Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Seminar für Afrikawissenschaften Linguistisches Kolloquium

06/01/2015

Southern Africa as a phonological area

Christfried Naumann, Leipzig (+Hans-Jörg Bibiko)

contact: [email protected]

Quelle: Clements & Rialland (2008: 37) Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 01. Introduction

Phonological similarities

• large consonantal inventory (45) • clicks • aspirated and ejective stops • dorsal

2 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 01. Introduction

Phonological similarities

• large consonantal inventory (50) • clicks • aspirated and ejective stops •(dorsal affricate) • lateral obstruents

3 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 01. Introduction

Phonological similarities

• large consonantal inventory (68) • (clicks) • aspirated, breathy and implosive stops • lateral obstruents

4 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 01. Introduction

Example: Distribution of ejectives/glottalized

Clements & Rialland (2008: 62) Maddieson (2013) 5 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 01. Introduction

Problems • data basis of previous studies

• conflicting conclusions:

"A third zone, the South, is sharply delineated by the remaining features ...: ejective and aspirated stops, clicks, and slack voiced stops. To these features we could add their characteristic series of lateral and . All these features are widely shared by and in the region." Clements & Rialland (2008: 82)

"... [S]ubstrate interference contributed repeatedly to creating linguistic similarities [in Nguni, Tswana, (possibly other ,) and Afrikaans] with Kalahari Basin languages (or at least maintaining existing ones) but has not been strong enough to make the newcomers "full" members of the area." Güldemann & Fehn (in prep.: 18; cf. also Güldemann 2010: 572f.)

6 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 01. Introduction

This talk

• (slightly) more systematic investigation of phonological features (phoneme inventories, syllable structure) • Southern Africa vs. Kalahari Basin ("Khoisan") (vs. Southeastern Bantu) • compared to other languages further north (subequatorial Africa)

• Are there sufficient features to treat Southern Africa as one clearly delineated area? • Can we recognize neat subareas? • Is it possible to compare their validity on quantitative data? • Are there South African languages that are not part of the linguistic area? (Why?) • Are there links to areas outside of the region?

7 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 01. Introduction

Linguistic and phonological areas • phonological areas: linguistic areas claimed on the basis of phonological traits • linguistic areas (Campbell 2006: 6) • several (marked) linguistic features • shared by two or more languages (unrelated, or from different subgroups of the family) • in a geographically contiguous area • < diffusion (borrowing)

Qualifications • I agree: "linguistic areas are after-the-fact constructs based on the residue and accumulation of borrowed traits" (Campbell 2006:14) • I do not fully agree: • "... [I]t would be more productive just to investigate the facts of linguistic diffusion without the concern for defining linguistic areas." (Campbell 2005:2) • "the whole notion of 'areal phenomena' is built on the convenient fiction that each language has a specific location in space, that no more than one language is spoken in each place, and that language contact takes place between adjacent languages. However, language contacts typically occur in densely [multilingual] populated places ..." (Dahl 2001, cited in Campbell 2006: 14)

Cf. also Heine & Leyew (2008: 16) 8 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 01. Introduction

"(South African) Khoisan" languages: 3 distinct families Khoe-Kwadi (≈"Central Khoisan") Kwadi† ANGOLA Khwe (Caprivi Khwe, ǁAni ...; Ts'ixa ?) Shua (Cara, Deti†, ǀXaise, Danisi ...) NW ǃXun Khwe Tshwa (Kua, ...) Tsʼixa ZIMBABWE Juǀ'hoan Shua Naro Gǁana (Gǀui, Gǁana) Tshwa Naro Namibian Standard Khoekhoe Gǀui MOZAMBIQUE (Nama-Damara, Haiǁom, ǂAakhoe) Khoekhoe Taa ǃOra-Xiri (†) ǂʼAmkoe Eini† Cape Khoekhoe† ǀHaasi SWAZILAND ǁXegwi Kxʼa (≈"Northern Khoisan") Nǁng Ju (NW ǃXun, Juǀ'hoan, ...) ǃOra LESOTHO ǂʼAmkoe (Nǃaqriaxe, ǂHoan, Sasi) ǀXam SOUTH AFRICA Tuu ("Southern Khoisan") Taa (West ǃXoon, East ǃXoon, ...) Lower Nossob† (ǀHaasi, ǀʼAuni) Nǁng (= Nǀuu, ǂKhomani, ...) ǀXam† (Strandberg, Achterveld, ...) ǂUngkue † ǁXegwi† Güldemann (2014: 7), modified 9 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 01. Introduction

No accepted genealogical classfication of Bantu languages The referential system by Guthrie (1967-71) (revised by Maho 2009) • geographic zones: A - S • local groupings, e.g. A10, S40 • individual languages, e.g.

o Ewondo A.72 o Chichewa N.31 o Bulu A.74 o Tonga (Zambia) o Fang A.75(1) M.64 o C.30b o Makhuwa P.31 o D.61 o R.11 o D.62 o Ovambo R.21-24 o E.15 o Herero R.31 o Gikuyu E.51 o Shona S.11-15 o Kamba E.55 o Tswana S.31 o Sukuma F.21 o N. Sotho S.32 o Swahili G.42-43 o S. Sotho S.33 o Kikongo H.14-16 o Xhosa S.41 o H.21 o Zulu S.42 o Chokwe K.11 o Luba-Kasai L.31

Möhlig (1981: 81) 10 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 01. Introduction

No accepted genealogical classfication of Bantu languages E.g.

Hinnebusch (1989: 458, Nurse & Philippson (2003): cf. Hammarström et al. citing Heine, Hoff & Vossen Intermediate Bantu groupings (2014) 1977) (preliminary proposal)

Bantu Bantu Narrow Bantu I. Tiv ?A11-4, A20-30 less A31 [1.] Ababuan ...... VIII. Kongo Branch K10-30 less K31, L10-50-60, 1. Upper Kongo Group H21, R ...... [6.] East Bantu 8. East Highlands Group • Botatwe ...... u. Shona Subgroup [S10] S10 • Shona [S10] v. Rue [Sena, N.40?] • Southern Bantu-Makua w. Venda [S20] S20-30-40-?S50-?S60, P30 o Chopi [S60] x. Tsonga Subgroup [S50] o Nguni-Tsonga [S30+S50] y. Inhambane Subgroup [S60] o Sotho-Makua-Venda z. Sotho-Zulu Subgroup − Sotho-Makua [S30+S40] [S30+P30] − Venda [S20] 11 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 01. Introduction

Bantu languages of Southern Africa (local, largely non-controversial genealogical groupings) (Zone K) Ngangela K10: Ngangela, Chokwe, Luchazi, ... Lozi Kwanyama Kwangali Ikuhane Shona K30: Kwangali, Manyo, Mbukushu, ... Ndonga Manyo Fwe Mbukushu K40: Fwe, Ikuhane (=Subiya), Totela Ndebele Yeyi of Zimb. Ndau Herero Kalanga (Zone R) Tswa Venda R20 (Wambo): Kwanyama, Ndonga, ... Tsonga N.Sotho Pai Gitonga R30 (Herero): Central Herero, Mbanderu, ... Kgalagadi Tswana Chopi R40 Yeyi Tr.Ndebele Swati Rhonga

(Zone S) S.Sotho Zulu S10 (Shona): Standard Shona, Ndau, Kalanga, ... Phuthi S20 Venda Xhosa S30+K20 (Sotho-Tswana): Tswana, Kgalagadi, Northern Sotho, Pai, Southern Sotho, Lozi S40 (Nguni): Xhosa, Zulu, Swati, Phuthi, Transvaal Ndebele, Ndebele of Zimbabwe ?S50 (Tswa-Rhonga): Tswa, Tsonga (=Changana), Rhonga ?S60 (Copi): C(h)opi, Gitonga

Nurse & Philippson (2003: 169f.), Maho (2009). 12 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 01. Introduction

Other languages

Indo-European Germanic: Afrikaans

Ignored: • sign languages • restructured urban varieties and contact languages • other Indo-European languages

Afrikaans

13 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 02. Procedure

• data collection: extraction of phoneme inventories and syllable types from published sources • language sample: 138 languages • aimed at maximal number of documented languages of Southern Africa (cf. above) • Sandawe & Hadza (Greenberg's "Khoisan": clicks) • 'Southern' Cushitic: Dahalo (clicks), Burunge, Iraqw • 3 – 6 languages of different groupings in the remaining Bantu zones (A – P) • exemplary languages for other subequatorial and adjacent lineages (Non-Bantu Bantoid [Niger-Kordofanian]; Gbayic, Bandic, Ngbandic, Mbaic, Baka-Mundu, Zandic [Niger- Kordofanian/"Ubangian"]; Lowland East Cushitic [Afroasiatic]; Western, Eastern and Southern Nilotic, Moru-Mangbetu, Kuliak ["Nilo-Saharan"]) • each language: coding of numerical or categorical phonological features, e.g. "number of consonants" (14 – 88) or "whistled obstruents" (0 absent, 1 present) • value plots for each feature (Hans-Jörg Bibiko, in "R") • visual inspection: assessment of areally distributed feature values and typical traits of Southern Africa and other potential regions, e.g. Kalahari Basin: 15 features • counting feature values for each language and each assumed area, e.g. "How many typical Kalahari features (values) are found in Zulu?" > listing and histograms • summary for language groups (cf. handout)

Genealogical groupings following Güldemann & Hammarström (p.c./in prep.) 14 Tikar Gbaya Kpa,A53 Sango "Ubangian" "Nilo-Saharan" Oromo Duala,A24 Makaa,A83 Mono Yakoma Zande Mündü Ngbaka Basaa,A43 Ma'di Turkana Ewondo,A72 Mangbetu Alur Ik Cushitic Fang,A75 Bango,C441 Ngiti Lango Mba Somali Language A Dibole,C101 Bira,D32 J B Ganda,JE15 Kipsigis Mongo,C61 D Luo Kikuyu,E51 sample Myene,B11 Mbosi,C25 Gusii,JE42 Sangu, B42 Lingala,C36d Rwanda,JD61Haya,JE22 Maa E Dahalo C Kela,C75 Kukwa,B77a Rundi,JD62 Sukuma,F21 Kiwoso,E621 Lega,D251 Hadza Iraqw Giryama,E72a Kituba,H10A Nzadi,B865 F Nilamba,F31 BurungePare,G22 Bende,F12 Sandawe Kongo,H14 Luba,L31 Kagulu,G12 Songe,L23 G Swahili,G40 Kimbundu,H21 Matuumbi,P13 L Mambwe,M14Nyiha,M23 H Pangwa,G64 Chokwe,K11 Bemba,M42 Lunda,L52 Ngoni,N12 Makonde,P23 Umbundu,R11 M Tumbuka, N21 K Kaonde,L41 Yao,P21 R Lamba,M54 Luchazi,K13 P Chewa,N31 Nyaneka,R13 Luvale,K14 Nsenga,N41 Makhuwa,P31 Ngangela,K12b Ila,M63 N Lozi,K21 Tonga,M64 Ekoti,P311 Kwanyama,R21 Kwangali,K33 Ikuhane,K41 NW !Xun Manyo,K332 Fwe,K402 Shona,S10 Echuwabo,P34 Ndonga,R22 Mbukushu,K333 Khwe Sena, N44 Juǀ'hoan Tsʼixa Yeyi,R41 Shua Ndebele,S44 Herero,R31 Tshwa S Ndau, S15 Kalanga,S16 Naro Tswa,S51 Khoekhoe Gǀui Venda,S21 Taa Tsonga,S53 Taa Gitonga,S62 ǂʼAmkoe N.Sotho,S32 Pai,S303 Kgalagadi,S311 Ndebele,S408 Chopi,S61 Rhonga,S54 ǀHaasi Tswana,S31 Swati,S43 ǁXegwi Nǁng S.Sotho,S33 Zulu,S42 ǃOra Phuthi,S404 ǀXam Xhosa,S41

Afrikaans 15 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 02. Procedure

Phoneme inventories • "Khoisan-centric" arrangement of charts: series of affricates and clicks in parallel to place of articulation; e.g. for Taa/West !Xoon below

16 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 02. Procedure

Example Presence () vs. absence () of non-open central (e.g. ə, ɨ, ɘ)

> areal distribution > not very important for subequatorial Africa

17 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Kalahari Basin

> 5 clicks: significant click inventories

Presence of clicks  0  1-5  > 5

18 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Kalahari Basin

>3 click types: more than three basic click types, e.g. ʘ, ǀ, ǃ, ǂ, ǁ

Number of basic click types: 0 - 5

19 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Kalahari Basin

/ejectives/: presence of ejective obstruents contrastive with plain series, e.g. /kʼ/ : /k/

Presence of ejective obstruents  no ejectives  non-contrastive with plain stops  contrastive with plain stops

20 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Kalahari Basin

Vn: presence of nasalized vowels, e.g. /ã/ (:/a/)

Presence of nasalized vowels  0  > 0

21 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Kalahari Basin

>2 tones: presence of complex systems including more than 2 tone levels, e.g. high : mid : low

Number of distinctive tone levels  non-tonal  2 levels  > 2 levels

22 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Kalahari Basin

Kalahari Basin ("South African Khoisan")

23 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Kalahari Basin

Kalahari Basin: Features by language • ideal phonological area: clear boundaries (not fuzzy) • all "Khoisan" languages show at least 10 out of 15 typical phonological features, no other language has more than 7 > bimodal distribution, discrete boundary

Histogram

40

35 "(South African) Khoisan" languages of the sample

30

25

20

15 N of N of languages 10

5

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 More Number of features out of 15 phonological features typical for South African Khoisan

24 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Kalahari Basin

Features by language "(South African) Khoisan" languages of the sample

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0 Alur Nǁng Naro Ngiti Iraqw Zande Dahalo Mündü Ngbaka ǀHaasi X ǀHaasi Turkana Sandawe ǁXegwi X ǁXegwi Ila (M63) Ila Mangbetu Yao (P21) Yao Zulu (S42) Zulu Bende (F12) Bende Lunda (L52) Lunda Sangu (B42) Sangu Venda (S21) Venda Songe (L.23) Songe Kongo (H16) Kongo Myene (B11) Myene Kikuyu (E51) Kikuyu Swahili (G40) Swahili Ndonga (R22) Ndonga Sukuma (F21) Sukuma Bango (C.441) Bango Rwanda (JD61) Rwanda Tumbuka (N21) Tumbuka Sotho, Pai (S303) Sotho, Kpa ~Bafia (A53) ~Bafia Kpa Mbukushu (K333) Mbukushu ǃXun,Northwestern Sotho, Northern (S32) Northern Sotho, Tonga ~giTonga (S62) Tonga Sena (N44) (Kish.&Lip.) (N44) Sena Tswana, Botswana (S31) Botswana Tswana, Ngoni of (N12) Tanzania Ngoni of Ndebele of Zimbabwe (S44) of Zimbabwe Ndebele Kukwa ~South Teke (B77a) Teke ~South Kukwa Lega (D251) (Lega-Malinga) (D251) Lega Nyaneka(-Nkumbi) (R13(/14) Nyaneka(-Nkumbi) Shona, Standard (S10) (main chart) (main (S10) Standard Shona, Ngangela~Nyemba (K12b) (Maniacky) (K12b) Ngangela~Nyemba 25 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Kalahari Basin

Features by language group

26 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southeastern Bantu

>2 affricated series: more than two series of affricates, e.g. t͡s, t͡ʃ, p͡f (:t, f)

Number of affricated series paradigmatic to non-affricated stops in at least one series (ts/dz :t, tʃ/dʒ :t, pf/bv :p, kx, qχ, tɬ )

0 - 5

27 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southeastern Bantu

TL: presence of lateral obstruents, e.g. t͡l, t͡ɬ, ɬ, ɮ

Number of obstruents with lateral airstreams (ɬ, tɬ, tl, ɮ), (excluding lateral clicks, lateral )  0  > 1

28 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southeastern Bantu

Whistled obstruents: presence of whistled fricatives and affricates, e.g. sv, zv, t͡sv

Presence of whistled fricatives/affricates  0  > 1

29 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southeastern Bantu ph:f: contrast between bilabial and labio-dental continuants, e.g. /ɸ/:/f/, /m/:/ɱ/, /β̞/:/ʋ/ (excluding p:pf, mp:mf)

Presence of bilabial continuants contrastive with labio-dental counterparts  0  > 0

30 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southeastern Bantu

BH,DH: presence of breathy or slack voiced stops, e.g. /bɦ/ or /b̤/

Presence of clicks Presence of ejective obstruents  no ejectives  non-contrastive with plain stops  contrastive with plain stops

31 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southeastern Bantu implosives: presence of implosives, e.g. /ɓ/ or /b/ [ɓ]

Presence of implosives  no implosives  non-contrastive with voiced stops  contrastive with voiced stops

32 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southeastern Bantu

List of typical features

33 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southeastern Bantu

Features by language (16 features, including 4 general Bantu features) • weak phonological area: fuzzy boundaries, but slight bimodal distribution • languages are not very homogenous (no language has all features, only three languages have more than 12: Tswa, Tsonga and Transvaal Ndebele) • problem: genealogical group cannot be excluded (but unlikely)

Histogram

50 45 40 35 Southeastern Bantu languages (Bantu S except 30 Tswana, Kgalagadi and Ndebele of Zimbabwe) 25 20

N of N of languages 15 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 More N of features out of 16 phonological features typical for Southeastern Bantu, including 4 general Bantu ones

34 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southeastern Bantu

Features by language (12 features, northern languages excluded) • similar assessment, but • general Bantu features (NC, C+w, no coda, 2 tones) excluded • ignoring northern languages (Bantu A – E, Nilotic, "Ubangian", Nilotic, Cushitic, Sandawe & Hadza) • > better results: most languages share no feature (0 or 1), languages in contiguous southeastern area share more than 3 features Histogram

40

35 30 Southeastern Bantu languages (Bantu S except 25 Tswana, Kgalagadi and Ndebele of Zimbabwe) 20

15

10

N of N of languages (total: 88) 5

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 More N of features out of 12 phonological features typical for Southeastern Bantu

35 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southeastern Bantu

Features by language (16 features, all languages) Southeastern Bantu languages (Bantu S except Tswana, Kgalagadi and Ndebele of Zimbabwe) 16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

36 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Kalahari Basin

Features by language group

37 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southern Africa

Large C inventory: large consonantal inventory (> 33 phonemic consonants)

Number of distinctive consonants 14 – 88

Clicks: cf. above

38 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southern Africa

> 5 plain stops: more than 5 places of articulation or configurations for plain series of stops, e.g. /p, t, tʃ, k, q, ǀ/

Number of stops in the plain (usually voiceless or aspirated; sometimes ejected) series

3 - 12

39 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southern Africa

Aspirated stops: presence of aspirated stops contrastive with plain series, e.g. /pʰ, tʰ/ vs. /p, t/

Presence of clicks  no  yes

Ejectives: cf. above

40 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southern Africa

UV or KX: presence of uvular obstruents or dorsal affricates, e.g. q, χ, kx, or qχʼ

Presence of clicks  0  > 0

41 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southern Africa

Double obstruent onsets: presence of double obstruent onsets disregarding simple labial-velars (k͡p), clicks (ǀ) and whistled obstruents (t͡sv), e.g. labial-coronal, labial- dorsal, or coronal-dorsal double articulations or clusters such as ps, bg, tf or ǀχ

Presence of clicks  0  analyzed as clusters (C1+C2)  analyzed as units (C͡C)

42 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southern Africa

Southern Africa

43 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southern Africa

Features by language • bimodal distribution, although no clearcut boundary • most languages in the sample share no or few features • languages of Southern Africa (including 'Southern' Cushitic, Sandawe and Hadza) share more than half of the features (5-10) • "best languages" are Khoisan > clear relation to Kalahari Basin > "2nd layer"?!

Histogram

50 Languages of Southern Africa (Bantu S, Bantu R40, 45 parts of Bantu K30, "Khoisan"), including 'Southern' 40 Cushitic, Hadza and Sandawe; excluding Afrikaans, 35 Bantu R10-30 and Gitonga 30 25 20 15 10 N of N of languages (total: 138) 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 More N of features out of 10 phonological features typical for languages of Southern Africa

44 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southern Africa

Features by language

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0 Ik Nǁng ǃOra X Dahalo Kipsigis Turkana Bila (D32) Basaa (A43) Bende (F12) Shua/Danisi Sangu (B42) Venda (S21) Nyiha (M23) Kongo (H16) Makaa (A83) Kikuyu (E51) Kagulu (G12) Bemba (M42) Rhonga (S54) Nsenga (N41) Phuthi (S404) Luchazi (K13) Ndonga (R22) Makonde (P23) Taa/East !Xoon Tumbuka (N21) Kgalagadi (S311) Chewa~Nyanja (N31) Tonga ~giTonga (S62) Ikuhane ~Subiya (K42) Luba (Luba-Kasai) (L31) Tswana, South Africa (S31) Kukwa ~South Teke (B77a) Ndebele, Northern Transvaal ~ (S408) Ngangela~Nyemba (K12b) (Maniacky)

45 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southern Africa

Features by language: Languages sharing 5 features and more

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

46 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 03. Results: Southern Africa

Features by language group

47 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area 04. Conclusions

3 phonological areas • Kalahari Basin: best • Southern Africa, with Kalahari Basin languages 'performing' best '> related to Kalahari Basin area • Southeastern Bantu: weakest are, strong genealogical component (shared innovations) cannot be excluded

> my interpretations: • Southern Bantu languages DO consitute one phonological area with "Khoisan" (Kalahari Basin) languages • the Kalahari Basin approximates an ideal situation of a linguistic area (genetic studies: long periods of isolation in the past; cf. Australia?) • "Southern Africa" as a phonological area is a second layer to the Kalahari Basin' • some languages do not participate: Afrikaans, Herero, Wambo languages qualifications • languages are spoken by mobile individuals > variation!, multilingualism, definition of linguistic areas depends on particular settings (often fuzzy), ... 48 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area

Southeastern Bantu Kalahari phon.ar. Basin phon.ar. Southern Africa phon.ar. 49 Linguistisches Kolloquium, 06.01.2015 Southern Africa as a phonological area References

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