The Communication Characteristics of Virtual Teams: a Case Study

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Faculty and Researcher Publications Faculty and Researcher Publications

2001-09 The Communication Characteristics of Virtual Teams: A Case Study

Suchan, Jim

Suchan, J., & Hayzak, G. "The Communication Characteristics of Virtual Teams: A Case Study," IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 44, 3, pp.174-187, 2001. http://hdl.handle.net/10945/40187 174 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 44, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2001 The Communication Characteristics of Virtual Teams: A Case Study

Abstract—Organizations are encountering novel external environments requiring flexible structures. A number of organizations have used virtual teams to provide the customer responsiveness, human resource flexibility, and speed in project completion these environments demand. Virtual teams create significant communication challenges for its leaders and members. This research analyzed the communication technologies that the Customer Support Virtual Team (CST) of International Consulting Systems (ICS), the pseudonym for a Fortune 500 organization, uses to support team interaction, the degree to which ICS systems and culture supported CST, and finally, the CST members’ mindset toward communication and the methods its leader used to create the trust required for effective team interaction. Interviews revealed that ICS mission, strategy, tasks, reward systems, and attitudes toward technology supported virtual team structure. CST members were provided a suite of robust technologies to facilitate interaction; however, they relied heavily on voice mail and a large number of team, project, and organizational databases supported by Lotus Notes to generate a common language that facilitated task completion. CST members saw communication, particularly media choice, as a strategic activity that had to be planned daily. Finally, to build and maintain team trust, the CST leader used a face-to-face, three-day project kickoff, a mentoring —JIM SUCHAN program, and an ICS culture that promoted information sharing, AND GREG HAYZAK team-based rewards, and employee development.

Index Terms—Communications, media choice, organizational learning, organizational systems, virtual teams.

Manuscript received March 22, 2000; responsiveness), nimbleness, revised February 27, 2001. n increasing number of and adaptability to remain J. Suchan is with A The Naval Postgraduate School, organizations are encountering competitive, let alone flourish, in Graduate School of Business environments requiring quick these demanding environments. and Public Policy responses to customer needs, A number of organizations have 1 University Circle, flexibility as those needs change, turned to virtual teams to give Monterey, CA 93943-5001 USA (email: [email protected]). and knowledge workers with them the agility to leverage the G. Hayzak is with the unique technical skills and human knowledge and resources U.S. Navy. well-developed interpersonal that older structures make difficult IEEE PII S 0361-1434(01)07487-2. abilities to complete challenging to use effectively and creatively [1]. tasks. No longer can customer Since 1997, one such organization, problems and actions to solve International Consulting Systems them be broken down and (a pseudonym for a Fortune 500 distributed to specialists situated consulting organization), has used in a functionally organized, advances in telecommunications slow-moving hierarchy. These and network technology to environments require structures transition to the use of virtual supporting communication that teams for some of its complex, promote the speed (customer large-scale projects.

Different definitions of virtual ICS culture help create the trust people capable of balancing teams exist. Lipnack and Stamps required for effective interaction autonomous, independent action provide a useful, broad-based crucial to virtual team success. with cooperative, integrated definition that highlights the action and joint control of importance of communication: project direction is a significant a virtual team is a “group of VIRTUAL TEAM DEFINITION, management challenge. people who interact through VALUE, AND LEADERSHIP interdependent tasks guided by CHALLENGES The project’s purpose provides common purpose … [A] virtual Virtual Team Definition and direction, forward thrust, and team works across space, time, System Components Virtual communication focus for virtual and organizational boundaries teams are an ad hoc collection teams. Since virtual teams are with links strengthened by webs of geographically dispersed not bound by typical power and of communication technologies individuals from different authority relationships, tightly [2, p. 7].” How these “webs of functions, specialties, or even constrained control systems, communication technologies” organizations (interinstitutional and entrenched organizational provide support for team virtual teams are becoming more routines, members must rely on interaction is one key to virtual common) constituted to complete common purpose, cooperative team success. a specific, complex task. Advanced goals, and concrete measures of computer and telecommunication project effectiveness to coordinate This paper discusses the technologies provide the primary communication and action. These communication technologies media for interaction between factors create a common interest International Consulting Systems and among team members. that gives the team an identity, (ICS) uses to support virtual team Aside from the commonality a concrete reason for being. interaction; examines the extent that organizational culture can Furthermore, purpose, goals, and to which ICS mission, strategy, provide, these individuals initially effectiveness measures provide and organizational systems have little in common except a the foundation for teams to create support virtual team structure shared purpose or tasking and the communication processes and and interaction; and analyzes interdependencies that purpose norms, a common law (rules the media use, communication creates [2]. Since these teams are for communication interaction attitudes, and trust-creating project or task focused, they are and project action), and even a practices of the ICS Customer transient; they disband or are distinctive manner of thinking [5]. Support Virtual Team (CST)—the significantly modified once the team that provided the focus for team’s job is completed [3], [4]. Virtual team’s reliance on this research. The paper is divided integrated communication into four sections: Lipnack and Stamps provide a links—the wires, phones, • a detailed definition of simple systems model—people, computers, modems, networks, virtual teams, the value of purpose, and links—to describe servers, and databases—to implementing them, and the more clearly virtual team support almost all interaction challenges of leading and components [2] (see Fig. 1). makes these teams distinctive. managing them; These three system components The exchanges (actions and must be aligned if virtual teams perceived behaviors) between and • an overview of ICS focusing on are to be successful. among team members and their external environment factors clients that these links support that warranted transition to Virtual team member selection constitute much of the actual virtual teams; also a description (people) is crucial to team success. work that teams accomplish. of the Customer Service Team On one hand, a virtual team The media these links support (CST) and the other virtual needs independent, autonomous, must be reliable, numerous, teams with whom CST is linked; inner-directed individuals with rapid, and rich enough to support • an analysis of the extent to unique or specialized skills; on data and information transfer, which ICS mission, strategy, the other hand, these members the interaction (e.g., coordinated and organizational systems need to work interdependently, problem solving) required to support virtual team design and trust the capabilities, motives, generate shared interpretations member interaction; and commitment of others, have of data and information, and the • an analysis of CST’s use well-developed interpersonal skills resolution of conflict [6], [7]. In of electronic media to serve to resolve conflict and develop the other words, these media links clients and develop the team’s capabilities of other members, and must support not only information intellectual capital as well as a share power and even leadership transfer and other task-related description of the team’s attitude based on a member’s technical or activities but also patterns of toward communication and the managerial expertise at a given social relations in the form of ways its leader, members, and point in the project. Finding mentoring, coaching, and conflict 176 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 44, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2001

resolution that build and maintain people with needed expertise to manage more easily two-person team trust, member satisfaction, working in partner organizations careers and child and elder care and task commitment required for (organizational alliances and responsibilities. project completion. partnerships are becoming increasingly common) can join the The combination of a dynamic The Value of Virtual Teams As virtual team. Finally, members structural configuration, optimal stated in the introduction, virtual are more likely to engage in member makeup, and flexibility teams can provide an organization creative, “out-of-the box” thinking in thinking about and performing with a number of structural and because they are freed from the work gives virtual teams the communication advantages. These organizational routines, power productivity potential to teams enable organizations to be relationships, and communication out-perform traditional teams flexible and adaptive due to virtual interactions that constrain their [9]. Despite these advantages, teams’ temporary, project-oriented thinking and action. virtual teams present leaders structure [8]. Their dynamism with significant organizational, allows organizations to respond The communication technologies technical, and social challenges. quickly to competitive pressures and networks these teams require or customers’ changing needs can also provide advantages. Virtual Team Challenges: [9]. Virtual team composition can Team members and other virtual Organizational, Social, and be “engineered” to insure that teams can work in parallel rather Technical Organization systems the team collectively possesses than serially, thus speeding must be aligned to support the right combination of skills to up project completion. Most virtual teams. Lack of system tackle a project [10]. Because team importantly, these teams can or subsystem alignments will members can be geographically capture, organize, and store their cause system conflicts that will dispersed, those with needed learning electronically, making undermine trust, weaken project skills currently completing it easier for them and others to commitment, and damage open other projects can be part-time access that knowledge. Finally, the communications. For example, virtual team members until their telecommuting potential that these reward systems must emphasize other commitments clear. Also, technologies create allows workers both team accomplishments

Fig. 1. Simple systems model. SUCHAN AND HAYZAK: THE COMMUNICATION CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRTUAL TEAMS 177

and individual effort; otherwise, The initial communication and and personal digital assistants unhealthy competition for interaction behaviors these (PDAs) with telecommunication organizational rewards can embryonic team members and computing capabilities to undermine team cooperation, choose mark the beginning of better connect team members with trust, and information sharing. a structuration process. The each other and clients? Finally, Obviously, virtual teams require behaviors members choose are team leaders must help virtual robust, well-integrated technology simultaneously constrained team members interpret these to sustain communication. by ICS culture and are newly technologies provisionally and Consequently, skilled support created because of the novelty adopt an experimental, open, and staff is necessary to ensure of virtual team design and the even playful attitude toward these networks and servers are lack of common “work histories” machines. This spirit of play and functioning, company databases among team members. This experimentation can help teams are continually being updated, and tension between culturally discover communication routines technology training is available for constrained and newly created that enable them to create a sense virtual team members. communication behaviors of belonging, maintain trust and becomes balanced when these loyalty, develop mentoring and Virtual teams face significant, behaviors evolve into patterns coaching relationships, sustain immediate challenges in organizing and eventually develop into rules. project commitment, resolve and communicating. Because of The virtual team social interaction conflicts, and, of course, complete the ad hoc, cross-functional nature system is then produced and the tasks in a way that “delights of these teams, group members reproduced as its members use the client.” who are unfamiliar with each the communication patterns other may have different language and rules they have enacted. Research Methods Data for norms based on functional In essence, members create the this study was obtained from area expertise and may lack interaction constraints, which company interviews, conducted shared patterns or routines for then continue to constrain them. between January and October dividing tasks, coordinating work, This ongoing structuration process of 1998, and an examination handling conflict, and formulating has an important, supportive of various ICS databases. The rules. Precisely when group function; patterns of interaction databases provided important members are unfamiliar with and communication help members context about ICS and insight into one another and the potential interpret information, formulate the type and quality of information team is most vulnerable to shared understanding of problems, these databases contained. dysfunctional conflict, they complete tasks, and maintain Furthermore, interviewees often must use communication levels of trust and mutual referred to specific organizational and leadership to define team confidence in members’ abilities or team databases in their purpose, gain project commitment, (11). These patterns give a virtual responses; consequently, we determine project effectiveness team a sense of stability that wanted to know first-hand what measures, lay a foundation for enables its members to rapidly they contained. Because these trust, establish communication make sense of fast-moving databases contain proprietary interactions and media choice organizational events and to cope information, we will only allude to patterns (seminal stages of with internal conflict, crises, and their content. group structuration), and quickly disruptions [5]. begin progressing through The interviews were semi- preliminary group stages (cautious The final challenge is technological. structured. Ten open-ended affiliation and uncertainty and Organizations using virtual teams questions about virtual teams competitiveness). From the outset, must not only secure resources were prepared and served team leaders must be strategic in to invest in technologies and primarily as prompts. Question their media choices and skilled networks but must also recruit content was based on preliminary in interpersonal dynamics to talented technical support staff to interviews with current virtual establish at least provisional maintain that technology and train team members. These questions structural and social patterns that members in its use. Furthermore, triggered detailed responses that are aligned with project purpose organizational leaders, operating inevitably segued into other areas and goals. In short, team leaders within budget, MIS knowledge, and of virtual team communication, and their members are severely staffing constraints, must choose leadership, and management. tested at a formative stage of the right suite of communication Twenty-eight interviews were virtual team development. How products and appropriate conducted using three types of the ICS Customer Support Team upgrades to support virtual team media: face-to-face, telephone, and leader handled this virtual team’s communication infrastructure. For email. Email was also used for embryonic stage is analyzed later example, do teams need desktop follow-up questions. The primary in the paper. videoteleconferencing capabilities interviews lasted between one 178 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 44, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2001

and two and one-half hours. company engaged in consulting, 1. build long-term client All interviewees were promised business process engineering, relationships; anonymity. and information technology (IT) 2. build an empowered workforce support and development. The that grows ICS’s corporate The focus of virtual team analysis is company employs approximately knowledge base; the Customer Service Team (CST). 8200 employees in 57 offices 3. provide an organizational Eighteen of 31 team members were located in the U.S. and Europe. It structure that is flexible interviewed. They are located at has over 2000 private and public and dynamic enough to be the Virginia, Florida, Pennsylvania, sector clients worldwide in the responsive to both client and Washington, California, and telecommunications, healthcare, ICS employee needs. Hawaii ICS branch offices. finance, education, and defense Several members interviewed industries. The company has Closely linked with ICS mission, telecommuted full-time from their experienced 27 consecutive years this strategy explicitly focuses homes in California and Virginia; of growth and had $1.06 billion in on the need for flexible, dynamic other members telecommuted revenues in 1998. ICS is a Fortune structures that allow ICS to part-time. This team is linked 500 company and is included leverage human resources through a matrix structure with in Fortune’s “100 Best Places to from varied locations so that four other virtual teams working Work” list. a project will be staffed with on the development, testing, the best skill mix possible. customer support, deployment, ICS Mission and Strategy: Cor- Furthermore, competition forces and training of a robust software porate mission statements help ICS to build into contracts shorter product that automates all phases shape strategy and structure and product development and service of a complex procurement process. influence organizational culture. schedules. With team members This product is operational at 120 ICS’s mission statement, listed distributed among numerous sites throughout the world. below, reinforces the importance time zones, virtual teams have of teams, cooperative work, and longer work days—the 24/7 As its name indicates, CST knowledge sharing to better serve concept (24 hours a day and provides wide ranging customer its clients: 7 days a week) is not merely a support for this acquisition slogan at ICS—that help speed To share knowledge and software. To provide that customer up project completion. Finally, experience in ICS’s core support and answer client this strategy of flexible structure disciplines, to increase questions, CST members had typified in virtual teams enables the effectiveness of ICS to communicate not only with ICS to better use its resources client teams, and help our each other but with other virtual as client demands change. As a clients achieve breakthrough teams—product deployment project scales down, virtual team performance. and product development and members can transition easily to testing, for example. This need for another project, thereby reducing cross-team communication created This mission statement indirectly overhead charges. Furthermore, significant coordination challenges justifies virtual team design. since many virtual team members to prevent communication Often the only way ICS telecommute, AMS has been able overload and needless repetition of can help clients achieve to reduce its office floor space questions. “breakthrough performance” costs. is by constituting consulting To understand CST virtual teams with client-unique expertise Also explicit in this strategy is team interaction and hence and technical skills. These ICS the need for ICS associates to communication practice, it is employees may be working in a continually develop their own necessary to be familiar with the number of local, regional, and capabilities, help others through ICS systems within which CST international ICS offices. The mentoring and coaching to improve is embedded. Major ICS systems fastest way of constituting the their skills, and, most importantly, must be aligned or congruent for group with the requisite skill set record and document their best CST and the other virtual teams for the client project is through practices and lessons learned in it depends on to complete tasks virtual team design. local (team) and organizational efficiently and effectively. The databases. ICS believes that following section examines ICS ICS corporate strategy is people are its intellectual capital systems and describes to what aligned with its mission. The and that growing the corporate extent they are aligned with virtual strategy, which emphasizes knowledge base and making team design. client satisfaction, employee that knowledge easily available development, and corporate values, to other ICS associates is key A Snapshot of ICS and Its is based on three straightforward to maintaining a competitive Systems ICS is a high-technology principles: advantage. Information sharing, SUCHAN AND HAYZAK: THE COMMUNICATION CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRTUAL TEAMS 179

documentation of best practices, to be an effective virtual team virtual team members. and associate development member. Project managers have Consequently, robust technology through mentoring, coaching, and significant autonomy in choosing and a well-maintained formal training are hallmarks of virtual team members. Senior ICS technological infrastructure ICS culture. leaders provide this autonomy are essential if virtual teams are to because they realize there must communicate effectively. In short, AMS Systems: People, Rewards, be alignment between project if virtual teams are to execute the and Technology: At the macro tasks, structure, and people who strategy of developing long-term level, organizations need the right can work effectively within that client relationships through people to execute its strategy; at structure. flexible structures, empowered the micro level, project managers associates, and timely project require people with the right “skill Reward systems must also completion, technology must be set” to reach project goals. At ICS, be aligned with structure and aligned with mission, strategy, determining the right technical strategy. If they are, then there task, structure, and people. skills that associates need for a is greater possibility that virtual project is a significant challenge team members will actively and Because ICS provides IT consulting due to the often fuzzy nature authentically communicate with service, the organization of client problems. Choosing each other (“lone wolf” members understands the connectivity; ICS associates who flourish in are an ever-present danger the voice, data, and video a virtual team environment is of virtual team design); feel communications; the collaborative even more challenging. To help ownership of the work they are software; and the information project managers identify potential doing; and feel commitment to the sharing requirements for virtual team members with special “hard” project, the team, and ICS. teams to operate effectively. The skills, ICS developed the Area ICS Virtual Team Tool Kit includes of Expertise Database (AED). the following: Although AED helps virtual team ICS bases its extrinsic rewards project leaders locate technical primarily on organizational and • Lotus Notes Groupware (email, experts, these managers indicated team accomplishment rather than information repositories, and during interviews that associates solely on individual achievement. file sharing); with “softer, nontechnical skills” Bonuses, a significant part of the • voice mail and cell phones; are key to virtual team success. compensation package, are based • state-of-the-art home PCs and Consequently, virtual team project on project success. Furthermore, laptops; leaders have developed a “soft to increase the intellectual • automated software; skills” profile for the personnel capital of the team and ICS, • desktop and stand-alone they try to attract. In addition to associates are “strongly urged” to videoteleconferencing; specific technical skills, they seek “publish” lessons learned, best • project kickoff meetings, people who practices, and insights into new quarterly project meetings, and business processes in project yearly staff retreats. • work comfortably without and/or organizational databases. constant supervision; The next section, which analyzes Finally, since bonuses are tied the communication practices and • require minimal formal to team performance, there is attitudes of the CST virtual team, structure, enjoy autonomy, and significant incentive to coach a discusses in detail how CST used can focus interest on a project; team member struggling with these technologies to serve its • have excellent oral and written his/her job. The reward system clients. communication skills; implicitly encourages information sharing, associate development, • feel comfortable networking with Obviously the reliability of and increasing the corporate a wide range of people internal ICS’s technical infrastructure is knowledge base. As one ICS and external to ICS; and crucial to virtual team success. virtual team member commented, All ICS employees interviewed • have an entrepreneurial spirit associates “are looked at for their indicated that the company’s and a willingness to “play professional knowledge, but even IT infrastructure was extremely and experiment with” new more so they are looked at for reliable. One virtual team member technologies. how they share this knowledge. joked: “I think ICS has triple Currently, a “soft skills” database Mentoring new employees and redundant network connections does not exist. Project managers developing reusable corporate and Notes Servers to ensure we use the grapevine and their knowledge is a key element in won’t miss the opportunity to personal contacts to determine being promoted.” work.” Another team member if potential team members with indicated that in her four years the requisite “hard skills” have The ICS technical infrastructure of ICS employment she could the “soft skills and right spirit” forms blood lines that connect not remember a time when the 180 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 44, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2001

network and the Notes Servers communicate often enough effectiveness of ICS client teams were unavailable. with each other to determine and help our clients achieve if another member had a fix breakthrough performance.” These CST Communication Practice for the problem. As a result, online communities focused on and Attitudes This section is members wasted their time advanced technologies, system divided into two parts. The first and others’ finding solutions development and IT management, describes how CST members used to problems that already had and organization development and their technological tool kit and the solutions. change management. Contributing shifts in thinking and action these to the ICS databases was not only 3. CST members provided technologies caused; the second part of the reward system but also different answers to the section focuses on the attitude a source of organizational stories. same questions asked at toward communication CST Contributing to the CST database different client locations. members adopted, the challenge of became a work expectation, and Clients compared notes and developing CST member trust, and posting lessons learned and discovered the discrepancies; the role that ICS culture played in best practices was an important consequently, CST credibility maintaining team trust. criterion for team rewards. As a decreased. result, these databases provided Lotus Notes Groupware: The CST and the other virtual an important medium for other backbone of CST and ICS is Lotus teams solved these problems by virtual teams to communicate with Notes Groupware. CST uses this developing Lotus Notes databases CST and for CST to communicate software not only to email and that served as team knowledge with itself. thus “push” information out to repositories. Each virtual team team members but also as a developed its own database, The CST knowledge database repository for information that managed and updated it, and and those that other CST related CST members can “pull” from their provided a users’ guide so virtual teams constructed had own, other virtual teams’, and members from other teams could an unintended consequence. ICS’s databases. Because CST is easily navigate it. For example, the They helped develop a common a large virtual team, a significant CST database included Frequently language and shared schema for challenge is sharing information, Asked Questions (FAQs) about the CST and, to a somewhat lesser providing it when team members project, topic papers addressing extent, the other virtual teams on need it, and avoiding information client issues, user group meeting which CST depended. Since CST repetition and overload. Unlike minutes, help desk call logs, and tapped information from its own other virtual teams that have client deliverables by site. Whether and other project-related virtual a narrowly defined focus (e.g., at the office, at home, or at a team databases to solve clients’ training, product development, client site, CST members indicated problems and respond to their or product deployment), CST is they regularly pulled information requests, database concepts had expected to be the single point from this database to answer to be understandable both to CST of contact for all client questions client questions. Furthermore, members and project clients: when about the acquisition software. CST members would post on the working with clients on site, CST database lessons learned and members and clients would often Initially, CST members sent “work arounds” they discovered read and discuss together database emails and voice mails internally from their client work. information. Knowing that both and to members of other virtual clients and CST members would teams—e.g., product deployment Developing this database and be interpreting database inputs and financial management—to contributing to it mirrored ICS caused virtual team database answer client questions that organizational expectations and contributors linked with CST work stumped them. This approach reflected its cultural norms. to attempt to choose (with varying caused three problems: ICS already had a large number success) concepts and terms that of databases that contained triggered common associations in 1. Members of other virtual teams corporate and human resources both groups of readers. were overloaded by the large policies, employee manuals, and number of questions CST virtually every ICS research note Creating common database members asked. Also, these and publication. Furthermore, language was not an easy task. questions were often repetitive. ICS had established online Virtual team members inhabited 2. CST members were not learning Knowledge Center communities radically different language from each other. Since CST whose mission was to “create communities. The product members became narrowly communities of experts sharing team was composed of software focused on solving their clients’ and advancing knowledge engineers and information problems, they tended to and experience in ICS’s core network specialists, while the work independently and not disciplines to increase the financial management team was SUCHAN AND HAYZAK: THE COMMUNICATION CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRTUAL TEAMS 181

made up of contracting and a narrative of CST events and head. I don’t have to see if they accounting specialists. In fact, actions. This unified story, shared are in the office, or type up an each virtual team, CST included, in email, voice mail, and telephone email, and replicate my mail. I was comprised of people from messages, not only provided can just pick up the phone. different functional areas so shared understanding but also that each team had the requisite helped members “re-see” customer Although CST members believe variety of skills to solve complex, problems from different linguistic that voice mail is the “next best wide-ranging problems. angles. thing to real-time face-to-face communication,” they agreed that The common language needed Voice Mail and Cell unregulated, poorly organized to create useable database Phones: Interview data revealed voice mail can create a voice mail repositories helped virtual team that CST members preferred voice hell: “No one wants to wake up members view knowledge from the to other communication media. All to your voice mail system saying same perspective. This common CST members have cell phones ‘you have 63 unheard messages’.” perspective also provided a sense of so they can communicate on the Because of voice mail abuse and identity for each virtual team and road and check their voice mail misuse, CST developed specific all virtual teams linked with the “anytime from anyplace.” One voice mail norms. Several of the acquisition software project [12]. CST member noted that ICS does most important norms include: Perhaps most importantly, this everything possible to ensure • State who you are first. If the common language and increasingly its employees can work in their message is to multiple people, overlapping schema reduced the cars, while standing in lines, at indicate who are the message equivocality of problem definition restaurants, and even on vacation. receivers. and communication interaction. This reduction of equivocality CST uses voice mail to announce • State your purpose at the enabled CST and other virtual time-critical information. The beginning of the message. Don’t team members to rely on “leaner” CST Client Engagement Manager go into detail without first communication media, like (CEM), the team leader who stating your reason for calling. email, voice mail, and telephone oversees CST, created specific • If the subject of the call is conversations, to complete their voice mail groups to ease message detailed, use the voice mail to work [7]. distribution. When the CEM was refer receivers to a more detailed asked why he created these various email message. groups, he replied: These team database repositories • Don’t ramble: make specific enabled members to discern or CST members did not feel like requests of specific people. discover both pattern and novelty they knew what was going on • Check voice at least twice per in their work. This awareness back home when they were at day (AM and PM). of pattern, which was fed back the client sites. Sometimes the into the database as lessons clients knew more information These norms forced CST members learned, increased individual, than they did. That day I to be more self-conscious about group, and corporate knowledge, created the distribution list. oral communication and to and it led to higher levels of With these lists I could easily recognize that project efficiency analogical thinking. For example, send messages to the team. I and effectiveness was directly CST members gleamed from use them for everything from linked with strategic, careful use a database a pattern between announcing the latest contract of communication media. Breaking software development and a award victories to giving a voice mail norms resulted in product delivery problem they quick status of the latest immediate rebukes from team were facing. To explain the delivery software issue. members about wasting time. problem to clients familiar with software development, they used All CST members agree that voice Video Teleconferencing (VTC): Sur- metaphoric concepts like “waterfall mail kept the team connected. In prisingly, CST members method,” “beta testing,” and “user fact, members believe voice mail sporadically used VTC technology analysis.” For both the clients is more effective than email or the to support virtual team interaction. and CST, the analogies provided standard (pre virtual team) “walk Even though CST members had unique insight about the problem around the office and look for help” 1997–1998 state-of-the-art PCs and its solution. problem resolution method. The (Pentium II processors, 64K RAM, following CST comment captures and 56K modems) with desktop In a larger sense, the database members’ attitudes toward voice VTC capabilities and access to repositories and the pattern mail: more technically sophisticated recognition that formed and Voice mail allows me to reach VTC systems at regional office and reformed from member interaction remote resources quickly client sites, CST members claim with the databases helped create when I have the question in my “inconsistent reliability” as the 182 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 44, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2001

primary reason the technology was • Voice delays caused communication interactions to seldom used. speaker overlap, resulting contend with VTC visual and in slow-moving, halting voice limitations and then were conversations that caused unwilling to make adjustments meetings to “lack pace and drag because they attributed problems This inconsistent reliability on.” to the technology, not their perception was based on VTC use interpretation and use of it. This CST abandoned VTC and switched at government sites with systems mindset toward VTC resulted in to phone conferencing because it having high bandwidth (multiple CST not attempting to develop offered more flexibility. One team T1 lines), large video monitors, unique VTC norms to combat member described the reason for state-of-the-art bridges to link its technological limitations as the change as follows: multiple locations, and relatively the team did for its voice mail sophisticated microphone systems. We all just got to the point system. In short, the team did not CST members at multiple locations where we knew each other well approach VTC strategically. used the VTC to conduct focus enough that the video was no group studies, develop standard longer needed. I didn’t need to Team media norms and ICS culture operating procedures, and see Jan’s face when she was also explain CST’s unsuccessful negotiate revised project work hesitant about something. I adoption of VTC. CST relied on flow and timelines. Even in this could tell in her voice or she other easy-to-use technologies, like technically sophisticated VTC would just stop me and tell email, CST databases, voice mail, environment, team members me what was on her mind. to communicate with excellent provided a mixed assessment Sure there are still times when results. Two technologies in of the technology. Although the I’d love to see their faces and particular, voice mail and email, technology dampened nonverbal get a read on how they feel, became CST media norms. In cues, members still liked seeing but once trust and a sense of contrast, VTC required team each other’s faces and reading teamwork is established, this members to depend on technical large-scale body language, felt is less important. specialists to link them to multiple these cues tended to make the sites and to troubleshoot when the meetings “flow more smoothly,” Several reasons explain the system crashed. Not only did team and thought it was “way cool to team’s unsuccessful use of members perceive the technology be using cutting edge technology.” VTC technology. The obvious as not user friendly—“it’s not However, members cited numerous is that members perceived that plug and play” as one member drawbacks: the technology was not robust commented—but it also forced • Connections at times failed, and enough to faithfully transmit and them to depend on non-CST a significant amount of time reproduce the visual and audio members to communicate. That was spent reconnecting multiple dimensions of face-to-face meeting dependency conflicted with the ICS locations. This down-time interaction. As national television and CST entrepreneurial spirit. destroyed the rhythm and flow news programs have demonstrated Furthermore, as mentioned earlier, that a successful meeting has. for years, if an organization has other electronic media, particularly the necessary financial resources the CST databases, helped • Briefers and speakers did not and technical expertise, people generate a CST shared schema know how to use effectively the at multiple remote locations can and thus common understanding media to present information. easily and effectively interact via of team tasks and provided For example, speakers often VTC. Just as importantly, CST opportunity for feedback when incorrectly assumed because users had received no training in confusion occurred. Consequently, remote members could see effective VTC use, nor did they the media richness that VTC them, they could see what they request it after initial VTC meetings provided was not required were pointing to in a document did not meet expectations. Team because common interpretations or a slide. members saw VTC meetings of language and organizational • VTC had difficulty synchronizing as electronically transferred problems and events had already speaker voice and image. A face-to-face interaction. They been developed. person would speak, but the assumed that VTC would faithfully camera would still be tracking transfer images, sound, and CST Communication Mindset, and zooming to link the person meaning. This assumption Mentoring, and Trust Interviews with the voice. created the expectation that revealed a unique mindset about • Video quality was not communicating via VTC would communication among CST fine-grained enough to see be easy and as “natural as a members. Communication was easily facial expressions or regular meeting.” As a result, seen as a strategic activity that had information in a document a members were initially unaware to be consciously thought about at member would point to. they needed to adjust their the start of each workday. As one SUCHAN AND HAYZAK: THE COMMUNICATION CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRTUAL TEAMS 183

member put it, “communication of individual attention, were getting could be leveraged into future was something that must be lost in the project’s flat, heavily assignments and promotions. designed into each day to be matrixed organizational structure, Finally, mentors provided the effective.” Members also felt that were uncertain if anyone was emotional nurture that reduced communication was the most looking out for their best interests, CST member isolation and created important factor that determined and were even unsure who their a sense of connectedness and team success. The CST team “boss” was: it was not unusual belonging. leader strongly felt that the level of for a CST member to belong to team success was related to team another virtual team who had as CST members did not believe members’ ability “to adopt the view team leader a person senior to that the infrequent face-to-face that communication is considered the CST leader. The goal of the interaction hindered development work, not a natural occurrence.” CST mentoring program was to of the mentor–protégé relationship. forge emotional and professional The existence of the program, the opportunity to choose a mentor, This perception that com- ties with other, more experienced and the variety of communication munication was work influenced virtual team members by creating media available—cell phone, members’ daily media choice a forum where members could voice mail, and email—created strategies. Instead of focusing vent frustrations, discuss personal in members the perception that exclusively on tasks that needed goals and career direction, and they had ample opportunity to be completed and taking for request advice about current job to receive the individualized granted that communication media issues. consideration they might need. would be available to complete Furthermore, telephone and voice those tasks, CST members closely CST members could request or mail were virtual team media linked communication media were assigned a mentor. The only norms; consequently, members choice with task completion and constraint was that the mentor was viewed telephone mentoring not formulated a media strategy at the senior and could not contribute to as an aberration but as a typical beginning of each day. Members the employee’s annual review. CST mode of interaction. As one CST carefully laid out their tasks members often chose mentors who member put it, and consciously decided if email, worked on other virtual teams. voice mail, phone calls, or even a The relationship between mentors I don’t have to be sitting teleconference were needed to do and protégés was deliberately across a table with someone to their work. kept relaxed and casual. One know if they care, that they’re CST member described it as interested in my well being, a “big brother/little brother” I can here it in their voice, Mentoring, Individual relationship. CST protégées and can tell by how quickly they Development, and Member their mentors were to talk at least respond to a request to talk, Satisfaction: Providing quarterly (usually they spoke and by the amount of time communication media and more frequently) and usually by they’re willing to spend with knowledge repositories that phone. When possible, they would me. support task completion arrange face-to-face meetings if is not sufficient to create they happened to be at one of the Developing Trust Through satisfied, motivated virtual regional offices at the same time. Communication: Trust is team members. Systems essential for a virtual team that provide individualized Interviews revealed that CST to complete its project and consideration—leaders attending members valued the mentoring members to feel satisfied with to the unique needs of program. They stated that the their work and the virtual team members—must be in place program made it clear that experience. Trust requires shared for virtual team members to feel “someone was looking out for purpose, goals, commitment, connected with the team leader, me” and helped them see past and loyalty—members’ belief that other team members, and the their current project and focus relationships are important, that organization. on broad-based career objectives: they count as a decision factor, CST members were so closely and that members will invest Although ICS’s Best Practices for tied to their current project that in maintaining relationships. Project Management recommends they developed “career blinders.” As Van Alstyne [13] points establishment of mentoring Perhaps most importantly, the out, trust enables members to programs, the project team mentoring program connected CST choose high-risk and high-reward determines if and how the program members back to the organization. actions—precisely the kind of is used. The CST team leader The program enabled them to bias toward action ICS requires instituted a mentoring program see how the knowledge, skills, to generate client breakthrough because its members were and abilities they were developing strategies—because confidence in becoming dissatisfied due to lack from their CST project work a member’s capabilities, motives, 184 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 44, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2001

commitment, and loyalty reduces together; consequently, they deliberately misinformed, they risk. However, developing trust had little knowledge of each will stop trusting the information among virtual team members is other’s background, work ethic, and its source, and soon the team difficult because of the relatively or past performance. The team will implode. All CST members short duration of team affiliation, leader wanted to force project indicated they trusted that other possible concurrent memberships members to work through several team members, indeed anyone in several virtual teams, the early group development stages in the ICS organization, would potential that a member may (affiliation, uncertainty, and go out of his or her way to share coast (social loafing) or be overly competitiveness) by placing them information needed to help a competitive, and, of course, in a problem-solving situation client. If someone was an expert in the inability to assess motives, requiring decision-making, conflict an area, they were responsible for credibility, and trustworthiness resolution, cooperation, and sharing that expertise, coaching through ongoing face-to-face bonding. others to “better develop their interaction. knowledge base,” and publishing Members indicated that the kickoff significant insights in the CST and To develop a foundation for was critical in transforming ICS knowledge center databases. trust among team members and the group into a team. The in himself as team leader, the collaborative exercises and the Not only was there trust in CST leader used an intense, interaction at post-exercise information sharing, but there three-day face-to-face “kickoff” at lessons learned assessments was also trust in shared goals and company headquarters to “set the helped establish commitment purpose. During interviews, CST stage for a successful project.” and credibility, and they provided members recited a common mantra To structure the kickoff, the members with a good sense of of goals and their relationship with team leader created a carefully the emotional and psychological each other. Specifically, members planned agenda that included a makeup of others. Furthermore, believed that they must “delight series of collaborative exercises they felt confident in the ability their clients,” which, in turn, will with deadlines. He painstakingly of others and their “energy and generate new business for CST planned the agenda and activities willingness to get results.” One and ICS. New business creates because he wanted to demonstrate member pointed out that the new career opportunities and more his credentials—his organization, exercises established people’s interesting work. Finally, the team creativity, and commitment to the intellectual credentials and receives financial rewards, often project. In short, he wanted the their interpersonal flexibility—“a in the form of bonuses, based on new group to have trust in his skill willingness to be a team player delighting the client and bringing and leadership. but not compromise what in the project within budget. In they really believe in.” Finally, short, delighting clients, growing At the beginning of the “kickoff,” members believed they could the business, creating new career the team leader outlined project resolve disputes without causing opportunities, and making money goals and engaged the group in a long-lasting animosity. were clearly articulated CST discussion of potential strategies goals. Furthermore, CST members to achieve those goals. He believed Obviously the CST team leader believed without question that that a team is not formed “when cannot mandate trust and insure each member believed in and acted team members’ names are put that it continues to project on these goals. on a list, but rather when a team completion; he can merely set up understands its purpose.” He went processes to develop foundations In essence, ICS culture provides on to state that “how the team for that trust. CST members what one CST member described functions is important for all team pointed out that ICS culture as a “default sense of trust:” members to understand. Kick off defines “what one ICS employee meetings should include a purpose should expect from another” and “Starting with a default sense statement that defines the project thus helps create “expectations of trust is easy because of the scope as well as what is beyond that other ICS members can count expectations we hold each other scope, what communication on.” In other words, ICS culture to as ICSers. When trust usually technologies will be used, and provides the ongoing basis for CST becomes an issue is when a what the project’s success criteria members’ trust in each other; the team member is not living up to will be.” kickoff meeting merely defined a those expectations, when their specific application of that trust. commitment, product, or conduct The problem-solving exercises, is below the norm. When this a major component of the ICS virtual teams rely on unfettered happens I act immediately to find kickoff, had an important team information exchange for their out what caused the breakdown. development function. None of survival. If team members hoard Did he not understand the the CST members had worked information, feel uninformed, or assignment? Does he need help SUCHAN AND HAYZAK: THE COMMUNICATION CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRTUAL TEAMS 185

getting his skills up to speed? Does of their problems at less cost. as the communication life support he have a personal issue he needs Recognizing a novel environment for the team. CST adopted the view assistance with?” required a novel organizational that communication was work, structure, ICS began in 1996 the that it had to be designed into each migration to virtual teams. day for a member to be effective. To help prevent breakdowns in This perspective helped CST trust due to belief that a person Organizations must ensure that members adopt a strategic view is incapable of performing a toward media and media choice. task, feedback processes are their systems are aligned to support virtual teams. This CST This strategic perspective helped in place to help members who create a mindset that enabled CST are having difficulties in solving virtual team analysis showed that ICS mission, strategy, technology, to appropriate these technologies their problems. CST members in creative ways. For example, CST realize that if a team member is rewards, controls, and personnel selection (people) supported virtual and the other virtual teams with struggling with work, it is in the which it interacted went far beyond team’s best interest to resolve team design. Given the leadership challenges of building and the simple email and file-sharing his/her problems. Although capabilities of Lotus Notes. Their developing the capabilities of maintaining a productive virtual team, these system alignments creation and use of various others is an important ICS value, database depositories eliminated helping another team member has are essential for a team to convey data and information, create redundant questions that wasted pragmatic appeal. As mentioned members’ time, created a common earlier, individual financial shared interpretations of that information, develop trust, and language that facilitated problem rewards are largely based on team resolution, increased team performance. This reward system avoid dysfunctional conflict over organizational awards. learning by enabling members establishes dependencies among to discover patterns in lessons members that cause people to learned and best practices, and move beyond self interest. Aligned organizational systems created a narrative of team work help create a cohesive that provided CST with a history organizational culture. ICS’s that helped build and maintain its FINAL OBSERVATIONS emphasis on formal (publication of culture and identity. The broad-based environmental lessons learned and best practices) contexts in which organizations and informal information sharing, In many respects ICS is not are embedded can create impetus member development through a typical organization. As for changes in organizational mentoring and coaching, client indicated earlier, its history of design. ICS altered its design by satisfaction, and member team-based organizational design, migrating to virtual teams for two autonomy yet accountability its knowledge of technology and reasons. First, the organization to clients and other team unique organizational applications, already had relied heavily on members helped create a CST and its supportive, information teams to tackle complex problems culture that supported both sharing culture that is a product of their clients were unable to task and relationship-oriented its aligned organizational systems solve with their own resources. communication practice. Even made ICS likely to migrate to Furthermore, the rapid advances though each CST member brought virtual teams. Although ICS and in networks and computing power, to varying degrees these elements CST may not be typical, this study ICS’s significant expertise in these of ICS culture when the CST reveals important lessons learned areas, and the organization’s was established, these cultural for any organization considering experience using technology to characteristics had to be reset and migrating to virtual teams: an change clients’ organizational re-institutionalized. The three-day organization’s systems must be practice enabled ICS to apply face-to-face kickoff performed aligned to support virtual teams, its technological innovations to their that function. CST members culture must support information own organizational design. In established common purpose, sharing and member growth, and other words, ICS’s extensive use of goals, and communication team members must develop a face-to-face-teams, its IT expertise, processes; worked through early mindset about communication and network and computing stages of group development by that fosters creative, artful uses of breakthroughs made migration to using team-based problem-solving media to complete project tasks virtual teams a natural evolution tasks; and developed trust and maintain relationships. in ICS design. Secondly, ICS’s in members’ problem-solving external environment destabilized. abilities, interpersonal skills, and Competitors became numerous, commitment to completing a task. nimble, and skilled. Clients also became more demanding, Finally, the CST faced an array of expecting quicker resolution technologies (media) that served 186 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. 44, NO. 3, SEPTEMBER 2001

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Jim Suchan is an Associate Professor of management at The Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, CA. His research has appeared in the Journal of Business Communication, Management Communication, Business Horizons, and Personnel. His current research focuses on the impact that organizational metaphors have on communication practice.

Lieutenant Commander Greg Hayzak is a logistics officer in the U.S. Navy. He has a M.S. in management with a concentration in logistics from The Naval Postgraduate School. He has presented papers at several communication conferences.