AND THE BALANCE OF EMPIRES ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY FROM JUSTINIAN I TO THE CŒUR DE LION AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH ARCHEOLOGICAL REPORTS

Kevin M. McGeough, Editor

Number 20 Cyprus and the Balance of Empires: Art and Archaeology from Justinian I to the Cœur de Lion

CAARI MONOGRAPH SERIES 5 CYPRUS AND THE BALANCE OF EMPIRES ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY FROM JUSTINIAN I TO THE CŒUR DE LION

Edited by

Charles Anthony Stewart, Thomas W. Davis, and Annemarie Weyl Carr

organized by The Cyprus American Archaeological Research Institute

AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH • BOSTON, MA Cyprus and the Balance of Empires: Art and Archaeology from Justinian I to the Cœur de Lion

edited by Charles Anthony Stewart, Thomas W. Davis, and Annemarie Weyl Carr

Cover: Chalice with Tyche Personification of “The City of Cyprus,” from the Avar Treasure Hoard, Vrap (Albania). Gold. 8th–9th century, possibly made in Cyprus. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, acc. no. 17.190.1710. Image copyright © The Metropolitan Museum of Art / Art Resource, NY.

The American Schools of Oriental Research © 2014

ISBN 978-0-89757-073-2

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper. Contents

List of Illustrations vii List of Tables x Preface xi Acknowledgments xv chapter 1 – The Significance of the Basilica at Agioi Pente of Yeroskipou (Demetrios Michaelides) 1 chapter 2 – A Brief History of Byzantine Archaeological Research on Cyprus (Thomas W. Davis & Charles Anthony Stewart) 17 chapter 3 – Christianity in Cyprus in the Fourth to Seventh Centuries (Claudia Rapp) 29 chapter 4 – The Troodos in Twilight: A Provincial Landscape in the Time of Justinians (Marcus Rautman) 39 chapter 5 – The North–South Divide in Byzantine Cyprus: Some Evidence from Lead Seals and Coins (D.M. Metcalf) 57 chapter 6 – The Katalymata ton Plakoton: New Light from the Recent Archaeological Research in Byzantine Cyprus (Eleni Procopiou) 69 chapter 7 – Chypre et les Arabes avant les croisades à la lumière des sources arabes (M. Tahar Mansouri) 99 English Abstract 105 chapter 8 – The Development of Byzantine Architecture on Cyprus (Charles Anthony Stewart) 107 chapter 9 – Cypriot Icons before the Twelfth Century (Sophocles Sophocleous) 135 chapter 10 – The Stuff of Life: the Material Culture of Everyday Living on Middle Byzantine Cyprus (11th–12th Centuries) (Maria Parani) 153 Appendix: Compositional Analysis of a Copper-Alloy Dish of the Middle Byzantine Period in the A. Pitsillides Collection (Vasiliki Kassianidou) 164

v chapter 11 – The Program of the Panagia Pergaminiotissa: A Narrative in Perspective (Annemarie Weyl Carr) 167 chapter 12 – Decoding Cyprus from Late Antiquity to the Renaissance: Discordant Visions, Saints, and Sacred Topography (Tassos Papacostas) 187

Bibliography Primary Sources 203 Secondary Sources 209 Contributors 257 Index Historic Persons and Places 259 Subjects, Monuments, Events, and Topical

vi List of Illustrations

Map of Cyprus. xvi Regional map in the time of Justinian I. xviii Regional map around ad 1200. xviii

Fig. 1.1 One of the stone-built ossuaries. 2 Fig. 1.2 Gold ornaments and fittings. 2 Fig. 1.3 (a.) Gold finger ring; (b.) Electrum ring; (c.) Gold ring decorated with amethyst. 4 Fig. 1.4 Gold earrings decorated with carnelian and other stones. 4 Fig. 1.5 Gold earrings with pendant chains. 4 Fig. 1.6 Putting together fragments of muff-blown (or cylindrical) glass panes. 5 Fig. 1.7 The lower parts of plain hollow stem type glass lamps. 6 Fig. 1.8 The southern mosaic with the Biblical inscriptions. 7 Fig. 1.9 Detail of the central and left medallion of the southern inscription. 7 Fig. 1.10 The burials under the southern mosaic. 8 Fig. 1.11 The northern mosaic being prepared for lifting. 9 Fig. 1.12 The burial under the northern mosaic during cleaning. 10 Fig. 1.13 Three golden pendants. 10 Fig. 1.14 Remnants of cloth covering the skeleton. 11 Fig. 1.15 Plan of the site showing the remains of the basilica. 12 Fig. 1.16 The remnants of one of the stylobates of the basilica. 13 Fig. 1.17 Nail for fixing veneering onto the wall. 13 Fig. 1.18 Champlevé panel with Cross and Biblical quotations. 14

Fig. 4.1 The Troodos Mountains, eastern branch of the Kouris valley. 40 Fig. 4.2 The Cypriot countryside above Kalavasos. 42 Fig. 4.3 Map of Cyprus with late Roman cities and surveys discussed in the text. 42 Fig. 4.4 The Vasilikos valley, looking north toward Kalavasos from Kopetra. 44 Fig. 4.5 Vasilikos Valley, distribution of late Roman occupation sites. 45 Fig. 4.6 Kalavasos-Spilios, chronological distribution of dated survey pottery. 46 Fig. 4.7 Kalavasos-Ayious, chronological distribution of dated survey pottery. 46 Fig. 4.8 Kalavasos-Kopetra, looking east from the Vasilikos river plain. 47 Fig. 4.9 Kalavasos-Kopetra, Area II, looking west. 48 Fig. 4.10 Kalavasos-Sirmata, reconstruction of monastic complex. 48 Fig. 4.11 Kalavasos-Sirmata, basilica looking east. 49 Fig. 4.12 Kalavasos-Kopetra, Area II basilica, gypsum plaster relief of Virgin and Child. 49 Fig. 4.13 Kalavasos-Kopetra, chronological distribution of dated survey pottery. 50 Fig. 4.14 Kopetra, Area II, representative pottery from late occupation. 52

Fig. 5.1 Findspots of coins from 688–965. 58 Fig. 5.2 Lead seal of Theodoros, Kleisourarch. 58 Fig. 5.3 Countermarked follis of Constans II. 62

vii Fig. 6.1 Akrotiri Peninsula, Cyprus. The Katalymata ton Plakoton site. 70 Fig. 6.2 The result of the excavation 2007–2009 at Aktrotiri-Katalymata ton Plakoton. 71 Fig. 6.3 The limits of the 2010 excavation at Aktrotiri-Katalymata ton Plakoton. 71 Fig. 6.4 The plan of Aktrotiri-Katalymata ton Plakoton (as excavated so far). 72 Fig. 6.5 Column base of the Ionic type. 73 Fig. 6.6 Fragment of a Corinthian type capital. 73 Fig. 6.7 Fragment of a capital with mixed elements of Corinthian and Aeolic types. 73 Fig. 6.8 Tentative reconstruction of the martyrium with proposed vaulting. 74 Fig. 6.9 Ground plan of Ilissos basilica (Attica, Greece), and reconstruction. 74 Fig. 6.10 The destruction level at the southwest corner. 75 Fig. 6.11 The larnax in the south apse. 75 Fig. 6.12 Reverse and obverse of a 5-nummi bronze coin from the larnax. 76 Fig. 6.13 A 6-nummi bronze coin from the larnax. 76 Fig. 6.14 Obverse and reverse of a half follis (20-nummi) bronze coin. 76 Fig. 6.15 Niche in the center of the east wall of the south branch. 76 Fig. 6.16 The raised central area (platform) at the crossing of the branches. 77 Fig. 6.17 Marble pillar and transenna. 78 Fig. 6.18 The foundation of benches along the sides of the platform (ἐξέδρα). 78 Fig. 6.19 The corridor attached to the east side of the platform (ἐξέδρα). 79 Fig. 6.20 The plan of the floor mosaics (plan in progress). 80 Fig. 6.21 The mosaic panels of the central aisle of the north transept arm. 81 Fig. 6.22 The mosaic decoration of the corridor in the central aisle of the “nave.” 81 Fig. 6.23 Ground plan of Abu Mena (Egypt), 5th-century transept basilica. 83 Fig. 6.24 Plan of the excavation at the Panagia tou Kampou (Choirokitia). 88 Fig. 6.25 Excavation at the Panagia tou Kampou (Choirokitia). South aisle. 88 Fig. 6.26 Excavation at the Panagia tou Kampou (Choirokitia). North aisle. 89

Fig. 8.1 Saints Sergius and Bacchus and Hagia Sophia, both in Constantinople. 110 Fig. 8.2 Nea Ekklesia, Jerusalem, and St. Catherine’s basilica, Sinai. 110 Fig. 8.3 Phase 1 ground plans: cathedrals of Salamis-Constantia, , and Soloi. 112 Fig. 8.4 Phase 2 ground plans: cathedrals of Salamis-Constantia, Paphos, and Soloi. 112 Fig. 8.5 Phase 2 Wooden-Roof Basilica Ground Plans 114 Fig. 8.6 Phase 2 Barrel Vault Ground Plans. 114 Fig. 8.7 “Horseshoe-arch” doorways. 116 Fig. 8.8 Hypothetical diagram of “horseshoe-arch” portals. 116 Fig. 8.9 Ground plans of Agios Epiphanios, Cathedral of Salamis-Constantia. 117 Fig. 8.10 Hypothetical reconstruction of the third-phase exterior of Agios Epiphanios. 117 Fig. 8.11 Agia Paraskevi, Yeroskipou. 118 Fig. 8.12 Elevations of Agiοi Varnavas and Hilarion and Agios Epiphanios. 118 Fig. 8.13 Ground plans of the Panagia Chrysogialiotissa and the Staurovouni katholicon. 120 Fig. 8.14 Map showing Mountain fortifications and monasteries. 121 Fig. 8.15 Buffavento Castle. 122 Fig. 8.16 Buffavento Castle photographs. 122 Fig. 8.17 Domed octagon within St. Hilarion Castle. 123 Fig. 8.18 Domed-Octagon within St. Hilarion Castle: exterior north wall. 123 Fig. 8.19 Domed-Octagon ground plans. 124 Fig. 8.20 Domed-Octagon elevations. 124 Fig. 8.21 Antiphonetes Church, Kalograia, and Ninočminda (Georgia. 125

viii Fig. 8.22 Cross-section elevation eastern wall. 126 Fig. 8.23 Agios Philon, Carpasia, present condition of the north exterior wall. 127 Fig. 8.24 Agios Philon, Carpasia. 128

Fig. 9.1 Katholikon of the Acheiropoeitos Monastery near Lambousa. 136 Fig. 9.2 Church of Agia Paraskevi at Yeroskipou. East dome with aniconic murals. 136 Fig. 9.3 Church of Agia Barbara, near Koroveia. Aniconic ornament. 137 Fig. 9.4 Church of Agios Antonios, Kellia. Crucifixion. 138 Fig. 9.5 Chapel of Agia Solomoni, . 138 Fig. 9.6 Icon of Saint Marina from Philousa Kelokedaron. 139 Fig. 9.7 Icon of Blachernitissa from the church of Panagia Phaneromeni. 139 Fig. 9.8 Icon of Agiosoritisa re-written as Agiomacherioritisa. 140 Fig. 9.9 Madonna di San Sisto. 140 Fig. 9.10 Santa Maria in Ara Coeli at Campidoglio, Rome. 141 Fig. 9.11 The icon of Kykkiotissa at the Kykkos Monastery. 142 Fig. 9.12 Church of Agios Antonios at Kellia. Detail of the Sacrifice of Abraham. 142 Fig. 9.13 Murals in the katholicon of Agios Nikolaos tis Stegis monastery, Kakopetria. 143 Fig. 9.14 Icon of Saints Minas, Victor and Vikentios. 144 Fig. 9.15 Detail of fig. 9.14. 144 Fig. 9.16 Icon of Saints Kosmas and Damianos. 145 Fig. 9.17 Icon of Saint James the Persian. 146 Fig. 9.18 Details of the saints’ faces in the hermitage of Agios Sozomenos at Potamia. 146 Fig. 9.19 Part of an icon with apostles from the church of the Archangelos Michail. 147 Fig. 9.20 Icon of the Virgin flanked by Saints Luke and Lazarus. 147 Fig. 9.21 Icon of the Virgin Mary from the church of Panagia Chrysaliniotissa. 148 Fig. 9.22 Icon of the Prophet Elijah from the Monastery of Agios Ioannis Lampadistis. 148

Fig. 10.1 Steatite encolpia with St. Nicholas. 157 Fig. 10.2 Picrolite pendant cross. 157 Fig. 10.3 Copper alloy pendant reliquary cross with St. John. 158 Fig. 10.4 Copper-alloy icon with St. Saint Gregory the Miracle-Worker. 159 Fig. 10.5 Brass plate with pseudo-kufic inscription. 160

Fig. 11.1 Panagia Pergaminiotissa. Exterior from the northeast. 168 Fig. 11.2 Panagia Pergaminiotissa. Interior, looking east. 169 Fig. 11.3 Panagia Pergaminiotissa. View into the bema. 170 Fig. 11.4 Panagia Pergaminiotissa. Eleventh-century figure. 171 Fig. 11.5 Panagia Pergaminiotissa. Prayer of Anna. 172 Fig. 11.6 Panagia Pergaminiotissa. Joachim and Anna consult the Law. 173 Fig. 11.7 Panagia Pergaminiotissa. Meeting of Joachim and Anna. 174 Fig. 11.8 Panagia Pergaminiotissa. Prayer of Joachim. 174 Fig. 11.9 Panagia Pergaminiotissa. Rejection of the offerings. 175 Fig. 11.10 Panagia Pergaminiotissa. Joachim and Anna consult the Law: Joachim. 178 Fig. 11.11 Saint Catherine’s Monastery, Mount Sinai, cod. 179, fol. 84v. 178 Fig. 11.12 Panagia Phorbiotissa, Asinou. Annunciation: Gabriel. 179 Fig. 11.13 Panagia Pergaminiotissa. Prayer of Anna: Anna. 180 Fig. 11.14 Hagia Sophia, Ohrid. Ascension: Mother of God. 180 Fig. 11.15 Holy Apostles, Perachorio. Dome: angel. 180

ix Fig. 12.1 Kyrenia gate, : inner façade with inscriptions. 188 Fig. 12.2 gate, Nicosia: inner façade. 188 Fig. 12.3 Kyrenia gate, Nicosia: inner façade before 1930. 189 Fig. 12.4 Kyrenia gate, Nicosia: outer façade before 1930. 190 Fig. 12.5 Kyrenia gate, Nicosia: view from the south-east. 191 Fig. 12.6 Church of Saint Athanasios Pentaschoinites: plan of the excavated remains. 194 Fig. 12.7 Church of Saint Tychon, Amathus: plan. 195 Fig. 12.8 Map of Cyprus: episcopal sees listed by Leontios Machairas. 197 Fig. 12.9 Map of Cyprus: distribution of named saints’ and other holy relics. 198 Fig. 12.10 Map of Cyprus: concentrations of named saints’ and other holy relics. 198

List of Tables

Table 1 Chemical composition of dish in weight %. 165

x Preface

or thirty years CAARI has facilitated the work Fortunes changed dramatically in 649 with the of scholars researching the rich and complex first Arab invasions. Between 651 and 965, Cyprus archaeology of Cyprus. Fostering interna- was a tributary of both the Byzantine Empire and Ftional dialogue between researchers around the the Arab Caliphate at Damascus. Scholars often world has been the Institute’s significant contribu- characterized this period as “the condominium,” tion to academic study. By sponsoring conferences, or simply the “Dark Ages,” but archaeology and the Institute has highlighted current scholarship in historical research in this volume show that various fields; these include Res Maritimae (1994), such designations are no longer valid. In 965 the Engendering Aphrodite (1998), Egypt and Cyprus Byzantines reconquered the island; it would take in Antiquity (2003), and Cyprus and the Sea (the several decades before it became fully integrated. Kyrenia Ship) (2004). In continuing this tradition, The 11th and 12th centuries consisted of “growing CAARI hosted its first international conference pains,” when the Byzantine Empire attempted that specifically focused on Byzantine material cul- reconquest of Syria and ; eventually the ture from January 7th through 9th, 2011. The title Latin Crusades continued this push. Once again “Cyprus and the Balance of Empires” emphasized Cyprus would benefit from the conflict as an “in the unique position of Cyprus, “sandwiched” be- between place.” Imperially-supported monasticism tween the Eastern Roman Empire and Persia, and and its highest artistic expressions — manuscript later between Byzantium and Islamic Caliphate copying, churches, icons, and frescos — would and Latin Crusader Kingdoms. thrive on the island. But it seems that most Cypriots In ad 332 Cyprus was devastated by a series of were generally unhappy under the Byzantines. Two earthquakes which gave the Emperor Constantius rebellions against the Empire failed in 1042 and II (317–361) an opportunity to rebuild and literally 1092, while a third revolt was successful in 1182 reorient the island toward the Levantine coast. As led by Isaac Komnenos. Isaac proclaimed himself a consequence for 300 years Cyprus experienced the “Emperor of Cyprus,” though his reign would population growth and economic prosperity, be cut short by the crusading King Richard I of strategically positioned between Europe and Asia. England — thus ending Byzantine Cyprus as a Cyprus’ close cultural connection to the Greek- political entity. Richard’s conquest of the small speaking Aegean and Constantinople, and its prox- “island empire” contributed to his sobriquet Cœur imity to the pilgrimages centers of the Holy Land de Lion, that is, the Lionheart. further allowed Cypriots to contribute to wider This 800-year history is highly complex. Little cultural developments. Though the Byzantines historical documentation survives, so textual analy- continually warred with the Sassanid Persian sis is necessarily complemented by the archaeo- Empire, Cyprus was shielded from the conflict by logical material and art history. Interdisciplinary the sea while benefiting as naval and trade cen- collaboration is also essential to understanding how ter. Archaeology reflects new settlements in the Cyprus’ society, politics, and culture developed. Our countryside, urban expansion, and a blossoming conference explored both the semi-independence of monumental construction.We can assume that of Cyprus and its semi-dependence on external Cypriots were content at this time. Perhaps that powers. Some questions that were addressed were: is why Justinian I, the most prominent Byzantine ◉ What influence did the surrounding provinces emperor, spent his energies elsewhere. have on the island?

xi ◉ Was there ever a Cypriot “insularity”? ated schedule could still represent key facets of ◉ How were the policies of Damascus and Con- Byzantine material culture. stantinople manifested within Cypriot society? Since the conference would now coincide with ◉ Can we detect settlement patterns and popula- the 50th-year anniversary of the Republic of Cyprus, tion decline and growth? we highlighted the contribution of Cypriot schol- ◉ How was the island governed? ars to Byzantine archaeology, such as Athanasios ◉ Are there signs of a unique Cypriot identity? Papageorghiou and A.I. Dikigoropoulos. And ◉ Where does the ceramic and numismatic evi- we asked Professor Demetrios Michaelides, an dence lead? internationally renowned archaeologist and a ◉ What impact did iconoclasm have on the church Cypriot, to provide the opening keynote lecture. and its relations with the Byzantine Empire? His enlightening presentation recounted the Agioi ◉ How did the Crusades economically impact Pente (Yeroskipou) excavations, which revealed Cyprus in the twelfth century? a complex pilgrimage site dating from the sixth Naturally, such grand questions were not fully through eighth centuries. This was a superb open- answered. Each paper, however, provided new and ing lecture since it touched on all the issues that unpublished data; and when grouped as a whole, subsequent papers addressed: material culture, a larger picture of the period emerged that chal- economics, trade, burial practices, religious beliefs, lenged earlier perceptions. architectural development, artistic production, etc. The conference was first conceived by Thomas The morning presentations opened with Tom W. Davis, the former director of CAARI, in 2006. Davis’ lecture on the historiography of archaeologi- At that time, the Schaefer Library was adding the cal research on Byzantine Cyprus. This provided an Stylianou Collection of Byzantine books, and overview of the methods of past scholars, setting several medievalists were conducting research at the context for the following papers. Professor CAARI. Earlier, he had organized the “Medieval Claudia Rapp prepared a lecture on the develop- frescoes of Cyprus” conference in October 2005, ment of bishop-saints in Cyprus from the fourth which opened up the possibilities of having a century, and how this tradition would continue to larger, broader conference on material culture. So play an active role in shaping Cypriot society, poli- Tom asked me, a Fulbright fellow at the time, to tics, and cultural practices. Unfortunately, Claudia put together a proposal. Annemarie Weyl Carr, a could not attend due to illness; rather graciously, CAARI trustee and foremost expert on Byzantine Professor Paul Stephenson (Durham University) Art, quickly joined in the preliminary discussions. offered to read Professor Rapp’s paper — and he In time we asked Helena Wylde Swiny to join our did so quite eloquently, despite the short notice. Organizing Committee. Eventually the Planning Professor Marcus Rautman gave us a synopsis Committee was formed, spearheaded by Vathoulla of the field surveys of the Troodos region and how Moustoukki and Evi Karyda, which was given these allowed us to glimpse trade, settlement, and added assistance by Doria Nicolaou and Phodoulla investment patterns in early Byzantine Cyprus. Christodoulou. Afterwards, Brooke Shilling illustrated how We initially planned to have a five-day confer- Byzantine literature and theology could assist us in ence in the summer of 2009, consisting of 24 speak- interpreting a great masterpiece — the apse mosaic ers. Because of the global economic downturn in of the Panagia Angeloktisti (Kiti). To conclude the 2008, the conference was delayed and our original morning session, Dr. Michael Metcalf elucidated sponsors could no longer fund us. And yet the how numismatics and sigillography have clarified CAARI director was tenacious, and in the sum- settlement patterns between 649 and 965, when mer of 2010 the conference came to life again with the Arabs had a presence on Cyprus. new energy, thanks to the encouragement of Mr. The afternoon session began with Dr. Eleni Constantinos S. Loizides. New realities forced the Procopiou’s important lecture on the vast pilgrim- committee to reduce the number of participants age shrine located at Katalymmata ton Plakoton by half. Nevertheless, we believed the abbrevi- (Akrotiri Peninsula). This formerly unknown

xii 7th-century settlement was persuasively linked to shop at Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC, called the activities of the famous Cypriot, St. John the “Cyprus from Byzantium to the Renaissance,” in Almsgiver, Patriarch of Alexandria. Next, Professor conjunction with the Smithsonian Institution’s ex- M. Tahar Mansouri gave a dynamic presentation hibit Cyprus: Crossroads of Civilizations (September regarding the source material for the study 29, 2010 through May 1, 2011). Fortunately, Dr. of Cypriot history; his main thesis challenged our Papacostas was able to participate at that time, previous understanding, arguing that the Arabs where he gave an insightful paper called “Decoding did not see Cyprus as a conquered territory, but Cyprus from Byzantium to the Renaissance.” And rather as an “independent tributary” within the so we invited him to prepare that paper for this Byzantine Empire. Afterwards, I discussed the volume. Though at first glance his topic seems to development of Cypriot Byzantine architecture fall outside this book’s timeframe, actually it un- and their significant place in medieval art history. derscores how “Byzantine” culture on Cyprus con- The evening session focused on the visual arts tinued to flourish, even after it was no longer part of Cyprus during the Byzantine period. Professor of the Byzantine Empire; moreover, he explained Sophocles Sophocleous provided a survey of icons how Cypriot spirituality would have influence which have been attributed to the Early Byzantine outside the island. Period. He gave reasons based on stylistic grounds, The Organizing Committee hopes that this and the pitfalls and benefits of such an approach. publication will continue discussions initiated Afterwards, Dr. Maria Parani discussed the daily by the conference. Collegial dialogue among the life of Byzantine citizens, as reconstructed through various disciplines is necessary for formulating the material culture, historical sources, and depic- metanarratives and conveying the significance of tions in surviving frescos. And to conclude the Cypriot archaeology. While the data is unique to conference, Annemarie Weyl Carr delivered an in- the geographical context, it touches on issues per- triguing lecture on the development of the Blessed taining to the wider Islamic, Byzantine, and Latin Virgin Mary’s image in Cypriot frescos, unequaled world, and the temporal transition between the in the rest of the Byzantine Empire. Late Roman and Medieval periods. We also believe The conference laid the foundations for this that this volume highlights Cyprus’ changing roles, book, but the result is much more than a pub- sometimes at the center and at other times the lished proceeding. Additional excavation data periphery, but always reflecting the wider world. and new research over the past two years have From my personal perspective, I also see this been incorporated within the chapters. And there volume as a “monument” to Thomas Davis’ tenure are three significant changes that should be noted. as CAARI director from 2003 to 2011. That was a First, Dr. Vasiliki Kassianidou kindly analyzed an particularly momentous era for archaeological re- artifact featured in Dr. Parani’s presentation. Her search on Cyprus, when there was a renewed hope subsequent investigation is included here as an for a solution to the island’s political and geograph- Appendix to Chapter 10. Second, due to unforeseen ical division. In April 2003 travel restrictions were circumstances, Brooke Shilling was unable to in- eased, so for the first time in 30 years international clude her paper here. This disappointment resulted scholars could reevaluate the sites, frescos, and ar- in a third change, which bears further explanation. chitecture in the northern areas. Tom Davis worked Our committee had originally planned for Dr. tirelessly in exploring all the possibilities how such Tassos Papacostas to participate in our conference, a reconciliation would impact antiquities laws but he was unable due to the revised schedule. and archaeological practices. He witnessed how Later, when we submitted our proposal for pub- northern Byzantine sites were still being desecrated lication, an anonymous reviewer of the ASOR’s and pillaged, and the urgent need to protect and Archaeological Report Series mentioned that Dr. preserve them. This motivated him to encourage Papacostas should have been included. Naturally Byzantine scholarship and conferences within the we agreed. It just so happened that Annemarie Republic of Cyprus. He also mentored numerous Weyl Carr and Gudrun Bühl had organized a work- junior scholars, such as myself, how to observe the

xiii Department of Antiquities’ protocols while study- also kept alive the issue of the looting of archaeo- ing the entire island. As a result, during these years, logical sites in , putting pressure a new picture of Byzantine Cyprus arose. We began on politicians to pass legislation in order to ward to see a very wealthy center, in both its agricultural off vandals and thieves. On a more personal note, produce and artistic output, keeping in mind that it my university office was two doors down from was sometimes influenced, and sometimes isolated, the chapel. Every semester I would bring students from the surrounding continents. With a domi- there to study these masterpieces. I was struck by nant Byzantine culture, the Cypriots were able to how these frescos moved my students in ways that tolerate numerous non-Greeks and religious views went beyond mere political or academic curiosity, within their shores, especially those of Armenians, but provoked transcendent experience. Great art Georgians, and Latins. The most beautiful aspect is not passive. Over the years, Americans devel- that emerged, at least to my modern eyes, was that oped a relationship with these saintly figures, and Byzantine Cyprus was an island undivided. they ceased to be mere pigmented plaster, but As this book was being prepared another transformed into persons that actively spoke and historic episode was taking place. Recently, the comforted. Menil Collection honored their agreement with I would smile when my students referred to the the and returned the Theotokos fresco as “Our Lady,” with the same rev- Byzantine frescos to the island. These had been erence as my Cypriot friends call her “Panagia.” So the largest and most complete Byzantine artworks I was not surprised to see all the tears and solemn in North America. Their story should never be faces, when the Menil chapel was deconsecrated forgotten. As a result of the 1974 war, thieves plun- in March 2012. Such a momentous occasion was dered the wall frescos from the church of Agios officiated by His Eminence Demetrios, Orthodox Themonianos in Lysi, Cyprus. Eventually, these Archbishop of America, and Rev. Demosthenes made their way on the international black market. Demosthenous (representative of the Church of In 1984, Domenique de Menil recognized both Cyprus). They too felt the sincere emotional impact their significance and questionable provenance. on our all-American cosmopolis; in other words, In an unprecedented act of magnanimity, Mrs. De the fresco departure was experienced more like a Menil contacted the rightful owners, the Church divorce rather than a de-accessioning. And so, at of Cyprus, and agreed to purchase and restore the this event, Americans were able to understand, to frescos on their behalf. a small degree, the kind of pain that Cypriots feel As a result, the frescos were put on full display when their antiquities illicitly leave their shores. in a unique chapel — a chef-d’œuvre itself — de- Scientific research of a bygone civilization signed by Françoise de Menil. The chapel was might seem relevant to only a select few academ- located in Houston, Texas, and situated between ics. However, the Menil episode highlights the the campuses of the Menil Collection and the vital intersection between scholarship, politics, University of St. Thomas. Over the years, thousands and modern spirituality. Archaeology powerfully of visitors were able to experience the mastery and exerts its influence on us and future generations. It power of Cypriot art — people who would never is with this in mind that this CAARI monograph have traveled to Cyprus. Moreover, the frescos is presented. Charles Anthony Stewart Houston, Texas

xiv Map of Cyprus. of Map xvi MAP KEY

1 36 Lythrankomi River Deltas 2 Alassa 37 Machairas Monastery A Dhiarizos River 3 Amathous 38 Marathovouno B Ezousas River 4 Aphendrika 39 Margi C Khapotami River 5 Asinou 40 Maroni D Kouris River 6 Bellapais 41 Monastery of Agios Ioannis E Pedhieos River 7 Cape Kormakiti Lampadistis F Pentaschoinon River 8 Carpasia (Karpasia) 42 G Vasilikos River 9 Choirokitia 43 Nicosia (Leukosia) H Xeros River 10 Chytroi 44 Ornithi I Yialias River 11 Constantia (Salamis) 45 Paphos 12 Episkopi 46 Pelendri 13 Famagusta 47 Pentaschoinon 14 Galata 48 Perachorio 15 Gialia 49 Pergaminiotissa 16 Kakopetria 50 17 Kalavasos 51 Peyia 18 Kellia 52 Philousa 19 Khlorakas 53 Polis (Arsinoë, Marion) 20 Kiti 54 Pyla 21 Koma tou Gialou 55 22 Kophinou 56 Saint Neophytos Enkleistra 23 Koroveia 57 Saint Nicholas tis Stegis 24 Kourion (Curium) 58 Soloi (Soli) 25 Koutsovendis 59 Staurovouni 26 Kyrenia (Kerynia) 60 Sychari 27 Kykko Monastery 61 Syncrasis 28 Lagoudera 62 Tamassos (Politiko) 29 Lambousa (Lampousa) 63 Temvria 30 (Lapethos) 64 Trikomo 31 Larnaka (Kition) 65 Tremithous 32 Lefkara (Tremithoussia) 33 Lefkonoiko 66 Yeronissos Island 34 Livadia 67 Yeroskipou 35 (Neapolis) 68 Yialousa

xvii Regional map in the time of Justinian I.

Regional map around ad 1200.

xviii