control. It may be the appro- some have made about this dilemma Symbolic Values priate action to take. Please don’t is that trammeling wilderness from Are Ignored The symbolic value of wilderness as untrammeled increasingly conflicts Efforts to protect ecological values are compromising with the ecological value of wilderness as natural. This conflict is emerging the symbolic value of untrammeled wilderness as perhaps the primary dilemma of wilderness management (Cole 2000, and vice versa. 2003). Inadequate appreciation of the importance of symbolic values and the misunderstand me here. I am not ar- intentional manipulation can be tem- difficulty of articulating them makes guing that igniting fires is porary; it “need not represent it difficult to give this conflict the de- inappropriate. What I am arguing is permanent loss” of wilderness charac- liberative attention that it deserves. that such an action should only be ter (Graber 2003, p. 39). Continuing Only by fairly articulating the values taken following a fair accounting of with the fire example, this argument in conflict and weighing the costs of what would be gained and what would holds that fires can be intentionally lit compromise for all legitimate wilder- be lost. until the system gets back to a natural ness values can we move toward It is not uncommon, when talking state, after which natural fire can take meaningful resolution of this dilemma. about this dilemma, to hear people say over again—and nothing is perma- Let’s look at an example. that igniting fires provides substantial nently lost. This argument is a good Wilderness fire managers and sci- ecological benefits, but that it conflicts example of failing to appreciate the entists often promote intentionally with “wilderness philosophy.” This symbolic values at play and merely igniting fires in order to bring more position tends to portray the choice focusing on the more tangible ecologi- fire back into the wilderness landscape as being between science and philoso- cal values that many ecologists (Brown 1992; Graber 2003). This phy. It detracts attention from what personally hold most dear. This argu- would increase the ecological value of would be lost with a program of man- ment is similar to suggesting that loss wilderness (assuming natural condi- agement ignitions—the symbolic of virginity is not permanent because tions have been compromised by fire values of untrammeled and untamed the condition of being pregnant is only suppression), but it would decrease wilderness. The choice before wilder- temporary. Much as the condition of the symbolic value of wilderness. Ad- ness managers is not a choice between not being pregnant is not equivalent mittedly, fire suppression interferes science and philosophy. The choice is to the symbol of virginity, the condi- with natural processes, and the result between two different sets of values, tion of not currently being in an altered can be considered a trammeling of the both of which relate to somewhat con- state is not equivalent to the symbol wilderness. However, the purpose of flicting views of what wilderness of untrammeled wilderness. suppression usually has more to do should be and the appropriate rela- I have also heard intangible symbolic with reducing fire risk outside of wil- tionship between humans and values referred to as being “merely” aes-

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 25 ample, some managers have proposed that fires suppressed in wilderness be reignited in the same places, during conditions when the fires could be allowed to burn. Choosing to ignite a fire where it was suppressed by humans, rather than where it would most compensate for fire suppression effects, suggests that the symbolic value of naturalness is given precedence over broad ecological values.

Symbolic Values Make Wilderness Unique Lack of appreciation of the symbolic values of wilderness is particularly trou- bling because they are so central to the wilderness idea. The ecological and Figure 3—Salmon Glacier in the Misty Fjords National Monument Wilderness managed by the U.S. Forest Service in Alaska. Photo by Lynn Kolund. experiential values that can be found on wilderness lands—while highly significant—can also be found on lands thetic or experiential in nature. Wilder- Wilderness is symbolic of much outside wilderness. Many large roadless ness wildlife biologists recognize that more than uncontrolled and self- areas, in particular, also have largely it is controversial to place radio collars willed places. Naturalness is another natural ecosystems and provide oppor- on wolves in order to obtain informa- symbolic value of wilderness. Al- tunities for wilderness-like experiences. tion that will enhance the restoration though this symbol is much less in What is most unique about wilderness of natural wolf populations. Some of conflict with other values, such as the are the symbolic values, particularly them ascribe the source of controversy ecological values of wilderness, con- wilderness as untrammeled—lack of to people not liking to see collars on cern for symbolic naturalness can intentional manipulation, humility, and the wolves—suggesting there would influence wilderness management de- restraint. Read the writings of Howard not be a problem if the collars were cisions. For example, given a goal of Zahniser and you will find that he wrote invisible. Again, there is a widespread reducing vegetation density and fuels relatively little about the natural eco- lack of appreciation that the more se- that have built up from decades of fire systems of wilderness and the rious problem may be the loss of suppression, some wilderness advo- recreational opportunities they provide. symbolic value that comes when a cates are comfortable with using saws These were clearly important values of wilderness’s wolves have been cap- and rakes to cut trees and remove fu- wilderness, but not the ones Zahniser tured, fitted with tracking devices, and els; others are not. This choice seems went to the most trouble articulating. remotely observed. Wolves that have to turn largely on the importance of In 1955, in “The Need for Wilderness been captured and handled inevitably naturalness as a symbolic value. Sup- Areas,” Howard Zahniser (in Zahniser lose some of their wildness. Wolves porters of saws and rakes assert that 1992) wrote that “the distinctive minis- that can be tracked—so we know the end of eliminating the effects of tration of wilderness [emphasis his]” is where they are and what they are do- fire suppression in wilderness is most “to know a profound humility, to rec- ing—lose some of their mystery. It is important and that saws and rakes are ognize one’s littleness, to sense loss of wildness and mystery—sym- the most effective way to do that. Ad- dependence and interdependence.” bols of untrammeled wilderness—that herents of the opposing position are The symbolic values of wilderness must be weighed against the benefits willing to compromise this end to are the most radical elements of the of enhanced ecological understanding some degree for the symbolism of let- wilderness idea. They are the values and the restoration of natural wolf ting nature find its own way to reduce that contrast most with modern soci- populations. vegetation and fuels. In another ex- ety—with its faith in scientific

26 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 knowledge and reliance on technologi- ment, “Why do we focus wilderness experiential values of wilderness. But cal solutions to problems. This can be management on recreation impacts, such a decision should turn on the clearly seen in the difficulty that many mere scabs on the land, when we relative importance of different values wilderness ecologists have in grasping should focus resources on more sig- and not on mischaracterizations of the importance of symbolic values in nificant threats to ecosystem health?” some values as being less scientific or contrast to the ecological values they This view makes complete sense if we more temporary than others. hold most dear. It can also be seen in all agree that the ecological values of Let me close with a personal note, the difficulty that wilderness access wilderness are more important than so my intent in writing this article is groups have in grasping the importance the experiential or symbolic values of not misunderstood. My hope is not to of these values in contrast to the expe- wilderness. But are they? And who gets convince anyone that the wilderness riential values that they hold most dear. to decide? values I personally hold most dear are More critically, different wilderness the most important values of wilder- Conclusions values increasingly conflict with each ness. Rather my hope is that this piece Of the diverse values of wilderness, other. In particular, efforts to protect will help people pause to think about symbolic values are among the most ecological values are compromising their own values and how they may overlooked and misunderstood. Some the symbolic value of untrammeled differ from the values of others who symbols are unique to each individual wilderness and vice versa. Some are concerned about wilderness and wilderness, whereas others are gener- people don’t want to recognize this its future. I believe we will make wiser ally shared across wilderness areas. conflict—perhaps because they fear decisions about wilderness if we rec- The most important general symbolic the consequences of conflict within the ognize and legitimize all wilderness values reflect a unique human relation- community of wilderness advocates, values (including the hard-to-articu- ship with the natural world. They stem but often because we tend to be blind late symbolic values) before from the notion of wilderness as un- to values other than our own. How- attempting to identify a course of ac- trammeled—as places where humans ever, the wisdom of decisions about tion that minimizes costs to the most exercise humility and refrain from how and when to compromise differ- important of those values. Among molding the land into their image of ent values (e.g., decisions about the other things, I am a trained ecologist what they think it should be. Although appropriateness of ecological restora- with a profound love of natural envi- they are less tangible and more diffi- tion) will depend on a comprehensive ronments. The ecological values of cult to describe than ecological and experiential values, symbolic values are what make wilderness most unique. Given this, it is ironic that The symbolic values of wilderness have been largely symbolic values are often trivialized as overlooked, compared with the ecological and being temporary or of merely aesthetic or philosophical (as opposed to sci- experiential values of wilderness. entific) interest. Inadequate understanding of and attention to symbolic values is prob- accounting of the costs and benefits wilderness are extremely important to lematic because society needs to of each course of action (or inaction) me, causing me to believe that active dialogue and deliberate about the rela- to all wilderness values. This account- manipulation of wilderness ecosys- tive importance of different wilderness ing should inform a deliberative tems will often be necessary to offset values. Protection of wilderness de- process in which the symbolic values serious human insults to those sys- mands resources, and the resources of wilderness are given as much legiti- tems. However, I also care about the currently available for protection are macy as the more commonly symbolic values that will be lost in inadequate. Consequently, we must recognized ecological and experiential doing so and recognize that these costs focus available resources on protect- values of wilderness. Ultimately, soci- are not trivial. Manipulating wilder- ing those values that are most dear. ety may decide that it is better to ness with the minimum tool and with When debating management priorities compromise the symbolic values of it is not uncommon to hear the senti- wilderness than the ecological and Continued on page 10

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 27 SCIENCE and RESEARCH

Social Science Research and Planning in the Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex

BY STEPHEN F. McCOOL

Steve McCool in the Bob Marshall Wilderness.

first heard of the Bob Marshall Wilderness in the mid- George Stankey, David Cole, Bob Lucas, Margaret Peterson, 1960s as a graduate student at the University of Min- and Sid Frissell, with the notion of transactive planning, a I nesota. My major professor, Larry Merriam, had just com- theoretically radical approach (for the times) to planning put pleted his dissertation research concerning the costs and benefits forth by urban planner John Friedmann. The combination of of managing the Bob Marshall Wilderness—one of the first so- the research on visitors (in both the social domain and the cial science studies of wilderness stewardship in the country. biophysical domain—led by David Cole), the use of transactive Nearly 20 years later, I began my direct association with the planning (which had translated itself in our application to a “Bob”—the complex including the Bob Marshall, Great Bear, “task force” made up of citizens, managers and scientists), and and Scapegoat wildernesses juxtaposed into one massive roadless LAC ultimately led to the development of a new recreation area encompassing more than 1.5 million acres (600,000 ha) of management direction for the complex. stunning rivers, forests, mountains, and valleys. This was a large and continuing collaborative effort involv- This association came on two fronts beginning in the early ing wilderness managers, members of the public representing a 1980s. First, Rocky Mountain Research Station wilderness sci- variety of interests—backpackers, outfitters, backcountry horse entist Bob Lucas and I collaborated on replicating his 1970 people, pilots, activists—and scientists. This group met two or study of visitor use patterns, attitudes, and motivations in the three times a year for about five years, applying research, sug- year 1982. Second, the extant wilderness staff officer for the gesting solutions, collaborating and negotiating on management, Flathead National Forest, Jerry Stokes, asked me to join him suggesting monitoring protocols, and so on. It still meets once a in designing and facilitating a new planning process for man- year to discuss management issues, review research, and pro- agement of the wilderness complex. This new planning process vide feedback on proposed management actions. would combine the pioneering Limits of Acceptable Change The plan was innovative in a number of ways, including (LAC) planning system being designed by my colleagues its broad citizen involvement (which continues today and

28 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 presaged the current interest in collabo- have remained relatively stable, but what and conditions, about integrating differ- rative planning), annual meetings with has changed has been the pattern of use, ent forms of knowledge into planning, the public, scientist and manager par- generally from longer to shorter trips; larger about the practical realities of monitor- ticipation, use of indicators and to smaller group sizes; some changes in ing and adaptive management, and about standards, a defined monitoring proto- types of users, generally from younger to how scientists, managers, and the public col, and its call for decadal visitor older visitors; and to visitors that have can work together to achieve a common experience monitoring. Through the fi- much higher levels of formal education. vision. It’s been an honor that I have been nancial support of the National Forest The 2003 visitor study was inter- able to participate in this process—as sci- System, the Aldo Leopold Wilderness rupted by an intense fire season: Trails entist, facilitator, educator, wilderness Research Institute (ALWRI) and The and trailheads were closed to use, often visitor—for nearly 25 years. University of Montana, we have been for lengthy and uncertain periods. But The Bob Marshall Wilderness Com- able to conduct this monitoring to the through the generous support of the plex is a spectacular setting, the point where we now have a better un- ALWRI, a modest replication of the 2003 “flagship” of the National Wilderness derstanding of changes and constants in study was conducted in 2004. That study, Preservation System in many people’s wilderness visitor characteristics, moti- led by scientists Bill Borrie of The Uni- minds. From my perspective, it has vations, attitudes, and behaviors. This versity of Montana and ALWRI social served as an ideal scientific laboratory— information has helped contemporary scientist Alan Watson, provided an op- science has contributed to its continuing managers consider the continuing va- portunity to assess the consequences of stewardship, while the stewardship has lidity of the original plan, build greater the fires on wilderness visitors and their contributed to the science of wilderness confidence in the usefulness of the data attitudes and behaviors. Although this visitors and planning. The research ex- in informing decisions, and generally research documented substantial changes perience and the planning process there have a better understanding of the con- in visitor behavior (as they shifted itiner- has laid a foundation for many other sequences of management decisions. aries to avoid the fires), nearly every other similar efforts in other wildernesses, One of the important aspects of the aspect studied did not change. backcountry areas, and reserves, not findings over time has been the constancy We’ve learned a great deal from the only here in the United States but else- in the dimensions of wilderness experi- research process in the “Bob”—not only where as well. IJW ences that visitors seek: achievement and about visitors, but also about the process STEPHEN F. MCCOOL is a professor in the adventure, learning about and appreciat- of wilderness and natural resource plan- Department of Society and Conservation at ing scenery, solitude and stress release, ning, about the fundamental questions The University of Montana, Missoula, MT strengthening family and friendship ties, and trade-offs involving recreational ac- 59812, USA. E-mail: and physical exercise. These dimensions cess and protection of wilderness values [email protected].

Chief’s Excellence in Wilderness Stewardship Research Award r. Stephen F. McCool has been selected as the 2004 within the National Wilderness Preservation System. One Drecipient of the research award to recognize his colleague noted his appreciation for Dr. McCool’s willing- long-term development of and accomplishment with ness to stay engaged in the Bob Marshall project over many studying wilderness visitors and using the Limits of decades and to use that research and insight to further Acceptable Change (LAC) planning framework in the develop the application of planning for sound wilderness Bob Marshall Wilderness Area and elsewhere. Dr. stewardship management in numerous areas. Another McCool is a professor in the Department of Society and colleague expressed admiration for Dr. McCool’s career- Conservation at The University of Montana in Missoula. long commitment to wilderness research and his He has been a leading researcher, author, and educator excellence in conducting managerially useful research. The on the use of wilderness planning processes that originally IJW editorial board is pleased to jointly recognize Dr. focused on the Bob Marshall Wilderness Area in Montana Stephen McCool for this award and a lifetime of achieve- and then were extended for use in many wilderness areas ment for wilderness stewardship.

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 29 SCIENCE and RESEARCH

PERSPECTIVES FROM THE ALDO LEOPOLD WILDERNESS RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Research on the Relationship between Humans and Wilderness in Alaska

BY ALAN E. WATSON

t the 2005 Biennial George Wright Society Confer- ence on Parks, Protected Areas, and Cultural Sites A in Philadelphia, March 14 to 18, there were many sessions relevant to wilderness. One session provided focus on a priority research area of the Leopold Institute: understanding the effects of management actions on relationships between people and wilderness. A great majority of wilderness social science has historically focused on understanding recreation visitors’ responses to on-site conditions encountered during wilderness visits. These responses are often at the core of Limits of Acceptable Change and other indicator- based planning models used to select indicators, establish Ralph Tingey, of the National Park Service’s regional of- standards, and monitor conditions in wilderness. A new line fice in Anchorage, responded to findings from research of research at the Leopold Institute, strongly illustrated by conducted by Alex Whiting in the Native village of Kotzebue several examples in Alaska, demonstrates the need to under- in the western Arctic of Alaska. Ralph pointed out the im- stand how these on-site management actions influence the portance of understanding local, rural connections with range of relationships people have with wilderness. federal protected lands. Although some of the values the Brian Glaspell (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) and Katie native Inupiaq of Kotzebue attach to the wilderness of the Knotek (Leopold Institute) presented findings from research at Western Arctic Parklands—such as identity, humility and Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve and Wrangell survival—are not clearly specified among the purposes of St.-Elias National Park and Preserve. Their principle message the Wilderness Act, these values are at the root of much of was that wilderness visits enable lifelong relationships with wild the interaction between managers and local people. Ralph places in Alaska, and those relationships in turn influence use acknowledged that local, rural people can be threatened and stewardship of Alaska’s wilderness. Historical examples in- by the perception that outsiders desire locals to evolve a clude John Muir, Bob Marshall, and Mardy Murie, all with relationship with wilderness more like the one described significant influences on wilderness protection in Alaska today. in the Wilderness Act: “a place where man is a visitor who Following their trips, many current visitors also describe new does not remain.” and potentially lasting relationships with Alaska wilderness places Joan Kluwe of URS Corporation, a consulting firm in An- based on experiencing challenging travel conditions, vast wild- chorage, spoke of the importance of understanding relationships life habitats, and traditional rural lifestyles and related use-values—much as those historic visitors once described. Continued on page 36

30 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 EDUCATION and COMMUNICATION

Humility in the Alaskan Wilderness

BY DARYL R. MILLER

here are no heroes in the wilderness, just ally set out to get rescued or die wisemen and men who aren’t so wise,” said but because of mistakes made “T Grant Pearson, a ranger in the early days of about their own safety, that’s Denali National Park. He was referring to the simple and where they ended up. There are harsh rule of the remote north: Survival was your responsi- a variety of reasons for accidents bility and no one else’s. A lot has changed since Ranger in the backcountry and wilder- Pearson conducted solo snowshoe patrols in the ness, and there are many backcountry in 1925, but the simple idea of personal re- adventurers who unnecessarily sponsibility in the wilderness is still a timely rule to live by. end up in harm’s way. Alaska has long been regarded as the “last frontier,” with Article author Daryl Miller (photo by Judy Alderson). some of the most remote and rugged wilderness terrain on A Spectrum of User earth. The quest for solitude and adventure lures thousands Safety Problems of enthusiasts from around the world into the Alaska On one end of a spectrum of safety problems are people who backcountry each year. These wilderness journeys offer enter into the backcountry unaware of the dangers because of stimulation, natural quiet, and a place to appreciate our their inexperience. Outdoor proficiency should come from a small but important place in this world. long, mentored apprenticeship that presents opportunities to A hundred years ago wilderness survival skills were a deal safely with precarious situations. But there are fewer and way of life in the United States. We have grown socially fewer opportunities for those skills to be learned in wilderness and culturally forgetful that people not too long ago simply settings today. The journey for the inexperienced typically starts learned or died. Today most people live in metropolitan with inadequate equipment preparation or insufficient atten- environments and grow up in an urban culture where wil- tion to other planning details, which exposes them immediately derness travel and survival skills are rarely learned. The to many environmental hazards. In Alaska, this lack of prepa- result is that many wilderness-bound travelers have unre- ration, along with small mistakes, can then be compounded alistic expectations about their knowledge and abilities and by severe weather, rugged terrain, and remoteness. Inexperi- about the responsibility of society to come to their aid in enced travelers are often more dependent on equipment and remote settings. less on their own competence in wilderness settings, and they Each year in Alaska, agencies and volunteer rescue groups lack the experience to apply sound judgment to their situa- conduct backcountry searches and rescues that should never tion. Compounding the threat to their safety, they choose not have been needed. Unfortunately, some of these incidents to leave a trip itinerary with anyone and consequently no one result in fatalities. Many of these accidents occur as a result knows where to look for them when they do not return. Some of people forgetting, or refusing to acknowledge, that the people feel that the rugged terrain and remoteness of the Alaska most important trip objective and their first priority is a safe wilderness impedes their ability to get back on their own and journey out and back. An assessment of numerous mishaps consequently justifies a rescue. in the Alaskan wilderness shows that a great number of res- At the other end of the spectrum is a very skilled and elite cues and deaths involve people who have underestimated group of backcountry users. They are often multitalented the consequences of their decisions. They didn’t intention- and proficient, with many outdoor skills. They are typically

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 31 good athletes attempt- backcountry users have come to be- from altitude sickness, physical ex- ing intense pursuits that lieve that risk is a quest instead of a haustion, and depression. Our allow for no mistakes. warning. The “fearless” philosophy expedition endured a brutal nine-day Their quests include a also pushes visitors to navigate reck- storm at 17,000 feet in which we lost variety of sports, in- lessly in the backcountry regardless of tents and some of our equipment. I cluding climbing the elements or the possible conse- also had my ego checkmated at 19,000 unforgiving mountain quences. This concept operates on a feet and left Alaska demoralized be- routes or paddling rag- gamble at best, with a faulty under- cause I didn’t summit. It was not until ing rivers with extreme standing of possible injuries and the years later that I understood how valu- Figure 1—Responsibility, education, and accountability class rapids. These false premise that help is just a call able that lesson in humility would be. are the primary tools for types of risk takers have away. Moreover, this attitude can After that trip I came back time and self-sufficiency in Alaska wilderness travel. Article chosen to embark on sometimes create a dangerous and time again, learning more about Denali author Daryl Miller adventures that will put unnecessary situation for the people and understanding why I needed pa- crossing the Alaska Range them in harm’s way called upon to save them. tience to climb big mountains. I in early March with a -30F° temp and a 30-plus with no room for mis- witnessed many tragic climbing acci- knot wind. Photo courtesy calculations. Some of Judging the Risks as a dents during those years. They were of Daryl Miller. their accidents, how- Climbing Ranger at Denali mostly caused by human error, begin- ever, result from a lack Working as a rodeo clown in Montana ning with impaired judgment and then of fear, which masks the dangers of during the 1970s, I was expected to compounded by extreme altitude, re- testing their outdoor skills and abili- free every cowboy hung up in a rope lentless winds, and severe cold. I know ties. I was once told by a rodeo or save each one from being mauled now, after numerous body recoveries, contractor that courage is “controlled by a bull. My work decisions were not that many mistakes in judgment are fear,” and when people lack fear they based on considerations for my own never fully realized until it’s too late. cannot make good decisions about safety but more on saving the cowboy’s My responsibility now is to over- staying alive. life regardless of what happened to me. see search-and-rescue operations in In between these two groups are This was a very high-risk and injury- Denali National Park and Preserve. My people who are generally prepared and prone job, which never even paid my primary job is to minimize the risks understand the risks but often suc- medical bills. I quit after some signifi- during missions to ensure that all our cumb to an unplanned medical cant injuries forced me into retirement, staff return safely after each incident. emergency or experience an unusual and I took up mountain climbing, That duty is very clear to me after two act of nature, both of which are diffi- which seemed much safer in contrast. of my volunteers tragically died on cult to anticipate. I could at least manage the risks I mountaineering patrols while climb- Wilderness users of all types some- chose in climbing mountains. ing Denali. It is a personal nightmare, times fail to make the right choices due As a mountaineering ranger I look especially if you are in charge. It was to an inaccurate assessment of their at life differently than I did during my also emotionally overwhelming to own capabilities. Unfortunately, our rodeo days. My first attempt to climb even attempt to understand the fami- virtual-reality society has some prob- Denali in 1981 ended up as a hum- lies’ grief when I tried to explain what lems in recognizing risk. Some bling experience for me. I suffered happened. The lives of these two fami- lies stopped in time and will never be the same. These two tragic incidents Our expedition endured a brutal nine-day storm at have forever changed my life and particularly how I look at wilderness 17,000 feet in which we lost tents and some of our rescue. It reinforces the fact that not everyone will get rescued on my equipment. ... It was not until years later that I watch, especially when the risk is too understood how valuable that lesson great for our staff. Technology has made it possible to in humility would be. call for rescue from almost anywhere, making backcountry travel seem sim-

32 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 pler and less risky. However, in today’s river crossings or alder bashing dur- world most rescue attempts are ing backcountry treks. On top of that, screened before they are launched with the Alaskan scale is easily underesti- a careful risk assessment for the res- mated. Many people set unrealistic cuers’ safety. Safety factors alone could expectations. Ten miles cross-country determine whether or not the rescue in the trailless wilderness is not is launched or a victim is rescued. equivalent to 10 miles on trail sys- Backcountry users starting a trip tems—it is more like 30 or 40 trail should firmly understand that rescuer miles. There are some additional fun- safety is the first priority and the vic- damental rules of the wilderness, tim a distant second. Rescue inside especially here in Alaska. For example, wilderness areas is not always assured bears have the stream rights, berry and by no means automatic. rights, fishing rights, and the complete Figure 2—Everyone has responsibility to maintain self-sufficiency in the wilderness and should always base decisions on getting back Through the years I have heard right-of-way whenever encountered. on their own. Denali climbers pack up for an extended stay on some climbers and backpackers com- Simple but unforgiving rules in the the mountain. Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute photo. plain that rangers or other rescue Alaskan backcountry demand total groups were not needed and were even respect; when they are ignored, we can havior that will be more effective in an infringement on their outdoor ex- be subjected to nature’s wrath. making sound decisions about your perience. Some of the same people that Given that, trips into the Alaskan own safety. Adventures in the wilder- complained ended up being rescued wilderness are some of the most re- ness come with a personal and a moral and were of a different mind afterward. warding on earth. My experience tells responsibility to make all decisions Most of us will never need a rescue, me you are much safer in the wilder- based on returning unaided and safely but if we do we all want the fastest ness with sound and prudent on your own. Only friends and family and best rescue possible. Rescue is an judgment than on Alaska’s winter will know when you do things right act of caring and valor. Most victims highways with the increased darkness, and get home safe, but thousands of feel extremely grateful, and in hind- slick roads, unpredictable moose, and Anchorage Daily News readers will sight they never imagined it would drivers who travel too fast for condi- know if you are rescued. happen to them. tions. In the wilderness you The definitive wilderness experi- consistently have control of your own ence for me in Alaska is a remote Controlling the Risks of destiny if you understand your risk setting, untamed and full of unsafe Wilderness Travel and and make timely and prudent deci- experiences in a trailless landscape. It Rescue in Alaska sions where your personal safety is is a place where I can be away from The wilderness environment in Alaska involved. the luxuries of civilization and travel- is some of the most challenging and In my job I have focused on edu- ing on foot without the aid of committing terrain in the world. Bar- cating backcountry visitors through motorized transportation. It is where riers include icy cold glacial rivers, written materials and verbal briefings the forests and animals have uncon- huge snow-covered glaciers with deep on potential backcountry hazards, self- ditional rights and are greatly hidden crevasses, and vast mountain sufficiency, and resource protection. protected from human-caused de- ranges up to 20,000 feet that create Our own personal backcountry expe- struction. Encounters with other their own extreme weather patterns. rience is important because we can people are low to none, and there is This environment is extremely un- convey firsthand information and the no expectation of immediate help for friendly to humans who ignore basic self-sufficiency message with credit- any emergencies from anyone for any warning signs about impending ability. I believe responsibility, reason. It’s a place where rescue is not weather events. It is indifferent and education, and accountability are the automatic or guaranteed, and where unforgiving, caring nothing about primary tools for self-sufficiency in words are stamped in bold letters on your résumé, how long you have lived wilderness travel. A humble approach the educational brochures or on a in Alaska, or previous backcountry to the wilderness gives us a far-reach- backcountry permit “YOUR emer- experience. It provides harsh penal- ing awareness of our surroundings. gency may not be OUR emergency” ties for the unprepared attempting This attitude creates a pattern of be- and made plain before you embark. It

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 33 is a place where all of us have a per- • Your best resource is the ability to based on conservative judgment. sonal responsibility for leaving no think in a controlled manner when A gamble is something over which visual signs of our visit, allowing for a life-threatening crisis is happening. you have no control and whose the next adventurers to have the same • Educate yourself on the logistics outcome is like a roll of the dice. pristine and isolated experience. And and current conditions before at- • You cannot make intelligent deci- it is where our humility and sound tempting trips into the wilderness. sions in the wilderness if you do judgment take us on the journey of a • Remoteness compounds problems not understand the risks. lifetime, and return us on our own that otherwise might be manageable. • Firsthand knowledge of your mis- power to our everyday world. • Avalanches are regularly underes- takes on previous trips into the I have realized through my years timated, especially their speed and wilderness is often an invaluable that wilderness has given me some of power. tool when making significant de- the best and most devastating mo- • A well-thought-out and respon- cisions regarding your life. ments of my life. I now walk in peace sible contingency plan should be • Never give up, as the will to live is in the backcountry knowing that I established for self-evacuation be- a valuable asset. People often per- don’t need to search for challenges, as fore your trip. ish simply because they fall short being there is challenge enough. I or- • Prevention, not treatment, is what on perseverance. ganize my own backcountry trips and ultimately will save your life in the • Getting into an accident in the the trips of those who work for me wilderness. wilderness is like a bad relation- around these basic principles: • Failure to leave important informa- ship—typically easier to get into tion with the right people than get out of. • Everyone has responsibility to regarding trip plans has cost nu- • Wilderness rescues are often dan- maintain self-sufficiency in the merous lives and resulted in gerous to the rescuers, and the wilderness and should always base unnecessary searches. ability to accomplish them is al- decisions on getting back on his • The ability to improvise and use ways weather dependent. or her own. Failure to recognize available resources is often the key • People do not realize the devastat- your own limitations in the wilder- to survival in emergency situations ing impact that their accidents ness can put you immediately in in the wilderness. have on friends and loved ones. harm’s way. • Panic and confusion have long • The prerequisite to misadventure is • The wilderness scale is easily un- been inseparable partners and are the belief that you are invincible or derestimated in regards to terrain, your constant adversaries during that the wilderness cares about you. leaving people unrealistic about an emergency. trip expectations—especially mile- • There is a notable difference be- DARYL R. MILLER is the South District age per day. tween a gamble and a calculated ranger for Denali National Park and • Glaciers and glaciated rivers are risk. A calculated risk considers all Preserve, directing search and rescue on Denali. He was the first American to be significant barriers that always de- the odds, justifies the risk, and awarded the Targa D’argento (the Silver mand respect and planning. leads to an intelligent decision Solidarity Medal), the international alpine community’s highest accolade, honoring perilous mountain rescues. He has also The definitive wilderness experience for me in Alaska received the Valor Award from the U.S. Department of the Interior for his rescue is a remote setting, untamed and full of unsafe work. He and fellow Alaskan Mark Stasik completed the first winter circumnavigation experiences in a trailless landscape. of Denali and Mount Foraker in 1995 (350 miles/45 days).

34 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 EDUCATION and COMMUNICATION

Science and Learning in the Alaska Wilderness

BY INGRID NIXON

An enlightened public is essential in order that there will not exist unfair pressures born of ignorance. —Adolph Murie et. al. 1948

n the 1930s the Dall sheep population of what is now Working with partners, Denali National Park and Preserve crashed. As was the the Denali Park staff has I mood of the time, public officials and public sentiment taken an innovative ap- assumed wolf predation was the cause, and both cried for proach to education and the immediate implementation of a wolf eradication pro- research that employs gram. The National Park Service, however, hired a lone wireless technology and biologist to study the situation and ascertain the cause of videoconferencing. For ex- the sheep’s demise. After thousands of hours in the field, ample, a wireless network biologist Adolph Murie (see figure 1) concluded that a se- extends over 40 miles of ries of harsh winters was to blame for the population crash. the park road corridor. Us- Using Murie’s scientific conclusion, park officials managed ing a specially equipped to hold wolf eradication proponents at bay. school bus created by the As a direct result of Adolph Murie’s scientific work, the Denali Borough School biological integrity of what is now Denali National Park District to boost the signal, and Preserve remains intact. The new Science and Learn- it is possible to communi- ing Center in Denali (see figure 2) bears the Murie name as cate from the field through an acknowledgment of Adolph’s work and other members the Science and Learning Figure 1—Adolph Murie. Photo courtesy of the of the Murie family, who served as passionate advocates for Center to anywhere in the National Park Service. the biological integrity of our national parklands. world via the Internet. This Although located in Denali National Park and Preserve, makes it possible for researchers in the field in Denali to con- the Murie Science and Learning Center is a collaborative duct classes for students anywhere on the planet. The park is effort between Denali National Park and Preserve, seven also working with the Office of Naval Research to develop other Alaska national parks, and several park partners. Its radio-tracking collars that will be compatible with this wire- mission is twofold: to promote scientific research in our less system. Such collars would make it possible to track wildlife national parks and to provide science-based education pro- 24 hours per day, 7 days a week, which would provide park grams and information to students, educational institutions, researchers with movement data never before collected. and the visiting public. The center offers a classroom area, The wireless network will be put to the test during the 2005 exhibits, and workspace for visiting and resident research- weeklong Denali Science and Storytelling camp offered for the ers. It also serves as the winter visitor center for Denali. second year in a row in partnership with the Denali Borough Other center facilities include a dining facility and a re- School District. Equipped with digital cameras, GPS units, data mote field camp. recorders, and curious minds, the middle- and high-school stu-

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 35 at high-school students. Piloted in 2005, participants will spend a week in Denali’s backcountry collecting impact-monitoring data for park managers. The Murie Science and Learning Center is one of a growing network of research learning centers in development as one facet of the National Park Service’s Natural Resource Challenge initiative. The goal of the Challenge is to promote more and better science in our national parks, to use scientific findings to make sound management decisions, and to share what is learned Figure 2—Murie Science and Learning Center, Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska. Photo courtesy of Fred Bayler and about these natural areas more effec- the National Park Service. tively with the public. IJW

dents will explore the wilds of the park grams based out of the center’s remote REFERENCES Murie, Adolph 1948. As quoted in Timothy and record their impressions on DVD. field camp explore a variety of topics from Lawson, 2001, Changing tracks: Predators Through partner Denali Institute, the bear research to wildflowers. and politicians in Mt. McKinley Natural Park center offers a series of short daily pro- To get kids up to their elbows in wil- (230). Anchorage: University of Alaska Press.

grams and multiday educational seminars derness, the park has teamed with the INGRID NIXON is the education coordinator and teacher trainings throughout the Denali Foundation to offer a new Denali for the Murie Science and Learning Center; summer months. These popular pro- Backcountry Adventures program aimed e-mail: [email protected].

From ALDO LEOPOLD on page 30

with the wilderness resource in order to tional Forest in southeast Alaska. An ini- veloped through these experiences identify the agency’s role in resolving con- tial study there concentrated on can greatly influence the area. flict between sport anglers and local understanding conditions encountered • Federal agencies need to understand village residents in the Togiak National by sport anglers and how their visits may local meanings attached to wild Wildlife Refuge in southwest Alaska. be changed due to potential changes in places and how management actions Mike Tranel of Denali National Park management to protect on-site conditions interact with those meanings. and Preserve described the relationship along the Situk River. Local interest by • Conflicts between recreation and air-taxi operators have with the park and Yakutat village residents, however, led to subsistence users of public lands in the visitors they shuttle in to climb Mt. a second study to understand how they Alaska are complex and deeply re- McKinley or visit glaciers within the describe their relationships with this river lated to differences in relationships park. As a group, these commercial ser- that runs from the Russel Fiord Wilder- people have with those places. vice providers have a long-standing ness to the Gulf of Alaska, and how some • Commercial service providers have relationship with portions of the Denali of the proposed changes in management relationships with federal lands area that predates their addition to the of on-site conditions may change those and are intermediate influences on park in 1980. This relationship is key to relationships. relationships developed by the understanding how current air-taxi op- These presentations on recent republic with these places. erators view their own role as well as search in Alaska suggest the following: • We need holistic research and man- that of the Park Service. agement approaches that consider Alan Watson and Neal Christensen of • Visitor experiences enable individual how on-site management actions the Leopold Institute closed the session and societal relationships with an affect relationships between various by describing research on the Tongass Na- area, and human relationships de- publics and public lands. IJW

36 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 EDUCATION and COMMUNICATION

Minimizing Mountaineering Impacts in Denali National Park and Preserve

BY WHITNEY C. WARD

ohn Muir, one of the pioneers of wilderness preserva- (Denali National Park tion, knew and understood the benefit of preserving and Preserve 2003a), J areas as wilderness. He penned these thoughts in a let- yet abandoned garbage ter he wrote in October 1874: ”I am hopelessly and was still a common forever a mountaineer. … I care to live only to entice people problem. Rangers to look at nature’s loveliness” (Muir 1915, preface). The cleaned up 700 pounds U.S. Congress passed the Wilderness Act (P.L. 88-577) and (318 kg) of trash from set a precedent for preservation, and thousands of wilder- the 14,200-foot (4,328- ness visitors, taking Muir’s wilderness ideology to heart m) camp alone in 1997 trekking to the mountains “to look at nature’s loveliness.” (Denali National Park Managers are faced with the impact caused by those who and Preserve, 2000). are drawn to the wilderness, and Mt. McKinley in Alaska’s According to climbing Denali National Park and Preserve is no exception. Each ranger Roger Robinson, year, more than a thousand mountaineers attempt to climb each climber produces to the 20,320-foot (6,194-m) summit of the highest peak between 0.24 to 0.5 in North America (see figure 1). The 2001 climbing season pounds (0.1 to 0.2 kg) Whitney Ward on the West Buttress of Denali. Photo by Dallen Ward. brought a record number of 1,305 climbers, and 84% at- of garbage each day, tempted the West Buttress route (Denali National Park and (Denali National Park and Preserve 2001c; Chesak 2002), Preserve 2001b). It is not uncommon to have 700 climbers which adds up to approximately 7,000 pounds (3,175 kg) on the mountain at one time during the height of the climb- of garbage that could potentially be left on the mountain ing season (Rosen 2001). The accumulation of impacts from each season (Denali National Park and Preserve 2002a). such a significant number of climbers concentrated on one Fortunately, the garbage situation has never reached those route over the years—in addition to the fact that moun- proportions; and with current protocol, it never will (Denali taineers’ attitudes vary in respect to low impact practices National Park and Preserve 2000). (Dyck, Schneider, Thompson, and Virden 2003)—has led Denali rangers took a proactive approach in 1998 to to evident degradation of this wilderness. However, in or- manage the garbage situation, an approach they continue der to combat this human impact, the National Park Service to utilize today. Expedition numbers are assigned to each (NPS) has taken a pragmatic approach for managing trash group upon registration. This number is then transferred and human waste disposal on Denali. to each of the expedition’s fuel cans, as well as the blue garbage bags that are distributed at the ranger station in Garbage and Fuel Can Monitoring Talkeetna. Additionally, preprinted cache markers are dis- Similar to other wilderness areas, a “pack it in pack it out” tributed to each expedition in order to discourage philosophy has been in force on Denali since the mid-1970s permanent or abandoned caches. Each party is responsible

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 37 2,195 m) in 1977, ranger Robinson to experiment dur- an additional pit ing the 2000 climbing season with a toilet was added at toilet system designed to remove hu- the 14,200-foot man waste (Denali National Park and (4,328-m) camp, Preserve 2000). Robinson’s trial and in 1989, a box prompted the Denali ranger staff to latrine was estab- work with Paul Becker of GTS, Inc., lished at the in developing Clean Mountain Cans 17,200 (5,243-m) (CMC), a smaller and much lighter foot camp (Chesak version of the common toilet box that 2002). Since the river guides and outfitters use (Denali 1980s, a common National Park and Preserve 2003a). practice in camps Following this initial experiment, that did not have the NPS conducted a pilot study with a latrine was to a conservation grant from the Ameri- bag the human can Alpine Club (AAC) and 21 waste and dispose volunteer groups during the 2001 of it in a crevasse climbing season to see if human waste (Chesak). Dispos- could be effectively removed from the ing of waste in mountain (Denali National Park and crevasses and the Preserve 2001c). The volunteers re- latrines helped to sponded with generally favorable alleviate some of feedback (Denali National Park and the human waste Preserve 2001c). An additional AAC problem; however, grant was awarded in 2002 to provide it was still a con- 200 more CMCs on the mountain in cern. Severe weather order to further the study (Outdoor conditions, un- Network 2002). The main focus of the suitable crevasses, 2002 study was to determine whether and climber neglect or not a large number of climbers Figure 1—Climbers on the summit ridge of Denali. Photo by Whitney Ward. made proper waste could remove their human waste from disposal at the above the 14,200-foot (4,328-m) 17,200-foot camp (Denali National Park and Pre- for returning the empty fuel cans, blue (5,243-m) camp a growing problem serve 2002b). The NPS encouraged garbage bags, and removing all (Denali National Park and Preserve mountaineers to use the CMC along caches—the violation of which could 2000). Compounding the disposal the entire West Buttress route in addi- result in a citation and/or fine (Denali problem was the fact that human waste tion to other areas of the park; in National Park and Preserve 2003a). does not readily break down at high return they were awarded the PMI/ Despite the record number of climb- altitude. Human waste, especially on NPS Denali Pro pin (Denali National ers during 2001, many veteran the upper mountain, became an in- Park and Preserve 2002b). The study climbers agreed that the mountain was creasingly significant health and social and trials determined that the CMC the cleanest it has been in modern his- concern. In fact, the most frequently was feasible for the average climber tory (Denali National Park and reported complaint in climbers’ post- (Denali National Park and Preserve Preserve 2001b). trip reports was the improper disposal 2003a). of human waste on the mountain The box toilet was removed from Human Waste Disposal (Denali National Park and Preserve the 17,200-foot (5,243m) camp prior A more significant problem was hu- and Preserve 2001c). to the 2003 climbing season, and all man waste disposal. A pit toilet was The extensiveness of the human climbing parties who attempted the first created at base camp (7,200 feet; waste on the mountain led climbing West Buttress route were required to

38 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 Figure 2—Denali National Park and Preserve is managed by the National Park Service. Photo by Chad Dawson.

carry CMCs above the 14,200-foot The demand for CMCs was high again to distribute CMCs from the (4,328-m) camp (Denali National during the 2004 climbing season, with 14,200-foot (4,328-m) camp in the Park and Preserve 2003c). Used all 500 CMCs issued at one point in future to help remedy this problem CMCs were returned to the 14,200- time (Denali National Park and Preserve (Denali National Park and Preserve foot (4,328-m) camp and placed in 2004). The NPS distributed CMCs from 2004). Even with the unexpected is- cargo nets. They were then flown to the base camp (7,200 feet; 2,195 m) sues of CMCs being cached along the base camp by helicopter, and then on during the 2004 climbing season for route, they are becoming standard for to Talkeetna by plane for professional climbers on the West Buttress route and mountaineering on Denali. cleaning (Denali National Park and from the Talkeetna ranger station for After several design revisions, the Preserve 2002b). The CMC remained other climbs in the Alaska Range CMC offers a lightweight, climber- optional for other routes on the (Denali National Park and Preserve friendly alternative to traditional mountain and below the 14,200-foot 2004). It was anticipated that the climb- methods of human waste disposal. (4,328-m) camp; however, of the ers on the West Buttress route would Currently, each canister weighs 1.75 1,179 climbers who attempted Denali utilize the CMC the entire route with pounds (.8 kg) and is designed to hold during the 2003 season, 148 (13%) the main focus of use at high camp 1.86 gallons (7 l) of human waste. It climbers removed approximately 500 (Denali National Park and Preserve is 8.2 inches (20.8 cm) in diameter and pounds (227 kg) of human waste by 2003c). Unfortunately, it was discov- 11.75 inches (30 cm) tall. An inte- opting to utilize a CMC the entire ered that several expeditions merely grated harness system, which locks route (Chesak 2002; Denali National cached the CMC lower on the moun- down the lid, allows the CMC to be Park and Preserve 2003a). tain; therefore, the NPS plans once secured to a sled or pack. The CMC is

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 39 sturdy enough to be sat upon and comes responsibility, but is everyone’s, as “We ———. 2002b. Denali becomes even cleaner! 2002 Mountaineering Summary. Retrieved with a disposable foam ring (Denali Na- are all, in some sense, mountaineers, October 27, 2003, from http:// tional Park and Preserve 2003a). and going to the mountains is going www.nps.gov/dena/home/mountaineer- However, the NPS is currently working home” (Muir 1992, p. 33). IJW ing/summary/reports/2002%summary.pdf. with GTS, Inc., to redesign the CMC so ———. 2003a. Clean mountain cans—Moun- taineering. Retrieved October 27, 2003, REFERENCES that it will be easier to clean and to elimi- from http://www.nps.gov/dena/home/ Chesak, C. 2002. The American Alpine Club mountaineering/cm/cans.html. nate the foam ring (Denali National Park asks climbers to rally ’round the can: Part- ———. 2003b. Mountaineering booklet. Re- and Preserve 2004). nership with Denali National Park has global trieved October 28, 2003, from http:// Garbage and fuel can monitoring aim. American Alpine Club Press Releases. Retrieved October 27, 2003, from http:// www.nps.gov/dena/home/mountaineer- have proven to significantly reduce the www.americanalpineclub.org/docs/ ing/booklet/mbenglish.html. impacts of mountaineers on Mt. AACPR-CMCgrant.pdf. ———. 2003c. Statistical year in review. An- McKinley. As such, these simple Denali National Park and Preserve. 2000. nual Mountaineering Summary Report— Cleaning up Mt. McKinley. 2000 Mountain- 2003. Retrieved October 27, 2003, from projects will not only help maintain eering Report. Retrieved October 27, 2003, http://www.nps.gov/dena/home/moun- and restore the pristine quality of the from http://www.nps.gov/dena/home/ taineering/summaryreports/home.html. Denali National Park and Preserve. 2004. Sta- tistical year in review. Annual Mountaineer- ing Summary Report—2004. Retrieved The Denali National Park and Preserve rangers January 10, 2005, from http:// www.nps.gov/dena/home/mountaineer- are setting a high standard of mountaineering ing/summaryreports/MNT2004.pdf. Dyck, C., I. Schneider, M. Thompson, and R. Leave No Trace ethics for others to follow. Virden. 2003. Specialization among mountaineers and its relationship to environmental attitudes. Journal of Park Recreation Administration 22(2): 44–62. Denali Wilderness Area, but could mountaineering/summaryreports/ Muir, J. 1915. Travels in Alaska. New York: 2000summary.pdf. easily enhance the wilderness charac- Houghton and Mifflin. ———. 2001a. Mountaineering Summary Re- Muir, J. 1992. John Muir: The Eight Wilderness Dis- teristics of other areas. Already, port—2001. Retrieved October 27, 2003, covery Books. Seattle, WA: The Mountaineers. Auyuittuq National Park Reserve in from http://www.nps.gov/dena/home/ Outdoor Network. 2002. Access Fund awards mountaineering/summary reports/ Canada has expressed interest in over $30K in climbing preservation grants. 2001.html. Retrieved October 27, 2003, from http:// implementing the use of CMCs ———. 2001b. Statistical year in review. Moun- www.outdoornetwork.com/ (Chesak 2002). taineering Summary Report—2001. Re- ton_assnnews_archive/2002/03/28/eng- trieved October 27, 2003, from http:// The Denali National Park and Pre- outdoornet-000007/eng-outdoornet- www.nps.gov/dena/home/mountaineer- 000007_170512_5_08699306519702.html. serve rangers are setting a high standard ing/summaryreports/2001stats.html. Rosen, Y. 2001. Controls eyed for anticipated of mountaineering Leave No Trace eth- ———. 2001c. Talking trash on Denali. 2001 growth at Denali. Retrieved October 27, Mountaineering Summary Report. Retrieved ics for others to follow. The current 2003, from http://forests.org/archiev/ October 28, 2003, from http:// america/coeyanti.htm. protocols for garbage and fuel can www.nps.gov.dena/home/mountaineerning/ monitoring and the use of CMCs have summaryreports/2001trash.html. WHITNEY WARD is a student in the already significantly reduced the waste ———. 2002a. Climbing clean—Mountaineer- Department of Recreation and Park on Mt. McKinley in just a short amount ing. Mountaineering Booklet. Retrieved October 28, 2003, from http:// Administration, Indiana University, HPER of time. However, minimizing impact www.nps.gov/dena/home/mountaineer- 133, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA; email: in wilderness areas is not just the NPS’s ing/booklet/climbclean.html. [email protected].

40 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

Transfrontier Land Use Planning in Southern Africa

BY WILLEM VAN RIET JR. and NADIA VAN DER MERWE

eace Parks Foundation, as facilitator of Transfrontier a set of strategic methods, labeled the Conservation Devel- Conservation Area (TFCA) development in south- opment Framework (CDF), to identify priority areas for Pern Africa, coordinates and participates in a wide conservation action and guide the management of different range of activities, offering support on multiple levels. On land use options (e.g., recreational areas, roads and lodges, one such level, spatial information in the form of hard- lookout points, cultural sites, areas with high biodiversity) copy maps or digital interactive websites (see inside TFCAs. Until now, the CDF has been applied to South www.peaceparks.org) is distributed to all the stakeholders African parks only, but once finalized Peace Parks Founda- involved, such as scientists, park managers, and staff, as tion will apply it to TFCAs in the rest of southern Africa. A well as community members. The disseminated informa- CDF process has two main phases. the first is centered on tion ranges from being detailed for small areas to coarse for generating detailed information on the ecological sensitiv- large areas and varies from three-dimensional views to pat- ity and aesthetic value of the landscape as well as the tourism terns of landscape ecology, infrastructure, and land use (see potential of the area in question. In the second phase, ex- Africa Geographic, February 2004). Over time, the pert knowledge is combined with the information generated foundation’s spatial information products have proven to in the first phase to partition a park into definable areas, be an indispensable part of multinational stakeholder fo- referred to as use zones. The use zones cascade from Wil- rums and community workshops where executive decisions derness to Remote through Buffer areas into Low and High are made regarding TFCA development. Intensity Leisure zones. Recently, scientists have started to encourage the use of The figures below illustrate some of the CDF informa- spatial information frameworks as strategic decision-mak- tion outputs for a hypothetical area. Figure 1 is an example ing tools in the management of conservation areas, that is, of the information generated to reveal visually sensitive frameworks through which one can generate objective, areas in a park. Visual sensitivity is one of the factors con- unbiased information based on transparent and repeatable tributing to the aesthetic value of a park, which was methods. Scientists argue that by adopting strategic frame- historically not considered a natural resource. Using state- works in decision-making activities, it becomes possible to of-the-art software from the Environmental Systems combine a host of factors (e.g., natural, cultural, political, Research Institute, it is now possible to treat it as such economic, and institutional) in an objective, unbiased man- and locate potential development sites (e.g., for telecom- ner. This is especially important in the management of munication towers, power lines, and roads) that will be TFCAs where decision makers are compelled to balance invisible to visitors in certain areas of the park. This makes development and conservation mandates. As pressures on it possible, for the first time, to strategically identify areas natural resources and biodiversity increase, the long-term from where none of the infrastructural development would survival (as well as economic sustainability) of protected be visible so that visitors could have a true wilderness areas in southern Africa ultimately depends on such strate- experience. gic conservation planning initiatives. A CDF also relies on information that indicates areas of Accordingly, the foundation has been working closely biodiversity that are ecologically sensitive to development. with South African National Parks (SANParks) to develop Figure 2 illustrates this for an area in a range of values

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 41 Figure 1—The range of areas from where a telecommunications tower would be visible if Figure 2—Areas sensitive to disturbance as well as areas where the impact of it were to be built at the location indicated. development could possibly be mitigated.

The final output of a CDF is a map displaying boundaries of various land use options within a park (see figure 3). Once the final output of the CDF has been generated, it is presented to the various ministries of the governments involved with the TFCA. Following their authorization, the land use zones are then adopted as management guidelines for a period of five years, after which the whole process is reviewed. In essence the CDF is an iterative and participatory process that needs input from scientists, local communities, and regional planners alike. By encouraging the use of this spatial framework in planning and stakeholder workshops, the foundation hopes to standardize management practices across the international borders of TFCAs in southern Africa.

Acknowledgments Figure 3—The Final Conservation Development Framework, showing the various use zones according to which the park will be managed. Special thanks to SANParks Planning, especially Paul Britton and Dr. Steven Holness. IJW spanning from low (cream color) to highly sensitive (red color). WILLEM VAN RIET JR., PPF Land Use Planning, Millennia Park, 16 Information on the ecological sensitivity of areas is primarily Stellentia Avenue, Die Boord Stellenbosch 7613, South Africa; e-mail: derived from data on the biophysical character of the landscape. [email protected].

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42 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 WILDERNESS DIGEST

Announcements and Wilderness Calendar

COMPILED BY STEVE HOLLENHORST

The 8th World Wilderness Congress important regions in the country. The Department is The 8th World Wilderness Congress (8th WWC) will take fortunate to have partners like Dr. Chad Dawson to place in Anchorage, Alaska, September 30 to October 6, assist us in planning for and managing these valuable lands. Dr. Dawson is recognized nationally for 2005. Organized by The WILD Foundation (USA), and his contributions to protecting wilderness values, and hosted by many Alaskan and international organizations, we are grateful for his involvement in State efforts. the theme of the 8th WWC is Wilderness, Wildlands, and People—A Partnership for the Planet. The Congress will A plaque was presented to Dr. Dawson recognizing “his include technical working sessions in the symposium stature in the national wilderness management community cochaired by Leopold Institute social scientist Alan Watson and his substantial contributions to Adirondack Forest Pre- and Sawtooth National Recreation Area land manager Liese serve planning and land stewardship efforts.” Dr. Dawson Dean entitled Science and Stewardship to Protect and has had a great influence on the protection and manage- Sustain Wilderness Values. For more information regard- ment of the Adirondack Forest Preserve. He has authored ing the 8th World Wilderness Congress, visit the official numerous research papers on wilderness and forest pre- website at http://www.8wwc.org. serve subjects for regional, national, and international audiences, including the 5th and 6th World Wilderness Chad Dawson Receives Award Congresses. He has mentored more than half a dozen gradu- for Contributions to ate students in research on Adirondack Forest Preserve Adirondack Wilderness Protection issues and written numerous technical reports and studies The New York State Department of Environmental Conser- in support of the state’s natural resource planning and man- vation (DEC) presented the 13th annual Adirondack agement. Dr. Dawson is chair of the Forest and Natural Stewardship Award to Dr. Chad P. Dawson for his “contri- Resource Management Department at the State University butions to protecting wilderness values in the Adirondack of New York, College of Environmental Science and For- Forest Preserve.” The Adirondack Stewardship Award is pre- estry in Syracuse, where he also teaches courses and sented by DEC to groups or individuals who demonstrate conducts research in wilderness and recreation manage- outstanding stewardship of the natural resources of the ment. He is managing editor of the International Journal of Adirondacks. The award was presented at the 40th Anni- Wilderness and coauthor of the textbook Wilderness Man- versary National Wilderness Conference in Lake George, agement: Stewardship and Protection of Resources and Values New York, hosted by the Association for the Protection of (John Hendee and Chad Dawson, 2002, Fulcrum Publishing). the Adirondacks. In presenting the award, DEC commis- IJW joins with Chad’s many U.S. and international col- sioner Erin Crotty stated: leagues in congratulating him on this well-deserved recognition of his wilderness leadership. John Hendee, IJW The history, culture, and natural beauty of the editor in chief. Source: http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/ Adirondack Forest Preserve make it one of the most press/nwrel3.html.

Submit announcements and short news articles to STEVE HOLLENHORST, IJW Wilderness Digest editor. E-mail: [email protected].

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 43 Bush Reverses Protection pacity, improving protected area manage- connections between wildlands, game for Roadless Forest ment, and addressing issues of species habitat, and recreational oppor- The last 58.5 million acres (23.7 mil- governance, equity, and livelihoods. The tunities. It is clear that both wilderness lion ha) of untouched national forests, four-day WCPA Steering Committee and roadless lands are important, not which President Bill Clinton had set meeting was attended by 20 WCPA re- only to preserve fish and wildlife habi- aside for protection, were opened to gional and theme vice-chairs from around tat and protect remaining threatened possible logging, mining, and other the world. They developed a strategic species populations, but to preserve op- commercial uses by the Bush adminis- plan focused on implementing the Con- portunities for fishing and hunting that tration. Ninety-seven percent of it is in vention on Biological Diversity’s many Americans enjoy. To review the 12 states: Alaska, Arizona, California, Programme of Work on Protected Ar- maps, visit http://www.wilderness.net/ Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, eas—which recognizes WCPA as one of . New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washing- its main parties—the Durban Action Plan, ton, and Wyoming. Governors can and the Millennium Development Goals. Parks Canada Budget submit petitions within 18 months to The Steering Committee also reviewed Increases over the Next stop road building on some of the 34.3 the existing WCPA Task Forces and their Five Years million acres (13.9 million ha) where it mandates in light of these new strategic On February 23, 2005, the government would now be permitted, or request that directions. Regional priorities were espe- of Canada announced a massive budget new forest management plans be writ- cially highlighted, such as the urgent need increase of $315 million in the 2005 ten to allow the construction on some to develop country-level capacities to im- budget for the Parks Canada Agency to of the other 24.2 million acres (9.8 mil- prove protected area management. The conserve the country’s national parks lion ha). Eight days before leaving office Swiss government supported the WCPA and national historic sites. Of this total, in 2001, Clinton acted to take decisions Steering Committee meeting with an ex- $209 million over five years is budgeted about roadless forestland away from lo- cursion to the Col du Marchairuz in the for refurbishing park and site infrastruc- cal federal managers. Environmentalists Parc jurassien vaudois (Jurassic Park of ture, a significant increase from its said the managers often were too close the Swiss Canton of Vaud). This field trip original annual budget of $40 million; to logging companies and other devel- was accompanied by a presentation on a $60 million over five years are approved opers. The Forest Service will have final novel approach to protected area estab- for restoring ecological damage in the say over the governors’ petitions. But the lishment, initiated through an agreement parks, which comes on top of the $75 agency is creating an advisory commit- reached amongst landholders to develop million received in the 2003 budget; fi- tee to help put the rule in place. The a protected area. For more information nally, $46 million over five years for agency said petitions from the states on the activities of the WCPA Steer- Canadian Historic Places. “The Parks could be based on requests to protect ing Committee, visit http://www. Canada Agency is entering a new era of public health and safety; reduce wild- iucn.org/themes/wcpa/wcpa/ optimism, based on a solid financial fire risks; conserve wildlife habitat; steeringcommittee.htm. basis that will allow us to provide memo- maintain dams, utilities, or other public rable experiences to future visitors while works; or ensure that people have road Importance of Wilderness protecting these national treasures,” said access to their private property. Agricul- and Roadless Lands Alan Latourelle, CEO of Parks Canada. ture undersecretary Mark Rey, who Trout Unlimited (TU) released state re- The allocations are part of an overall $5- oversees forest policy, emphasized that ports for Idaho and Oregon that billion package in the government of the rule probably would not lead to a demonstrate graphically the link be- Canada’s 2005 budget to support a sus- big spurt of road building. tween remaining roadless public tainable environment over the next five lands—Bureau of Land Management years. For more information, visit http:/ Four Clear Goals for (BLM) and Forest Service (FS) wilder- /www.fin.gc.ca/budget05/pamph/ World Commission on ness areas, BLM roadless areas, and FS pagree.htm. Protected Areas inventoried roadless areas—and the The four strategic priorities for IUCN’s best cold-water fish and wildlife habi- Mountain Biking in World Commission on Protected Areas tat and the best fishing and hunting Wilderness Controversy (WCPA) over the next four years are set: opportunities. Through the use of The blanket ban on bicycling in wil- conserving biodiversity, developing ca- maps, TU has conveyed the important derness areas and its effect on future

44 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 trail access continues to be a focus for tween various areas of the field of wil- where appropriate, an interdisciplinary the International Mountain Bicycling derness therapy. Keynote speakers design of the research project occurred Association (IMBA) in 2005. IMBA is include Richard C. Schwartz, Ph.D., recognizing the interactions between pursuing a controversial four-part strat- John Acker, Ph.D.; Jay Huffine, Ph.D.; the physical, biological, and social com- egy to protect access for mountain Hilary Moses, LCSW; Bill Plotkin, Ph.D.; ponents of the wilderness resource. To bicycling while preserving natural ar- and Roger Strachan, Ph.D. Extended obtain specific instructions for submit- eas. IMBA believes mountain biking, a workshops offered include equine as- ting nominations, contact Alan Watson, low-impact, muscle-powered recre- sisted therapy, centered rock climbing, Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research ation, is an appropriate use of trails on integrating gestalt and wilderness Institute ([email protected]). public lands and is consistent with the therapy, rites of passage, self-created cer- values of wilderness land protection, emony in wilderness settings, addiction, Motorized Incursions into which includes recreation in natural and family. The symposium also in- Kalmiopsis Wilderness landscapes. When proposed wilderness cludes opportunities to meet human Blocked by U.S. Federal areas include significant mountain bik- resource representatives from wilderness Court ing opportunities, IMBA reportedly programs and to network with other Federal magistrate John P. Cooney has pursues boundary adjustments and al- conference participants. For more infor- ruled that a group of investors who paid ternative land designations that protect mation and to register, go to http:// $150 to patent a mining claim in the natural areas while preserving bicycle www.naropa.edu/wilderness/sympo- Siskiyou National Forest will not be able access. (More at http://www.imba.com/ sium/index.html. to develop unregulated motorized news/news_releases/02_05/02_10_ access to build a destination resort in wilderness.html.) Part of the contro- Nominations Sought for the heart of the Kalmiopsis Wilderness versy is based on the lack of specific Wilderness Stewardship Area. The judge ruled that the “undis- reference to wilderness in a recent Research Award puted evidence” before him agreement between the National Park The U.S. Forest Service is seeking nomi- demonstrated that the claims brought Service and IMBA, which can be read nations for the Excellence in Wilder- by the plaintiffs in the case had no merit. at http://www.peer.org/docs/nps/ ness Stewardship Research Award. The Moreover, the court held that it need not 05_19_5_imba.pdf. The Wilderness award is coponsored by the Interna- even reach the substance of the plain- Society and Public Employees for En- tional Journal of Wilderness and the tiffs’ claims because the investors were vironmental Responsibility have sought USDA Forest Service. Wilderness Stew- not the proper parties to bring the suit to ensure compliance with National ardship Research Award nominations and that they had waited too long to file Park Service regulations that govern will be accepted through January 31, their case. The judge ruled that, by its bicycles. (More at http://www.peer.org/ 2006, for accomplishments in calendar language explicitly prohibiting perma- docs/nps/05_19_5_ npsltr.pdf.) year 2005. This award recognizes ex- nent roads within a wilderness area, the cellence in an individual or team wil- passage of the Wilderness Act of 1964 3rd Annual Wilderness derness research accomplishment, or should have placed the public on Therapy Symposium research accomplishment in related notice that the United States did not Naropa University’s Center for Wilder- fields that has direct application to U.S. believe that there were any permanent ness Therapy Training is hosting the wilderness. Employees of the federal roads or historic rights-of-way located third annual Wilderness Therapy Sym- and state governments, other private or within the Kalmiopsis Wilderness Area. posium from September 23 to 25, 2005, public organizations, and private indi- Accordingly, any claims that a party at Naropa’s Boulder, Colorado, campus. viduals are eligible under five criteria: wished to bring asserting that such The symposium brings together clini- (1) ability to identify management im- access rights did exist should have been cians, wilderness guides, field plications of the research; (2) creativity brought within the 12-year statute of instructors, university faculty, and other and innovation in scientific method; (3) limitations imposed by law, that is, no interested parties to share specific skills effectiveness of research accomplish- later than 1976. Plaintiffs did not file this through hands-on, experiential work- ments in addressing wilderness stew- suit until 1999, long after the time shops. The symposium provides a forum ardship issues of critical importance; (4) allowed by the Court. More information for the exchange and development of effectiveness in communicating re- at http://www.westernlaw.org/. ideas and allows for collaboration be- search results to management; and (5)

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 45 WILDERNESS DIGEST

Letter to the Editor

Dear IJW readers, decide to do on an impulse; gardens someone is always proposing putting a take years to develop where we live. road or railroad out through the coun- On the North American continent By the time November arrives each try west of Denali, or someone with there is one place that sticks out above year, the boats and fishwheels have all tourists in mind wants to reopen old all others (pun intended), and that is been put to bed for the winter, meat is in, mail trails or cat roads to make the Mt McKinley, or as the Natives call it, berries and gardens are all taken care of, country easily accessible to public traf- “Denali,” the Great One. North, south, and our heating bill is covered by the large fic. So far the residents of the country and west of Denali lies a vast country wood pile at the main cabin. The two or itself, along with plenty of other con- thinly populated by a rare breed of three 600-mile round-trips to town bring- cerned people, have been able to stall humans, still living their lives in har- ing in supplies we need are over. This is the Alaska Department of Natural Re- mony with the land. Very few people the time to earn our year’s needed cash. sources from issuing permits allowing even know we are here. It is probably First, last, and foremost I am a trapper. I all this to happen. But our days are one of the last strongholds on earth do not enjoy killing animals; the reverse numbered without caring people. The for people like us. Due to our unob- is true. I love, admire, and respect them. country is being literally torn up by trusive lifestyles, we have very little When not engaging in harvesting my wild heavy equipment doing gas and min- power to protect this land we love and neighbors, I enjoy watching, taking pic- eral exploration. If left alone starting depend on for our livelihood. I am tures, and protecting them, as most tomorrow, it would take centuries for proud of our lifestyles, and have al- trappers do. the land to heal and in some areas ways had a burning desire to share this Wolves around Denali comprise a big would still be permanently scarred. pride in writing with others. Thank issue where I live. The National Park Ser- This land north, south, and west of you for the opportunity to do that. vice has been doing intensive research on Denali needs to be protected. Otherwise, Americans are well known for their Denali Park’s wolves for over 20 years. it will also be gone, with Denali National pioneering spirit, and the frontiers be- Nobody in Alaska wants the wolves to Park an island unto itself, stuck right in ing all but gone doesn’t erase the fact be wiped out. They are a big part of Alaska the middle, the only protected land. I that some of us are still born with the and Denali, but I think we need con- don’t mean to lock up the land from same spirit and need wild places to ex- trolled management of wolves, along with human use by any means. In fact, the ist, just as the wildlife that surrounds us all the other species, to give us viable folks who live here now and love the does. Interior Alaska is a land of extremes populations of them all. If we can’t do it, land are its biggest defenders. But we in about every way you can imagine, nature will, with the boom-and-bust need help to keep it as it is, because once from the people to the land itself and method. Any person who has witnessed it is gone, it will be gone forever. everything in between. Winter is for the effects of overpopulation with its star- With proper management, the land most Alaskans the most favored season; vation, diseases, and cannibalization, and and the animals will remain in good summer is to be endured, with spring the long periods it takes to reverse, should health. We don’t need to go overboard in and fall brief pauses between. and probably would support wildlife protecting the animals, but by protecting My wife, Fran, and I live on the management by the people who really the wildlands we ensure the animals of Kantishna river country north of care. The result will continue to be abun- their home and substance. We need to Denali, and on clear days the North dant wildlife for all causes. have both. And there still might be room Face of Denali is ever-present and is a Another big issue of the country in it for people like Fran and me. big part of our lives. We grow and hunt west and north of Denali Park is the for almost all of our food needs. Gar- safety of the country itself. It is a land Mike Turner dening is not one of the things you that is classified as critical habitat and PO Box 646 needs to be treated accordingly. It seems Nenana, AK 99670 USA

46 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 WILDERNESS DIGEST

Book Reviews

Landscape Ecology and to larger scales. Similar problems with managers. In addition, the book high- Resource Management: the relevance of data occurs at the tem- lights the need for land managers to Linking Theory with Practice poral scale: Research findings obtained better understand how ecosystems from one time period will not normally “work” and the utility of critically assess- Edited by John A. Bissonette and Isle be relevant at other time periods, es- ing their own approaches to preservation Storch. 2003. Island Press, Washington, pecially given the extremely rapid to protect wilderness from their greatest DC, and Covelo, CA. 480 pp., $65.00 anthropogenic changes occurring in threat: human excess. (hardcover). the 21st century. This is in part due to Review by JOHN SHULTIS Academics currently provide at least two ecological “thresholds,” especially at major challenges to wilderness preser- the landscape scale, which suggests vationists. First, deconstructivists have that even small amounts of habitat Voyageurs National Park: The challenged the realist perspectives of disturbance or fragmentation at a lo- Battle to Create Minnesota’s most wilderness supporters, denying cal scale may have much larger, National Park that wilderness independently exists, nonlinear impacts at the regional or and highlighted the fact that the term landscape level. If this is the case, cre- By Fred T. Witzig. 2004. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 304 pp., wilderness is a cultural construct, com- ating relatively small wilderness areas $24.95 (paperback). plete with sometimes questionable may not protect ecological integrity at assumptions. The battle between real- the large scale or in the long term. The creation of both this book and ists (e.g., David Forman) and relativists Other complex issues include ques- Voyageurs National Park seem to have (e.g., J. Baird Callicott) has often been tioning the effectiveness of the been a long labor of love. Author Fred heated, and some suggest that this battle common practice of using indicator Witzig, who was involved in the 12- has weakened progress and support for species to manage wilderness, noting year-long battle to create the park, first creating strict wilderness preserves. that most protected areas are too small started researching the book in 1978. The second, less direct challenge has to maintain necessary wildlife popu- Voyageurs National Park reviews in come from landscape ecologists and con- lations and ecological processes (and great detail the political, bureaucratic, servation biologists, who suggest that even more disturbingly, suggesting and public struggles required to cre- many traditional practices in wilderness that even large wilderness areas may ate Minnesota’s first national park. creation and management do not reflect not be enough to maintain wildlife All the typical conflicts and argu- ecological realities and may not protect populations), and the problems of eco- ments encountered in park creation wilderness in the medium to long term logical “time lags” in understanding were present in Minnesota. The major (indirectly supporting some of the argu- the impacts of human activity. stumbling blocks to having the park ments of the deconstructivists). Landscape One of the strengths of this book is designated included antagonism be- Ecology and Resource Management: Link- the critical view the editors give their tween the National Park Service and the ing Theory with Practice attempts to tease discipline. The link between observation USDA Forest Service; partisan politics out practical conservation strategies from (data) and reality is acknowledged as at the local, state, and national levels; the many theories being created by land- being tenuous at best. Although the interpersonal ill will between support- scape ecologists around the world. book never really manages to provide ers and opponents; behind-the-scenes An important message in this book clear management strategies for land efforts by extractive industries to pre- is the realization that the majority of managers, it is more than successful at vent park creation and influence traditional ecological studies focus on identifying the complex, adaptive nature boundaries; profit-seeking private in- small-scale field sites, yet their find- of ecological systems and identifying terests; antifederal attitudes at the local ings can not be successfully applied many issues that will concern wilderness and regional levels; bureaucratic iner-

International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2 47 tia; attempts to have the area designated with the considerable private land par- ism seem to rule the American federal as other types of protected areas (e.g., cels within the proposed park. This political landscape, this book reminds us national recreation area or state park); battle took an extra four years after of the ultimate power of strong public and challenges to park boundaries dur- President Richard Nixon signed the support for parks, and gives us hope that ing and after designation. Indeed, authorizing legislation in 1971. this support may be more important and perhaps the greatest value of this book The efforts of several individuals very powerful in the long term than short-term is that it identifies and describes the familiar to wilderness advocates are political doctrines. The book also reminds seemingly endless amount of battles noted in the text. In 1921, Arthur us of the immense difficulty of creating and conflicts that most proposed parks Carhart developed a plan for the Forest parks—even in the hallowed days of the encounter. Reading through the many Service that emphasized the recreational 1970s—and of the extreme efforts that heartbreaks and crises along the long value of the area. The role of Ernest have always been required to successfully road toward designation, one cannot Oberholtzer, an ardent and influential overturn the still dominant powers of ex- help being amazed at the strength and advocate from the region, is very briefly traction and consumption. With so many tenacity of the park boosters, mainly noted, and the steadying and powerful opponents, the war is never won, but private citizens, but also supportive influence of Sigurd Olsen—a key figure many important battles—like the creation politicians. The fight to create in the U.S. wilderness movement—is of Voyageurs National Park—have been Voyageurs was made even more diffi- revealed throughout the text. won along the way. cult by the requirement that the state In these dark days, when the politics Review by JOHN SHULTIS solve the thorny issue of how to deal of consumption and anti-environmental-

From DENALI NATIONAL PARK AND PRESERVE on page 14

more informed decisions and helps dates and common expectations. recognition of public interest in pro- Alaskans realize that the federal tecting a wide range of values in Denali government is also their neighbor. Conclusion National Park and Preserve. IJW If local people are involved in moni- There have been a wide variety of chal- toring use and enforcing rules, area lenges to managing Denali National REFERENCES residents feel as though they have Park and Preserve, especially as the Na- Anchorage Alaska Public Lands Information Center. 2001. Alaska Land Status Special more input and are not being over- tional Park Service implements the Report. Anchorage: Anchorage Alaska Pub- run by outside influences. Local provisions of ANILCA. Management lic Lands Information Center. employees often have good ideas priorities of the National Park Service Colt, Steve. 2005. ANILCA then and now. Pre- sentation at Alaska Wilderness Recreation about what’s best for an area, and and the state of Alaska have differed and Tourism Conference, Alyeska Prince local people tend to be more famil- considerably, as decisions are made to Hotel, Girdwood, Alaska. iar with the history and natural protect various types of competing val- Hardin, Garrett. 1968. The tragedy of the com- history of an area; these are certainly ues and because of conflicting mons, Science 162: 1243–48. Hickel, Walter J. 2002. Crisis in the Commons: attractive qualities for a park ranger interpretations of ANILCA. Alaska’s tra- The Alaska Solution. Oakland, CA: ICS Press. or manager. Denali National Park dition as an Owner State, and federal Manning, Robert E., William A. Valliere, and and Preserve uses the local-hire pro- land management in which the final say Ben A. Minteer. 1996. Environmental val- gram extensively, with about half of in decision making comes from Wash- ues and ethics: An empirical study of the philosophical foundations for park policy, its workforce locally hired. ington, DC, add a level of complexity The George Wright FORUM 13 (2): 20–31. that is not the case in National Park Tillion, Clem. 2005. Managing the Alaska commons. 9. Define ambiguous terms in Service units in other parts of the coun- Lecture at University of Alaska, Anchorage. ANILCA. Federal agencies need to try. However, there has been work with the state of Alaska and considerable progress in recent years ADRIENNE A. LINDHOLM is park planner at Denali National Park and Preserve. She can other constituents to define am- because of improved understanding be reached at [email protected]. biguous terms in ANILCA so land and communication between federal MICHAEL J. TRANEL is chief of planning, managers and the public have a and state land managers, greater pub- Denali National Park and Preserve clearer understanding of park man- lic involvement at all levels, and the ([email protected]).

48 International Journal of Wilderness AUGUST 2005 • VOLUME 11, NUMBER 2