Contents

Part I The Early Debate

1 The Extraterrestrial Life Debate from Antiquity to 1900...... 3 Michael J. Crowe and Matthew F. Dowd 1.1 Introduction ...... 4 1.2 Before the Eighteenth Century...... 4 1.2.1 The Ancient and Medieval Periods...... 5 1.2.2 The Copernican Cosmological Shift ...... 6 1.2.3 Two Underlying Principles...... 7 1.2.4 The Seventeenth Century...... 7 1.2.5 Reaching a Wider Audience...... 10 1.2.6 Extraterrestrials and Religion at the End of the Seventeenth Century...... 12 1.3 The Extraterrestrial Life Debate in the Eighteenth Century...... 13 1.3.1 The Period from 1700 to 1750...... 13 1.3.2 The Sidereal Revolution of the 1750–1800 Period . . . . . 17 1.3.3 At the End of the Eighteenth Century ...... 22 1.4 The Extraterrestrial Life Debate in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century...... 24 1.4.1 Some Considerations from Science...... 24 1.4.2 Some Prominent Philosophers...... 26 1.4.3 Religious Issues...... 28 1.4.4 The Sun and Moon as Special Cases...... 33 1.5 The Extraterrestrial Life Debate in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century...... 37 1.5.1 William Whewell...... 38 1.5.2 Richard Anthony Proctor and Camille Flammarion. . . . . 40 1.5.3 The Sun and Moon...... 41 1.5.4 Messages and Meteorites...... 42 1.5.5 The Rise and Fall of the Island Universe Theory...... 44 1.5.6 Extraterrestrials and Evolutionary Theory...... 45

xxi xxii Contents

1.5.7 The Controversy over the Canals of Mars...... 45 1.5.8 The Extraterrestrial Life Debate at the End of the Nineteenth Century...... 48 1.6 Overview of Part I ...... 49 1.7 An Addendum by Michael J. Crowe: Updating My Extraterrestrial Life Debate (1986) ...... 52 1.7.1 Blaise Pascal, Copernicanism, and Parallax...... 52 1.7.2 Immanuel Kant and “The Starry Skies Above Me”. . . . . 53 1.7.3 On Investigating the History of the Extraterrestrial Life Debate...... 54 References...... 55

2 Early Modern ET, Reflexive Telescopics, and Their Relevance Today ...... 57 Dennis Danielson 2.1 Introduction ...... 58 2.2 “Two Storeys” of the Universe...... 58 2.3 “The Shadow of Heaven”...... 59 2.4 “Each Star an Island”...... 62 2.5 “The Light of the Earth”...... 63 2.6 “To Make Wings, and Fly Up”...... 65 2.7 Reflexive Telescopics...... 66 References...... 71

3 Extraterrestrial Life as the Great Analogy, Two Centuries Ago and in Modern ...... 73 Woodruff T. Sullivan III 3.1 Introduction ...... 73 3.2 Analogy ...... 74 3.3 Eighteenth Century Views on Extraterrestrial Life ...... 76 3.4 William Herschel...... 77 3.5 Herschel and the Inhabited Sun...... 80 3.6 Conclusion...... 81 References...... 82

4 Hegel, Analogy, and Extraterrestrial Life...... 85 Joseph T. Ross 4.1 Introduction ...... 86 4.2 A Brief History of the Multiple Meanings of Analogy ...... 87 4.3 Hegel and Analogy...... 93 4.4 Earth as Such and Earth in General...... 95 4.5 Conclusion...... 99 Contents xxiii

References...... 100

5 The Relationship Between the Origins of Life on Earth and the Possibility of Life on Other Planets: A Nineteenth-Century Perspective...... 103 Stéphane Tirard 5.1 Introduction ...... 104 5.2 Origins of Life, Evolution, and Environmental Conditions. . . . . 104 5.3 Evolution and : A Complex Relationship ...... 106 5.4 Emergence and Evolution of Life on Other Planets...... 107 5.4.1 Astronomical Culture and the Conception of Life on Other Planets: Camille Flammarion...... 107 5.4.2 Lamarckian Biological Culture and the Conception of Life on Other Planets: Edmond Perrier...... 108 5.5 From Analogy to Utopia...... 111 5.6 Conclusion...... 111 References...... 112

6 Pioneering Concepts of ...... 115 Florence Raulin Cerceau 6.1 Introduction ...... 116 6.2 The Question of the Plurality of Worlds Through the Ages. . . . . 117 6.3 The Nineteenth-Century Pioneers of Planetary Habitability. . . . 118 6.3.1 Richard A. Proctor (1837–1888) ...... 119 6.3.2 Jules Janssen (1824–1907)...... 120 6.3.3 Camille Flammarion (1842–1925)...... 121 6.4 Concept of Planetary Ecology...... 123 6.5 Dole’s Habitability...... 125 6.6 Conclusion...... 126 References...... 128

Part II The Modern Extraterrestrial Life Debate

7 The Twentieth Century History of the Extraterrestrial Life Debate: Major Themes and Lessons Learned ...... 133 Steven J. Dick 7.1 Major Themes of the Debate...... 133 7.1.1 ...... 134 7.1.2 Planetary Systems ...... 135 7.1.3 Origins of Life...... 137 7.1.4 Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence...... 138 xxiv Contents

7.1.5 Birth of a New Discipline...... 140 7.1.6 Cosmic Evolution as the Context for Astrobiology. . . . . 141 7.1.7 The Biological Universe as Worldview...... 142 7.2 Lessons Learned from the Twentieth Century Extraterrestrial Life Debate...... 143 7.2.1 Evidence, Inference and Preconceptions...... 144 7.2.2 The Role of Theory ...... 159 7.2.3 Testing History: Plenitude, Mediocrity, Anthropocentrism and Rare Earth...... 165 7.3 Overview of Part II...... 168 References...... 169

8 The Creator of Astrobotany, Gavriil Adrianovich Tikhov ...... 175 Danielle Briot 8.1 Introduction ...... 176 8.2 Biography and Early Works...... 176 8.3 Study of Earthshine...... 177 8.4 Birth of Astrobotany...... 178 8.5 From Astrobotany to Astrobiology and Cosmobiology...... 180 8.6 Contemporary Studies...... 180 8.7 Present Studies...... 181 8.8 Conclusion...... 183 References...... 184

9 Life Beyond Earth and the Evolutionary Synthesis...... 187 Douglas A. Vakoch 9.1 Introduction...... 188 9.2 Early Critiques of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution...... 189 9.3 The Evolutionary Synthesis...... 190 9.4 The Evolutionary Synthesis and Extraterrestrial Life...... 191 9.4.1 Simpson on the Nonprevalence of Humonoids...... 191 9.4.2 Dobzhansky Against the Convergent Evolution of Extraterrestrial Life...... 192 9.4.3 Muller, Mutation, and Intelligence...... 193 9.4.4 Mayr and the Importance of Chance ...... 194 9.4.5 Divergent Views of Extraterrestrial Life: Outside and Within the Evolutionary Synthesis ...... 194 9.5 Conclusion...... 197 References...... 197 Contents xxv

10 The First Thousand Exoplanets: Twenty Years of Excitement and Discovery ...... 201 Chris Impey 10.1 Introduction...... 202 10.2 The Detection Problem ...... 202 10.3 Failure and Frustration...... 203 10.4 The First Discoveries...... 203 10.5 Surprise and Confusion...... 204 10.6 Methods of Detection...... 205 10.7 The Exoplanet Zoo...... 207 10.8 The Hunt for Earths...... 207 10.9 Habitable Real Estate...... 208 10.10 Biomarkers and Life...... 209 10.11 Conclusion...... 210 References...... 211

11 Extraterrestrial Life in the Microbial Age...... 213 Aaron L. Gronstal 11.1 Changing Views of Extraterrestrial ...... 213 11.2 : A New Understanding of Life’s Potential . . . . . 215 11.3 Social Implications...... 217 11.4 Economic Implications...... 219 11.5 Conclusion...... 221 References...... 221

Part III Societal Impact of Discovering Extraterrestrial Life

12 The Societal Impact of Extraterrestrial Life: The Relevance of History and the Social Sciences...... 227 Steven J. Dick 12.1 Introduction: Past Studies and General Principles...... 227 12.2 The Relevance of History...... 230 12.2.1 Past Impact...... 230 12.2.2 The Validity and Role of Analogues...... 231 12.2.3 The Utility of Past Impact Studies in Science and Technology ...... 236 12.2.4 Extraterrestrial Life in the Context of Discovery and Exploration ...... 237 xxvi Contents

12.3 The Relevance of the Social Sciences...... 238 12.3.1 Anthropology...... 239 12.3.2 Sociology...... 240 12.4 Impacts on Theology and Philosophy as Exemplars...... 242 12.4.1 Theology...... 242 12.4.2 Philosophy...... 246 12.5 Overview of Part III...... 248 References...... 251

13 Cultural Resources and Cognitive Frames: Keys to an Anthropological Approach to Prediction ...... 259 Ian Lowrie 13.1 Introduction...... 260 13.2 Intelligent Life...... 261 13.3 Life Itself...... 264 13.4 Conclusion...... 266 References...... 268

14 The Detection of Extraterrestrial Life: Are We Ready?...... 271 Klara Anna Capova 14.1 Is There Anybody Out There?...... 272 14.2 Science and Science Fiction: The War of the Worlds ...... 272 14.3 Our Place in the Universe...... 273 14.4 Changing Perspectives: The Vision of New Worlds...... 274 14.5 ET Life in Numbers: Yes or No?...... 275 14.6 E.T. or ETI?: On the History of Ideas and Confusion...... 276 14.7 Are We Ready for Contact?...... 278 Appendix I. List of Films ...... 279 References...... 280

15 Impact of Extraterrestrial Life Discovery for Third World Societies: Anthropological and Public Health Considerations ...... 283 M. Margaret Weigel and Kathryn Coe 15.1 Introduction...... 283 15.2 Background ...... 284 15.3 Human Cultural Response to Novel Events...... 285 15.3.1 Religion and the Creation of the Earth, Heavens and People...... 285 15.3.2 News Carriers...... 286 15.3.3 Traditional Stories...... 287 Contents xxvii

15.4 Preparing for the Possibility of Extraterrestrial Life...... 290 15.4.1 Potential Impact of Extraterrestrial Life Discovery for Third World Countries...... 292 15.4.2 Collection of Data for the Development of Educational Programs ...... 292 15.4.3 Ethnographic (Qualitative) Methods...... 293 15.4.4 Caveats...... 296 15.4.5 The Next Step: Application of Survey Results to Educational/Preparedness Programs ...... 296 15.5 Conclusion...... 297 References...... 297

16 Impossible Predictions of the Unprecedented: Analogy, History, and the Work of Prognostication...... 301 Kathryn Denning 16.1 Introduction...... 302 16.2 The Use of Analogies...... 302 16.3 What SETI Thinkers Have Written About Using Earth’s Intercultural Contacts as Analogies for SETI Contact...... 305 16.4 A Deeper Problem...... 307 16.5 What Are We Doing When We Prognosticate About the Potential Impacts of a Detection or Contact? And Might We Do Something Else?...... 309 16.6 Conclusion...... 311 References...... 311

17 Mainstream Media and Social Media Reactions to the Discovery of Extraterrestrial Life...... 313 Morris Jones 17.1 Introduction...... 314 17.2 Preconceptions for This Chapter...... 315 17.3 The Fall of Traditional Media ...... 315 17.4 Skepticism...... 317 17.5 Words and Pictures...... 317 17.6 Traffic Jams and Cybersecurity...... 319 17.7 Filling the Air...... 320 17.8 Persuasion and Agenda-Setting...... 321 17.9 Two-Step Communication...... 322 17.10 Viral Transmissions on Social Media...... 323 17.11 Online Collaborative Media...... 324 17.12 Shared Video ...... 325 17.13 Crisis Management...... 325 xxviii Contents

17.14 Monitoring the Public ...... 326 17.15 Other Cultures ...... 327 17.16 Conclusion...... 327 References...... 327

18 Christianity’s Response to the Discovery of Extraterrestrial Intelligent Life: Insights from Science and Religion and the Sociology of Religion...... 329 Constance M. Bertka 18.1 Introduction...... 329 18.2 Conventional Wisdom of the SETI and Astrobiology Community?...... 330 18.3 The Response from Contemporary Christian Theologians. . . . 332 18.4 Insights from Science and Religion...... 333 18.5 Insights from the Sociology of Religion ...... 337 18.6 Conclusion...... 338 References...... 339

19 Would the Discovery of ETI Provoke a Religious Crisis?...... 341 Ted Peters 19.1 The Prophets of Crisis...... 342 19.2 The Peters ETI Religious Crisis Survey...... 344 19.3 The Question of Geocentrism and Anthropocentrism...... 349 19.4 Conclusion...... 353 References...... 354

About the Authors...... 357

Index...... 363