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2004 The Synthesis of Taiwanese and Western Musical Elements: A Case Study of the Zheng Concerto—Dots, Lines, and Convergence by Chihchun Chi-Sun Lee Shih-Chen Yiu

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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MUSIC

The Synthesis of Taiwanese and Western Musical Elements: A case study of the Zheng concerto—Dots, Lines, and Convergence by Chihchun Chi-Sun Lee

By

Shih-Chen Yiu

A thesis submitted to the School of Music In partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Master of Music

Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2004

The members of the Committee approve the thesis of Shih-Chen Yiu defended on April

2. 2004.

______

Matthew Shaftel Professor Directing Thesis

______

Frank Gunderson Committee Member

______

Evan Jones Committee Member

The office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures………………………………………………………………iv

List of Examples………………………………………………………...... v

Abstract……………………………………………………………………viii

Chapter I

The Composer……………………………………………………………….1

Musical Change and the Western Influence on Taiwanese Music…………..2

An Introduction to the Zheng………………………………………………13

Chapter II

Movement I: Dots…………………………………………………………..16

Chapter III

Movement II: Lines………………………………………………………...45

Chapter IV

Movement III: Convergence……………………………………………….60

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………85

Bibliography………………………………………………………………88

Biographical Sketch………………………………………………………90

iii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1. The division of Taiwanese aboriginal……………………………………...7

Figure 1-2. The original score of a Dutch psalm in Taiwan in 1638………………….9

Figure 1-3. The first Taiwanese hymn by G. L. Mackay……………………………..11

Figure 1-4. A partial score of Zang Hua Yin by Chang-Hui Hsu……………………16

Figure 4-1. The traditional Taiwanese percussion set………………………………..72

iv

LIST OF EXAMPLES

Example 1-1. Different notations of the Zheng……………………………………….20

Exam[le 1-2. The range of traditional Zheng tuning…………………………………20

Example 2-1. Formal structure of movement I……………………………………….22

Example 2-2a. The Zheng tuning system in the Zheng concerto…………………….25

Example 2-3. The notation of new performing techniques in the Zheng concerto…26

Example 2-4. The hexachord motive (first movement mm.1-2)……………………..27

Example 2-5. The hexachord motive in mm. 94-98…………………………………...28

Example 2-6a. Original hexachord ……………………………………………………30

Example 2-6b. The hexachord in m. 32(the Zheng)…………………………………..31

Example 2-6c. The original hexachord motive (trichordal subsets)…………………32

Example 2-6d. A combination of the hexachord motive with salient hexachord passages later on in the movement…………………………………………………….34

Example 2-7a. “Feathered beams” passage in m. 29…………………………………35

Example 2-7b. “ Feathered beams” passage in m. 47………………………………...35

Example 2-8a. The “feathered beams” rhythmic pattern in vertical structure in mm. 44-46……………………………………………………………………………………..37

Example 2-8b. The First String Quartet by Elliott Carter, mm. 22-29………………38

Example 2-9. “dots”…………………………………………………………………….40

Example 2-10. “lines”…………………………………………………………………..40

Example 2-11. “convergence”………………………………………………………….40

Example 2-12. Six Pieces for Orchestra, op. 6 by Webern…………………………....42

v Example 2-13. Klangfarbenmelodie in mm. 53-55 of the Zheng concerto…………...43

Example 2-14a. Webern’s Six Bagatelles (The sixth—Flißend)……………………..44

Example 2-14b. mm. 99-103 in the Zheng concerto………………………………….45

Example 2-15. mm. 94-95 in the Zheng concerto……………………………………..46

Example 2-16. Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima by Penderecki………………48

Example 2-17. “Sound mass” passage in mm. 113-114 of the Zheng concerto……..49

Example 3-1. Formal structure of movement II……………………………………...53

Example 3-2. Chinese pentatonic scale structure……………………………………..54

Example 3-3. mm. 132-133 of the Zheng concerto……………………………………55

Example 3-4. The newly-composed melody of the second movement (in mm. 139- 146)………………………………………………………………………………………56

Example 3-5. Multi-tonality passage in mm. 132-134………………………………...56

Example 3-6. Drip, Drip, Plop………………………………………………………….58

Example 3-7. The Conquette Teases the Rooster………………………………………59

Example 3-8. The use of original tunes………………………………………………..60

Example 3-9. A short passage of Drip, Drip, Plop in mm. 136-137…………………..61

Example 3-10a. Lee modifies the passage using the D harmonic minor scale………62

Example 3-10b. Expecting Your Return……………………………………………….62

Example 3-11. The folk tune with octave displacement……………………………...63

Example 3-12. Jasmine………………………………………………………………....63

Example 3-13. Modified tune of Jasimine……………………………………………..64

Example 3-14. Multi-tonal effect in mm. 171-172…………………………………….65

Example 4-1. Formal structure of movement III……………………………………..68

Example 4-2. Rhythmic motive in the third movement………………………………71

vi Example 4-3. Zheng’s chordal structure………………………………………………71

Example 4-4a. mm. 251-257……………………………………………………………74

Example 4-4b. Application of contour theory in folk tunes………………………….76

Example 4-5. A motives borrowed from the first movement………………………...78

Example 4-6a. Application of contour theory in the hexachord in m. 263………….79

Example 4-7a. Motives borrowed from the second movement………………………80

Example 4-7b. Motives borrowed from the second movement………………………81

Example 4-8. Motives borrowed from the second movement………………………..82

Example 4-9. Motives borrowed from the previous two movements………………..83

Example 4-10. Synthesis in vertical structure………………………………………...85

Example 4-11. Denser combination of motives……………………………………….87

Example 4-12. The synthesis structure in the last two measures……………………89

Example 4-13. Motives borrowed in Cadenza………………………………………...91

vii

ABSTRACT

Since the mid 17th century, Western culture has influenced Taiwanese society in various ways, especially in the field of music. In the 20th century, Taiwanese composers have attempted to create a new compositional style by combining the elements of Western, Taiwanese, and Chinese music. The resulting style still maintains the essence of ancient Taiwanese/Chinese music, but synthesizes the elements of Western music. A quintessential example of the synthesis of Taiwanese and Western music can be found in the Concerto for Zheng and Chamber Ensemble by Chihchun Chi-Sun Lee. Chihchun Chi-Sun Lee is a Taiwanese-American composer who received her musical education in both Taiwan and the USA. Her compositional style is deeply influenced by both Western and Eastern musical tradition. This composition, commissioned by the Harvard Fromm Foundation and dedicated to the Chinese Zheng master, Haiqiong Deng, presents three distinct musical cultures and then synthesizes them in the final movement. The world premiere was performed by Haiqiong Deng and the Florida State University Chamber Ensemble in the Weill Recital Hall at Carnegie Hall on September 19th, 2003. The composition consists of three movements without interruption. The movements are entitled Dots, Lines, and Convergence with the dots representing one of the Western esthetics of the 20th century, lines the Eastern esthetics, and the convergence of the two specific kinds. The instrumentation of this piece is one of the most obvious borrowings from traditional Chinese music. The composer uses the Zheng to represent Eastern traditional music, while chamber ensemble (flute/piccolo, clarinet in B-flat, percussion, violin, viola, violoncello, and double bass) represents the Western music tradition. In addition, the composer uses two famous Taiwanese folk tunes in the second and third movements of the composition to highlight Taiwanese “spirit”. In the program notes of the score, she writes: This movement (the first movement) uses the ideas of Pointillism and Klangfarbenmelodie, focusing on texture rather than melody. The second movement, in contrast to the first, is lyrical in emphasis. These melodic lines involve strong Asian influence. Antiphonal and homophonic textures are used

viii between the soloist and the ensemble. Within complex textures, this concluding movement (the third movement) integrates the previous materials: connecting dots and lines, while expanding and developing them into a greater hierarchy.

Indeed, the synthesis of Taiwanese and Western music not only occurs in the instrumentation, but also in the textures and musical materials of each movement. This thesis will explore the synthesis of style found in this concerto starting with a brief history of the music in Taiwan based on social and political backgrounds and particularly the Western influence on Taiwanese music over the centuries, and followed by an analysis of the three movements in Concerto for Zheng and Chamber Ensemble: Dots, Lines, and Convergence. In the analysis of the concerto, several analytical methodologies will be applied. (1) Scale analysis— the tuning system of the Zheng in this concerto is different from the traditional pentatonic system. Therefore, a scale analysis helps us to understand the construction of the tuning, which results in the synthesis of Western and Eastern styles. (2) Contour theory—it is useful method to identify some similar contours of the hexachord motive. In addition, contour theory also can be applied in the analysis of the Taiwanese folk tunes in a newly composed passage in the third movement. (3) Style analysis—it shows intertextural references to 20th-century western compositional technique such as Klangfarbenmelodie, pointillism, and sound mass. Chapter I will introduce the composer, the history of foreign influences on Taiwanese music, and the Zheng. Chapter II will discuss the first movement—Dots, in which Lee applies 20th-century compositional techniques such as Klangfarbenmelodie, pointillism, and sound mass to represent the Western musical tradition. Among these compositional techniques, pointillism is the main texture of this movement, which Lee suggests in the title, Dots. I will also discuss the unique tuning of the Zheng for this composition, which includes octatonic, whole tone, pentatonic, and D harmonic scales to represent the multi-cultural music tradition in Taiwan. Indeed, the Zheng departs radically from the pentatonic realm associated with traditional Asian music. In addition, contour theory will be used to identify instances of a primary hexachord motive in the composition. In chapter III, a discussion of the second movement—Lines, describes how Lee borrows two Taiwanese folk tunes, a Chinese folk tune, and the pitch material of a

ix popular song from the Japanese colonial period to represent the many influences on Taiwanese music. The main texture of this movement, in contrast to the first movement, is a lyrical and linear style, created by slurs and unbroken melodic phrases. Chapter IV discusses the third movement—Convergence, in which Lee combines both “dots” and “lines” from the previous movements to form new musical structures. Lee utilizes three compositional strategies to combine these elements. Lee simply borrows several different motives from the previous two movements to present juxtaposition of different elements in a musical collage. The second and third strategies suggest a synthesis or “convergence” of styles. In the second type, she maintains the motives, but arranges them into a vertical structure in which the motives are played simultaneously. In the third type of synthesis, Lee creates a new passage, by combining the elements of the previous movements in close proximity, such as a rapid attention of “dots” and “lines”. Contour theory will be again used in this chapter again to draw an association between the two Taiwanese folk tunes and this newly composed passage, which presents a higher level of synthesis. The first and second movements will be considered as representatives of their respective styles, not as literal statements of the style. Some cross-over necessarily occurs, as in the use of the Eastern instrument Zheng in the Western Dots movement, and similarly the use of Western ternary form for the Eastern Lines movement. This cross- integration is also representative of Taiwanese music itself, which will be discussed in the following section on musical change in Taiwan.

x

Chapter I

The Composer

Chihchun Chi-sun Lee was born in Kaohsiung, Taiwan in 1970. She received degrees from the University of Michigan (D.M.A. Composition), Ohio University (M.M. Composition/M.A. Film Scoring), and Soochow University in Taipei (B.F.A. Theory and Composition). The most significant characteristic of Dr. Lee’s compositional style is the synthesis of the music traditions from Taiwanese and Western culture. She often borrows Taiwanese children’s songs and folk tunes in her compositions, and thus, her compositions represent the esthetics of Asian tradition. She is recently an active composer in Taiwan and the United States. She has received numerous honors including Harvard Fromm Fellowship, the “Music Taipei” award, and the Taiwan International Young Composers Competition, ISCM/League of Composers Competition, the Hong Kong Chou Scholarship, NACUSA, and the Taiwanese province Music Competition. She also received commissions from Taiwan National Culture and Arts Foundation and SCI/SCAP Student Composer Commission. She has taught at the University of Michigan, Johnson County Community College, Washburn University, and Rhodes College. She is currently a composition faculty of the University of South Florida. In 2003, she composed Dots, Lines, and Convergence which was commissioned by the Harvard Fromm Foundation and dedicated to the Chinese Zheng master, Haiqiong Deng.

Musical Change and the Western Influence on Taiwanese Music

“Because every case of musical change presuppose a critical moment of cognitive change, it becomes necessary to locate when the change takes place. This poses a special problem for the analyst, because the moment of conscious change, in

1 which individuals make a decision to move in a different direction, may have been preceded by a period of latency, in which there is a graduate feeling towards change, and so it may be necessary to study musical events over a considerable period of time, in order to get the right perspective…If there was musical change, how can the analyst find out precisely when and how the crucial decisions were made?”1

Taiwan is an island off the southeastern coast of mainland China. Because of its convenient geographical location, Taiwan has played an important role as a transportation center between the Eastern and Western worlds. Along with cultural influences from different nations and regimes through several centuries, Taiwan has developed its own unique cultural characteristics which are different from the ones in mainland China and can be found manifest in Taiwanese music. However, the definition of so-called “Taiwanese traditional music” still varies widely. According to Ying-fen Wang’s division in the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music (Chinese), “Taiwanese traditional music” indicates at least four different kinds of musical traditions from four major ethnic groups in Taiwan including: The Holo, the Hakka, the Aboriginal, and the Mainlanders.2 In The Introduction of Taiwanese Music History, the father of Taiwanese ethnomusicology, Tsang-Houei Hsu, includes the Holo, Hakka, and Mainlanders music in a single category, Han music. Therefore, his aspect of Taiwanese music can be divided into the Aboriginal and the Han ethnic group. In addition to the four musical traditions, several stylistic periods can be defined for Taiwanese music. In The History of Taiwanese Music, Yu-Hsiu Lui, an ethnomusicologist divides Taiwanese music into six different periods as defined by political events: (1) Before 1624, (2) The Dutch-Spanish colonial period (1624-1662), (3) The Ming/Qing dynasty period (1662-1895), (4) The Japanese colonial period (1895-1945), (5) After World War II (1945-1987), and (6) After the end of martial law (1987-now).3 The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the musical

1 John Blacking, “Music Culture and Experience.” (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp.161- 162. 2 Ying-Fen Wang, “Taiwanese Traditional Music.” Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, edited by Yoshihiko Tokumaru and Bell Yung. Vol. 3, pp.423-429 (New York: Garland Publishing, 2002). 3 Yu-Hsu Lui, “The History of Taiwanese Music.” (Taipei: Wu-Nan Publishing, 2003), pp. 11-12.

2 developments, or ‘changes’ that occurred throughout the six different time periods with particular emphasis on the Western influence on Taiwanese music.

(1) Before 1624 According to Yu-Hsiu Lui, there was no detailed record of the existence of Taiwan before 1624. The aboriginal people had distinct musical traditions, which were focused entirely on accompaniment for celebrations and ceremonies. The aboriginal people can be divided into nine different tribes based on different regions: Tayal, Saisiat, Bunun, Paiwan, Rukai, Puyuma, Tsou, Ami, Thao, and Yami (see Figure 1-1). There is little record of the music for this period.

(2) The Dutch-Spanish colonial period (1624-1662)

In the mid 17th century, the Dutch, who were the first western people to travel to Taiwan, occupied the southern part of the island. During this time period, many Chinese migrated from the southeast coast of Mainland China (Fujian and Guangdong provinces). These people Holo (Fujian) and Hakka (Guangdong) started the musical tradition. The first western-influenced music occurred in this period through the introduction of Christianity. “In many instance, the first intensive exposure of non-Western societies to Western music was through church music”.4 In the book, Formosa under the Dutch, William Campbell mentions that many Dutch missionaries came to Taiwan and educated the Taiwanese aboriginals about Christianity.5 This was the very earliest reference to Christian music in Taiwan.

4 Bruno Nettl, “The Western Impact on World Music.” (New York: Schirmer Books, 1985), p. 7. 5 The book, Archiefvoor de Geschiedenis der Oude Hollandsche Zending by J.A. Grothe in 1886-1887, includes detailed records of Taiwanese history. Later, the pastor of the Anglican church, William Campbell, wrote Formosa under the Dutch, with reference to Grothe’s book, including a discussion of musical activities at this time.

3 In 1626, the Spanish occupied the northern part of Taiwan near today’s capital city—Taipei. The Spanish brought their Catholicism and its music to the people of Taiwan (including both the Han ethnic group and aboriginals). The Dutch banished the Spanish in 1642, and the Dutch occupied the whole of Taiwan until 1661. Figure 1-2 shows the original score of a Dutch psalm in Taiwan in 1638.

Figure 1-1

The division of Taiwanese aboriginal

4

Figure 1-2

The original score of a Dutch psalm in Taiwan in 1638 Yu-Hsu Lui, “The History of Taiwanese Music.” (Taipei: Wu-Nan Publishing, 2003), p.55.

5 (3) The Ming/Qing dynasty period (1662-1895)

Because of the growing Chinese population in Taiwan at this time, the Chinese musical tradition began to gain prominence. In December 1661, a Chinese general of the Ming dynasty, Cheng-Kung Zheng, led the Chinese military against the Dutch and Spanish, and the Dutch-Spanish colonial period was ended. In 1683, the Qing dynasty took over Mainland China. During this time, more Chinese from the southeast coast of Mainland China (mostly from Fujian province) immigrated to Taiwan. The Catholic Church assigned Dominican missionaries to Taiwan in 1859. In 1860, the Anglican Church pastors, Carstairs Douglas and Hur Libertas Mackenzie, visited Taiwan and decided to develop the Anglican Church in Taiwan.6 The reintroduction of Christianity to Taiwan brought increased influence from Western church music. In order to successfully develop Christianity among Taiwanese aboriginals, a Canadian pastor, G.L. Mackay, rearranged aboriginal folk tunes with biblical texts to form new hymns. The first Taiwanese hymn is shown in Figure 1-3.7 The Church established several high schools and colleges in the southern part of Taiwan. Tainan University, which was officially the first westernized college in Taiwan, was established in 1876. In 1879, the first western music class was taught by a pastor, David Smith at Tainan University.8 Later, an increasing number of pastors and western musicians were invited to Taiwan to teach western music. This period was the first time that western music was officially accepted and developed in Taiwan.

6 Yu-Hsu Lui, “The History of Taiwanese Music.” (Taipei: Wu-Nan Publishing, 2003), p.84.

7 Ibid. p.88.

8 Ibid. p.85.

6

Figure 1-3

The first Taiwanese hymn by G.L. Mackay Yu-Hsu Lui, “The History of Taiwanese Music.” (Taipei: Wu-Nan Publishing, 2003), p.88.

7 (4) The Japanese colonial period (1895-1945)

The second introduction of Western music to Japan in the 19th century involved a very different style and social milieu. Shortly after Commodore Perry’s renowned visit in 1853, military bands were introduced. Secular Western music, performed largely for ceremonies and impressing international visitors, gradually began to play a major role.9

In 1894, the Qing dynasty lost the battle against Japan in the Sino-Japanese War. The Qing government signed the Ma-Kuan treaty and ceded Taiwan to Japan. Taiwan officially became a Japanese colony in 1895. The Japanese government promoted the Japanese language instead of the languages which had previously been spoken in Taiwan, including Chinese, Taiwanese dialects, and aboriginal languages. In terms of music education during this period, the Japanese government maintained their tradition of Western music education as one of the subjects in all the schools in Taiwan.

A formal education system based on Western models was established by the Japanese. Music was an integral part of this system, especially in the normal schools for training teachers; Western and Westernized Japanese songs were the core of these courses. The best students were encouraged to study music formally in Japan, even being offered scholarships. Students from Christian schools also went to Japan to further their studies of music.10

The first Taiwanese student who studied music abroad was Fu-Hsing Chang. He studied organ and violin in Ueno Music Conservatory what is now known as The Tokyo Art University. He established the first western symphony orchestra in Taiwan in 1920. He also wrote a book in 1922 that included the first field research of aboriginal music in Taiwan. In 1945, he entered the faculty of the National Taipei Teacher’s college.11 The second half of the 20th century saw an increasing number of students studying Western

9 Bruno Nettl, “The Western Impact on World Music.” (New York: Schirmer Books, 1985), p. 10. 10 Kuo-huang Han, “Taiwan” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrell. Vol. 25, p.9 (London: Macmillan Publishers Limited, 2001).

11 Chang-Hui Hsu, “The Introduction of Taiwanese Music History.” (Taipei: Chuan-Yin Publishing, 1991), p.259.

8 music abroad (mainly in Japan), reflecting a flourishing Western classical music tradition in Taiwan.

(5) After World War II (1945-1987) During this period, Western classical music and Chinese music were the two primary music traditions that dominated in Taiwan. Japan lost World War II, and returned Taiwan to the Republic of China. During this time in China, the battle between Kuomintang (the Nationalist party) and the Chinese communist party started. In 1949, the Chinese communist party took over Mainland China, and the leader of Kuomintang, Chiang Kai-Shek, retreated the Nationalist government to Taiwan. The Kuomintang still maintained the name and regime of the Republic of China in Taiwan. The people who came from China with Kuomintang during this time were called “Foreigners” to distinguish them from the Chinese immigrants of the 17th through 19th centuries who called themselves “Taiwanese”. Hence, there are three major groups of people in Taiwan today: Taiwanese (Chinese immigrants since the 17th century until 1949), “Foreigners” (Chinese immigrants who came with Kuomintang), and native Taiwanese (aboriginals). Because of the multi-ethnic population in Taiwan, the music of this period was extremely diversified. The Taiwanese aboriginals still maintained their ceremonies and celebrations with traditional music while the “Taiwanese” maintained the music tradition that had developed from the 17th century to this period and was different from the one that was originally transferred from Mainland China to Taiwan. During the early stage of this period, the Kuomintang continued the music educational system that was used in the Japanese colonial period. Moreover, the Kuomintang highly encouraged the Western classical music tradition and established more Western music programs in universities and Teacher’s colleges. While Japanese-trained Taiwanese musicians continued to work, they were joined by many mainland musicians (who were called ‘Foreigners’)…Many of them taught in the newly established Department of Music, Taiwan Teachers’ College, which became Normal University in 1955. The style of most of these composers

9 (both Taiwanese and mainlanders) was more or less 19th century Romanticism with Chinese melodies—in other words, pentatonic Romanticism.12

Influenced by a famous slogan from a commercial for a music institution “the kid who learns music would not misbehave”, (at this time, “music” usually specifically referred to Western music) more families started to send their children to study Western instruments.13 Instead of studying in Japan, more music majors studied in Western countries after 1960. They not only absorbed the Western philosophy but also rethought the musical esthetics of their own culture. After they returned, they became the leading force in Taiwanese art music. The composers of this time started to explore the new compositional style, which was a synthesis of Chinese and Western music. For example, Tsang-Houei Hsu was an important figure who first introduced 20th century atonal techniques after he studied in Paris and returned to Taiwan in 1959. “Hsu’s avant-garde compositions epitomized this trend and departed from the Romantic and tonally oriented tradition.”14 He wrote a composition in 1962, Zang Hua Yin, for three sopranos, female chorus, and percussion. The title and idea of this composition was from an ancient Chinese novel, Hong Lou Meng, but the composition used on Western instrumentation and notation (see Figure 1- 4). Zang Hua Yin describes one of the famous scenes in the novel where the main female character cried and buried the withered flowers. Mr. Hsu explained that the scene inspired him to write a “Chinese Requiem”.15 In this piece, Mr. Hsu borrows three different kinds of singing styles for the three sopranos in order to differentiate from the Western operatic singing style, the reciting tone of Buddhist scripture (usually during Chinese traditional funeral), the singing style of Peking opera, and the reciting tone of traditional Chinese poems. The requiem imitates the reciting tone of Buddhist scripture

12 Kuo-Huang Han, “Western Art Music.” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrell. Vol. 25, p.9 (London: Macmillan Publishers Limited, 2001).

13 Yu-Hsu Lui, “The History of Taiwanese Music.” (Taipei: Wu-Nan Publishing, 2003), p.182.

14 Kuo-Huang Han, “Western Art Music.” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrell. Vol. 25, p.9 (London: Macmillan Publishers Limited, 2001).

10 by repeating narrow intervals, mostly smaller than a minor third. In addition, he used a typical percussion instrument for Chinese traditional funerals, the Mu-Yu (woodblock). The female chorus and atonal harmonic structures he uses are elements from the Western music tradition that do not exist in Chinese music. This synthesis of Western and Asian styles encapsulates the importance of the Chinese music tradition for the composers, while reflecting the importance of Western music in Taiwan during this time period.

Figure 1-4

A partial score of Zang Hua Yin by Chang-Hui Hsu Yu-Hsu Lui, “The History of Taiwanese Music.” (Taipei: Wu-Nan Publishing, 2003), p.505.

15Chang-Hui Hsu, “The Introduction of Taiwanese Music History.” (Taipei: Chuan-Yin Publishing, 1991).

11 (6) After the martial law ended (1987-now)

The musical works of this period reflect a conscious “Taiwanese” identity. The Kuomintang ended martial law in 1986, allowing Taiwanese people to travel and conduct business in Mainland China. The identity of Taiwan became an issue, as the definition of “Taiwanese” was not as narrow as before. Earlier divisions, such as aboriginal, “Taiwanese”, or “foreigner” began to break down. Taiwanese musicians became more aware of the identity of “Taiwanese music” and tried to find a way to maintain and develop this as a unique musical tradition. Taiwanese ethnomusicologists began to take interest in tracing the musical tradition from each ethnic group. In 1983, the Chinese Ethnomusicology Association held their first conference, and they published some related articles and theses/dissertations in 1986. In 1991, they changed their title to the International Ethnomusicology Association, and in 1998, the International Ethnomusicology Association and the Pacific Asian Ethnomusicology Association held their conferences together. In this conference, they focused on systemized ways of talking about Taiwanese music and ways to support Taiwanese traditional musicians.16 In terms of the development of Western music in Taiwan, the government did not change its strategy from the previous period. The government established more Western music programs in universities. In addition, the National Music Concert Hall was built in 1986, and the National Symphony Orchestra was established at the same time. This led to the creation of new symphony orchestras and concert halls. Because of the need for Western music performers and instructors, the percentage of Taiwanese studying Western music abroad is still rising today.17 Taiwanese composers began to focus on Taiwanese music through Taiwanese folk tunes and their musical characteristics, which are synthesis of multi-ethnic music

16 Yu-Hsu Lui, “The History of Taiwanese Music.” (Taipei: Wu-Nan Publishing, 2003), pp 214-215. 17 Yu-Hsu Lui, “The History of Taiwanese Music.” (Taipei: Wu-Nan Publishing, 2003), pp 214-215.

12 traditions. The synthesis of Taiwanese and Western musical traditions is an important feature of music written by Taiwanese composers at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st century.

An Introduction to the Zheng

The Zheng, a traditional Chinese instrument, is a played by plucking its 16 or 21 strings. The earliest reference to the Zheng was in the Warring States period (473 B.C.- 221 B.C.): Literary references to the Zheng date back to the Warring States period, and in early writings it was often mentioned in conjunction with the se, a twenty-five- stringed zither. One legend has it that quarreling sisters broke a se into a twelve- and thirteen-stringed Zheng; another version of the story has the twelve-stringed and thirteen-stringed pieces going to Korea and Japan (where they became, respectively, the kayagum and the koto). In more recent centuries, the standard Zheng had sixteen strings; the twenty-one-stringed version became most prevalent beginning in the 1950s. 18

The proper way of playing the Zheng is in a sitting position, with the Zheng set up horizontally in front of a performer. The right hand is for plucking and strumming the strings to produce the sound. The left hand is for pressing the strings to produce the notes outside of the pentatonic scale (the basis for the tuning of its strings), and also for making the strings vibrate or to produce a sliding glissando. There are different schools dictating the technique of producing vibrato and sliding glissando. For example, “Vibrato may be rapid and narrow (in Henan), rapid and wide (in Shandong), or leisurely and wide (in Kejia); the Chaozhou school features quick, light flicks of the strings (dayin ‘hitting

18 Lawrence J. Witzleben, “Instruments: Zheng.” The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, edited by Yoshihiko Tokumaru and Bell Yung. Vol. 3, p. 171 (New York: Garland Publishing, 2002).

13 notes’), while some Henan pieces combine a tight vibrato, a long descending glissando, and movement of the right hand from side to side to change the timbre…”19 The tuning of the Zheng is based on the pentatonic scale, and the pitch range of the 21-stringed Zheng (more widely used now than the 16-stringed Zheng) is four octaves. The highest octave of a Zheng is located closest to the performer, and lower octaves are located relatively far from the performer. The traditional notation of Zheng music used Chinese characters or numbers in Chinese, but recent notational practice uses Arabic numbers, which are more accessible than the Chinese ones, and most Zheng performers are also required to understand the Western notation system. Bruno Nettl mentions that “In many nations, schools teaching a Westernized approach to the tradition system, as well as those striving to preserve a more ‘pure’ tradition, seem equally to have adopted aspects of Western conservatories and music schools.”20 The notation system of the Zheng is an important indication of the Western influence on traditional Asian music (see Example 1-1). The notation of the traditional range of the 21-stringed Zheng is shown in the Example 1-2. Solfege System— Do Re Mi (Fa) Sol La (Ti) Do

Letter Name System— C D E (F) G A (B) C

Zheng Notation Sysytem— 1 2 3 (4) 5 6 (7) 1

Chinese Character System—

Example 1-1

Different notations of the Zheng

19 Lawrence J. Witzleben, “Instruments: Zheng.” The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, edited by Yoshihiko Tokumaru and Bell Yung. Vol. 3, p. 172 (New York: Garland Publishing, 2002).

20 Bruno Nettl, “The Western Impact on World Music.” (New York: Schirmer Books, 1985), p.75.

14

Highest------Lowest

...... 1 6 5 3 2 1 6 5 3 2 1 6 5 3 2 1 6 5 3 2 1 ......

Example 1-2

The range of traditional Zheng tuning

The tuning system of the Zheng is different from that of Western instruments. While the Western tuning system is based on A=440, traditional Chinese instruments are tuned by the performers’ ears without any standard reference pitch, so that the pitches used may vary from performance to performance. The Zheng gained popularity outside of Mainland China in the 1980s. Some Zheng performers and instructors traveled or immigrated to other countries where they started to promote this instrument. Many composers began to exploit the unique sound of the Zheng in their compositions, sometimes combining it with Western instruments. Much of the more recent music for the Zheng employs new performing styles and techniques. Indeed, the modern playing of the Zheng is more virtuosic, such that while the right hand maintains the main function of plucking strings, the left hand may pluck strings too. Although there is a wide variety of music available for Zheng today, Zheng players still try to preserve some of the essence of traditional Zheng playing. Indeed, they believe that the best Zheng music not only develops meaningful changes in performance style, but also maintains the traditional esthetics of this unique instrument.

15 Chapter II

Movement I— Dots

Formal structure and texture

The main division of the formal structure is based on differing textures (see formal diagram in Example 2-1).

A. Introduction (the hexachord motive) B. Reinforce the hexachord motive

(all instruments, except the Zheng) (the Zheng starts)

|------| |------| m.1 29 30 52

C. Klangfarbenmelodie

(all instruments play Db) (change notes) (klangfarbenmelodie fades out)

|------|------| |------|

m.53 64 74 75 82

D. Pointillism

(cadenza-like section) (the hexachord motive)

|------|------|------|

m. 83 88 94 112

Example 2-1

Formal structure of movement I

16 (Example 2-1 continued)

E. Sound mass

(the hexachord motive by the Zheng and contrabass) (all instruments conclude with the hexachord motive) |------|------|------| m.113 115 121 124

The tuning and performing techniques of the Zheng in the composition

The traditional tuning system of the Zheng was discussed in chapter I. The tuning system of the Zheng in the Zheng concerto by Chihcun Chi-Sun Lee, however, differs from traditional tuning. Note that the scale is not always in ascending order. The first three strings of the scale are F-sharp, A, and G-sharp, and the final three strings of the scale are D, F-sharp, and F (see Example 2-2a). For this work, the strings are tuned such that a scale of open strings can be partitioned into several significant subsets, including complete pentatonic, whole tone, and harmonic minor scales as well as significant octatonic subsets. The middle strings are tuned to form a traditionally Asian pentatonic scale from G2 to G3. The first five notes and the last five notes of the open strings of the Zheng are assembled as an octatonic scale (except Bb), and another subset of an octatonic scale overlaps on Bb-Eb-G-A. The whole tone and octatonic scales here represent Western musical elements. An entire whole tone scale is formed in the upper register (Bb-D-E-F#-G#-C), and an entire D minor harmonic scale is rear the middle (Db-E-F-A- Bb-D) and is a signal of Japanese colonial influence (see Example 2-2b). Lee mentioned that this unique tuning structure represents the idea of the synthesis style and also shows

17 multi-cultural influences in Taiwanese music history.21 Because of its unique tuning system here, the Zheng is able to depart radically from the pentatonic realm associated with traditional Asian music.

Example 2-2a

The Zheng tuning system in the Zheng concerto

21 Personal interview with Chihchun Chi-Sun Lee on November 20, 2003. 18

Example 2-2b

The structure of the Zheng tuning system in the Zheng concerto

Lee also utilizes the Zheng to create new timbres by requiring the playing of chords, scraping of strings, and the hitting of the headboard and soundboard. The notation of these techniques is shown in Example 2-3.

19

Example 2-3

The notation of new performing techniques in the Zheng concerto

Motive

The composition utilizes contour in a motivic fashion. The primary motive of the first movement is a single hexachord, which is introduced in m.1. Here, each instrument except the Zheng and contrabass plays one note of the hexachord, A, Db, C, G, Bb, and E (see Example 2-4). This hexachord motive is a subset of octatonic collection III,22 which shares a subset (Bb-Eb-G-A) from the Zheng’s open-string tuning (see Example 2-2b). In mm.122-124, each instrument plays exactly the same pitches of the hexachord motive to conclude the movement. In mm.94-95, the Zheng plays an ostinato-like figure where the six accented notes are exactly the same as the original hexachord motive (see Example 2-5). The composer thus combines pitch and accent to present the hexachord motive.

20

Example 2-4

The hexachord motive (first movement mm. 1-2)

22 Pieter van den Toorn, “Petroushka.” in The Music of Igor Stravinsky (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), p.50.

21

Example 2-5

The hexachord motive in mm. 94-98

22 Contour theory

Several patterns arise that are very similar to the original motive without having the exact same pitches and intervals. As Robert Morris writes,

Musical contour is one of the most general aspects of pitch perception, prior to the concept of pitch or pitch class, for it is grounded only in a listener’s ability to hear pitches as relatively higher, equal, or lower, without discerning the exact differences between and among them. Yet, until rather recently, music theorists have paid little attention to contour relations. This is somewhat understandable since contour, especially melodic contour, remain largely an aspect of musical diction until the beginning of the twentieth century. But in much twentieth century music, especially in the works of Edgard Varese, Iannis Xenakis, and Gyorgy Ligeti, contour has been generalized beyond melody and may play an important structural role in a specific composition or repertoire.23

The basic method of applying contour theory to music is to hierarchize elements in some parameter, typical pitch, from the lowest to the highest. For example, the motive of the first movement of the Zheng Concerto is the hexachord, A-Db4-C5-G4-Bb3-E4. Then, identifying the lowest note as 0, the second lowest note as 1, etc, the contour of the hexachord is <4, 1, 5, 3, 0, 2>, which is called its contour segment or CSEG. For the purpose of comparing with other similar sets, contour similarity (CSIM) can be used: [The CSIM] measures the degree of similarity between two CSEGs of the same cardinality by comparing specific positions in the upper right-hand triangle of the COM- matrix for CSEG A with the corresponding positions in the matrix of CSEG B in order to total the number of similarities between them. This sum is divided by the total number of positions compared to return a decimal number that signifies greater similarity between CSEG as the value approaches 1.24

23 Robert D. Morris, “New Directions in the Theory and Analysis of Musical Contour.” Music Theory Spectrum. 15/2 (1993): 205-228; see p. 205. 24 Elizabeth W. Marvin and Paul A. Laprade, “Relating Musical Contours: Extensions of A Theory for Contour.” Journal of Music Theory 31/2 (1987): 225-266, see p. 256. Morris’s comparison matrix (COM-matrix) will be used to compare contours in contour space (C-space), to define equivalence relations, and to develop our similarity measurement for musical contours. The comparison matrix is a two-dimensional array which displays the results of the comparison function, COM (a,b), for any two pitches in C-space. If b is higher than a, the function returns “+”; if b is the same as a, the function returns “0”; and if b is lower than a, COM (a,b) returns “—“.

23 A hexachord that intuitively seems similar to the original motive, but with different pitches may be found in the violin I of m. 48, (E6,G5,G#6,C6,Db5,B5). Its contour similarity with the original hexachord, however, connects it aurally with the primary motive. The CSEG of this hexachord is <4, 1, 5, 3, 0, 2>, which is identical to that of the original motive, and thus the value of CSIM between these two CSEGs is 1 (see Example 2-6a).

The contour diagram

CSEG < 4,1,5,3,0,2>

COM-matrix

4 1 5 3 0 2

4 0 -- + ------1 + 0 + + -- + 5 -- -- 0 ------3 + -- + 0 -- -- 0 + + + + 0 + 2 + -- + + -- 0

Example 2-6a

Original hexachord

24 An inversion of the original hexachord motive may be found in m.32. The CSEG of this hexachord is <1,4,0,3,5,2>. The value of the CSIM between these two CSEGs is 0.066, reflecting that there is only one similar contour out of 15 sets of contours, and that the relationship between these two CSEG is almost inversion (see Example 2-6b).

The contour diagram

CSEG <1,4,0,3,5,2>

COM-matrix

1 4 0 3 5 2

1 0 + -- + + + 4 -- 0 -- -- + -- 0 + + 0 + + + 3 + + -- 0 + -- 5 ------0 -- CSIM = 1/15 = 0.066 2 -- + -- + + 0

Example 2-6b The hexachord motive in m. 32 (the Zheng)

In mm.84-86, the Zheng plays a D-flat ostinato-like figure and inserts six accented notes (D5-G#6-Bb4-E5-G3-F4). The overall CSIM is 0.53 which is not similar to the original hexachord motive. However, Lee divides the hexachord into two ‘sub-motives’. The CSEG of the first trichord of the hexachord motive is <1, 0, 2>, and the second

25 trichord is <2, 0, 1>. Various combinations of these two contours also appear in this movement. The CSEGs of the ostinato’s sub-motives are <1, 2, 0> <2, 0, 1>, with the first trichord <1, 2, 0> acting as the inversion of the original sub-motive (CSIM= 0), and the second trichord the same as the original. Despite the small change in the first sub- motive, the overall contour of the original hexachord is retained (see Example 2-6c).

The CSEG of the sub-motive [<1,0,2> <2,0,1>]

The contour diagram The contour diagram

COM-matrix of <1,0,2> COM-matrix of <2,0,1>

1 0 2 2 0 1

1 0 -- + 2 0 -- --

0 + 0 + 0 + 0 +

2 -- -- 0 1 + -- 0

Example 2-6c

The original hexachord motive (trichordal subsets)

26 (Example 2-6c continued)

The trichordal subsets in m. 84-86

The CSEG of the sub-motive [<1, 2, 0> <2, 0, 1>]

The contour diagram The contour diagram

COM-matrix of <1,2,0> COM-matrix of <2,0,1>

1 2 0 2 0 1

1 0 + -- 2 0 -- --

2 -- 0 -- 0 + 0 +

0 + + 0 1 + -- 0

CSIM = 0 CSIM = 1

27 Example 2-6dm shows a combination of the hexahord motive with salient hexachord passages later on in the movement. The CSIMs represent the degree of contour similarity between these passages and the contour of the original hexachord (4,1,5,3,0,2) and its trichordal subsets (1,0,2)(2,0,1) (see Example 2-6a and 2-6c).

Measure Instrument(s) CSEG CSIM

33 Zheng (1,4,0,3,5,2) 0.067

or (1,2,0)(1,2,0) or (0 and 0.33)

49 violin II (4,1,5,3,0,2) 1

50 viola (3,2,0,1,5,4) 0.2

or (2,1,0)(0,2,1) (0.3 and 0)

80 cello, contrabass (1,3,1,2,0,4) 0.33

or (0,1,0)(1,0,2) (0 and 0.33)

117 contrabass (4,1,5,3,0,2) 1

120-121 contrabass (4,1,3,5,0,2) 0.8

or (1,0,2)(2,0,1) or (1 and 1)

123-124 violin II, viola (3,5,0,2,4,1) 0.26

or (1,2,0)(1,2,0) or (0 and 0.33)

Example 2-6d

A combination of the hexachord motive with salient hexachord passages later on in the movement

28 An important rhythmic figure—“feathered-beams”

The composer uses a number of triplets, quadruplets, quintuplets, and septuplets throughout the movement. In addition, the composer also uses the combination of these rhythms in the Zheng in m.29 (see Example 2-7a). Here, the descending scale and rhythmic configuration represents a very important technique of Zheng performance, recalling traditional Chinese instrumental music. This rhythmic figure will return in the second and third movements. Another example is found in m.47, where there is an ascending scale figure with a combination of quadruplets, quintuplets, and septuplets (see Example 2-7b).

Example 2-7a

“Feathered beams” passage in m. 29

Example 2-7b

“Feathered beams” passage in m. 47

29 The composer also combines of these figures vertically in m.64. While the Zheng plays a figure denoted by “feathered-beams”, which indicates a gradual decelerando and accelerando, the clarinet plays a septuplet, the violin I plays quadruplets, the viola plays quintuplets, and the cello plays triplets. This interlocking of different layers of rhythmic figures presents a unique rhythmic composite (Example 2-8a). Elliott Carter’s composition, the First String Quartet (1951), also includes a similar rhythmic usage (see Example 2-8b).25 Jonathan Bernard discussed some terms such as “simultaneity” and “succession” in his essay.26

Example 2-8a

The “feathered beams” rhythmic pattern in vertical structure in mm. 44-46

25 Jonathan Bernard, “The Evolution of Elliott Carter’s Rhythmic Practice.” Perspective of New Music. 26/2 (1998): see p. 174-175.

26 In Bernard’s essay, “simultaneity” refers to the projection during some passage in a composition of two or more distinctly different rhythmic patterns, often taking the form of different speeds and usually occurring as separate strands or parts of the musical texture. By “succession” is meant the temporal arrangement of two or more different rhythmic patterns such that one pattern is followed by a second (an dteh second by a third, and so on) as the music progresses, either within the same part or from one part to another, with the first pattern either being abruptly superseded by the second.

30

Example 2-8b The First String Quartet by Elliott Carter, mm. 22-29.

31 The first movement opens in a manner that recalls the Western musical tradition (mm.1-30). In m.1, the hexachord motive is introduced linearly by every instrument except the Zheng. In the very next measure, violin I, II, and viola suddenly present another texture, “dots”, punctuated by pizzicato strings (see Example 2-9). Although several slurred passages foreshadow the “lines” of movement II in mm.8-10, the pointillistic “dots” of the title are virtually ever-present (see Example 2-10). In the end of the introduction (mm. 29-30), the Zheng finally appears with a linear “feathered-beams” passage followed by the notes of a C major minor seventh chord that is played in a pointillistic fashion. The next event is an eleventh chord based on A (see Example 2-11). The notes of this chord are a subset of the notes found in the feathered beam passage, while the notes of the C major minor chord (from the pointillist section) are a subset of a “convergence” chord. This short passage reflects the notion of the entire composition in that the notes of the C major minor seventh chord, which represent “dots”, and the notes of linear feathered beams passage, which represents lines, are “converged” in the subsequent eleventh chord. “Convergence”, in this composition, is represented by harmony, or chords.

Example 2-9 “dots”

32

Example 2-10

“lines”

Example 2-11

“convergence”

The primary goal of this movement is to present the image of “dots” throughout. To this end, the composer uses pointillism in conjunction with the main hexachord motive. The composer applies additional 20th century Western compositional techniques in the movement, which will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

33 (1) Klangfarbenmelodie

In the first section (mm.1-28), the main motive is introduced. This section may be called “introduction” in Western terms. In this section, every instrument emphasizes one note of the melody in a continuous flow, with several decorative diminutions. This specific compositional technique is called Klangfarbenmelodie: “the situation in which a discrete melodic figure is divided up between several instruments, passed from one to the other, so that no single instrumental color is associated with the melody.”27 This term is associated with Arnold Schoenberg’s Harmonielehre (1911). It is reflected in his Five Pieces for Orchestra op.16 (1909), especially the third, entitled Farben. Later, Anton Webern explored the technique, allowing the timbral structure of a work to clarify and enhance its pitch structure. The idea of Klangfarbenmelodie inspired such postwar Western composers as Stockhausen, who used this technique in an electronic medium for the systematization of timbre along serial lines.28 Webern’s Six Pieces for Orchestra, opus 6, is reknown for its exploitation of Klangfarbenmelodie. The sixth piece opens with an oboe solo and violin accompaniment for four measures, followed by duet between viola and bassoon, which is accompanied by clarinets on a single trichord. The phrase concludes with three ascending chromatic notes played by horn, trumpet, and clarinet (see Example 2-12).29

27 Allen Forte, “The Atonal Music of Anton Webern.” (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), p.377.

28 Julian Rushton, “Klangfarbenmelodie.” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrell. Vol. 13, p. 652,(London: Macmillan Publishers Limited, 2001).

34

Example 2-12

Six Pieces for Orchestra, op. 6 by Webern

29Allen Forte, “The Atonal Music of Anton Webern.” (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), pp. 110- 113.

35 Lee’s use of Klangfarbenmelodie is particular salient in mm.53-74. The Zheng introduces Db in m.53, and flute takes over Db in m.54. Later, clarinet, violin, and bass participate playing Db at different spots (see Example 2-13). Here, the melody is not created by varied pitches, but through variations of tone color. Every instrument maintains this style while changing notes gradually in mm.64-74. The clarinet and cello change to C in m.64, the cello changes to Bb in m.70, the violin I changes to E, the flute changes to F#, the contrabass changes to Ab, and the viola changes to Eb in m.71. The Klangfarbenmelodie fades out gradually after m.75.

Example 2-13

Klangfarbenmelodie in mm. 53-55 of the Zheng concerto

36 (2) Pointillism

The term pointillism, borrowed from art criticism, referred originally to the technique developed by the French painter, Georges Seuart (1859-1891), who laid paint on canvas as dots of pure color. It is frequently used to describe the textural surface of the 12-tone music of Webern.30

Theodor Adorno discusses Webern’s use of pointillistic textures in his book, Sound Figures: The Bagatelles for String Quartet, op.9 by Anton Webern, perhaps the most slimmed-down pieces in this phase, represent the consummation of that which can be uttered only in music, absolute expression, of which Schoenberg spoke in his preface. Subsequently, they became the model of what was sometimes called pointillism”.31

This is particularly evident in the Flißend section of Webern’s quartet, where the arrays of individual attacks clearly present a western-affiliated pointillist texture (see Example 2-14a).

Example 2-14a Webern’s Six Bagatelles (The sixth— Flißend)

30 Allen Forte, “The Atonal Music of Aton Webern.” (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), p.383. 31 Theodor W. Adorno, “Sound Figures.” (Stanford University Press, 1999), p.99.

37 In mm. 83-113, for example, Lee employs the Zheng in a short cadenza-like passage that exhibits a pointillistic style. Notice that the relatively staccato melody (the hexachord-motive contour) in the Zheng is punctuated by brief melodic figures or even single pitches in the other instruments (see Example 2-14b).

Example 2-14b

mm. 99-103 in the Zheng concerto

38 An interesting passage occurs in m.94, also in pointillisitic style. The first violin begins with a short linear phrase interrupted by the contrabass foreshadowing the second movement (see Example 2-15).

Example 2-15

mm. 94-95 in the Zheng concerto

39 (3) Sound Mass

The next section, mm.113-121, is based on a western compositional technique associated with composers such as Krzysztof Penderecki. Earlier composers, notably Henry Cowell, had used clusters, but normally as fixed and internally undifferentiated blocks of notes, functioning as complex doublings of a single note or as purely percussive sonorities. Penderecki, by contrast, took the cluster as a starting point for compositional development, subjecting it to various types of developmental processes—for example, and variation through changes in registration, width, or density. But, just as in Cowell’s clusters, the individual pitch is subordinated to the mass of sound within which it is embedded, and is more often than not completely imperceptible.32

The Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima for fifty-two string instruments written by Penderecki in 1960 includes many of the “sound masses” mentioned above. In m.10 (see Example 2-16), ten cellos start a new section, and play a chromatic cluster that expands from a unison F to return to its original position. The first twelve violins, the contrabasses, the violas, and the other twelve violins imitate this pattern freely, overlapping each other. Robert Morgan calls attention to the form-defining characteristics of these clusters: “Threnody groups these unusual sounds into various textural patterns, transforming, developing, and mediating among them to create the overall form”.33

32 Robert P. Morgan, “Twentieth-Century Music.” (London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1991), p.387. 33 Robert P. Morgan, “Twentieth-Century Music.” (London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1991), p.389.

40

Example 2-16 Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima by Penderecki

41 Lee uses the ‘sound mass’ technique in mm.113-121. Violin I starts a new section with a passage in m.113. Then, violin II, viola, clarinet, cello, and flute imitate the pattern introduced by violin I. Though the two composers used different methods of notation— Penderecki using indeterminate black shapes and Lee using pitch-specific notation— the effect of both is a ‘sound mass’. While other instruments play in the style of ‘sound mass’, the Zheng and the contrabass play the hexachord motive repeatedly (see Example 2-17).

Example 2-17

“sound mass” passage in mm. 113-114 of the Zheng concerto

42 (Example 2-17 continued)

43 The unique tuning system of the Zheng shows not only the combinations of pentatonic, octatonic, while tone, and D harmonic minor scales, but also the multi- cultural influences of the Taiwanese history. The hexachord motive (A, Db, C, G, Bb, E) that is introduced in the very beginning of the movement occurs many times later of the movement in different melodic contours. In order to find the similarity of the hexachord motive contour, the 20th century contour theory can be applied in the analysis. Lee uses some of the Western musical elements of the 20th century to represent Western music style. Klangfarbenmelodie and pointillism effectively show the texture of the movement, Dots. Lee uses another 20th century Western compositional technique, Sound mass, to reinforce the main idea of this movement.

44 Chapter III

Movement II—Lines

The purpose of this movement is to display Asian and particularly Taiwanese musical esthetics within a largely Western ensemble. To this end, Lee employs the pentatonic scale in a more lyrical manner than the first movement. In addition, the timbre of the Zheng plays an important role in evoking the Asian style. Finally, she makes the references explicit by quoting from two traditional Taiwanese tunes.

The formal structure and the texture This movement is structured in a typical Western ternary form, A-B-A. (see formal diagram in Example 3-1.

Introduction

(the Zheng only) |------|

m.125 131

A.

(a short motive (new composed melody) from the folk tunes) (new composed melody in the style of Klangfarbenmelodie) (transition) |------|------|------|------| m.132 139 147 154 156

Example 3-1

The formal structure of movement II

45 (Example 3-1 continued)

B.

(Conquette teases the rooster (Conquette teases the rooster (Drip, Drip, Plop) (transition) in the style of Klangfarbenmelodie) and Jasmine in counterpoint) |------|------|------|------|

mm.157 170 179 196 199

A.

(a short motive from (new composed melody) Coda the folk tune) (new composed melody in the style of Klangfarbenmelodie) |------|------|------|------|

m.200 206 214 222 231

Pentatonic scale

In his book, Music Culture of the Pacific, the Near East, and Asia, William P. Malm recounts a famous Chinese legend from around 2700 B.C. Huang-di, who was the first emperor in Chinese history, sent his emissaries to the western mountains to cut bamboo pipes (Lu’s) from which the fundamental pitches of music could be derived. The later Jiou and Han dynasty writers used these Lu’s as the basis for an elaborate tonal system which is the Chinese musical scale—pentatonic scale. The general theory of the Chinese Lu system is as follows: The pitch produced by the first tube was called Yellow Bell (Huangzhong or Huang Chung) which was merely a name for what might be called the pitch C. Additional tones were produced by constructing tubes that are alternately 2/3 and 4/3 the length of the previous tube. The acoustical basis for this method is the principle of the overblown fifth—that is, by blowing hard on the first tube, a tone one fifth higher (G in our series) is produced. A tube 1/3 shorter than the first one

46 will produce this G without overblowing. If this second tube is overblown, the note D appears in an upper register. 34

When the tones are written in order, a series of tones results as shown as in Example 3-2.

Example 3-2

Chinese pentatonic scale structure

The example above demonstrates the set of pitches that creates the basic Chinese pentatonic scale (Wusheng scale). The sixth and seventh tones, F-sharp and B, are called changing tones. They are used as passing tones or for modal change within a five-tone framework. The pentatonic scale can also start from any pitch, despite its lack of symmetry. In this movement, the composer uses the pentatonic scale to construct newly- composed melodies (in addition to the two Taiwanese folk tunes). Indeed, the first four descending notes that are played by the Zheng, E-D-B-A, clearly invoke the pentatonic with their saturation of perfect fifth, D-A-E-B. In m. 132, the Zheng completes the pentatonic by adding one more note, G: G-A-B-D-E (see Example 3-3).

34 William P. Malm,“Music Culture of the Pacific, the Near East, and Asia.” (Upper Saddle River, New

47

Example 3-3

mm. 132-133 of the Zheng concerto

In the newly-composed melody that is played by the Zheng in mm.139- 146, the pentatonic scale can be again traced. The melody is based on the pentatonic scale with the 'changing tones' mentioned above, G-A-B-C#-D-E-F# (see Example 3-4). The C# and F# are ornamental tones in this passage, that is, their removal would not affect the overall shape of the melody. A very interesting combination of two pentatonic scales appears in the Zheng and flute parts of mm. 132-133. The Zheng plays the pentatonic scale of G-A- B-D-E, while the flute plays a pentatonic tetrachord (Eb-Gb-Ab-Bb) creating a sense of multi-tonality (see Example 3-5).

Hersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1996), p.178.

48

Example 3-4

The newly-composed melody of the second movement (in mm. 139-146)

Example 3-5

Multi-tonality passage in mm. 132-134

49 Taiwanese folk tunes

The composer borrows two Taiwanese folk tunes to highlight the Taiwanese musical tradition. Although Taiwanese folk tunes are mostly based on the melodies of the early Chinese immigrants who made Taiwan their home, Taiwanese folk tunes differ from Chinese ones in that they reflect the different intonations used in speaking the Taiwanese language. These intonations influence the melodic contour of the folk tunes. Translated literally, the term used for the performance of Taiwanese folk tunes is “reading” instead of “singing”. Hence, the singing style of the folk tunes is closely related to the intonations used in the Taiwanese language. Taiwanese folk tunes are ‘read’ in the Holo language, the dialect of the Fujian province, which is called Taiwanese today. Taiwanese folk songs are typically strophic in form. In general, there are seven syllables in each phrase and four phrases form one section (see Example 3-7). It is also possible to find three to twelve syllables in one phrase and two to fifty phrases as one unit. The use of ornamental notes is also a very important characteristic in Taiwanese folk tunes, as they are usually inserted within the seven syllables to expand the phrase. The ornamental notes also have independent syllables which match the rhyme scheme, but the syllables do not have any meaning by themselves (see Example 3-6).35 Lee applies two Taiwanese tunes in this movement: Drip, Drip, Plop and The Conquette Teases the Doyen.

A brief introduction of the two Taiwanese folk tunes

(1) Drip, Drip, Plop

This folk tune stems from Yilan, the northeast of Taiwan. In 1787, Wu-Sha, who was a leader of Chinese immigrants, led about 200 settlers from Fujian (China) to Yilan.

35 Yu-Hsu Lui, “The History of Taiwanese Music.” (Taipei: Wu-Nan Publishing, 2003.

50 Wu-Sha and the Chinese immigrants constructed a tunnel through the nearby mountains in order to connect to the rest of Taiwan. After the daily work was completed, the workers returned home, humming “Drip, Drip, Plop”, which suggested the “drip, drip, plop” of water drops in mountain caves.36 A notated version of Drip, Drip, Plop is shown in the Example 3-6.

Example 3-6

Drip, Drip, Plop

36 Nam-Chang Chen, Drip, Drip, Plop. Taipei Philharmonic Chorus and Taipei Youth Philharmonic Orchestra, cond. Lien-Chang Kuo; VCD (Taipei: Hocheng Cultural and Educational Fundation, 1998.

51 (2) The Conquette Teases the Rooster

This song originates from the southern part of Taiwan, Chai-Yi. Its text describes a teasing conversation between an old man and a girl through an allegorical comparison of the characters with a conqutte and a rooster. A notated version of the tune is shown in the Example 3-7.

Example 3-7

The Conquette Teases the Rooster

52 The use of Taiwanese folk tunes in the movement

Although Lee does not quote the tunes in their entirety, an examination of their usage sheds light on her stylistic synthesis.

(1) Use and variation of the original tunes

A short passage of The Conquette Teases the Rooste, is first quoted in mm. 164- 167 by the flute, using the pentatonic scale of D-F-G-A-C. The same passage is repeated in a lower register by the flute in mm. 175-180 (see Example 3-8).

Example 3-8 The use of original tunes

53 In mm. 136-137, the clarinet plays a short passage that paraphrases the folk tune, Drip, Drip, Plop (see Example 3-9). In mm. 157-160, the violin I plays a passage that is based on the folk tune, The Conquette Teases the Rooster. However, the composer modifies the passage using the D harmonic-minor scale, which Lee had included in her modified tuning of the Zheng (see Example 3-10a). Lee borrows the mode from a Taiwanese popular song of the Japanese colonial period, Expecting Your Return, to be a signal of Japanese colonial influence on Taiwanese music (see Example 3-10b). Another modification of the tune is in mm. 180-186, where the Zheng paraphrases the folk tune Drip, Drip, Plop. In this passage, Lee adds ornamental notes that are outside of the pentatonic scale, and also displaces some notes of the folk tune by an octave (see Example 3-11).

Example 3-9

A short passage of Drip, Drip, Plop in mm. 136-137

54

Example 3-10a

Lee modifies the passage using the D harmonic minor scale

Example 3-10b

Expecting Your Return

55

Example 3-11

The folk tune with octave displacement

(2) Using different folk tunes simultaneously

Besides the two Taiwanese folk tunes that have been discussed in the previous section, Lee uses a famous Chinese folk tune, Jasmine, in a small passage in mm. 172- 180, which is played by the Zheng. The occurrence of this Chinese folk tune reflects the Chinese influence on Taiwanese musical tradition, as explored earlier. A notated version of Jasmine can be seen in Example 3-12.

56

Example 3-12

Jasmine

The passage at mm.172-180 can be divided into two-bar phrases (see Example 3- 13). Each of the three phrases alters the tune in a different manner. The first phrase includes three altered notes (Bb, F#, and G#) which construct a subset of a whole tone scale (Bb-D-E-F#-G#). The second phrase returns back to the original for a couple of notes and then also uses altered notes, A-flat and E-flat. The third phrase is closer to the original tune except for one altered note, B-flat. Finally, the fourth phrase is identical to the fourth phrase of the original tune.

57

Example 3-13

Modified tune of Jasmine

While the Zheng plays the material from Jasmine, violin I and II simultaneously play another folk tune, The Conquette Teases the Rooster, using two different pentatonic scales to construct the modified tunes found in Example 3-10a (see Example 3-14). The violin I is transposed up by a tritone from the second violin, resulting in a multi-tonal effect.

Example 3-14

Multi-tonal effect in mm. 171-172

58 The melodic strategy of this movement consists of linear, single-instrument tunes—the “Lines” of the movement’s subtitle. These ‘lines” represent Eastern esthetics,

and differentiates the movement from the Western 20th -century techniques used in the

first movement. The three sections of the movement are each connected by short linear

passages; ‘lines’. In m. 156, the Zheng plays a short passage with alternating ascending

and descending scales to connect with the B section. In mm.197-199, the connection

between sections B and A’, the Zheng plays an ascending line accompanied by other

instruments. These connections between sections emphasize the contrast with the

brokenness of the first movement.

An interesting passage occurs in section B (mm. 156-186). This is the section wherein the borrowed folk tunes are most prevalent. In mm.157-170, The Conquette Teases the Rooster is presented by three different instruments (violin I, flute, and cello). In m. 171, the violin II takes over the borrowed folk tune and is imitated three beats later by violin I, until the flute takes over the melody line in m.175. Finally, at m. 181, the cello completes the melody. The Zheng starts Drip, Drip, Plop in m. 180, overlapping the previous tune. Here, the melodic line (folk tune) is subjected to the 20th century Western compositional technique of Klangfarbenmelodie, foreshadowing the synthesis of styles found in the third movement.

59 Chapter IV

Movement III—Convergence

The main goal of the third movement is to synthesize elements from both the first and second movements, suggesting a “convergence” of Eastern and Western styles.37

Synthesis of dots and lines

As mentioned above, the third movement is based on the synthesis of the first and second movements. The third movement is divided into eight sections. The movement begins with a percussion section, followed by section which introduces a new melodic motive of the third movement (discussed above). The following three sections contain the motives from the previous two movements, and the last three sections contain the most important concept, synthesis, in the entire movement. The following paragraphs will discuss additional ways in which the composer takes elements from each movement and synthesizes them as a coherent musical statement (see a formal diagram of the third movement in Example 4-1).

A. Percussion section

(percussion and the Zheng only)

|------| m.232 250

Example 4-1

The formal structure of movement III

60 (Example 4-1 continued)

B. New melodic motive

(the synthesis of textures of ‘dots’ and ‘lines’)

|------| m.251 281

C. The motives borrowed from the first movement

(flute and clarinet play (the strings play the borrowing the borrowing motive motive in the style of transition in counterpoint style) Klangfarbenmelodie) |------|------|------|

m.282 293 305 318

B’. Quasi-new melodic motive section

|------| m.319 337

D. The motives borrowed from the second movement

(Zheng plays Drip, Drip, Plops) (clarinet, flute, and Zheng play transition Cadenza the tune in counterpoint fashion) (1-1.5 min.) |------|------|------|------|

m.338 351 365 370

37 Personal interview with ChihChun Chi-Sun Lee on November 20, 2003.

61 (Example 4-1 continued)

E. Synthesis I

(Zheng plays the borrowing motive from the first movement with a percussive performing style) |------| m.372 401

F. Synthesis II

(combine the motives from the three movements)

|------| m.402 430

G. Synthesis III

(combine the motives from the three movements in vertical structure) |------| m.431 446

The percussion section

The third movement begins with a percussion section, which is performed by a hand drum and the soundboard and headboard of the Zheng (mm.232-250). The hand drum and its rim alternately play the accented sixteenth-note patterns in mm. 232-238, and the Zheng enters in m. 238. The percussion section is based on a 3-3-2 rhythmic motive (see Example 4-2). In mm. 245-246, the woodblock, which represents the timbre of the East, enters with the 3-3-2 rhythmic motive, and the Zheng scrapes the open strings (Ab-C-D-F-Gb and F#-G#-A-Bb-Eb), which are subsets of a non-Asian octatonic scale

62 recalling the hexachord motive from the first movement (see Example 4-3). After the glissando (mm. 247-248), the percussion section ends. Lee employs the hand drum and woodblock to imitate the percussion set used in traditional Taiwanese music for worship (see Figure 4-1). The hand drum, woodblock, and the Zheng represent the East, and the pointillistic texture represents the West. When the West meets the East, the hand drum and woodblock play the ‘dots’ texture while the Zheng is used in new ways, including the scraping of open strings and its use as a percussion instrument. In the end of the percussion section, the Zheng glissando passage represents the merger of Western and Eastern styles.

Example 4-2

Rhythmic motive in the third movement

63

Example 4-3

Zheng’s chordal structure

64

Figure 4-1

The traditional Taiwanese percussion set

65 The new melodic motive

Since the third movement is based on the synthesis of the previous two movements, the melodic motives of the previous movements occur in many places here (discussed below). In addition, a new melodic motive is introduced in mm.251-257. In mm.251- 254, the instruments play staccato figures, recalling the dots from the first movement. In m.255, the flute and clarinet play two phrases with slurs, representing the second movement, lines. Finally, in mm.256-257, the Zheng plays a staccato chord, while the other instruments play a staccato note followed by a note that is held over the barline, thus maintaining the linear style and representing the convergence of the dots and lines (see Example 4-4a).

Example 4-4a

mm. 251-257

66 Contour theory

The Zheng plays a melody in mm. 251-254 whose contour resembles a short passage of the two folk tunes (Drip, Drip, and Plop and The Conquette Teases the Rooster) from the second movement in the higher notes of the dyads played by both hands. The eight higher notes in mm. 251-254 can be seen as two quasi- repeated phrases (E-G#-E-D, E-G#-D-E). The only difference between the two phrases is that the last two notes of the second phrase (D-E) are switched. Example 3-3b shows the use of contour theory and how the quasi-repeated phrases are similar to the original folk tunes (Example 4-4b). Thus, while the texture resembles the pointillism of the first movement, the traditional melodies of the second movement are also presented.

Example 4-4b

Application of contour theory in folk tunes

67 (Example 4-4b continued)

CSEG (1,2,1,0)

1 2 1 0 1 0 + 0 -- 2 -- 0 -- -- 1 0 + 0 -- 0 + + + 0

The Zheng in mm. 251-254

CSEG (1, 2, 1, 0) (1, 2, 0, 1)

68 (Example 4-4b continued)

1 2 1 0 1 2 0 1

1 0 + 0 -- 1 0 + -- 0

2 -- + -- -- 2 -- 0 -- --

0 0 + 0 -- 0 + + 0 +

1 + + + 0 1 0 + -- 0

CSIM= 1 (exactly same as the contour of the folk tunes) CSIM= 3/6=0.5

Motives borrowed from the first movement

In the percussion section, the “feathered beams” rhythmic motive from the first movement appears again. A passage in mm. 282-285 borrows directly from the first movement, specifically, mm. 78-79. Here, however, the borrowed material is treated to canonic imitation in the flute and clarinet. The collection of notes from this two-line contrapuntal passage matches the hexachord motive of the first movement (see Example 4-5).

69

Example 4-5

A motive borrowed from the 1st movement

The composer employs the contour of the original hexachord motive on several occasions. In m. 263, the flute plays D-A-E-B-F#-C#-(G#). The contour segment or CSEG of this hexachord is (4,1,5,2,0,3). The original hexachord motive of the first movement is A-Db-C-G-Bb-E, with a CSEG of (4,1,5,3,0,2). Therefore, the second part of the hexachord (2,0,3) is the retrograde of the original hexachord motive (3,0,2) and the CSIM is o.933(see Example 4-6a).

70 The original hexachord motive The hexachord in m.263

Contour diagram Contour diagram

COM-matrix COM-matrix

4 1 5 3 0 2 4 1 5 2 0 3

4 0 -- + ------4 0 -- + ------1 + 0 + + -- + 1 + 0 + + -- + 5 -- -- 0 ------5 -- -- 0 ------3 + -- + 0 -- -- 2 + -- + 0 -- + 0 + + + + 0 + 0 + + + + 0 + 2 + -- + + -- 0 3 + -- + + -- 0

CSIM= 0.933

Example 4-6a

Application of contour theory in the hexachord in m. 263

Motives borrowed from the second movement

The third movement borrows elements of the folk tunes from the second movement (mm.180-186) in mm. 338-366 (Drip, Drip, Plop). Notice the passage is now played in a staccato style, while before it was played in a legato, lyrical style. This is a synthesis of dots and lines (see Example 4-7a). In mm.412-419, the flute plays the same folk tune, but it is highly ornamented and some of the notes are displaced by an octave (sees Example 4-7b).

71 (from the 2nd movement)

(from the 3rd movement)

Example 4-7a

Motives borrowed from the 2nd movement

72 (from the 3rd movement)

Example 4-7b Motives borrowed from the 2nd movement

In mm. 431-438, the flute plays the folk tune, The Conquette Teases the Rooster, borrowed from mm. 164-168 of the second movement. The clarinet takes over the melody in m. 438 and then moves to the newly composed melody from mm.139-146 of the second movement (see Example 4-8).

73

Example 4-8

Motives borrowed from the 2nd movement

74 The composer borrows three different motives from the three movements and presents them in an overlapping manner in mm.402-421. The clarinet plays the passage from the first movement until the flute (in m.412) starts the folk tune melody from the second movement, and the Zheng plays the new motive from the third movement in mm.417-421 (see Example 4-9).

Example 4-9

Motives borrowed from the previous two movements

75 (Example 4-9 continued)

76 The composer borrows the motives from each of the movements and synthesizes them in a vertical structure in mm. 422-430. The flute and the Zheng play the motive

from mm.78-79 of the first movement, while the clarinet plays the folk tune motive, Drip,

Drip, Plop, from the second movement, and the rest of the instruments (violin I and II, viola, cello, and contrabass) play the newly-composed motive from mm. 251-257 of the third movement (see Example 4-10).

Example 4-10

Synthesis in the vertical structure

77 An even denser combination of motives starts in m. 431. The flute plays the folk

tune (The Conquette Teases the Rooster) from the second movement, the percussion and violin I play the hexachord motive from the first movement, and the Zheng scrapes the open string in two chords from m.246 of the third movement. Meanwhile, the cello and contrabass play the motive from mm. 78-79 of the first movement in a

Klangfarbenmelodie style. In m. 433, the violin I plays the short passage from the ‘sound mass’ section of movement one and violin II also starts the passage in m. 434. In m. 435, the Zheng plays the newly-composed motive from mm. 139-146 of the second movement

and the clarinet takes over the melody in m. 438 and finishes it in m. 441(see Example 4-

11).

The final two measures present the stylistic “convergence” of the work in a microcosm. In fact, Lee herself suggests that the synthesis of Eastern and Western styles is presented in the combination of octatonic and pentatonic/diatonic elements here.38 In mm.446, the Zheng plays a ‘feathered beams’ passage, which contains a combination of pentatonic and octatonic scales (see Example 1-1a, page 23). The instruments “converge”, in five accompanimental sonorities, starting in m.445, and leading to the ‘feathered beams’ passage both in time and in context (see Example 3-12). The first sonority, C- C#-D, is a chromatic cluster, which recalls the ‘sound mass’ in the first movement. The second chord, which is emphasized by a fermata (Db-Eb-Gb-A-Bb-B), contains five octatonic pitches (Db-Eb-Gb-A-B) and two pentachords that are diatonic subsets (Db-Eb- Gb-A-B and Db-Eb-Gb-Bb-B). The third chord, Db-Eb-Gb-Ab-F-B, is a diatonic subset; as well as the fourth chord C-Db-F-Gb-Ab-Bb. The fifth chord, Db-Eb-Gb-Ab-C-F, is also a diatonic subset, created by stacked 5ths (missing the Bb). It also contains an octatonic pentachord (see Example 3-12). Lee not only uses chords to represent the idea of the synthesis of dots and lines (see page 36), but also uses the combination of

38 Personal interview with ChihChun Chi-Sun Lee on March 15, 2004.

78 pentatonic and octatonic sonorities to reflect the essential concept of the work—the synthesis of Eastern and Western style.

Example 4-11

Dense combination of motives

79 (Example 4-11 continued)

80

Example 4-12

The synthesis structure in the last two measures

81

Cadenza

The cadenza section of this composition again encapsulates the synthesis of Eastern and Western musical elements. Indeed, the very notion of a Zheng ‘cadenza’ places the two traditions in unusual proximity. In the score, Lee indicates seventeen motives that are borrowed from the three movements, and each motive can be performed separately or combined. This method of performing a cadenza not only shows the fusion of the motives from each movement, but also confirms the notion of the synthesis of Taiwanese and Western musical traditions discussed in this thesis. Several selected motives are shown in Example 4-13.

Example 4-13

Motive 1 and 8—‘feathered beams’ (from the 1st movement)

82 (Example 4-13 continued)

Motive 6 and 10—the hexachord motive (from the 1st movement)

Motive 13— Folk tune, Jasmine (from the 2nd movement)

83 (Example 4-13 continued)

Motive 15 and 16—percussion section (from the 3rd movement)

Motive 17—‘new melodic motive’ (from the 3rd movement)

84 Conclusion

The first chapter, “Musical Change and the Western Influence on Taiwanese Music”, discusses the six different periods of Western musical influence in Taiwanese society. During the Spanish-Dutch colonial period in the 16th century, Christian Church music, introduced by pastors and missionaries, was the first type of Western music experienced by Taiwanese. Since that time, a multi-cultural musical influence is a significant part of Taiwanese music, because of the synthesis of musical traditions from the Chinese immigration in the 17th to 19th centuries, the Japanese colonial period, the regime of Kuomintang in the 20th century, and the rising of a Taiwanese national identity in the 21st century. In the last section of chapter I, a brief introduction to the Zheng discusses the changing use of the instrument. Western music influenced this new style, which can be seen through the adoption of the Western notation system, newly composed Zheng repertories, and some newly developed Zheng performing techniques for combination with Western ensembles. Over the centuries, Taiwanese music developed a unique style that is the synthesis of various musical traditions. The Zheng concerto by Chihchun Chi-Sun Lee is a quintessential example of the synthesis of Taiwanese and Western music. The first movement represents Western musical style by employing 20th century Western compositional techniques; the second movement represents Eastern musical style by quoting Taiwanese and Chinese folk tunes and presenting the entire movement in lyrical style. The third movement presents the main idea of the thesis, that is the synthesis of Western and Eastern music through a convergence of the by synthesizing the musical ideals from the first and second movements. This synthesis of styles also reflects the multi-cultural influence in Taiwanese music. Chapter II discusses the first movement—Dots, in which Lee applies 20th -century compositional techniques such as Klangfarbenmelodie, pointillism, and sound mass to represent the Western musical tradition. Among these compositional techniques,

85 pointillism is the main texture of this movement, which Lee suggests in the title, Dots. In chapter III, a discussion of the second movement—Lines, describes how Lee borrows two Taiwanese folk tunes, a Chinese folk tune, and the pitch material of a popular song from the Japanese colonial period to represent the many influences on Taiwanese music. The main texture of this movement, in contrast to the first movement, is a lyrical and linear style, created by slurs and unbroken melodic phrases. Chapter IV discusses how, in the third movement—Convergence, Lee combines both dots and lines from the previous movements to form new musical structures. Lee utilizes three types of compositional strategies to combine these elements. In the first type, Lee simply borrows several different motives from the previous two movements. In the second type, she maintains the motives, but synthesizes them into a vertical structure in which the motives are played simultaneously. In the third type, Lee creates a new passage, which contains the elements of the previous movements, such as the textural elements of ‘dots’ and ‘lines’. This synthesis of style in Taiwan is not completely new, but was originated in the 19th century, when a Canadian pastor, G.L. Mackay, took an aboriginal folk tune and set a biblical text to create a ‘new’ Taiwanese hymn. In the 20th century, Taiwanese composers combined Chinese musical materials and philosophical esthetics with elements of Western music to create a uniquely Taiwanese style. In the first half of the century, Taiwanese composers employed Chinese folk tunes accompanied by Western Romantic harmonies to create so-called ‘pentatonic Romanticism”.39 In the second half of the century, composers started to include strategies from Western modernism, and thus the synthesis of styles was more diverse and complex than in the earlier period. In the 21st century, because of the rising interest in a national identity, Taiwanese composers employed Taiwanese musical elements rather than those of the Chinese musical tradition to highlight the Taiwanese ‘spirit’ in their compositions. Lee states, “I am a Taiwanese composer. I always hope that I can express my musical identity by including Taiwanese musical elements in my compositions and I wish to let people in the world understand the

39 Kuo-Huang Han, “Western Art Music.” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrell. Vol. 25, p.9 (London: Macmillan Publishers Limited, 2001). 38 Person interview with Chihchun Chi-Sun Lee on November 20, 2003.

86 beauty of Taiwanese music”.40 The Zheng concerto is an example of this uniquely Taiwanese style. Lee uses the elements of the subtitle, Dots, Lines, and Convergence, to present different musical textures in each movement, reflecting the Western and multi- cultural influences in Taiwanese music history. In addition, Lee demonstrates the synthesis of styles in virtually every musical parameter. Indeed, the concerto represents the synthesis of style not only in the instrumentation and the use of the folk tunes, but also in the textures, melodic contours, and even in the combination of note collections. Bruno Nettl discusses this ‘modernization’ and ‘westernization’ of non-Western music in The Study of Ethnomusicology, Thus, to summarize rather rigidly and as simply as possible: syncretism results when the two musical systems in a state of confrontation have compatible central traits; Westernization, when a non-Western music incorporates central, non- compatible Western traits; modernization, when it incorporates non-central but compatible Western traits.41 The Taiwanese and Western musical traditions coexist and synthesize harmoniously in the Zheng concerto, which presents a model of ‘modernization’ in 21st-century Taiwanese music. Future study of this subject could focus on compositions by other composers, which may result in different models of stylistic synthesis. By composing this ‘modernized’ Taiwanese music; Taiwanese composers are not only searching for their own musical identities, but also defining the esthetics of Taiwanese music in the 21st century.

41 Bruno Nettl, “The Study of Ethnomusicology.” (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1983), p. 354.

87 Bibliography

Bernard, Jonathan. 1998. “The Evolution of Elliott Carter’s Rhythmic Practice.” Perspective of New Music. 26/2.

Blacking, John. 1995. Music Culture and Experience. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Chen, Nam-Cheng. 1998. Drip, Drip, Plop. Taipei: Hocheng Cultural and Educational Fundation.

Forte, Allen. 1998. The Atonal Music of Anton Webern. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Han, Kuo-Huang. 2001. “Taiwan.” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrell. Vol. 25. London: Macmillan Publishers Limited.

Hsu, Chang-Hui. 1991. The Introduction of Taiwanese Music History. Taipei: Chuan-Yin Publishing.

Laprade, Paul A. and Marvin, Elizabeth W. 1987. “Relating Musical Contours: Extensions of A Theory for Contour.” Journal of Music Theory 31/2.

Lui, Yu-Hsu. 2003. The History of Taiwanese Music. Taipei: Wu-Nan Publishing.

Malm, William P. 1996. Music Culture of The Pacific, The Near East, and Asia. (Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Morgan, Robert P. 1991. Twentieth-Century Music. London: W.W. Norton & Company.

88

Morris, Robert D. 1993. “New Direction in the Theory and Analysis of Musical Contour.” Music Theory Spectrum 15/2.

Nettl, Bruno. 1983. The Study of Ethnomusicology. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.

Nettl, Bruno. 1985. The Western Impact on World Music. New York: Schirmer Books.

Rushton, Julian. 2001. “Klangfarbenmelodie.” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrell. Vol. 13. London: Macmillan Publishers Limited.

Toorn, Pieter van den. 1991. “Petroushika.” The Music of Igor Stravinsky. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Wang, Yin-Fen. 2002. “Taiwanese Traditional Music.” Garland Encyclopedia of World of World Music, edited by Yoshihiko Tokumaru and Bell Yung. Vol.3. New York: Garland Publishing.

Witzleben, Lawrence J. 2002. “Instruments.” The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, edited by Yoshihiko Tokumaru and Bell Yung. Vol.3. New York: Garland Publishing.

Personal Interview with Chihchun Chi-Sun Lee on November 20, 2003 and March 15, 2004.

89 Biographical Sketch

Yiu, Shih-Chen (b. Taipei, Taiwan, 26 March 1975). I began to study the piano at the age of four. At the age of eighteen, because of the talent in theatre performance, my high school teacher encouraged me to audition for the theatre department at one of the best theatre program in Taiwan, Chinese Culture University. In the summer of 1993, I passed the audition successfully and majored in Chinese Opera at Chinese Culture University. During the four years in college, I remained taking piano lessons and also began to study the Western flute and the Chinese string instrument Hu-Chin. In 1994, I began to study theory and composition with my piano teacher. In the winter of 1995, I composed a piano work based on a tune of Beijing opera, and performed it in the auditorium of Chinese Culture University. In 1997, I successfully graduated from the Chinese Culture University, and my music teachers encouraged me to continue music training in the U.S.A. In the spring of 1998, with the full support of my parents, I attended to the music theory program at Ohio University. During these years at Ohio University, I studied music theory and composition, and continued flute performance training. In the summer of 2002, I earned the second bachelor degree in Music Theory from Ohio University. In the fall of 2002, I decided to continue advanced music theory study at Florida State University. In the years at Florida State, I am very interested in doing research on Western influence on Taiwanese music, especially the synthesis style of 21st-century new Taiwanese music. I currently plan to do research on Taiwanese folk tunes.

90