HANDBOOK OF PSYCHOLOGY

HANDBOOK OF PSYCHOLOGY VOLUME 7: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Second Edition

Volume Editors WILLIAM M. REYNOLDS AND GLORIA E. MILLER

Editor-in-Chief IRVING B. WEINER

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Handbook of psychology / Irving B. Weiner, editor-in-chief. — 2nd ed. v. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-61904-9 (set) Ð ISBN 978-0-470-64777-6 (cloth : v. 7); ISBN 978-1-118-28193-2 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-28260-1 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-28534-3 (ebk) 1. Psychology. I. Weiner, Irving B. BF121.H213 2013 150—dc23 2012005833

Printed in the United States of America 10987654321 To our parents, Hugo and Martha Reynolds and Joseph and Victoria Miller,

to our former and current Teachers, Students, and Colleagues, who have continued to fuel and inspire our desire for life-long learning,

and to the memory of our friend Mike Pressley who made a significant impact on our lives and the field of Educational Psychology.

William M. Reynolds, PhD Department of Psychology Humboldt State University & Gloria E. Miller, PhD College of Education University of Denver

Editorial Board

Volume 1 Volume 5 History of Psychology Personality and Social Psychology Donald K. Freedheim, PhD Howard Tennen, PhD Case Western Reserve University University of Connecticut Health Center Cleveland, Ohio Farmington, Connecticut Jerry Suls, PhD Volume 2 University of Iowa Research Methods in Psychology Iowa City, Iowa John A. Schinka, PhD Volume 6 University of South Florida Tampa, Florida Developmental Psychology Richard M. Lerner, PhD Wayne F. Velicer, PhD M. Ann Easterbrooks, PhD University of Rhode Island Jayanthi Mistry, PhD Kingston, Rhode Island Tufts University Medford, Massachusetts Volume 3 Behavioral Neuroscience Volume 7 Educational Psychology Randy J. Nelson, PhD Ohio State University William M. Reynolds, PhD Columbus, Ohio Humboldt State University Arcata, California Sheri J. Y. Mizumori, PhD University of Washington Gloria E. Miller, PhD Seattle, Washington University of Denver Denver, Colorado

Volume 4 Volume 8 Experimental Psychology Clinical Psychology Alice F. Healy, PhD George Stricker, PhD University of Colorado Argosy University DC Boulder, Colorado Arlington, Virginia Robert W. Proctor, PhD Thomas A. Widiger, PhD Purdue University University of Kentucky West Lafayette, Indiana Lexington, Kentucky

vii viii Editorial Board

Volume 9 Volume 11 Health Psychology Forensic Psychology Arthur M. Nezu, PhD Randy K. Otto, PhD Christine Maguth Nezu, PhD University of South Florida Pamela A. Geller, PhD Tampa, Florida Drexel University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Volume 12 Volume 10 Industrial and Organizational Assessment Psychology Psychology John R. Graham, PhD Neal W. Schmitt, PhD Kent State University Michigan State University Kent, Ohio East Lansing, Michigan Jack A. Naglieri, PhD Scott Highhouse, PhD University of Virginia Bowling Green State University Charlottesville, Virginia Bowling Green, Ohio Contents

Handbook of Psychology Preface xiii Irving B. Weiner

Volume Preface xv William M. Reynolds and Gloria E. Miller

Contributors xix

1 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES 1 William M. Reynolds and Gloria E. Miller

2 CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE 23 Robert J. Sternberg

3 SELF-REGULATION AND LEARNING 45 Dale H. Schunk and Barry J. Zimmerman

4 METACOGNITION, LEARNING, AND INSTRUCTION 69 Christine B. McCormick, Carey Dimmitt, and Florence R. Sullivan

5 MOTIVATION AND CLASSROOM LEARNING 99 Eric M. Anderman, DeLeon L. Gray, and Yujin Chang

6 VYGOTSKY AND SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACHES TO TEACHING AND LEARNING 117 Holbrook Mahn and Vera John-Steiner

7 MORAL-CHARACTER EDUCATION 147 Daniel K. Lapsley and David Yeager

ix x Contents

8 COOPERATIVE LEARNING AND ACHIEVEMENT: THEORY AND RESEARCH 179 Robert E. Slavin

9 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TEACHERS AND CHILDREN 199 Terri J. Sabol and Robert C. Pianta

10 SCHOOL ADJUSTMENT 213 Kathryn R. Wentzel

11 EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION: IMPROVING OUTCOMES FOR YOUNG CHILDREN AND FAMILIES 233 Jane Squires, Lois Pribble, Ching-I Chen, and Maria Pomes´

12 THE PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY OF READING PROCESSES 257 P. David Pearson and Gina Cervetti

13 MATHEMATICAL LEARNING 283 Richard Lehrer and Richard Lesh

14 ENGAGED LEARNING WITH DIGITAL MEDIA: THE POINTS OF VIEWING THEORY 321 Ricki Goldman, John Black, John W. Maxwell, Jan L. Plass, and Mark J. Keitges

15 SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY 365 Maribeth Gettinger, Erin Brodhagen, Michelyn Butler, and Clarissa Schienebeck

16 GIFTED EDUCATION PROGRAMS AND PROCEDURES 389 Paula Olszewski-Kubilius and Dana Thomson

17 THE SCHOOL-RELATED BEHAVIOR DISORDERS FIELD: A SOURCE OF INNOVATION AND BEST PRACTICES FOR SCHOOL PERSONNEL WHO SERVE STUDENTS WITH EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS 411 Hill M. Walker and Frank M. Gresham

18 LEARNING AND PEDAGOGY IN INITIAL TEACHER PREPARATION 441 Jennifer A. Whitcomb

19 EDUCATIONAL/PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERVENTION RESEARCH CIRCA 2012 465 Joel R. Levin and Thomas R. Kratochwill Contents xi

20 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATIONAL TRANSFORMATION 493 Barbara L. McCombs

21 FUTURE PERSPECTIVES IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 535 Gloria E. Miller and William M. Reynolds

Author Index 557

Subject Index 585

Handbook of Psychology Preface

The first edition of the 12-volume Handbook of Psychol- Two unifying threads run through the science of behav- ogy was published in 2003 to provide a comprehensive ior. The first is a common history rooted in conceptual overview of the current status and anticipated future direc- and empirical approaches to understanding the nature of tions of basic and applied psychology and to serve as behavior. The specific histories of all specialty areas in a reference source and textbook for the ensuing decade. psychology trace their origins to the formulations of the With 10 years having elapsed, and psychological knowl- classical philosophers and the early experimentalists, and edge and applications continuing to expand, the time has appreciation for the historical evolution of psychology in come for this second edition to appear. In addition to well- all of its variations transcends identifying oneself as a par- referenced updating of the first edition content, this second ticular kind of psychologist. Accordingly, Volume 1 in the edition of the Handbook reflects the fresh perspectives of Handbook, again edited by Donald Freedheim, is devoted some new volume editors, chapter authors, and subject to the History of Psychology as it emerged in many areas areas. However, the conceptualization and organization of scientific study and applied technology. of the Handbook, as stated next, remain the same. A second unifying thread in psychology is a commit- Psychologists commonly regard their discipline as the ment to the development and utilization of research meth- science of behavior, and the pursuits of behavioral scien- ods suitable for collecting and analyzing behavioral data. tists range from the natural sciences to the social sciences With attention both to specific procedures and to their and embrace a wide variety of objects of investigation. application in particular settings, Volume 2, again edited Some psychologists have more in common with biologists by John Schinka and Wayne Velicer, addresses Research than with most other psychologists, and some have more Methods in Psychology. in common with sociologists than with most of their psy- Volumes 3 through 7 of the Handbook present the chological colleagues. Some psychologists are interested substantive content of psychological knowledge in five primarily in the behavior of animals, some in the behav- areas of study. Volume 3, which addressed Biological Psy- ior of people, and others in the behavior of organizations. chology in the first edition, has in light of developments in These and other dimensions of difference among psycho- the field been retitled in the second edition to cover Behav- logical scientists are matched by equal if not greater het- ioral Neuroscience. Randy Nelson continues as editor of erogeneity among psychological practitioners, who apply a this volume and is joined by Sheri Mizumori as a new co- vast array of methods in many different settings to achieve editor. Volume 4 concerns Experimental Psychology and highly varied purposes. This 12-volume Handbook of Psy- is again edited by Alice Healy and Robert Proctor. Volume chology captures the breadth and diversity of psychology 5onPersonality and Social Psychology has been reorga- and encompasses interests and concerns shared by psy- nized by two new co-editors, Howard Tennen and Jerry chologists in all branches of the field. To this end, lead- Suls. Volume 6 on Developmental Psychology is again ing national and international scholars and practitioners edited by Richard Lerner, Ann Easterbrooks, and Jayan- have collaborated to produce 301 authoritative and detailed thi Mistry. William Reynolds and Gloria Miller continue chapters covering all fundamental facets of the discipline. as co-editors of Volume 7 on Educational Psychology.

xiii xiv Handbook of Psychology Preface

Volumes 8 through 12 address the application of psy- in their respective fields. Third, for psychologists seek- chological knowledge in five broad areas of professional ing to become conversant with fields outside their own practice. Thomas Widiger and George Stricker continue as specialty and for persons outside of psychology seeking co-editors of Volume 8 on Clinical Psychology. Volume 9 information about psychological matters, the Handbook on Health Psychology is again co-edited by Arthur Nezu, volumes serve as a reference source for expanding their Christine Nezu, and Pamela Geller. Continuing to co-edit knowledge and directing them to additional sources in Volume 10 on Assessment Psychology are John Graham the literature. and Jack Naglieri. Randy Otto joins the Editorial Board The preparation of this Handbook was made possible as the new editor of Volume 11 on Forensic Psychology. by the diligence and scholarly sophistication of 24 vol- Also joining the Editorial Board are two new co-editors, ume editors and co-editors who constituted the Editorial Neal Schmitt and Scott Highhouse, who have reorganized Board. As Editor-in-Chief, I want to thank each of these Volume 12 on Industrial and Organizational Psychology. colleagues for the pleasure of their collaboration in this The Handbook of Psychology was prepared to educate project. I compliment them for having recruited an out- and inform readers about the present state of psychological standing cast of contributors to their volumes and then knowledge and about anticipated advances in behavioral working closely with these authors to achieve chapters science research and practice. To this end, the Handbook that will stand each in their own right as valuable con- volumes address the needs and interests of three groups. tributions to the literature. Finally, I would like to thank First, for graduate students in behavioral science, the vol- Brittany White for her exemplary work as my adminis- umes provide advanced instruction in the basic concepts trator for our manuscript management system, and the and methods that define the fields they cover, together editorial staff of John Wiley & Sons for encouraging and with a review of current knowledge, core literature, and helping bring to fruition this second edition of the Hand- likely future directions. Second, in addition to serving as book, particularly Patricia Rossi, Executive Editor, and graduate textbooks, the volumes offer professional psy- Kara Borbely, Editorial Program Coordinator. chologists an opportunity to read and contemplate the views of distinguished colleagues concerning the cen- Irving B. Weiner tral thrusts of research and the leading edges of practice Tampa, Florida Volume Preface

SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS VOLUME environments that lead to behavioral, academic, and social success of an ever more diverse population of students. This volume of the Handbook of Psychology is dedicated The chapter topics selected for inclusion in this vol- to the broad and important field of educational psychol- ume reflect the field’s unique concern for and methods ogy. Educational psychology, in large part, is focused on of studying human learning and development in educa- the application of psychological principles and method- tional settings. The structure and organization of this book ologies to the study of human learning and development provide a window on the current thinking about indi- in educational settings. Educational psychology traces its vidual learners, instructional strategies, the dynamics of roots to the beginnings of psychology as a field of study classroom interaction, social structures that operate in edu- in the United States with the pioneering work of William cational settings, and psychology as applied to children in James. Research in the field of educational psychology school with diverse needs. We have included chapters that has progressed over the past 100 years with an explosion provide a glimpse of how the field of educational psychol- of research across numerous domains of this field in the ogy has and will continue to impact reforms in teacher last quarter of the 20th century and first decade of the 21st preparation, educational research, and policy. The major century. sections of this volume cover significant cognitive con- A careful reading of this volume will show that tributions to learning, development, and instruction; what researchers in educational psychology are actively engaged we know about sociocultural, instructional, and relational in studying the complexity of learning and learner char- processes critical to successful learning; early education acteristics across multiple systems, sociocultural settings, and the design of effective curriculum applications; psy- and novel learning environments. We suggest that, more chology applied to students with special needs; and edu- than any other area of psychology, the field of educational cational research and methodologies that will influence psychology has had a major impact in helping to prepare educational reform in the future. children for living in an increasingly diverse, global world The chapters in this volume include many of the core of rapid change. Educational psychologists over the past domains of research that have and are currently foster- two decades have contributed to a burgeoning literature ing major advances in the knowledge base and the basic on individual and internal cognitive processes related to and applied endeavors in the field of educational psychol- learning. Along with our greater knowledge of cognitive ogy. Several conscious editorial decisions were made to processes and learner characteristics has come a concomi- shape the scope of this volume so as to minimize overlap tant increase in our understanding of the roles played by with other volumes in the Handbook. First, although prior culture, ethnicity, and gender and how learning is affected handbooks in the field of educational psychology have pro- by the social context of the classroom. This has led to an vided one or more chapters on the historical precedents that improved science of instruction, assessment, evaluation, have shaped the field, such a chapter was omitted here and how we train our teachers, and a more comprehensive because much of this content was included in Volume 1 of view of the complex roles of teachers, the instructional pro- the Handbook, entitled History of Psychology. Similarly, cess, and factors across home, school, and technological although educational research and assessment chapters are

xv xvi Volume Preface typically included more comprehensively within hand- as Read Tuddenham, Arthur Jensen, and Marjorie Honzik books representing the field of educational psychology, stimulated my interest in the study of intelligence, cog- only one chapter was included here because these top- nitive assessment, and individual differences. Although I ics are extensively covered in two other Handbook vol- started out in chemistry and worked as a lab assistant umes: Volume 2, Research Methods in Psychology, and at Berkeley for three years, my interest in children with Volume 10, Assessment Psychology, respectively. Finally, cognitive, social, and emotional needs led me to Tol- developmental issues, especially as they relate to issues man Hall and psychology as a major. During this time of individual learning, interpersonal relationships, and I was active as a volunteer and later student director of schooling, are embedded within and across many of the the Richmond Project, a UC Berkeley student organiza- chapters included in this volume. This helped to lessen the tion in which students worked as volunteer aides in the overlap with coverage of normal development topics that Richmond, California, public schools. For nearly 2 years are the focus of Volume 6, Developmental Psychology. I spent 1 or 2 days a week at Cortez School, an inner-city Limited coverage was also given to areas associated with school where Mrs. Mary Carbone, a progressive third- child and adolescent psychological disorders and mental grade teacher, allowed me to work in small groups with health and to wellness and prevention issues pertinent to children and apply what I was learning in my psychology creating safe and healthy school and community envi- courses to the elementary school classroom. This inter- ronments. These topics are covered in Volume 8, Clin- est in the field continued as a graduate student in the ical Psychology, and in Volume 9, Health Psychology, Department of Educational Psychology at the University respectively. of Oregon, where Dr. Richard Rankin provided guidance The field of educational psychology has a rich heritage. in understanding the psychometric foundations underly- As the chapters in this book attest, the field has shown ing the evaluation of intelligence and the application of near-exponential growth in the examination of complex scientific methods to the study of individual differences, learning, cognitive, instructional, character, sociocultural, and encouraged my teaching the graduate course Men- motivational, and individual differences and learner char- tal Testing. This experience, along with mentoring and acteristics. The sum total of this research contribution to coursework in clinical psychology provided by Dr. Norm the understanding of learners and the instructional and Sundberg, coursework in test construction with Dr. Lew learning process represents an important application of Goldberg, and collaboration in test construction with Drs. psychology to education and the needs of the learner. Paul Raffeld and Larry Irvin, triggered a switch in grad- The chapters in this book illustrate the dynamic nature uate school goals from a career as a school psychologist of educational psychology as a field of scientific inquiry to that of a university professor. within psychology. Although we often conceptualize edu- My subsequent employment in the field of educational cational psychology as an applied field of study, what can psychology occurred over nearly a quarter of a century as be more basic than understanding the process by which a faculty member in departments of educational psychol- we learn? This book examines what we know about learn- ogy at the State University of New York at Albany (1976 ers in classroom settings; their cognitions, behaviors, and to 1980), the University of WisconsinÐMadison (1980 to interactions with teachers and peers in the context of learn- 1991) (where 30 years ago I was pleased to serve on the ing; learner characteristics, systems of motivation, and dissertation committee of my esteemed coeditor), and the self-regulation; and other variables that inform us as to University of British Columbia (1991 to 2000). Since then the interactions that are part of the learning process in an I have continued my university employment in a depart- ever more complex society. ment of psychology, with a substantial focus on training students in school psychology. I wish to acknowledge the influence and example OUR INTERESTS IN THE FIELD OF provided by my colleagues and friends in the Depart- EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, AND ment of Educational Psychology at the University of ACKNOWLEDGMENTS WisconsinÐMadison during my years of teaching there. The intellectual stimulation and positive interactions WMR provided by my colleagues and the graduate students in My interest in educational psychology dates back to my the educational psychology department at UWÐMadison undergraduate days in the early 1970s at the University were a wonderful unlisted job benefit. I am excep- of California at Berkeley, where faculty members such tionally pleased that a number of these colleagues and Volume Preface xvii good friends—Maribeth Gettinger, Joel Levin, Tom with disabilities, ensured that funding for educational Kratochwill, Rich Lehrer, Chris McCormick, and Dan research was at an all-time high in the late 1970s. As a Lapsley—have contributed directly to this volume. I am graduate student at the University of Wisconsin, I worked also pleased that Ricki Goldman, my colleague from closely with some of the top educational researchers of the University of British Columbia, also contributed a the time on several nationally funded projects housed at chapter for this volume. the Wisconsin Educational Research Center. Through the I especially wish to thank my coeditor and coauthor, excellent research mentorship of professors Joel Levin and Gloria Miller, my colleague of over 30 years, for her Steve Yussen, I developed a strong empirical and theoreti- excellent work on this volume and her friendship these cal foundation in human learning and development, which many years. From the days 30 years ago when Gloria contributed to my eventual switch into the closely related was a graduate student in my courses at Wisconsin to field of school psychology. There I met and worked col- her leadership in multiple fields of educational and school laboratively with my esteemed coauthor, who taught me psychology, it has been refreshing and encouraging to see the intricacies of purposeful and valid assessment that that her energy and positive nature have not declined, nor can inform intervention, and Dr. Maribeth Gettinger, who has her dedication to her friends. Although there is an was an exceptional role model of an applied researcher order to the editorship of this volume on the title page, interested in improving academic, behavioral, and social equal editorship should be understood. outcomes for all students. I would not be where I am today without the total support and affection of my deceased parents, Joseph GEM and Victoria Miller, who instilled confidence that I could I began my undergraduate program in the early 1970s as achieve all of my dreams for the future. My life also a biology major but very quickly became enthralled by has been blessed by my spouse of over 30 years. Thank the field of psychology after my first introductory class. you, Joseph—you have added depth and breadth to each I can still recall my fascination and the intellectual stim- and every day and have taught me so much about the ulation that accompanied my learning about the exciting meaning of love and caring for others without regard for new advances in learning, cognition, and behavioral neu- self. I also want to thank my daughter, Erica, for the roscience that were still in their infancy. My dissecting many loving life lessons we have shared and especially skills as a biology major led to an invitation to become for understanding and accepting the many long evenings a psychology rat lab assistant. I worked with an older and weekends when Mom was back at work—yet again. professor who, while trained in Skinnerian conditioning I am sorry to have missed some of the daily ups and techniques, was more interested in neuroanatomy, brain downs that have contributed to your unique development. chemistry, and the effects of environmental learning con- I am so proud of the wonderful young lady you have ditions on brain functioning. The field of medicine and become. It is my sincere hope that the work highlighted neuropsychology appeared to be my niche—until I took here will touch your life and future lives of others in many my first of many summer jobs working as a counselor as-yet-unforeseen ways. at a camp for children with Down syndrome and other Although it is not possible due to space limitations to forms of mental retardation. From then on, my interests thank everyone who has contributed significantly to my leaned further away from basic neuroanatomy and more learning and development over the years, if I could, my list toward applied research in cognition. After three years would include many of my KÐ12 teachers and dynamic of teaching reading to students with severe learning dis- university instructors, my school peers, and the students abilities, my interest in learning and development drew and families with whom I have worked—who have been me to reexamine the different graduate program opportu- skillful mentors, patient collaborators, and steady influ- nities within psychology. How happy I was to discover ences during my quest to apply educational psychology that in fact there actually was a domain of study called theory to improve life outcomes for students, families, educational psychology that was so closely aligned to my and teachers. I also would like to acknowledge the input applied instructional research interests. of my graduate students over the years, who continue to I had the great fortune of entering the field of educa- provide inspiration for my teaching and research. Finally, tional psychology at a most dynamic and opportune time. a special thank-you goes to my colleague and coeditor, The earlier passage of the federal law, PL 99-142, which William (Bill) Reynolds, who honored me yet again with guaranteed free and appropriate education to all students the invitation to collaborate on this exceptional project. xviii Volume Preface

WMR and GEM 30 years and whose passing was hard felt on a personal level. Mike contributed two chapters to the first edition of It is an honor and a pleasure for us to acknowledge the this volume, and was one of those iconic figures whose significant and meaningful contributions of the authors of knowledge of who was in the field of educational psychol- chapters in this book. Through their own busy schedules, ogy and what was going on in the field astounded most family and personal illnesses, requests for revisions, and persons who had the good fortune to meet or know him. other unforeseen events that impacted our lives, the con- A most important acknowledgment and note of appre- tributors have been wonderful to work with and magnani- ciation go to Dr. Irving Weiner, the Editor-in-Chief of mous in their time, effort, and scholarship in creating this the Handbook of Psychology. The completion of this book. Their work is a reflection of the best in the field and enormous undertaking was facilitated greatly by Irv’s will be instrumental in establishing the important role of exceptional editorial leadership. We have never before educational psychologists in this century. To our chapter experienced the level of support, continued guidance, authors, you have our most sincere thanks and apprecia- effort, and organization that has been presented by Irv tion. We also wish to note the absence of two authors from toward the realization of this Handbook. We also wish to the first edition who have passed away, both of whom thank the staff at John Wiley & Sons, as well as Brittany were major researchers and leaders in the field of educa- White for their great support and assistance that helped to tional psychology. Dr. Paul R. Pintrich, a leading figure in make this book possible. the field of motivation research and theory, passed away, leaving a substantial void in his absence. We are espe- William M. Reynolds cially saddened by the loss of Dr. G. Michael Pressley (Mike), who was a dear personal friend of ours for over Gloria E. Miller Contributors

Eric M. Anderman, PhD Maribeth Gettinger, PhD College of Education and Human Ecology Department of Educational Psychology Ohio State University University of Wisconsin–Madison Columbus, OH Madison, WI

John Black, PhD Ricki Goldman, PhD Department of Human Development Department of Administration Columbia University Leadership and Technology New York, NY New York University New York, NY Erin Brodhagen Department of Educational Psychology DeLeon L. Gray University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Education and Madison, WI Human Ecology Ohio State University Michelyn Butler Columbus, OH Department of Educational Psychology University of Wisconsin–Madison Frank M. Gresham, PhD Madison, WI Department of Psychology Louisiana State University Gina Cervetti, PhD Baton Rouge, LA School of Education University of Michigan Vera John-Steiner, PhD Ann Arbor, MI Department of Language, Literacy & Sociocultural Studies Yujin Chang University of New Mexico College of Education and Human Ecology Albuquerque, NM Ohio State University Columbus, OH Mark J. Keitges, PhD Department of Educational Policy, Ching-I Chen, PhD Organization, and Leadership Center on Human Development, College of Education University of Illinois University of Oregon Champaign, IL Eugene, OR Thomas R. Kratochwill, PhD Carey Dimmitt, PhD Department of Educational Psychology School of Education University of Wisconsin–Madison University of Massachusetts Amherst Madison, WI Amherst, MA

xix xx Contributors

Daniel K. Lapsley, PhD P. David Pearson, PhD Department of Psychology Graduate School of Education University of Notre Dame University of California, Berkeley Notre Dame, IN Berkeley, CA

Richard Lehrer, PhD Robert C. Pianta, PhD Department of Teaching and Learning, Curry School of Education George Peabody College University of Virginia Vanderbilt University Charlottesville, VA Nashville, TN Jan L. Plass, PhD Richard Lesh, PhD Department of Administration Department of Learning Sciences Leadership and Technology Indiana University New York University Bloomington, IN New York, NY Joel R. Levin, PhD Department of Educational Psychology Maria Pomes,´ PhD University of Arizona Center on Human Development, Tucson, AZ College of Education University of Oregon Holbrook Mahn, PhD Eugene, OR Department of Language, Literacy & Sociocultural Studies Lois Pribble, PhD University of New Mexico Center on Human Development, Albuquerque, NM College of Education University of Oregon John W. Maxwell, PhD Eugene, OR Canadian Centre for Studies in Publishing Simon Fraser University William M. Reynolds, PhD Burnaby, BC Canada Department of Psychology Humboldt State University Barbara L. McCombs, PhD Arcata, CA Applied Research and Technology Institute University of Denver Terri J. Sabol, PhD Denver, CO Center for Advanced Study Christine B. McCormick, PhD of Teaching and Learning School of Education University of Virginia University of Massachusetts Amherst Charlottesville, VA Amherst, MA Clarissa Schienebeck Gloria E. Miller, PhD Department of Educational Psychology Morgridge College of Education University of Wisconsin–Madison University of Denver Madison, WI Denver, CO Dale H. Schunk, PhD Paula Olszewski-Kubilius, PhD School of Education Department of Education and Social Policy University of North Carolina Northwestern University Greensboro, NC Evanston, IL Contributors xxi

Robert E. Slavin, PhD Hill M. Walker, PhD Center for Research on Education College of Education of Students Placed at Risk University of Oregon Johns Hopkins University Eugene, OR Baltimore, MD Kathryn R. Wentzel, PhD Jane Squires, PhD Department of Human Development Center on Human Development, University of Maryland College of Education College Park, MD University of Oregon Eugene, OR Jennifer A. Whitcomb, PhD School of Education Robert J. Sternberg, PhD University of Colorado at Boulder Provost Office Boulder, CO Oklahoma State University Stillwater, OK David Yeager, PhD Department of Psychology Florence R. Sullivan, PhD University of Texas School of Education Austin, TX University of Massachusetts Amherst Amherst, MA Barry J. Zimmerman, PhD Department of Psychology Dana Thomson, PhD City University of New York Department of Education and Social Policy New York, NY Northwestern University Evanston, IL

CHAPTER 1

Educational Psychology: Contemporary Perspectives

WILLIAM M. REYNOLDS AND GLORIA E. MILLER

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE SCHOOLS 12 PSYCHOLOGY 1 PERSPECTIVES ON EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS, CURRENT PRESENTATIONS OF THE FIELD 3 RESEARCH, AND POLICY 15 DISTINCTIVENESS OF THIS VOLUME 4 SUMMARY 18 OVERVIEW OF THIS VOLUME 5 REFERENCES 18 EARLY EDUCATION AND CURRICULUM APPLICATIONS 10

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL assessment of intelligence and the study of gifted chil- PSYCHOLOGY dren (as well as related areas such as educational tracking), was monumental at this time and throughout much of the The field of educational psychology traces its begin- 20th century. Others, such as Huey (1900, 1901, 1908) nings to some of the major figures in psychology at were conducting groundbreaking psychological research the turn of the past century. William James at Harvard to advance the understanding of important educational University, who is often associated with the founding fields such as reading and writing. Further influences on of psychology in the United States, in the late 1800s educational psychology, and its impact on the field of edu- published influential books on psychology (1890) and edu- cation, have been linked to European philosophers of the cational psychology (1899). Other major theorists and mid- and late 19th century. For example, the impact of thinkers that figure in the early history of the field include Herbart on educational reforms and teacher preparation in G. Stanley Hall, John Dewey, and Edward L. Thorndike. the United States has been described by Hilgard (1996) Hall, cofounder of the American Psychological Asso- in his history of educational psychology. Largely ignored ciation and its first president was a student of James. by western psychologists until the 1980s, the work of Dewey (1916), who at the University of Chicago intro- Russian psychologists in the early 20th century, and in duced major educational reforms in the United States, was particular the work of Lev Vygotsky (1926/1997, 1978) one of Hall’s students. Thorndike, who we often asso- also contributed to the field of educational psychology. As ciate with theories of intelligence and learning, was also readers of this volume will find, the work and influence one of James’s students. He published the book Educa- of Vygotsky permeates research in educational psychol- tional Psychology (Thorndike, 1903) early in his career ogy in the United States at the end of the 20th and into and went on to start the Journal of Educational Psychol- the 21st century. ogy in 1910, one of the first journals to be published This volume of the Handbook of Psychology does by the American Psychological Association. Thorndike not delve into the historical foundations of educational had a tremendous influence on the study of psychology psychology but rather deals with exemplar research and in the early 1900s, and in the integration of learning practice domains of educational psychology in the latter theory, individual differences, and psychometric methods part of the 20th and early 21st century, with a focus on into educational and school-based research (Beatty, 1998). promising research and trends. Historical antecedents of Similarly, the impact of Lewis Terman (Terman & Childs, this field of psychology are presented in Volume 1 of the 1912) on the field of educational psychology and the Handbook. 1 2 Educational Psychology: Contemporary Perspectives

It is evident from the chapters in this volume that much for Research on Adolescence, and other societies and of the research in educational psychology has been con- associations. ducted in classroom settings, which mirror the applied Contemporary educational psychology encompasses a nature of this field. This research encompasses a broad broad and complex array of topics, research, and social range of related topics including: children’s learning and policies. Research in educational psychology is often de- abilities, reading, classroom processes, and teacher effec- signed to provide insights into authentic educational prob- tiveness. Educational psychology has been described as a lems, using empirical, rather than normative or subjective discipline uniquely focused upon “the systematic study of judgments. It is important to recognize that qualitative the individual in context” (Berliner & Calfee, 1996, p. 6). methodologies also provide empirical bases for under- The long-term focus on the study of children in classroom standing educational problems (Levin & Kratochwill, this situations assists in the direct translation of research to volume). The field of educational psychology, possibly practice. This is not a new idea, and has been the driving more than any other, has been shaped by many multi- force of this field for more than 100 years. disciplinary factors. The impact of the cognitive revolu- From a pedagogical perspective, educational psychol- tion, for example, has been broadened by incorporation ogy differs from most fields of psychology in that it is often of other subdisciplines, including sociology, linguistics, found as a separate department in universities and colleges. neuroscience, philosophy, and the associated fields of To some extent this reflects the diversity of research and psychology. The major focus of educational psychology, academic domains within educational psychology, as well however, is on individuals and their development espe- as the rich and applied nature of this field of study. Depart- cially within educational settings. Another important char- ments of educational psychology are most often found in acteristic of the field of educational psychology is that colleges of education, and courses in educational psychol- issues of concern are not mutually exclusive and in fact ogy are typically required for students in teacher education tend to overlap and interrelate more than stand as isolated programs and related majors. domains of knowledge. More recently the field has in- The field of educational psychology has ties to many cluded in its focus the study of new technology-based and professional organizations and professional societies in the computerized learning environments (Graesser, 2009), the United States and other countries. In the United States, the depth of which is illustrated by Goldman, Black, Maxwell, two major organizations that represent the field of educa- Plass, and Keitges (this volume). tional psychology are the American Psychological Asso- Educational psychology includes a rich heritage in the ciation (APA) and the American Educational Research domains of research design and methodology, including Association (AERA). In the APA, educational psychol- statistics and measurement. For most of the 20th century, ogy has as its primary affiliation, Division 15, Educational educational psychologists have contributed to enhancing Psychology, with secondary affiliations in Divisions 5 statistical and measurement procedures, and this continues (Measurement & Statistics), 7 (Developmental Psychol- into the 21st century. As an example, in the 1950s two ogy), and 16 (School Psychology). In the AERA, Division educational psychologists published papers reporting on C (Learning and Instruction) largely represents educa- statistical and measurement procedures that have become tional psychology with additional representation in Divi- among the most frequently cited articles in psychology. sion D (Measurement & Research Methodology), Division Cronbach’s (1951) classic paper on the internal structure E (Counseling and Human Development), and Division H of tests and the derivation of coefficient alpha as an inter- (School Evaluation and Program Development). We also nal measurement of reliability continues to be one of the note that a number of prominent educational psychol- most cited papers in the behavioral sciences and the most ogists, including Lee Cronbach and Frank Farley have used (and also debated) procedure for the measurement of served as president of both APA and AERA, with Cron- test reliability. Henry Kaiser’s dissertation in educational bach also serving as president of the Psychometric Soci- psychology at the University of California at Berkeley in ety, and Farley president of numerous APA divisions and the mid-1950s provided the basis for an orthogonal rota- other professional organizations. A number of other pro- tion procedure in factor analysis that he called varimax fessional organizations that have substantial overlap with factor rotation (1958), with various little jiffy procedures educational psychology include the International Reading to follow. Donald Campbell (an APA president) and edu- Association, Council for Exceptional Children, National cational psychologist Julian Stanley (an AERA president), Association of School Psychologists, Psychometric Soci- published a little volume in 1966 (expanding on the great ety, Society for Research in Child Development, Society work of Iowa educational psychologist E. F. Lindquist Current Presentations of the Field 3

[1940] who was also cofounder of the American College methodological pluralism marked by some promising new Testing Program—ACT), which provided a simple struc- practices such as exploratory data analysis (Jaeger & ture for researchers in many fields for understanding basic Bond, 1996) and design experiments (Brown, 1992). In research designs and associated threats to internal and drawing conclusions about the field, Berliner and Calfee external validity. This work also laid the foundation for suggested that the discipline’s bread and butter issues had the development of numerous quasi-experimental designs not changed as dramatically as the conceptual and method- (Cook & Campbell, 1979; Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, ological tools that educational psychologists employ to 2002) that are critical to educational research and program understand educational phenomena. They also concluded evaluation. These are but a few of the many statistical, on a note of congratulatory celebration at what educational measurement, and methodological contributions that have psychology, as a discipline, has contributed and looked been and continue to be made to the field of psychol- optimistically to its future. ogy, and behavioral and social sciences by educational Although not yet published as the current volume was psychologists. going into production, the American Psychological Asso- ciation has undertaken a three-volume, 1,800-plus page work covering the many domains within educational psy- CURRENT PRESENTATIONS OF THE FIELD chology (Harris, Graham, & Urdan, in press). Volumes of this work focus on the diversity of theories, constructs, A comprehensive review of major work across the field and issues in educational psychology; the study of individ- of educational psychology was presented in the publica- ual differences and the contextual and cultural influences tion the Handbook of Educational Psychology, edited by on persons; and how the field of educational psychology Berliner and Calfee in 1996. This influential handbook, informs and advances our understanding of learning and sponsored by the APA division of Educational Psychol- teaching. ogy (Division 15), was commissioned to reflect the current Pressley and Roehrig (2002) provided a synopsis of the state of the field up until the early 1990s. Berliner and major domains reflected in the field of Educational Psy- Calfee provided a powerful synthesis of the scholarship chology during the past 40 years of the 20th century. These that defined the scope and relevancy of educational psy- researchers categorized all research articles published in chology as a discipline up until this time. The major the 1960Ð1961 and the 1997Ð1998 issues of the Journal goals of this volume were to offer a vigorous defense of Educational Psychology, the leading journal serving the of educational psychology as a discipline and to forward field. Domains of information reflected in three contempo- the distinctive viewpoints that educational psychologists rary handbooks, texts were also categorized, and editorial maintain when explaining educational events. Chapters board members of the Journal of Educational Psychology were organized to represent the major domains within the were surveyed for their opinions of texts and articles that discipline. Authors were asked to discuss how coverage had the most significant impact on the field. The consen- of these topics changed from 1970 to 1990 and to sum- sus of these reviews is amazingly similar in that at least marize significant changes in research design within the 11 consistent domains appear: cognition; learning; devel- discipline. The following domains were covered: learn- opment; motivation; individual differences; teaching and ing and transfer, motivation, physical and psychological instruction; classroom and sociocultural processes; social development, intelligence, exceptionality, psychology of relations in education; psychological foundations of cur- learning within subject matters, assessment, processes of riculum; educational technology; and educational research teacher growth and development, the psychology under- methods and assessment. lying instructional strategies, educational technology, and These authors also noted that behaviorism and then the the methodological, philosophical, and historical founda- cognitive revolution were two critical forces driving the tions of the field. field, with the former more prevalent before the 1960s Several consistent conceptual threads ran through the and the latter dominating the past 40 years (Pressley & majority of invited chapters. One was the critical paradigm Roehrig, 2002). Many significant changes were noted that shift from behaviorism to cognitive psychology that led up to this change, beginning with the idea that an inter- shaped the discipline over this period. Another common- nal processing system and internal mechanisms could be ality across topics was that this conceptual shift resulted objectified and studied (Miller, Galanter, & Pribram, 1960, in a vigorous debate regarding research methods. What Plans and the Structure of Behavior) and followed by has emerged is a greater range of analytical tools, a work centered on memory (Tulving & Donaldson, 1972), 4 Educational Psychology: Contemporary Perspectives imagery (Levin, 1973; Paivio, 1971) and other learning performance and have refocused on educational motiva- processes (Rohwer, 1970; Schank & Abelson, 1977). tion as a cognitive enterprise. Instructional theory and innovations were impacted by Over the past two decades, education and educational Bruner’s writings (1960, 1966), as well as the work of issues have dominated both state and national agendas Hunt (1961) and Flavell (1963), who together with others (e.g., No Child Left Behind). It is no surprise that educa- (Brainerd, 1978; Inhelder, Sinclair, & Bovet, 1974) helped tional psychologists have been involved in or have directed introduce and transform Piaget’s ideas into work on chil- many of these studies that have become a major force in dren’s thinking. Other’s work was more directly linked to crafting federal policies and legislation. For example, in educational application, especially in regards to observa- the 1990s, a group of psychologists who were members tional and social learning, (Bandura, 1969; Rosenthal & of the Division of Educational Psychology (Division 15) Zimmerman, 1978), text comprehension (Anderson & of the American Psychological Association were instru- Pearson, 1984; Kintsch, 1989), writing (Flower & Hayes, mental in producing a collaborative document outlining 1980), problem-solving and mathematics (Mayer, 1976; critical learning principles for all students (Learning Prin- Polya, 1957; Schoenfeld, 1985). ciples for All Students, Lambert & McCombs, 1998). Bar- Sociocultural and cross-cultural contexts were intro- bara McCombs, one of the original editors of this pub- duced as important factors influencing learning and cogni- lication, reviews in this volume the issues addressed in tion. Schooling and other critical contexts have been more this document and the impact it has had on recent federal prominent in the field since the pioneering work of Scrib- educational policy and reforms. The American Psycholog- ner and Cole in the 1980s and the influence of Vygot- ical Association has in the latter part of the 20th century sky’s work with the 1978 translation of Mind and Society. been instrumental in its professional contribution to edu- This work has helped to reconceptualize instruction and cational reforms in this country (e.g., Learner–Centered teacher training, as well as related domains of cognitive Principles: A Framework for School Redesign and Reform, psychology. It has moved the field from an individual American Psychological Association Board of Educational focus to a broader interpersonal framework. Much of the Affairs, 1995), with the field of educational psychology current research reflects the idea that the child, adults and providing the foundation for this contribution. Recently, the contexts surrounding an event are responsible for for- the American Psychological Association in collaboration warding cognitive activity and building competence. These with the Association of Psychological Sciences produced ideas have been inspired by Vygotskian theory and have a listing of 25 cognitive principles of learning adapted to a contributed to substantial reforms reshaping contemporary lifelong learning perspective (Graesser, Halpern, & Hakel, school environments. They have had a direct impact on the 2008). design of instruction and have had a profound influence on educational research innovation. The linkages between DISTINCTIVENESS OF THIS VOLUME theory and teacher learning, teacher and student relations and the social climate in classrooms have all become more This handbook looks at how the discipline of educational significant domains of study within the field of educational psychology will shape the next generation of learners and psychology. We find it of interest to note the extensive cita- teachers. Three immediate contextual factors have begun tions to the work of Vygotsky across many of the chapters to influence the evolving role of educational psychol- in this volume. ogy in educational practice. First, the gossamer threads Theories of motivation and its effect on cognition, of the Internet, a symbol of the information age, will learning, and social relations have also been more promi- expand increasingly to reach all sectors of our society, nent. Historically, the work in educational psychology was and in particular, education. Learners and teachers in the dominated by an emphasis on cognition and motivation information age will more than ever need to be flexible, was ignored. Recent work has pointed to the importance reflective, motivated learners. Second, in the next decade of motivational constructs that apply to all individuals a significant number of individuals will go through for- and that can explain important individual differences in mal teacher education and begin careers. How they use cognition. The seminal work of Bernard Weiner (1979) the knowledge, concepts, and methods of educational psy- has been instrumental in promoting research that linked chology as they engage in essential acts of teaching (Grant cognition and motivation. Ames in the early 1980s also & Murray, 1999) will be critical. Third, the policy com- helped connect goal theory with classroom performance munity will have a powerful impact on the funding of (Ames, 1984; Ames & Archer, 1988), others have looked research programs sponsored by both the federal govern- at classroom structures that make a difference in student ment and foundations. Overview of This Volume 5

This volume builds upon the optimistic future that Learning, Development, and Instruction chapters focus on Berliner and Calfee (1996) foreshadowed regarding the processes and factors affecting the learner and learning, discipline of educational psychology. Although their including individual differences and contextual influences handbook provided a systematic overview of the field of in intellectual processes, metacognition, self-regulation, educational psychology and legitimized the relevance of and motivation. Sociocultural, Instruction and Relational this distinct discipline, this volume seeks to highlight key Processes chapters examine sociocultural, moral-character concepts of ongoing research conducted at the beginning development, school adjustment, and interpersonal and of the 21st century. A second goal of this volume is to relational processes between teachers and students in cul- identify more exclusively the key promising areas for turally situated settings for learning. Early Education and continued research over the next two decades. Curriculum Applications chapters highlight psychological This volume both elaborates on and departs from pre- contributions to improving outcomes in early childhood, vious handbook domains. There are distinct overlaps in the psychology of literacy, mathematics, and new media the following areas of cognition, learning, and motiva- technologies for learning. The chapters in the domain tion, and in reviews of applications of educational psychol- of Psychology in the Schools focus on understanding ogy to curriculum, classroom, and teaching processes and the school-based and developmental needs of exceptional exceptional learners. We depart, however, in that our intent learners. Finally, chapters in the Educational Programs, was to selectively focus on topics that have strongly influ- Research, and Policy section review current practices enced the field in the new century. We also choose to de- in teacher preparation, educational and psychological re- emphasize traditional school subject domains and instead search for evidence-based outcomes, and the pressing selected four areas—early childhood, literacy, mathemat- need to transform the immense knowledge base estab- ics learning, and new technologies. These curriculum areas lished by educational psychology researchers into sound have not only increasingly taken the forefront both in the educational policy and reform. quantity of research conducted but also have repeatedly The authors who contributed to this volume were been in the public and policy spotlight influencing many selected not only for their important and long-standing areas of school reform. research contributions, but also because their work reflects Another departure from prior handbooks is that we did the most current areas of research defining their respec- not have a separate section or chapters in child and ado- tive fields of scientific inquiry in educational psychology. lescent development or research methodologies because These authors integrate and synthesize research as well as independent volumes in this series are devoted to these formulate meaningful directions and suggestions for fur- topics. (See Volumes 6 and 2.) Instead, many of the ther scientific study. Each of the chapters in this volume authors here reviewed contemporary developmental find- provides a unique examination of an important area within ings and elaborated on contemporary research methodolo- educational psychology. The significant communalities gies within their respective domains of study. An early across chapters highlight the connectedness and internal emphasis in educational psychology was the study of consistency of educational psychology as a field of schol- “character” as an important aspect of the child in school, arship. These common threads are further expanded upon and one that has re-emerged as a vital domain of research in the last chapter of this book. (Lapsley & Yeager, this volume). Thankfully, teachers Cognitive and Regulatory Contributions to Learning, no longer develop moral character in students by using Development, and Instruction wooden rulers. We acknowledge the impact of educational psychology on teaching by including chapters on teaching The focus of this section is on cognitive processes within processes and a more contemporary chapter on teacher the learner and teacher, and includes the development of learning and teacher education and preparation, which such processes and developmental directions for future again are issues where educational psychology research research. Developmental theory is not singled out here, may have a strong influence on such policy in the future. because Volume 6 in this Handbook of Psychology series is dedicated exclusively to this topic. Prominent in this work is a focus on individual differences in intellectual OVERVIEW OF THIS VOLUME processes, metacognition, self-regulation, and motivation. The chapters in this section also exemplify the field of The chapters in this volume can be viewed as covering five educational psychology by relating theory to instruction major domains of contemporary research in educational and factors affecting individual learners and teachers psychology. Cognitive and Regulatory Contributions to within classrooms. 6 Educational Psychology: Contemporary Perspectives

Contemporary Theories of Intelligence that successful learning is a result of key self-regulation abilities, such as attending to instruction, setting per- The field of educational psychology has a long history sonal goals, processing of information, rehearsing and of research and interest in the theory and study of intelli- relating new learning to prior knowledge, believing that gence. In the early part of the 20th century, the Journal of one is capable of learning, and establishing productive Educational Psychology was the primary scientific journal social relationships and work environments (Zimmerman in this country for research on the study of intelligence. & Schunk, 2004). In addition to theories, a major emphasis in this field of Five theoretical perspectives are reviewed that have inquiry was its measurement, which continues to occupy characterized work within this area: operant theory, infor- a significant place in the study of intelligence. Sternberg mation processing theory, developmental theory, social (this volume) reviews both classical and contemporary constructivist theory, and social cognitive theory. Research intelligence theories and their profound implications on to support the role of self-regulatory processes is reviewed practical life and societies. He critically evaluates clas- as is a well-documented intervention that has been suc- sical intelligence theories that have had a strong impact cessfully linked to improvements in self-regulation in a on education and goes on to present challenges to these variety of learners and across different learning contexts. and to current conceptions of intelligence. Intelligence- It is of interest to note that the vast majority of the research related abilities permeate many areas of society. In the presented in this chapter focuses on the examination of United States and many other Westernized nations, these psychological constructs within the context of the school are most visibly represented in a multitude of educational classroom. The importance of self-regulation in the learn- and occupational tests shown to relate to societal success. ing enterprise is presented and reinforces the critical appli- Competing views about the sorting influence of intelli- cation of educational psychology toward understanding gence are presented. Sternberg concludes that societies and how children learn and how we can enhance the learn- often choose a similar array of criteria to sort people, but ing process. he cautions that such correlations may simply be an arti- fact of societally preferred groups rather than a result of some “invisible hand of nature.” Metacognition and Learning Sternberg describes the need for psychometrically sound measures of intelligence as a necessary prerequisite McCormick, Dimmitt, and Sullivan (this volume) con- for the validation of theories of intelligence. A significant sider metacognition as a conscious subcomponent of self- trend in the past two decades has been the development of regulation that contributes to a learner’s knowledge of and intelligence tests based on cognitive and information pro- control over cognition and as such demonstrate the refine- cessing theories of intelligence. Literature is presented on ment that has emerged in the construct since it was first implicit views of intelligence that have served as the basis described by Flavell (1976). Research on metacognition for explicit conceptions and tests of intelligence. The early is concerned with the knowledge and control of cognitive biological theories of Halstead (1951), Hebb (1949), and thought and learning processes that are similar yet distin- Luria (1980) are reviewed and contrasted with more con- guished from self-regulation (reviewed by Schunk & Zim- temporary biological findings and theories that are poised merman, this volume) and executive function. The growth to have a substantial influence on psychometric work in of research in this field can also be recognized by a new the future. journal, Metacognition and Learning, devoted exclusively to this domain of knowledge. Theoretical issues that have driven researchers over Self-Regulation and Learning the years are presented as well as the current unresolved Schunk and Zimmerman (this volume) discuss the role debates. Research paradigms used to assess such abilities of self-generated or self-directed activities that students are reviewed, including feeling of knowing, pretest judg- use during learning. These notions strongly suggest that ments, and judgments after retesting. An argument is made students are actively constructing and exercising con- that work in metacognition is best viewed as a bridge trol over their learning and social goals. Work in the between theory and practice. The importance of metacog- past two decades has isolated integral components of nition to both learner characteristics and curriculum design self-regulation processes that influence achievement cog- is highlighted in this chapter. For example, researchers nitions, behaviors, and emotions (Schunk & Zimmer- have found that students with general metacognitive skills man, 2008). Researchers have continued to demonstrate do better on novel classroom tasks and also are more likely