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The Mnemonic Mechanisms of Errorless Learning Nicole D Neuropsychologia 44 (2006) 2806–2813 The mnemonic mechanisms of errorless learning Nicole D. Anderson a,b,c,∗, Fergus I.M. Craik c,d a Kunin-Lunenfeld Applied Research Unit, Baycrest, 3560 Bathurst Street, Toronto, Ont. M6A 2E1, Canada b Department of Medicine (Psychiatry), University of Toronto, Canada c Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Canada d Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest, Canada Received 10 November 2005; received in revised form 13 April 2006; accepted 22 May 2006 Available online 9 August 2006 Abstract Errorless learning enhances memory relative to errorful, trial-and-error learning, but the extent to which this advantage relies on implicit or explicit memory processes is not clear. Previous attempts to determine the mnemonic mechanisms of errorless learning have relied on contrasts between patient groups or between tasks, but both approaches are problematic. In this study, healthy younger and older adults were engaged in errorless or errorful learning using a process dissociation procedure that provides separate estimates of explicit recollection and implicit familiarity within-subjects and within-task (Hay & Jacoby, 1996). Consistent with much prior research, we found an age-related decrement in recollection, but age-invariance in familiarity. In the young adults, errorless learning reduced the misleading familiarity of prior errors, but this benefit was offset by the non-elaborative nature of the errorless learning condition that also reduced recollection. In the older adults, who are less able to oppose familiarity- based errors because of their lower recollection, errorless learning only reduced the misleading impact of previous errors. Our results support Badde- ley and Wilson’s (1994) position that the errorless learning effect is mediated by implicit memory processes: individuals with reduced explicit mem- ory benefit from errorless learning because errorless learning bypasses the need to engage explicit error elimination processes. We do not recommend standard errorless learning for individuals with intact explicit memory, such as students trying to learn information in preparation for an examination. © 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Errorless learning; Aging; Memory; Explicit memory; Implicit memory; Process dissociation procedure Errorless learning is a technique wherein individuals are pre- same general pattern was found for the older control partici- vented from making errors when initially learning information. pants, but the data were limited by ceiling effects in both control This technique, originally devised within the animal learning groups. Similar benefits of errorless learning in the amnestic field (Terrace, 1963), was first applied to the rehabilitation of patient KC using a different paradigm were reported by Hayman, memory impairments by Baddeley and Wilson (1994). Their Macdonald, and Tulving (1993). study compared the effects of errorful and errorless learning in The benefit of errorless learning for memory-impaired indi- a group of amnestic individuals and younger and older healthy viduals has since been replicated many times, in people with control participants. In errorful learning, participants were told, brain injury (Hayman et al., 1993; Komatsu, Mimura, Kato, for example, “I am thinking of a five-letter word that begins with Wakamatsu, & Kashima, 2000; McKenna & Gerhand, 2002; QU”. Participants then generated up to three errors before being Parkin, Hunkin, & Squires, 1998; Tailby & Haslam, 2003; told the correct word that they were to remember. In the errorless Wilson, Baddeley, Evans, & Shiel, 1994), Alzheimer’s disease condition, participants were told, for example, “I am thinking (Clare, Wilson, Carter, Roth, & Hodges, 2002), and schizophre- of a five-letter word that begins with QU and it is QUOTE”. nia (O’Carroll, Russell, Lawrie, & Johnstone, 1999). Moreover, Baddeley and Wilson found that in the amnestic participants, the technique has been applied broadly, for example to train word subsequent learning and memory was more successful if the ini- processing skills (Hunkin, Squires, Aldrich, & Parkin, 1998), tial learning experience was errorless rather than errorful. The proper names (Parkin et al., 1998), and face-name associations (Clare et al., 2002; Kalla, Downes, & Van den Broek, 2001). The cognitive mechanisms of the errorless learning effect are ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 416 785 2500x3366; fax: +1 416 785 4295. debated. Some argue for a role of implicit memory. For example, E-mail address: [email protected] (N.D. Anderson). Baddeley and Wilson (1994) proposed that implicit memory is 0028-3932/$ – see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.05.026 N.D. Anderson, F.I.M. Craik / Neuropsychologia 44 (2006) 2806–2813 2807 unable to eliminate strong incorrect competing responses, and could be mediated either by recollection (R) or by familiarity hence amnestic individuals, who rely mainly on implicit mem- (F), as both would lead to a correct response (thus R or F). How- ory, benefit from the prevention of errors during learning (see ever, when participants studied atypical word pairs, they would also Evans et al., 2000). Others, however, argue that explicit provide the (incorrect) typical response word only if recollec- memory is responsible for the errorless learning effect. Hunkin, tion for the immediately preceding study list had failed and they Squires, Parkin, and Tidy (1998) compared indirect word frag- were relying on the familiarity-based memory habit developed ment completion and direct cued recall performance after error- in the first phase of the study (F alone). Hence, an estimate of less or errorful learning in a group of amnestic brain-injured recollection (R) is derived from the probability of a correct typ- individuals. They found an advantage for errorless learning in ical response on typical trials (R or F) minus the probability free recall, a task that arguably relies heavily on explicit memory, of an erroneous typical response on atypical trials (F alone). An but no difference between the learning conditions for word frag- estimate of familiarity (F) is then computed by dividing the prob- ment completion, a task that relies mainly on implicit memory. ability of an incorrect typical response to atypical word pairs by Hunkin et al. concluded that explicit memory, however limited in 1-R (Jacoby, 1991). brain-injured populations, benefits from the prevention of errors Hay and Jacoby (1996, 1999) reported that manipulating the during learning (see also Tailby & Haslam, 2003, for a similar strength of the habit by changing the percentage of typical trials approach and conclusion). during training affected familiarity but not recollection, whereas These previous attempts to determine whether the errorless normal aging, faster presentation rates, and shorter response learning effect is mediated by implicit or explicit memory suffer deadlines affected recollection but not familiarity. These disso- because they address the question indirectly. As pointed out by ciations support the view that recollection and familiarity make many (e.g., Evans et al., 2000; Hunkin, Squires, Parkin, et al., independent contributions to memory performance within a task. 1998), even patients with severe amnesia typically have some The Hay and Jacoby (1996, 1999) paradigm is an error- degree of residual explicit memory. Similarly, neither direct ful learning paradigm, in that participants were made to guess nor indirect tests of memory are process-pure (Jacoby, Toth, during the training phase, and given that the atypical pair was & Yonelinas, 1993)—there is involvement of implicit memory presented on some of the trials, errors were common. We there- on direct tests (e.g., “‘dog’ just feels right so I am going to say fore replicated their paradigm as an errorful learning condition it” in a free recall test), and involvement of explicit memory in but also added a second errorless learning condition in which the indirect tests, an effect that has been called “explicit contami- word pairs were shown in full on each trial, thereby eliminating nation”. Hence, using either subject groups or memory tests to errors. Because any differences between the errorful and error- disentangle the contributions of explicit and implicit memory to less conditions could be attributed to participants not attending in errorless learning is problematic. the errorless condition (because they were not required to make Our goal was to explore the mnemonic mechanisms of error- any response), we added a third errorless condition in which the less learning more directly. To this end, we used the habit word pairs were also shown in full on each trial, but participants paradigm developed by Hay and Jacoby (1996). This paradigm were asked to read each response word out loud.1 uses a process dissociation procedure (Jacoby, 1991) that pits We tested healthy younger and healthy older adults with implicit and explicit memory against each other within a task.We the aims of replicating the common pattern of an age-related agree with Jacoby (1991) that the terms “explicit” and “implicit”, decrement in recollection but age invariance of familiarity (see meant to relate to memory processes, have become too entangled Jacoby, Jennings, & Hay, 1996), and exploring the mnemonic with particular memory tests (e.g., recall and word stem com- mechanisms of errorless learning. Recollection always leads pletion, respectively), and hence
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