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Copyrighted Material

Introduction

Identifying raptors is similar to solving a across the and Canada are mystery by piecing together clues. By far, the covered. Most of the photographs in this greatest challenge of raptor identification is book were taken during autumn migration naming distant . This is because plum- from August 15 to November 30. Birds age details (and sometimes flight style and photographed during spring migration from structure) can be difficult to judge from afar. March to late May or otherwise are noted Even for the most experienced observers, as such. identifying raptors based on plumage alone I am frequently asked which hawk identi- can be flawed. With this in mind, imagine fication problem I believe is the most diffi- how difficult it is to distinguish two species cult. Several come to mind, like telling that are practically identical in plumage, brown Merlins from female like Sharp-shinned and Cooper’s Hawks. at a distance, ageing Golden Eagles to a spe- Even a distinctive plumage trait like the red cific year, telling a Peregrine from a tail of an adult Red-tailed Hawk can be dif- Prairie Falcon by silhouette, or telling adult ficult to view in the field. With practice,it is female from juvenile Harriers in spring. more accurate to tell similarly plumaged However, some aspects of identification are birds apart by shape and flight-style differ- simply impossible due to overlap or simi- ences than by coloration. I identify most of larities in plumages, like telling the race of the distant raptors I see based on shape and some Red-tailed Hawks, Merlins, or Per- flight style, using plumage traits only if egrine . Remember, it is enjoyable to clearly visible. Remember, there are excep- simply watch raptors without fussing over tions to every rule, so almost no field mark their age, sex, or race and that learning is 100 percent exclusive to one species. hawk identification is an ongoing process. At any hawk-watching site, a close-up will draw “oohs” and “aahs” from ob- HOw tO UsEtHis BOOk servers. But because most hawks seen in the field are distant, Hawks at a Distance is a Hawks at a Distance is designed to show necessary guide. It focuses on distant birds raptors in “real world” settings and help and discusses traits that are truly useful in with identification of birds seen with only a the field, leaving out certain others that can quick glimpse. Therefore, the birds through- only be judged at close range. Be aware that out these pages are meant to appear distant, some field marks may be difficult to see in unlike most guides that present close-up the photos in this book. This is done pur- portraits of birds. Hawks at a Distance posely to show how these field marks truly presents each species in all light conditions. appear in the field. Hawks at a Distance is Each color plate is a composite that includes the first guide that presents birds of un- up to six images and a single caption. They known identity, pointing out instances when are presented this way so that each color telling age, sex, color morph, or species is plate is viewed in its entirety as the descrip- impossible, and showing the effect that tion is read. Throughout the color plates, lighting and molt can have on a bird’s ap- birds are shown in poses (i.e., soaring, glid- pearance. Only migrants that are common ing) in which migrants are normally ob- Copyrighted Material 2 • introduction served. This is intended to stress the shape and easy to understand (see Glossary), but features referred to in the captions of cer- the terms “immature” and “sub-adult” are tain color plates. sometimes unclear. Even some ornitholo- The black-and-white plates portray shape gists disagree on the exact definitions of characters for each species pointed out by these terms. Regardless, the terminology the accompanying captions. These plates throughout this guide is used in a consis- are designed so that the reader’s eyes wan- tent, practical manner. der around the page and take in the entire The term “immature” describes a bird page quickly. The text is short so that it is whose plumage is other than adult. There- easy to remember and so that the book is fore, an immature bird is either a juvenile or uncluttered. Key identification traits are in a sub-adult. Some argue the term “imma- boldface throughout the text, and memoriz- ture” relates to a bird’s sexual maturity re- ing these traits will prove to be useful in the gardless of its plumage. For instance, a field. For example, the traits in boldface for breeding in juvenile plumage are “large, dark bird . . . ex- (which is sometimes the case with females) tremely long, somewhat broad wings . . . could be regarded as an adult because it is dihedral when soaring, slightly bowed when producing young. However, age terminol- gliding . . . slow moving and steady.” ogy herein defines a plumage as it pertains One of the keys to identifying raptors is to field identification, not a yearly age or to learn the basic characteristics of each spe- sexual maturity. cies well instead of learning the minutiae for The term “sub-adult” describes a bird each. For example, recognizing the shapes whose plumage is a distinct plumage alto- of each raptor, and understanding how they gether from that of an adult or juvenile. vary under different circumstances, is much Birds in their first adult plumage (that may more valuable than knowing the eye color have none or several juvenile feathers re- of each raptor. Be aware that certain written tained) that are essentially identical or ap- or spoken descriptions (particularly regard- pear identical in the field to successive adult ing wing beat and flight style), and even the plumages are simply “adults.” Most raptors same field observation between various reach adulthood after their first molt cycle people, can be interpreted differently. For starting at about one year old. A few species instance, I once heard the words “stiff,” take about two years, while eagles typically “choppy,” “snappy,” and “aggressive” used take about five years to reach full adult independently by four separate observers to plumage. describe the wing beats of a single bird as it flew by. Color Morph Terminology Throughout this guide, the term “dark” is tErMiNOlOgy used to describe buteos that are mostly or completely dark on the underside. This in- Age Terminology cludes birds otherwise known as “interme- Some age-related terms can be misunder- diate morph” and “dark morph.” Intermedi- stood or misinterpreted. The terms “juve- ate and dark-plumaged birds often appear nile” and “adult” are fairly straightforward identical to each other at a distance, which Copyrighted Material introduction • 3 is why both are simply classified as “dark” glide - To fly forward with wings pulled in birds throughout this guide. About 90 per- (see Flight Positions). cent of dark Swainson’s, Red-tailed, and “Hand” - Consists of all the primaries, the Ferruginous Hawks are truly intermediate outermost part of the wing (see Anatomy). birds, but are mistaken for dark birds regu- Head-on - Eye-level, front profile (see larly. On the other hand, intermediate plum- Flight Positions). ages of Broad-winged and Rough-legged Hover - To remain stationary in flight while Hawks are rare, with dark birds being the flapping (see Flight Positions). norm. I refrain from using the terms immature - All ages other than adult. “morph” and “phase” throughout the text intergrade - A bird showing traits of two since they can be misleading, and instead different races or forms. use the terms “light” and “dark” to describe Juvenile - A bird in its first plumage. a bird’s plumage. kettle - A group of birds soaring together. The term “intergrade” describes a bird leggings - Feathers that cover the legs and with a plumage that falls between two sub- sometimes the feet (see Anatomy). species (like Taiga and Prairie Merlins) or leucism - Presence of some or all white between a subspecies and a recognized form feathers on a normally darker-plumaged of a species (like Krider’s Red-tailed Hawk, bird. Sometimes referred to as albinism. a pale form of the Eastern Red-tailed Melanism - Presence of dark feathers on a Hawk). A hybrid is the offspring of two normally lighter-plumaged bird. separate species; hybrids rarely occur natu- Modified dihedral - Position of wings raised rally, but are commonly bred for . at the shoulder and level at the “wrists” (see Flight Positions). Molt - Replacement of old feathers with glOssAry new feathers; usually occurs from April Adult plumage - A bird in its definitive through September in raptors. plumage. Morph - Color form. Axillaries - Wing pits (see Anatomy). Nape - Back of neck (see Anatomy). Bib - A dark patch of feathers on the Patagium - Area between the “wrists” and breast. body along the leading edge of the wings Buffy - A pale tan coloration. (see Anatomy). Carpal - Underwing area at the “wrist” Primaries - Ten outer remiges or “hand” of where all the primaries meet (see the wing; the notched outer primaries Anatomy). make up the “fingers” of a hawk (see Cere - Flesh between the bill and forehead. Anatomy). Crown - Top of the head. rectrices - Tail feathers. dihedral - Wings held above the plane of remiges - Secondaries and primaries. the body in a “V” position (see Flight rufous - An orange-rust color. Positions). “rump” - Feathers covering the bases of dilute plumage - An overall light tan plum- the uppertail coverts (see Anatomy). age on a normally darker bird. scapulars - Feathers along the sides of the Flight feathers - Primaries, secondaries, and back (see Anatomy). tail feathers. secondaries - Flight feathers from the Copyrighted Material 4 • introduction

“wrist” to the body making up the base of concentrate along “paths” created by coast- the wing (see Anatomy). lines or mountain ranges. Official hawk mi- sexual dimorphism - Distinct difference be- gration counts are conducted at many tween male and female plumages of the shoreline sites in , especially same species. along the Great Lakes, the Atlantic and Pa- soaring - Rising in a circular motion with cific oceans, and the Gulf of . There wings outstretched (see Flight Positions). are popular ridge-top count sites along the stoop - To dive with wings folded (see Rocky Mountains in the West and the Ap- Flight Positions). palachian Mountains in the East. More sub-adult - A bird in plumage (and age) be- than a thousand hawk migration sites are tween juvenile and adult. known in North America, and websites ex- subterminal band - The next to last band ist for many of them. The Hawk Migration on the tip of the tail. Association of North America (HMANA) is superciliary line - Line of pale feathers over an excellent resource for hawk migration the eye (see Anatomy). sites and migration in general. taw ny - Dark yellowish-brown color. terminal band - A band at the tip of the HElPFUl HiNts tail or wings. Undertail coverts - Feathers covering the I cannot imagine how many times I have underside of the base of the tail (see over-analyzed or second-guessed the iden- Anatomy). tity of a bird only to realize my first impres- Underwing coverts - Feathers covering the sion of the bird was correct. The saying “if underwing (see Anatomy). it walks like a duck . . . it is a duck” is ap- Uppertail coverts - Feathers covering the plicable to all forms of birding, so becoming topside of the base of the tail (see familiar with the shape and flight style of Anatomy). each raptor species is the key to identifying Upperwing coverts - Feathers that cover them. For example, most people can recog- the upperwing (see Anatomy). nize a family member or friend from a long wing base - Inner half of the wing from distance because they are familiar with the the “wrist” to the body. person’s figure or the way the person walks. wing-on - An eye-level, side profile (see Learning hawk identification through re- Flight Positions). peated observations is the same concept. wing panel - A pale or partially translucent Sometimes birders hear or read about an “window” in the primaries (see Anatomy). identification trait for the first time and then “wrist” - Joint on the leading edge of the apply it incorrectly in the field. For example, wing where the secondaries and primaries I have seen Cooper’s Hawks mistaken for meet (see Anatomy). Broad-winged Hawks because they “showed tail bands.” Another example is relating a plumage trait that only occurs on an adult HAwk MigrAtiON bird to a juvenile, or vice versa, or noting Each spring and autumn, migration occurs the manner in which a bird holds its wings across almost all of North America. Raptors in a certain position when it applies to a dif- move in a broad front, but are known to ferent posture. Some traits apply to only one Copyrighted Material Introduction • 5

AnAtomy

Axillaries “wing pits” Carpal “wrist”

Underwing Belly coverts

Patagium Leggings

Throat

Chest Undertail coverts

Primaries “hand” Wing panel {

Upperwing coverts Secondaries { Nape Rump Superciliary line or “eye-line”

Uppertail Cheek coverts Back Shoulder

Scapulars

Wing panel Copyrighted Material 6 • introduction

FligHt POsitiONs

Soaring Head-On

Gliding Wing-On

Away Stooping Copyrighted Material introduction • 7

Hovering Flapping

Dihedral Modified Dihedral

species, race, color, age, or sex, while others A good starting point to identifying a are shared among species. For example, the hawk to species is to decide what type of topside of the tail on a light Rough-legged hawk (accipiter, buteo, falcon, etc.) it is. Hawk is dark with a white base, but a dark While this is often obvious based on struc- Rough-legged Hawk lacks the white base ture, at times birds can change shape as they on the tail. It is a good idea to understand change postures. For example, Harriers traits thoroughly before relying on them in have rounded wing tips when soaring, but the field. Remember, it is more helpful to their wings are strongly tapered and falcon- learn the basics of identification well before like when gliding. Also, birds can look and concentrating on the finer points. For exam- fly differently at ridge sites than over flat ple, birders should learn to recognize a lands. For example, Ferruginous Hawks are Broad-winged Hawk’s relatively stocky, often buoyant and wobbly along a ridge, pointed wings, and quick, choppy wing but are fairly steady fliers over flat areas. beats, with a secondary focus on plumage. Many birds are seen overhead or above eye Copyrighted Material 8 • introduction level at flat land sites, but are often seen at Probably the greatest factors influencing or below eye level along a ridge. Therefore, the number of hawks an observer counts experience at both types of sites is helpful. are the effort of the observer and the scan- Birders often attempt to identify raptors ning technique used. It is natural to scan as quickly as possible, but studying birds across a horizon. However, it can be much with little concern for naming them “on the more effective to scan slowly in an up-and- spot” aids in learning them. Snap identifica- down manner (one field of view at a time) tions can be accurate only with experience toward the origin of the main flight line. Af- and familiarity. It is also beneficial to watch ter scanning each side, scan across the sky a bird of known identity as it flies farther overhead down to the horizon. When there and farther away. Keep in mind that it is im- are clouds overhead, it is productive to scan possible to identify every bird; making ac- with the naked eye. Binoculars are often curate, positive identifications is much more necessary with clear skies. It is essential to rewarding than erroneously identifying scan slowly to spot high-altitude birds in a every bird in the sky. I have never met true blue sky that otherwise would be passed experts who believe that they know every- over with a quick scan. Resting binoculars thing regarding identification or can iden- on a tripod or armrest is a great way to sta- tify every bird they see. Many accomplished bilize them, making it much easier to focus hawk watchers are not the most vocal or on a distant subject. authoritative persons in a crowd, but often the quiet ones off to the side. OPtiCs FOr HAwk wAtCHiNg There is no single binocular best suited for HAwk COUNtiNg hawk watching. In a nutshell, most 7x (mag- Whether at a world-renowned migration site nification) binoculars offer a wide field of or fairly unknown one, counting hawks can view, while 10x binoculars offer added mag- be challenging and fun. If one’s primary ob- nification. Regardless of the power, beginner jective to counting hawks is to tally as many birders should equip themselves with high- birds as possible, then there are certain tech- quality binoculars. Many birders (including niques that will help in doing so. My ap- myself) start off with an inexpensive model, proach is to focus primarily on birds passing only to buy a high-quality model later. Com- nearby or overhead, and distant raptors sec- pact binoculars may offer a sharp image, but ondarily. It requires more time to spot and have a limited field of view, which makes lo- identify distant birds than it does close birds. cating birds difficult. There are several man- Therefore, the more time spent on distant ufacturers that offer high-quality models. I birds, the greater number of birds that pass have used Zeiss 7x45 Night Owls since they by undetected. Of course, distant birds were introduced in 1994 and still love their should be monitored, but only after any sharpness and unmatched wide field of view. nearby birds have been counted. Many dis- However, I acquired Zeiss Victory FL binoc- tant birds eventually approach within sight ulars in 2008 and believe they offer the finest as they pass. I have seen birders point out image available. every “speck” on the horizon while failing to I highly recommend watching hawks with spot many of the nearby or overhead birds. binoculars only! This is contrary to some Copyrighted Material introduction • 9 birders who prefer to use high-powered lens, but it can be awkward to use when spotting scopes. While using a scope, it is tracking fast-moving birds or birds directly natural to focus on searching for plumage overhead. details of distant birds, and to disregard the Several manufacturers offer a variety of shape and flight-style traits that a-re some- camera models that are excellent for action times the only things visible with binocu- photography. Regardless of the brand, it is lars. Some observers will spot a bird in their important to learn how to set up and use binoculars and immediately try to locate it your camera. Many photographers keep in their scope. Because of the scope’s small their camera’s factory default settings intact field of view they never identify the bird as because they work well. Understanding a result. Also, a spotting scope can be inef- how to use your camera’s manual mode to fective in gusty winds that cause it to shake select the proper settings for different con- (especially if it is mounted on an unstable ditions takes practice, but will optimize the tripod) or on days with strong heat shim- chances of acquiring desirable photos. The mer that distorts an image. For those who manual mode allows for on-the-spot com- prefer to use a scope for watching hawks, pensation in exposure with the turn of a an eyepiece with a relatively large field of dial. High ISO speeds will allow for faster view is helpful. Fixed eyepieces with a single shutter speeds; however, high ISO settings magnification tend to offer a wider field of increase the “noise” (also known as “grain” view than zoom eyepieces (which offer vari- when referring to film) in a photograph. All ous magnifications, but a small field of photographers improvise their techniques view). Zoom eyepieces are suitable for ob- once they learn their subject, equipment, serving perched or idle birds, but fixed eye- and surroundings. pieces are more suited for birds in flight. Overall, field experience is more valuable Ethics than high-powered optics in regard to iden- tifying hawks. There are certain behavioral practices re- garding wildlife photography that are un- ethical. The American Birding Association PHOtOgrAPHy (ABA) reviews birding ethics in detail on Photographing birds in flight is exciting, but their website. Some photographers overlook can be challenging. For raptor photography, certain ethical issues, like trespassing on pri- a good auto-focus camera with a lens with a vate property or altering in any way, focal length between 300 and 500 millime- in order to capture a desired image. A rule of ters is preferred because it has sufficient thumb is to emphasize the safety and welfare magnification and is easy to hand-hold and of a bird before one’s personal agenda. Any maneuver. Tele-converters add magnifica- exceptions to this rule are selfish and unethi- tion to a lens, but may degrade the image cal. Photographing birds at nests is the fore- quality slightly or slow the auto-focus and most “no-no” regarding photography, and reduce the available light. Remember, the unfortunately the no-nest rule is being over- higher magnification the lens, the harder it looked more often nowadays. Nest distur- is to hold the lens steady and locate birds in bance exposes eggs and chicks to predators a viewfinder. A tripod will help stabilize a and inclement weather, and may cause adults Copyrighted Material 10 • introduction to abandon nest sites. While it is necessary sunup to sundown. On top of this, they for biologists to visit nest sites on occasion, were using live bait in order to capture their photographers should never approach nests desired images. Introducing a foreign food on their own. source into the wild is a risk to native wild- Photographers should refrain from chas- life. Even the most beautiful photograph ing or “bumping” birds for extended peri- becomes undesirable when found it was ods (more than a few minutes), and should taken unethically. Photographers should en- never bump birds that are eating or holding joy witnessing a remarkable bird or event prey. I have heard of photographers who even if the chance to photograph it was have harassed a single hawk or owl from unsuccessful. Copyrighted Material introduction • 11

Table 1 Timetable of Raptor Migration species spring Fall March April May sept. Oct. Nov. Black Vulture ••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••• Turkey Vulture ••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••• Osprey •••••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••••• Bald Eagle ••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••• Mississippi Kite •••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••• Northern Harrier ••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••• Sharp-shinned Hawk ••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••• Cooper’s Hawk •••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••• Red-shouldered Hawk ••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••••• Broad-winged Hawk •••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••• Swainson’s Hawk ••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••• Red-tailed Hawk •••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••••• Rough-legged Hawk ••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••• Golden Eagle •••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••• American ••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••• Prairie Falcon •••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••• Copyrighted Material 12 • introduction

Table 2 Occurrence of North American Raptors on Migration Species West East Black Vulture Rare Common except North Turkey Vulture Common Common Osprey Fairly common Common Bald Eagle Fairly common Common Mississippi Kite Rare except Rare Northern Harrier Common Common Sharp-shinned Hawk Common Common Cooper’s Hawk Common Common Northern Goshawk Uncommon Uncommon except Great Lakes region Red-shouldered Hawk Rare except Common Broad-winged Hawk Uncommon Common Swainson’s Hawk Common Rare Red-tailed Hawk Common Common Ferruginous Hawk Fairly common Extremely rare Rough-legged Hawk Uncommon Uncommon except Great Lakes region Golden Eagle Common Fairly common Common Common Merlin Common Common Peregrine Falcon Fairly common Common Prairie Falcon Fairly common Extremely rare

Note: West = west of Minnesota and eastern Texas; East = east of North Dakota and western Texas.