ARTHUR A. GOREN

::onstitution and By-Laws of the United Feimlary 1905. nber 1912, p. 4; 29 January 1913, p. I; , ofNew York 1910; YubiWum zhurnaJ,

:I Funeral Departments," 31st Annual 1938, p. 97· 4 "jery department, ArbeiterRing, 1919, pp. It, Arbeiter Ring, 1941, pp. 90-93, 125­ The Folk Culture of .rbeiterRing, 1942, pp. 85-87; Cemetery Jewish Immigrant Communities =r 1938, p. I. -mand Grief(New York, 1977). Research Paradigms and Directions BARBARA KIRSHENBLATT-GIMBLETT

he Conference on Jews in North America has been particularly rich in suggesting areas of convergence and contrast between dis­ T ciplines. What can the folklorist contribute to the study ofJews in North America? How can the perspective ofthe folklorist, musicologist or symbolic anthropologist complement the work of the historian? First, the conference, made possible by the offices ofthe Multicultural History Society of Ontario, not surprisingly has been primarily oriented to the historical, and, to a lesser degree, to the sociological. In contrast, folklorists stress the ethnographic approaches-that is, qualitative, obser­ vational and process-oriented research strategies. As a result, contempo­ rary immigrant communities are of special interest. Second, the emphasis in much historical and sociological work has been on normative or mainstream Jewish life, however it is defined. For the folklorist, the size or representativeness of the communities being f studied is of less concern and the goal is not necessarily to arrive at broad , generalizations; a folklorist is as likely to study "exotic" Jewish commu­ t. nities as "mainstream" ones. The emphasis tends to be on small-scale settings and group life at the level of social interactions. Recent work in folklore is closely aligned with developments in symbolic anthropology and sociolinguistics. Increasingly, theoretical concerns are to the fore, many of which are best explored through the close observation of particu­ lar cases.

79 1 80 BARBARA KlRSHENBLATT-GIMBLETT Folk Culture

Third, many historical and sociological studies use statistical data es­ These words were written a.i sential to the study of migration, settlement and philanthropy, or they Jewish folklorist working OL examine institutions in their investigation of social organization, or they study and publication ofJew focus on important individuals and their political activity. Folklorists stress think if he could see what ha. the importance of the symbolic organization of experience through the only has Jewish folklife in·t expressive behaviour ofordinary people in everyday life-parades, memori­ forms, but scholars are increa~ als' storytelling, humour, food, ritual, song, language and material culture. of study. Finally, the place of historians and sociologists in the intellectual his­ When Krauss was writin~ tory of ethnic studies as it relates to Jews is better known than that of only just beginning to emerg folklorists, ethnomusicologists and anthropologists. I will therefore briefly rope. Furthermore, the Jewis delineate the history of Jewish folklife study in North America for the was in an early stage of its fOI useful contrasts it provides and for indications of how the various disci­ communities established in I plines can complement each other. century fed American popule Since the 1890S, several paradigms have emerged for the study of types in humour and popul: Jewish folk culture in North America: the first, salvage ethnography, studies by Rudolf Glanz. In focuses on the folk culture immigrants brought with them from the old Humor) Glanz gathers togeth country. This concern with survivals goes back to the beginnings of Euro­ tury newspapers and magazi: pean folkloristics during the enlightenment and romantic periods. The jokes pivot on images of the second paradigm, which has been particularly important in my own work, preoccupied with money and focuses on the formation ofimmigrant folklore and culture as a distinctive, For various reasons, Ger: if transitional, phenomenon-what I call the folklore created out of and own folk culture. Jewish folkl: about the immigrant experience. The third paradigm may be loosely own right, and once it did, th. termed the folklore of ethnicity.I The fourth, which may be designated German Jews: they preferred­ "the traditionalizing process" focuses on the problematic nature of rather than their own folk cu "heritage."2 I will deal with each of these in tum. relatively untapped, research E Sephardic Jews in North. SALVAGE ETHNOGRAPHY: PRESERVING THE HERITAGE was not until 1906 that Seph... numbers, mainly from Turk. The following statement, with a few stylistic emendations, could have Sephardic Jews made up abot: been written today: United States, estimated at at: 1 am proud of the riches and compass of our Journal Uournal ofAmerican as late as 1977, Victor Sanua c Folklore], as proving the progress of our science. But there is one thing dic Jews in the United States,. which 1 miss, namely: information in regard to Jewish folk-life in America. scarce."5 Scarcer still is infoa European journals also offer a similar deficiency, but assuredly not for the nities in North America, for' same reason .... Even now, at the eleventh hour, it is possible to note and Asia before and after the new record for the purposes of science a folk-life which is in process of rapid Krauss's statement also ~ decay-I mean that ofJews .... Under the pressure of the present tenden­ folklife during the next half d cies of civilization, this folk-life is rapidly disappearing .... [I wish to call] the attention of my co-members of The American Folklore Society to this tiges of traditional culture bef investigation before it is too late. The next generation of Jews will have and assimilation, whether in become merged in Anglo-American folk-life, now in continual evolu­ urgency in the face of change: tion ... it will have become assimilated to the Yankee, and cease to be more study Jewish folklore in Warsa than a variant ofAmericanism. 3 Russia. When Y. L. Cahan, a I U. KIRSHENBLATI-GIMBLETI Folk Culture 81

_studies use statistical data es­ These words were written almost a century ago by Friedrich Krauss, a :nt and philanthropy, or they Jewish folklorist working out of Vienna, and active in promoting the :>f social organization, or they study and publication of Jewish folklore in Europe. What would Krauss itical activity. Folklorists stress think if he could see what has transpired in the time since he wrote? Not on of experience through the only has Jewish folklife in North America flourished in a diversity of reryday life-parades, memori­ forms, but scholars are increasingly turning to the subject as a serious field language and material culture. of study. -ologists in the intellectual his- i When Krauss was writing in the 1890s, the field ofJewish folklore was is better known than that of ~ only just beginning to emerge, first in Germany and later in eastern Eu­ ::>logists. I will therefore briefly rope. Furthermore, the Jewish immigrant community in North America _dy in North America for the was in an early stage of its formation. The relatively small German Jewish ions of how the various disci­ communities established in the United States earlier in the nineteenth century fed American popular culture with a stimulus for ethnic stereo­ _ve emerged for the study of types in humour and popular entertainment, the subject of numerous le first, salvage ethnography, studies by Rudolf Glanz. In The Jew in Early American Wit and Graphic mght with them from the old Humor, Glanz gathers together cartoons and jokes from nineteenth-cen­ ack to the beginnings of Euro­ tury newspapers and magazines such as Puck to make his point. These lt and romantic periods. The jokes pivot on images of the Jew as usurous, devious, clever at business, "ly important in my own work, preoccupied with money and lacking in culture and refinement.4 ore and culture as a distinctive, For various reasons, German Jews failed to inspire studies of their he folklore created out of and own folk culture. Jewish folklife had yet to emerge as a field ofstudy in its _rd paradigm may be loosely ~ ~ own right, and once it did, the earliest Jewish folklorists were by and large rth, which may be designated ~ German Jews: they preferred to study their exotic brothers, the Ostjuden, ~ 1 the problematic nature of rather than their own folk culture, which remains to this day a rich, but 1 turn. ! relatively untapped, research subject. t Sephardic Jews in North America have received even less attention. It RVING THE HERITAGE was not until 1906 that Sephardic Jews began to immigrate in significant t numbers, mainly from Turkey, Greece and Syria. By the early 1970S, ,listic emendations, could have Sephardic Jews made up about 3 per cent of the Jewish population of the United States, estimated at about 5,500,000. It is thus not surprising that .our Journal rJournal ofAmerican as late as 1977, Victor Sanua could still write: "Literature on the Sephar­ r science. But there is one thing dic Jews in the United States, apart from journalistic reports, tends to be ard to Jewish folk-life in America. scarce."5 Scarcer still is information pertaining to other Jewish commu­ ficiency, but assuredly not for the nities in North America, for example, those who emigrated from central Ith hour, it is possible to note and l Asia before and after the new American immigration laws of1965.6 :-life which is in process of rapid " Krauss's statement also signals the prevailing approach to Jewish :he pressure ofthe present tenden­ folklife during the next half decade, namely the salvaging of the last ves­ disappearing .... [1 wish to call] l. tiges of traditional culture before it yields in the face of cosmopolitanism !\merican Folklore Society to this lext generation of Jews will have in and assimilation, whether in Europe or North America. The sense of lk-life, now in continual evolu­ urgency in the face of change had been propelling European folklorists to )the Yankee, and cease to be more ~ study Jewish folklore in Warsaw, the Ukraine and the towns ofPoland and ~ Russia. When Y. L. Cahan, a folklorist who pioneered in the collecting of II i • 1 82 BARBARA KIRSHENBLATI-GIMBLETI Folk Culture

Yiddish folksongs and folktales in Poland during the 1890S, arrived in New In contrast to folklorists, York in 1904, he was delighted to find in the Jewish immigrant community traditions, American anthropc of New York the entire spectrum of eastern European Jewish regional problems of racism. Using th traditions. "Here folklore can be scooped up in handfuls," he is reported that Jews were not a race, Boa to have said. Comparing Europe and America, Cahan explained: strated that the presence ofirm native stock, and wrote long rc Expeditions into unknown townlets never worked out [in Poland] because of the prohibitive expenses. Here, however, in America is an undisturbed immigration policy. This res. folklore to the extent that it survives and still lives in the memory ofthe folk, earlier work ofMaurice Fishbl which awaits its collectors, waits for them to come and gather and research, the doors to foreigners in tl­ even in the eleventh hour, before it is too late'? direction for Melville Herskov: was confined exclusively to issl Most of Cahan's folklore collecting was indeed done among Jewish immi­ were used to studying non-lit grants in New York City. His sense of the eleventh hour, like that of most nothing had been writte: Krauss, was based on a rather strict definition offolklore. The corpus was tion would be required to mas­ essentially closed, and as change continued to affect the Jewish communi­ literate and diverse civilization ty, the corpus could only get smaller, a view that is contested by scholars ism, they claimed that Jews h; working today. and had, as a result, never pr By the 1920S, collections of Sephardic folklore made in the United there was nothing to study, States began to appear. Shortly after M. J. Benardete wrote a master's tinctiveness, an important poil thesis at Columbia University in 1923 entitled "Los Romances Judeo­ really did fall to folklorists, lite. Espanoles en Nueva York," Max Luria surveyed dialects ofJudezmo using and skilled amateurs to study J Sephardic Jews in New York City. By the 1930S, George Herzog was the specialists in the study ofc making cylinder recordings of Syrian and Iraqui Jewish music in New After the Holocaust and :: York City.8 Sephardic folklore was perfectly suited to survivalist studies situation began to change rae which sought in old ballads relics of medieval Spanish poetry. earlier that Jewish folklife wa: Though immigration precipitated some interest in studying Jewish after World War Two to do r; folklife, the phrase "in North America" would have to be understood as folklore collecting and ethnogJ "old world Jewish folklore as remembered by Jewish immigrants living in research questions and paradi! the new world." In 1919, the Journal ofAmerican Folklore published an materials. Whereas before the article entitled "Present-day Survivals of Ancient Jewish Customs." Even folklife would disappear as it: in 1928, Leah Rachel Yoffie could write in the same journal: Holocaust destroyed the Eur­ The children and grandchildren ofRussian, Polish, and Galician Jews in this Jewish inhabitants. 13 Hereafte country, who comprise the Yiddish-speaking group, are fast becoming focus on the United States. Americanized. With the gradual completion ofthe Americanization process, In the United States, Rt: many customs and traditions are dying out. . . . This paper is an attempt to Boas's most distinguished stu present the popular customs and superstitions which still prevail among project to study eastern Euro Yiddish-speaking Jews of St. Louis, Missouri. The task of gathering the exclusively on the memories 0: material extended over a period ofseveral years, all ofit being collected from ing the 1940S. Unlike so many the old Russian Jewish immigrants, most ofwhom have been in this country inspired by a philological pe twenty or thirty years. 9 Cultures Project was shaped b Yoffie supplements her collection oftexts with detailed comparative notes, relationship between culture a showing the antiquity and wide distribution of the charms, rhymes and Life Is with People, the volum. other items she recorded. extraordinary body of intervie -RA KIRSHENBLAIT-GIMBLEIT Folk Culture 83 uring the 1890S, arrived in New In contrast to folldorists, who focused on the survival of endangered ~ Jewish immigrant community traditions, American anthropologists were directing their attention to the ern European Jewish regional problems of racism. Using the study of physical anthropology to prove ...p in handfuls," he is reported that Jews were not a race, Boas and his students measured heads, demon­ :i.ca, Cahan explained: strated that the presence of immigrants did not lead to the deterioration of native stock, and wrote long reports, all in an effort to influence American r worked out [in Poland] because tier, in America is an undisturbed immigration policy. This research, which was indebted to the prolific till lives in the memory ofthe folk, earlier work of Maurice Fishberg, failed to stop the legislation that closed lO I to come and gather and research, the doors to foreigners in the twenties. However, Boas did set the . late.? direction for Melville Herskovits and Melville Jacobs, whose work on Jews was confined exclusively to issues of race. American anthropologists, who _eed done among Jewish immi­ were used to studying non-literate, small-scale societies about whom al­ he eleventh hour, like that of most nothing had been written, were intimidated by how much prepara­ on of folldore. The corpus was tion would be required to master the languages and cultures of an ancient, to affect the Jewish communi­ literate and diverse civilization. Or in their zealous efforts to combat rac­ w that is contested by scholars ism, they claimed that Jews had always borrowed from their neighbours and had, as a result, never produced a culture of their own. Therefore, : folldore made in the United there was nothing to study, and no basis for the Jew's claims of dis­ J. Benardete wrote a master's tinctiveness, an important point in his fight against racism. As a result, it titled "Los Romances Judeo­ really did fall to folldorists, literary scholars, linguists, folk music specialists eyed dialects of]udezmo using and skilled amateurs to study Jewish folldife in America. Anthropologists, 1e 1930S, George Herzog was the specialists in the study of culture, were not about to do the job. II _Iraqui Jewish music in New After the Holocaust and a half-century of Jewish immigrant life, the rly suited to survivalist studies situation began to change radically. Despite warnings almost a century yal Spanish poetry. earlier that Jewish folldife was fast disappearing, folldorists waited until :le interest in studying Jewish after World War Two to do most of the work we have today.l2 Salvage ::>uld have to be understood as folldore collecting and ethnography continued, at the same time that new by Jewish immigrants living in research questions and paradigms found fertile ground in Jewish folklife .merican Folklore published an materials. Whereas before the Holocaust, scholars predicted that Jewish ncient Jewish Customs." Even folklife would disappear as its bearers assimilated to American life, the :he same journal: Holocaust destroyed the European settlements and almost all of their I3 :1, Polish, and Galician Jews in this Jewish inhabitants. Hereafter the study of Jewish folldife would have to :aking group, are fast becoming focus on the United States. )n ofthe Americanization process, In the United States, Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead, two of ,t. . . . This paper is an attempt to Boas's most distinguished students, initiated a pioneering ethnographic .titions which still prevail among project to study eastern European Jewish folldife at a distance, relying isouri. The task of gathering the exclusively on the memories of immigrants living in New York City dur­ years, all ofit being collected from ing the 1940S. Unlike so many earlier collections of data, which had been :>fwhom have been in this country inspired by a philological perspective, the Research in Contemporary Cultures Project was shaped by current antl1ropological theory about the 1th detailed comparative notes, relationship between culture and personality. However flawed it may be, on of the charms, rhymes and Life Is with PeopleJ the volume on East European Jews, is based on an extraordinary body of interview materials, which have been preserved as 84 BARBARA KIRSHENBLATT-GIMBLETT Folk Culture

part of Margaret Mead's archives. The focus of Life Is with People is on shop asking for donations for ­ reconstructing culture at an unbridgeable distance. 14 causes. Finally, the narrator e", district of Toronto, and the st. There, the old man and a pn THE CULTURAL CREATIVITY OF IMMIGRANTS English. In the course of their: Salvage ethnography, the need to preserve folklife before it vanishes, accurately designated by its yo though a prevailing perspective for the first half ofthis century, is but one The narrator provides parodi. perspective. Since Wodd War Two, scholars have recognized the capacity plaining that the gartl is the b. ofJewish communities to continue to generate a vital folk culture oftheir ple. The punch line, delivered own, shaped by historical experience, regional context-the lox and grits see another year and again gi.. variety of southern Jews comes to mind-ethnic identification and re­ classic are its length, easily te ligious orientation. provides information about Cl: A particularly vivid example of Jewish folk culture formed by histor­ the tale, code-switching amor ical experience is the immigrant culture of the mass migration period. The Hebrew and other languages circumstances are special, as millions of Jews, primarily from eastern Eu­ delight in the ability to pIa, rope, migrated during a few years and settled in great density in American congruities so characteristic of and Canadian urban settings, as well as in secondary areas of rural settle­ Though the period of m~ ment. As I have argued elsewhere, under such conditions a folk culture tinues to shape North Amen created out ofthe immigrant experience has an opportunity to arise. 15 The survivors, especially ultra-Ortl: folklore ofthe immigrant experience draws on the trauma ofupheaval, the ering of religious communiry­ shock of culture contact, the ambiguities of transition in a period of rapid Since 1965, with the liberalizat change. The result in the case ofToronto and New York City, two settings Jewry has settled in major Ame I have examined, is an efflorescence of Yiddish folksong about life in York. In the last eight years ale North America,16 and multilingual anecdotes about immigrant bunglers have arrived, half of them sett and tricksters: there are ludicrous name changes, naive immigrants eat the regional enclaves: Brighton Be; banana with the peel, cultural misunderstandings lead to comic results. Jews from the eastern CaucaS\l­ The Borscht Belt humour that plays on the convergences and incongru­ Jews from Soviet Central Asia ities of languages and cultures encountered by a Jewish immigrant Ashkenazic Jews from the weI' audience on holiday in the Catskills and other Jewish vacation areas has chester and Flatbush. been much maligned for its vulgarity, yet it offers some of the richest In the case of Brighton ] material for study.l7 A scholar such as Alfred Sendrey, for example, so revitalized by the influx of So\' disdained such material that he refused to admit Yiddish theatre music to immigration are represented t1: the list of over ten thousand titles in his comprehensive Bibliography of decades ofthis century; the He Jewish Music.l 8 and the recent Soviet wave. Tl: In my work among Jewish immigrants who arrived in Toronto during group interaction, the emerge. the twenties and thirties from central Poland, I found a distinctive nar­ the Soviet Jewish restaurant p rative form, identified by my most gifted narrator as "classics" because the intensification of Jewishne.! they depended not on their punch line for their effect but upon the telling. publics of the USSR; and the I Classics can be told over and over again. In one example, the narrator the American context. For exar: begins with an elaborate description of the hardships of immigrant life and food in much the same manner discourses on the love of Yiddish and the importance of charity. He then New York, their cuisine sets th relates a personal experience about an old man who always came to his ically, an aspect of Bokharan : RA KlRSHENBLATI-GIMBLETI Folk Culture 85

:us of Life Is with People is on shop asking for donations for widows, orphans, schools and other worthy istance.l4 causes. Finally, the narrator explains that he sent the man to the red-light district of Toronto, and the story imperceptibly shifts to the third person. There, the old man and a prostitute interact, he in Yiddish, and she in MMlGRANTS English. In the course of their business, each item of his traditional garb, ::::rve folklife before it vanishes, accurately designated by its Yiddish term, is removed by the prostitute. half of this century, is but one The narrator provides parodic glosses for several items of clothing, ex­ -s have recognized the capacity plaining that the gartl is the belt that separates meat from milk, for exam­ £ate a vital folk culture of their ple. The punch line, delivered by the old man in Yiddish, is "You should mal context-the lox and grits see another year and again give such a nice donation." The features of a -ethnic identification and re- classic are its length, easily ten minutes, its substantial prologue which provides information about cultural details essential to an appreciation of folk culture formed by histor­ the tale, code-switching among up to five varieties of English, Yiddish, be mass migration period. The Hebrew and other languages, parodic glosses, and other evidences of "IS, primarily from eastern Eu­ delight in the ability to play upon the cultural convergences and in­ :d in great density in American congruities so characteristic of the immigrant experience. 19 secondary areas of rural settle­ Though the period of mass migration is long past, immigration con­ :such conditions a folk culture tinues to shape North American folklife: the post-Holocaust influx of an opportunity to arise. 15 The survivors, especially ultra-Orthodox Hasidism, has contributed to a flow­ -on the trauma ofupheaval, the ering of religious community life in the east coast area and elsewhere. ~ transition in a period of rapid Since 1965, with the liberalization of American immigration laws, Soviet _d New York City, two settings Jewry has settled in major American and Canadian cities, particularly New Piddish folksong about life in York. In the last eight years alone, more than ninety thousand Soviet Jews Ites about immigrant bunglers have arrived, half of them settling in New York City. They have formed nges, naive immigrants eat the regional enclaves: Brighton Beach is known as Little Odessa; the Georgian andings lead to comic results. Jews from the eastern Caucasus have settled in Forest Hills; the Bukharan Ie convergences and incongru­ Jews from Soviet Central Asia now live in Boro Park and Rego Park and ered by a Jewish immigrant Ashkenazic Jews from the western provinces have concentrated in Park­ ·ther Jewish vacation areas has chester and Flatbush. t it offers some of the richest In the case of Brighton Beach, an ailing neighbourhood has been' Ifred Sendrey, for example, so revitalized by the influx of Soviet families. Today, all the layers of Jewish idmit Yiddish theatre music to immigration are represented there: the elderly who came during the first comprehensive Bibliography of decades of this century; the Holocaust survivors who arrived in the fifties; and the recent Soviet wave. There is a golden opportunity to study intra­ who arrived in Toronto during group interaction, the emergence of distinctive immigrant institutions­ md, I found a distinctive nar­ the Soviet Jewish restaurant plays a very special role in this community; narrator as "classics" because the intensification of Jewishness among immigrants from the western re­ heir effect but upon the telling. publics of the USSR; and the heightened awareness of distinctiveness in In one example, the narrator the American context. For example, in Tashkent, Bokharan Jews prepared urdships of immigrant life and food in much the same manner as their non-Jewish neighbours, whereas in mportance of charity. He then New York, their cuisine sets them apart from other Soviet Jews. Paradox­ man who always came to his ically, an aspect of Bokharan Jewish culture that, with the exception of 86 BARBARA KIRSHENBLAIT-GIMBLEIT Folk Culture kashrut, did not significantly distinguish them from their non-Jewish related concept, one that goes I neighbours, serves here to differentiate them from other Jews. In the that ofthe marginal man, that 1 North American setting, new contexts are found for old skills-a master The premise here is that divic kamancha player, Zevulon Avshalomov, teaches American students; pathology. In support oftheir • Fatima Kuinova, a virtuoso Tadjik singer, now performs at folk festivals; element of the current Jewish s and veterans of the Yiddish stage such as Nechama Sirotin, find appre­ ity derives from the Jew's "po­ ciative audiences at senior citizen centres and Yiddish dubs.20 man," Bernard Rosenberg ane The immigrant experience continues to generate expressive behavior. "version, intermarriage, the sea: Just recently in a beauty salon on Wilson Avenue in Toronto, a Soviet status panic and overreactions Jewish beautician who has been here four years recounted her immigrant saga. She explained that since Soviet Jews had never been outside the Three Reform Rabbis Soviet Union and could not anticipate with any accuracy what they would thoroughly Reform. The til there are ashtrays in every p; find, they devised ways to communicate under the watchful eye of the "Yau think that's Refo[ censor; the code was that if those who left were happy with their new is a snack bar. The congreg: circumstances, they would send a photo of themselves standing; if they Kippur." were unhappy, the photo would show them seated. She received the "Gentlemen," says the photo-the emigrants were standing on a table. practically Orthodox. In m) The 1950S and 1960s have also seen the arrival of Jews from North pur, there are signs on the d Mrica and the Middle East. By the early seventies, about twenty thousand Syrian Jews formed a very cohesive religious community in the Ocean The road from minority I Parkway section of Brooklyn. Pockets of Jews from Egypt, Lebanon, intellectually much more chan~ Yemen and Israel may be found throughout the metropolitan area. These nology might suggest. It is on. communities offer opportunities to explore the formation of immigrant focused on ethnicity as an aspe culture in situ, in contrast to the studies of the earlier period which have inquiry in these terms. generally been made many decades after the fact. Ethnic identity is only one and not always relevant to a gi\­ FROM ASSIMILATION AND MARGINALITY TO ethnicity as a social constructi ETHNICITY" absolute, immutable and autb Oddly enough, immigrant folklore as a subject in its own right arrives particular social context. Perh~ late on the scene ofAmerican Jewish folklife study. Indeed, for many years What is Jewishness? but rather this subject was totally overshadowed by the interest in Americanization­ identity as Jewish, by what me: that is, in how old world forms are altered or adapted to American life. A content of this social differen1 dassic study of this kind is Beatrice Weinreich's "The Americanization of counterposed to? Who are the Passover," in which she describes such innovations as machine-made The answers to some ofthe matzoth, the matzoth made in 194-2 in the the shape of a V for victory, the in the dress code of Hasidim, : introduction of the third seder (the hotel seder), the increased variety of well as in their expressive styl Passover foods, the association of Passover with freedom ideals and the entiate Hasidim of different c introduction of new Passover games.21 mar, Stolin, Klausenberg, Brat~ Acculturation studies have generally posited a linear progression from visible in minute distinctions 0: old world culture through acculturation to assimilation, with the eventual headgear and stockings. Groul disappearance of Jewish folklife, a welcome course of events in some cir­ eties of Yiddish reflecting the cles and the inspiration to record and preserve what remains in others. A repertoires, and specific cust( oRA KIRSHENBLATI-GIMBLETI Folk Culture 87

them from their non-Jewish related concept, one that goes hand in hand with minority group theory, is :hem from other Jews. In the that ofthe marginal man, that unhealthy creature caught between cultures. found for old skills-a master The premise here is that divided cultural loyalties lead to psychological • teaches American students; pathology. In support oftheir claim that "ambiguity is the major pervasive now performs at folk festivals; element of the current Jewish situation in America," and that this ambigu­ Nechama Sirotin, find appre­ ity derives from the Jew's "position as a perpetual stranger and marginal 3d Yiddish clubs.20 man," Bernard Rosenberg and Gilbert Shapiro present jokes about con­ ::l generate expressive behavior. version, intermarriage, the secularization ofreligious tradition, self-hatred, ~ Avenue in Toronto, a Soviet status panic and overreactions to imaginary aggressions. For example: years recounted her immigrant JS had never been outside the Three Reform Rabbis are arguing about which of them is the most thorougWy Reform. The first one remarks, "My temple is so Reform that l any accuracy what they would under the watchful eye of the there are ashtrays in every pew. The congregation can smoke while it prays." "You think that's Reform?" asks the second Rabbi. "In my temple there :ft were happy with their new is a snack bar. The congregation can eat while it prays-especially on Yom )f themselves standing; if they Kippur." .hem seated. She received the "Gentlemen," says the third Rabbi, "as far as I'm concerned, you are table. r practically Orthodox. In my temple, every Rosh Hashonah and Yom Kip­ ::te arrival of Jews from North 1 pur, there are signs on the doors saying, "Closed for the Holidays."22 ...enties, about twenty thousand _ous community in the Ocean The road from minority group to ethnic group is a long one, and :- Jews from Egypt, Lebanon, ~ intellectually much more changes in the paradigm than the shift in termi­ [ lt the metropolitan area. These nology might suggest. It is only in the last thirty years that scholars have -e the formation of immigrant focused on ethnicity as an aspect ofJewish folklife, or at least framed their f the earlier period which have i inquiry in these terms. e fact. Ethnic identity is only one of several identities. It is socially situated and not always relevant to a given interaction. This approach, which views INALITYTO I i ethnicity as a social construction, stands in contrast with quests for an ! absolute, immutable and authentic Jewish identity independent of any I subject in its own right arrives I particular social context. Perhaps the question should be rephrased: not, :: study. Indeed, for many years r What is Jewishness? but rather, When does an individual foreground his e interest in Americanization­ identity as Jewish, by what means, and to what ends? What is the cultural or adapted to American life. A content of this social differentiation? What is the display of Jewishness :ich's ''The Americanization of counterposed to? Who are the relevant others?23 innovations as machine-made The answers to some ofthese questions are dramatized emblematically he shape of a V for victory, the in the dress code of Hasidirn, in the inversions of this code on Purim, as seder), the increased variety of well as in their expressive styles. Salient intracultural boundaries differ­ r with freedom ideals and the entiate Hasidirn of different courts: Lubavitch, Bobov, Munkatch, Sat­ mar, Stolin, Klausenberg, Bratslav and others. These boundaries are made Isited a linear progression from visible in minute distinctions of dress: hats, socks, shoes, jackets, women's assimilation, with the eventual headgear and stockings. Groups are also distinguished by regional vari­ :: course of events in some cir­ eties of Yiddish reflecting the court's place of origin, distinctive musical :rve what remains in others. A repertoires, and specific customs. Thus, Lubavitch is famous for its 88 BARBARA KIRSHENBLATI-GIMBLETI Folk Culture

farbrengenJ but adopts a spartan attitude to the decoration of the inside of distinctive Jewish way of life, wit the suke. In contrast, Bobov is famous for its elaborate suke and its Purim in a society of minority groups tl play. Stolin is known for its emphasis on dance as an expression of piety. relation to the dominant cultur< Hasidim also distinguish themselves from modern orthodoxy and of ishness, whatever form it takes. course, from non-observant Jews and from non-Jews. Nor are non-Jews otherness to a celebration of it. an undifferentiated category. In the playful costumes worn by children on stitutes a more constructive alte Purim, Hasidic Jewish identity is defined by what it is not as well as by model, it also posits a much mon hyperbolic exaggerations of what it is. Children appear as non-humans Rather than identifying a gro (animals, androgynous creatures, objects, clowns), as non-Jews (blacks, its distinctive culture, scholars n< cowboys, Indians, Arabs, "ordinary" kids in blue jeans and T-shirts, seduc­ not "given." Rather, they are sod tive females), and as figures of stature and power (kings, police, soldiers, negotiated; they are multiple and Ronald Reagan, old Hasidic men, married Hasidic women). Small details how people use expressive behavi( are revealing, for example, the preoccupation with neckties: they appear in what conditions, how they use fo every size and variety and more than one may be worn at a time. Similarly play on them. In the course of th sunglasses, especially gigantic ones, are a source of fascination. Both ties nating concern in Jewish folklife I and sunglasses are considered very non-Hasidic, and they appear in lu­ dicrous forms in these Purim costumes.24 In this context, the folklore of ethnicity may be defined as expressive THE TRADITIONALIZING behaviour on and about cultural boundaries. The folklore of ethnicity Preservation, reconstruction, grows out of a heightened awareness of cultural diversity and ambiguity, aspects of the "traditionalizing" 1 out of mastery of multiple cultural repertoires and the ability to choose the constant making and remakin and switch among them. As I have stated elsewhere: Jews at the Israel Levin Senior A special feature of the folklore of ethnicity is a heightened awareness of Barbara Myerhoff examines the [ cultural diversity and ambiguity, a well-developed capacity for reflexivity or aspect of the life cycle, rather tha self-reflection. The presence of cultural alternatives, which is, after all, at the examines how the elderly recycle heart of the immigrant/ethnic experience, [in Keesing's words] "brings to have been inactive through their consciousness ... premises or assumptions hitherto in the main covert or face in their advanced old age. N~ implicit." The experience of culture contact throws aspects of each into high not simply examples of cultural s relief, creating what may be called the cultural foregrounding effect, as one cycle pattern at work here, one ­ inevitably compares one's own ways with those ofothers, noting similarities secondary migration.28 and differences. The issue is not the degree of cultural difference involved, Though Myerhoffs case rna} objectively speaking, but the social significance attributed to any similarity or difference, however small.25 pecially helpful because it emphc has connotations ofpassivity: we­ Where the boundaries are drawn and what cultural content is used to ing, rather than of people chao render the boundaries visible will vary according to historical as well as tradition. Stated differently, the po social interactional context. Thus, for Sephardic Jews, confronting Jewish the norm, and that change is whal communities dominated by Ashkenazic culture, the boundary between distinguish between a reluctance 26 Ashkenazic and Sephardic styles is particularly salient. During earlier either case, continuity must be COl periods, the boundary between German and Polish Jews was of special of traditionalizing. relevance. In Lenore Weissler's study c The interest in ethnicity is itselfpart ofthe history ofAmerican Jewish group of young, American-born life. It represents a shift from a preoccupation with the disappearance of a fellowship in which they pursue ­ \RA KIRSHENBLATI-GIMBLETI Folk Culture 89

I the decoration of the inside of distinctive Jewish way of life, with the anxiety of being a marginal person its elaborate suke and its Purim in a society of minority groups that are by definition at a disadvantage in lance as an expression of piety. relation to the dominant culture, to a positive identification with Jew­ m modern orthodoxy and of ishness, whatever form it takes. The shift is from anxiety about one's n non-Jews. Nor are non-Jews otherness to a celebration of it. The ethnicity framework not only con­ I costumes worn by children on stitutes a more constructive alternative to an acculturation/assimilation by what it is not as well as by model, it also posits a much more fluid situation. hildren appear as non-humans Rather than identifying a group and looking within its boundaries for clowns), as non-Jews (blacks, its distinctive culture, scholars now recognize that group boundaries are n blue jeans and T-shirts, seduc­ not "given." Rather, they are socially constructed and situated, constantly I power (kings, police, soldiers, negotiated; they are multiple and complex. A subject for study is therefore I Hasidic women). Small details how people use expressive behaviour to invoke special identities and under on with neckties: they appear in what conditions, how they use folklore to define social boundaries and to nay be worn at a time. Similarly play on them. In the course of this shift, ethnicity has become the domi­ source of fascination. Both ties nating concern in Jewish folklife studies ofthe last two decades.27 ~asidic, and they appear in lu­ THE TRADITIONALIZING PROCESS ity may be defined as expressive aries. The folklore of ethnicity Preservation, reconstruction, revival, awareness and innovation are all ultural diversity and ambiguity, aspects of the "traditionalizing" process, a complex venture that involves toires and the ability to choose the constant making and remaking of heritage. In her study of the elderly elsewhere: Jews at the Israel Levin Senior Citizen's Center in Venice, California, Barbara Myerhoff examines the resurfacing of particular traditions as an :licity is a heightened awareness of ieveloped capacity for reflexivity or aspect of the life cycle, rather than in relation to assimilation; that is, she ltematives, which is, after all, at the examines how the elderly recycle their dormant natal culture, which may :e, [in Keesing's words1"brings to have been inactive through their middle years, for the special needs they ions hitherto in the main covert or face in their advanced old age. Narration, song, dance, festival-these are :act throws aspects of each into high not simply examples of cultural survivals and adaptations. There is a life­ cultural foregrounding effect, as one cycle pattern at work here, one that converges with the disjunctures of h those ofothers, noting similarities secondary migration.28 gree of cultural difference involved, Though Myerhoffs case may seem like an extreme example, it is es­ lificance attributed to any similarity pecially helpful because it emphasizes how active continuity is. Survival has connotations ofpassivity: we tend to think ofcultural elements surviv­ ,hat cultural content is used to ing, rather than of people choosing to activate a musical or narrative ccording to historical as well as tradition. Stated differently, the premise in such work is that persistence is thardic Jews, confronting Jewish the norm, and that change is what needs to be explained. We may want to culture, the boundary between distinguish between a reluctance to change and a desire to perpetuate. In -eularly salient.26 During earlier either case, continuity must be considered as an active process, as an aspect of traditionalizing. and Polish Jews was of special i I In Lenore Weissler's study of a Havurah29 in an east coast city, a ! )fthe history ofAmerican Jewish t" group of young, American-born professionals have formed a religious ltion with the disappearance of a ,f fellowship in which they pursue their core concern with the problematic 90 BARBARA KIRSHENBLATI-GIMBLETI Folk Culture

nature of tradition-what to incorporate, how to resolve conflicts be­ Jewish Film Festival that orig tween particular religious traditions and values they hold as modem of them new contexts for old s Americans. Their discussions ofthe problems and their ingenuity in devis­ worthy of study in their own ing solutions, some more successful and enduring than others, offer rich other expressive forms such as evidence for examining continuity as an active process. While the cen­ and new days ofobservance in trality of the Torah and of prayer are accepted, the status of the commen­ Independence Day). taries is questioned, especially relative to the importance of making a What would Friedrich 1 personal connection to the reading ofthe week. Indeed, the Torah discus­ Brooklyn last Purim? Or at Ca sion, an important feature of a Havurah service, often focuses on the played recendy? Or at the Od< difficulty ofreconciling a particular passage with values held by the partici­ in Brighton Beach? Or if he c( pants. Especially troubling are sections on menstrual impurity and animal the Caucasus play the kamand sacrifice, for example. The conduct of the service itself, even to the way in He would have been impressc which the chairs are arranged, expresses the value placed on egalitarianism: folklife is a well-spring ofcheri there are equal opportunities for men and women to lead services, there is a diverse and vital array of 1 no figure of authority to conduct the service as a paid professional, and century. Research concerns th. rituals for girls are created as counterparts to those that exist for boys. The ethnography, the culture of i baby-naming ceremonies for girls are among the most ingenious.30 traditionalizing process-may Innovations may lead to the creation ofnovel expressive forms to suit have not been examined befon new social and historical circumstances, or they may serve to strengthen can offer are approaches and tc traditional values. Modem Orthodox and Hasidic Jews have been particu­ ofJewish communities in Nor larly inventive in adapting modem technology to further their abilities to the immigrant experience and I adhere stricdy to Sabbath and holy day prescriptions against work, while traditions are constructed and living in modem highrise buildings that require the use ofelevators. Sab­ bath clocks which regulate the electrical lighting of a residence as well as the motor of the refrigerator are another example. NOTES

Traditionalization also takes the form of reconstruction, which is I. See Stephen Stem, "Ethni closely tied to the interest in revival. Both may be seen as aspects of Folklore 36, no. 1 (1977), pp. 7-32. ethnicity-that is, as efforts to find, create, or reconstruct the right cultural 2. See Dell Hymes, "Folklore; content for emerging new identities. Forms which have changed radically Folklore 88, no. 350 (1975), pp. 3+5-369. or which have disappeared from the scene for decades are now being 3· Friedrich S. Krauss, "NotO! American Folklore 7 (1894), pp. 72-75. revived by Yiddish folksingers, klezmer bands, and Sephardic musical 4. (New York: Ktav PubJishiJ groups. The results are fascinating, as Slobin demonstrates in his presenta­ The Jew in the OldAmerican Folklore (~ tion of the doina. The entire process reveals the extent to which tradition 5· "Contemporary Studies of is itself a construction and a process. At least two principles are at work Colurs: Jewish Subannmunities in the [ here: first, the act of reviving is simultaneously an act of constructing a Conn., 1977), p. 277. 6. See Rebekah Ziona Mend. hypothetical original; and secondly, each generation stands in a special York City," master's thesis, Columbia' relation to that which has come before.31 in America: The 'Invisible' Jews," Jewi: These revivals are part of a larger development, namely folk festivals pp. 12-13; Uri Sharvit, "The Role of and public programs devoted to the traditional arts ofJewish communities Ethnic Persistence," Ph.D. dissertation Analysis of Ethnic Identity among Ye in a given area: the shted fair in Washington, D.C., the Jewish Arts festival dissertation, Columbia University, 198= on Long Island, the Jewish cultural days and weekends on college cam­ 7· J. Shatzky, "Yehudah Leyb puses, the workshops and demonstrations at museums, and the National bukh fun amopteyl fun yiro 1 (1938), p. 2i ARA KIRSHENBLATI-GIMBLETI Folk Culture 91 e, how to resolve conflicts be­ Jewish Film Festival that originated in San Francisco. Such events, many i values they hold as modern ofthem new contexts for old skills as well as showcases for new talent, are =ms and their ingenuity in devis­ worthy of study in their own right. They should be viewed in relation to ~nduring than others, offer rich other expressive forms such as parades, demonstrations, commemorations active process. While the cen­ and new days of observance in the Jewish calendar (Yom HaShoah, Israel pted, the status of the commen­ Independence Day). o the importance of making a What would Friedrich Krauss have said could he have been in week. Indeed, the Torah discus­ Brooklyn last Purim? Or at Carnegie Hall when the California Klezmorim :l service, often focuses on the played recently? Or at the Odessa restaurant where Soviet Jews celebrate :e with values held by the partici­ in Brighton Beach? Or if he could have heard Zevulon Avshalomov from ! menstrual impurity and animal the Caucasus play the kamancha, or have seen Firuz from Bokhara dance? service itself, even to the way in He would have been impressed with the evidence that North American _e value placed on egalitarianism: folklife is a well-spring ofcherished tradition and irrepressible innovation, _women to lead services, there is a diverse and vital array of life styles. The eleventh hour has lasted a :vice as a paid professional, and century. Research concerns that have informed decades of study-salvage to those that exist for boys. The ethnography, the culture of immigration, the folklore of ethnicity, the ong the most ingenious.30 traditionalizing process-may now be applied to Jewish situations that ofnovel expressive forms to suit have not been examined before or that have newly arisen. What folklorists or they may serve to strengthen can offer are approaches and tools for examining the expressive behaviour Hasidic Jews have been particu­ oOewish communities in North America, the symbolic manifestations of ::>logy to further their abilities to the immigrant experience and ethnic boundaries and the process by which trescriptions against work, while traditions are constructed and meaning is made. ::-equire the use of elevators. Sab­ lighting of a residence as well as NOTES example. nn of reconstruction, which is I. See Stephen Stem, "Ethnic Folklore and the Folklore of Ethnicity," Western ~oth may be seen as aspects of FolkJore 36, no. 1 (1977), pp. 7-32. :, or reconstruct the right cultural 2. See Dell Hymes, "Folklore's Nature and the Sun's Myth," Journal ojAmerican FolkJure 88, no. 350 (1975), pp. 345-369. ms which have changed radically 3. Friedrich S. Krauss, "Notes and Queries: Jewish Folklife in America," Journal oj ene for decades are now being American FolkJure 7 (1894), pp. 72-75. ::- bands, and Sephardic musical 4. (New York: Ktav Publishing House, 1973), pp. 126, 114-. See also Rudolf Glanz, bin demonstrates in his presenta­ The Jew in the OldAmerican FolkJure (New York, 1961). 5. "Contemporary Studies of Sephardi Jews in the United States," A Coat oJMany ~als the extent to which tradition Colors: Jewish Subcommunities in the United States, ed. Abraham D. Lavender (Westport, least two principles are at work Conn., 1977), p. 277· neously an act of constructing a 6. See Rebekah Ziona Mendelsohn, "The Bokharan Jewish Community of New 11 generation stands in a special York City," master's thesis, Columbia University, 1964; Dina Dahbany Miraglia, "Yemenites l in America: The 'Invisible' Jews," Jewish Folklore and Ethnology Newsletter 4, nos. 1-2 (1980), =velopment, namely folk festivals pp. 12-13; Uri Sharvit, ''The Role of Music in the Yemenite Jewish Ritual: A Study of Ethnic Persistence," Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1977, and Dina Miraglia, "An tional arts 00ewish communities Analysis of Ethnic Identity among Yemenite Jews in the Greater New York Area," Ph.D. ton, D.C., the Jewish Arts festival dissertation, Columbia University, 1983. :s and weekends on college cam­ 7. J. Shatzky, "Yehudah Leyb Cahan (1881-1937): materyaln far a biografYe," Yor­ 1S at museums, and the National bukh fun amopteyl fun yivo 1 (1938), p. 21. 92 , BARBARA KIRSHENBLATI-GIMBLETI Folk Culture

8. M. A. Luria, "Judeo-Spanish Dialects in New York City," Todd Memoritd Vol­ Biblical and Jewish Folklore, ed. RaplJ umes (New York), 2 (1930), pp. 7-16. I am indebted to Pamela Dom for the infonnation ington, 1960), pp. 133-1+6, and Sam about George Herwg. Sephardic ballads and songs continue to be collected in North mentary 14- (1952), pp. 168-170. America: 1. J. Levy, "Sephardic Ballads and Songs in the U.S.A.: New Variants and Addi­ 18. (New York, 1951). In cont tions," master's thesis, University ofIowa, 1958; R. R. McCurdy and D. D. Stanley, "Judeo­ Music ofthe Jewish Immigrants (Urban Spanish Ballads from Atlanta, Georgia," Southern Folklore Quarterly 15 (1951), pp. 221-238; D. Mickey Katz," American Quarterly 3 (I Romey, "A Study of Spanish Traditions in Isolation as Found in me Romances, Refrains, 19. See Barbara Kirshenblatt­ and Folklore of me Seattle Sephardi Community," master's mesis, University of Wash­ Jewish Community: A Study of Per ington, Seattle, 1950; and most recently, Pamela Dom, ''Transmission of EtiInic Music and Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University Dance among Greek, Jewish, and Syrian Lebanese Americans in an Urban Setting," B.A. 20. See Festival of Soviet J&Wish honors mesis, Indiana University, 1977. The Sephardic folktale has also received considerable Western Republics ofthe USSR (New Y< attention in Andre E. Elboz, ed., Folhales ofthe Canadian Sephardim (Toronto, 1982). 1982). 9. "Popular Beliefs and Customs among me Yiddish-Speaking Jews of St. Louis, 21. Studies in Biblical and J&Wi Mo.," Journal ofAmerican Folklore 38 (1925), p. 375· sponses mat fonn me basis for t1Iis s 10. One of me most interesting outgrowtiIs of Boas's work is me dissertation by his Research in New York. student David Efron, Gesture andEnvironment: A Tentative Study ofSome ofthe Socio-Temporal 22. "Marginality and Jewish H and "Linguistic" Aspects of the Gestural Behavior ofEastern Jews and Southern Italians in New 23· An important project on :E York City, Living Under Similar as well as Different Environmental Conditions (New York, Angeles, begun under me direction of 194-1). for research elsewhere. Myerhoffadds I II. For a detailed consideration of this subject, see Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, territory, me inner city enclave as fictiv. "From Race to Ethnicity: American Anmropologic Interest in Jews, 1890-1952," Ashlunaz: and as mediating sttueture, and me r< Essays in Jewish Folklore and Culture (Bloomington, Ind., forthcoming). modem urban setting. See also Leon, 12. For example, Rum Rubin, a native of Montteal, pioneered in me recording of Signalling: Social Bonding in Contem Yiddish folksong in Canada and me United States from me 194-0S to now. pp. 4-07-4-23· 13. The Holocaust also began to serve as a subject in its own right for such folklorists 24-. See Sydelle Brooks Levy, .. as Toby Blum-Dobkin, who is interviewing survivors living in New York City in her efforts Hasidim," The New Ethnicity: Perspectl to reconstruct me expressive culture 00ews in displaced-persons camps immediately afrer the pp. xx-xxx. Hasidim in North Ameri. war, and for historians such as Yaffa Eliach, whose collection ofstories from survivors about well. Jill Gellennan has videotaped an. meir experiences, particularly miracle narratives, is entitled Hasidic Tales of the Holocaust New York City as me basis for her (New York, 1982). University and has published ''The M 14-. Mark Zborowski and Elizabem Herwg, Life Is with People: The Jewish Little Town Three American Hasidic Communitie; in Eastern Europe (New York, 1952). Though meir focus was on East European Jews, the team sis," CORD: Dance Research Journal, : also interviewed Yemenite and Syrian Jews in New York City. The project and its memods Concept ofNigun among Lubavitcher: are described in Margaret Mead and Rhoda Metraux, The Study of Culture at a Distance of Pittsburgh, 1976; Shifra Epstein, • (Chicago, 1953). For a critique ofme project, see Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, "'In Search Bobover Hasidic Community," Ph.D ofme Primitive': The shtetl Model in Jewish Ethnology," Ashkenaz. Mintz, The Lrgends ofthe Hasidim: An 15. "Culture Shock and Narrative Creativity," FolkWre in the Modern World, ed. R. M. the New World (Chicago, 1968). Better Dorson (The Hague, 1978), pp. 109-122; "Studying lnImigrant and EtiInic Folklore," The Poll, George Kranzler, Israel Rubin a: Handbook of American Folklore, ed. R. M. Dorson (Bloomington, 1983), pp. 39-4-7. On Jewish Folklore and Ethnology Newsletter distinctive Jewish immigrant organizations, see William E. Mitchell, Mishpokheh: A Study of 25· "Studying lnImigrant and New York City Jewish Family Clubs (The Hague, 1978) and Philip Goodman, ''The Purim "Recreative Behavior and Culture Cl­ Association of me City of New York," The Purim Anthology, ed. Philip Goodman (Phila­ (Philadelphia, 1960), pp. 130-133. delphia, 194-9), pp. xx-xxx. 26. See Stephen Stem, ''The 16. See E. G. Mlotek, "America in East European Yiddish Folksong," The Field of Study in Folklore and EtiInic Identit). Yiddish: Studies in Yiddish Language, Folklore, and Literature, ed. Uriel Weinreich (New Rum Fredman, Cosmopolitans atHome: York: Publications ofme Linguistic Circle ofNew York, 1954-), pp. 179-195 and Rum Rubin, 1982). "Yiddish Folksongs of Immigration and me Melting Pot," New York Folklore Quarterly 17 27· Contrast sociologist Milton (1961), pp. 173-182. Race, Religion, and National Origins (l­ 17. Compare R. M. Dorson, "Jewish American Dialect Stories on Tape," Studies in ed. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: Th. BARA KIRSHENBLATT-GIMBLETT Folk Culture 93 in New York City," Todd Memorial Vol­ Biblical and Jewish Folkkrre, ed. Raphael Patai, Francis Lee Utley and Dov Noy (Bloom­ ted to Pamela Dom for the infonnation ington, 1960), PP' 133-1+6, and Sam Levenson, "Dialect Comedian Should Vanish," Com­ mgs continue to be collected in North mentary 14 (1952), PP' 168-170. :s in the U.S.A.: New Variants and Addi- 18. (New York, 1951). In contrast, see Mark Slobin, Tenement Songs: The Popular R. McCurdy and D. D. Stanley, "Judeo­ Music of the Jewish Immigrants (Urbana, 1982) and Herbett J. Gans, "The Yinglish Music of 'olklore Quarterly 15 (1951), pp. 221-238; D. Mickey Katz," American Quarterly 3 (1953), pp. 213-218. on as Found in the Romances, Refrains, 19. See Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, "Traditional Storytelling in the Toronto '1," master's thesis, University of Wash­ Jewish Community: A Study of Perfonnance and Creativity in an Immigrant Culture," 'om, "Transmission of Ethnic Music and Ph.D. dissettation, Indiana University, 1972. ;e Americans in an Urban Setting," B.A. 20. See Festival of Swiet Jewish Folk Traditwns of Central Asia, the Caucasus, and the ~dic folktale has also received considerable Western Republics ofthe USSR (New York: Federation ofTewish Philanthropies ofNew York, madian Sephardim (Toronto, 1982). 1982). the Yiddish-Speaking Jews of St. Louis, 21. Studies in Biblical and Jewish Folkkrre, pp. 329-366. The questionnaires and re­ sponses that fonn the basis for this study may be found at the YIVO institute for Jewish § of Boas's work is the dissettation by his Research in New York. ~entative Study ofSome ofthe Socw-Temporal 22. "Marginality and Jewish Humor," Midstream 4, no. 2 (1958), p. 74. i3astern Jews and Southern Italians in New 23. An impottant project on Fairfax, a very diverse Jewish neighbourhood in Los IJt Environmental ConditWns (New York, Angeles, begun under the direction of Barbara Myerhoff, should offer interesting hypotheses for research elsewhere. Myerhoffadds questions about the relationship between ethnicity and ::ljeer, see Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, territory, the inner city enclave as fictive homeland, ethnicity as achieved social differentiation ic Interest in Jews, 1890-1952," Ashkenaz: and as mediating structure, and the role of elders in creating and transInitting culture in a Ind., forthcoming). modem urban setting. See also Leonard Plotnikov and Myrna Silvennan, "Jewish Ethnic Montteal, pioneered in the recording of Signalling: Social Bonding in Contemporary American Society," Ethnology 17, no. 4 (1978), from the 1940S to now. pp. 407-423· -ubject in its own right for such folklorists 24. See Sydelle Brooks Levy, "Shifting Patterns of Ethnic Identification among the Drs living in New York City in her effotts Hasidim," The New Ethnicity: Perspectives from Ethnology, ed. John Bennett (St. Paul, 1975), laced-persons camps immediately after the pp. xx-xxx. Hasidim in North America have received considerable folkloristic attention as collection ofstories from survivors about well. Jill Gellennan has videotaped and analysed several hundred hours of Hasidic dance in is entitled Hasidic Tales of the Holocaust New York City as the basis for her dissettation in Perfonnance Studies at New York University and has published "The Mayim Pattern as an Indicator of Cultural Attitudes in -, Life Is with People: The Jewish Little Town Three American Hasidic Communities: A Comparative Approach Based on Laban-Analy­ ::lCUS was on East European Jews, the team sis," CORD: Dance Research Journal, 20 (1976), pp. III-I44. See also Ellen Koskoff, "The '" York City. The project and its methods Concept ofNigun among Lubavitchers in the United States," Ph.D. dissettation, University Iaux, The Study of Culture at a Distance of Pittsburgh, 1976; Shifra Epstein, "The Celebration of a Contemporary Purim in the arbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, "'In Search Bobover Hasidic Community," Ph.D. dissettation, University of Texas, 1979; Jerome R. :>logy," Ashkenaz. Mintz, The Legends of the Hasidim: An Introductwn to Hasidic Culture and Oral Traditwn in .," Folklore in the Modern World, ed. R. M. the New World (Chicago, 1968). Better known are the sociological monographs of Solomon ng ImInigrant and Ethnic Folklore," The Poll, George Kranzler, Israel Rubin and William Shaffir. For bibliographical material, see :>n (Bloomington, 1983), pp. 39-47. On Jewish Folkkrre and Ethnology Newsletter 4, nos. 1-2 (1981). :illiam E. Mitchell, Mishpokheh: A Study of 25. "Studying Immigrant and Ethnic Folklore," pp. 43-44. See F. M. Keesing, 1978) and Philip Goodman, "The Purim "Recreative Behavior and Culture Change," Men and Cultures, ed. Anthony F. Wallace " Anthology, ed. Philip Goodman (Phila­ (Philadelphia, 1960), pp. 130-IH. 26. See Stephen Stem, "The Sephardic Jewish Community of Los Angeles: A -uropean Yiddish Folksong," The Field of Study in Folklore and Ethnic Identity," Ph.D. dissettation, Indiana University, 1977, and iii Literature, ed. Uriel Weinreich (New Ruth Fredman, Cosmopolitans atHome: The SephardicJews ofWashington, D.C. (Philadelphia, York, 1954), PP' 179-195 and Ruth Rubin, 1982). :ing Pot," New York Folkkrre Quarterly 17 27. Conttast sociologist Milton M. Gordon,Assimilation in American Life: The Role of Race, Religion, and National Origins (New York, 1964) with anthropologists Fredrik Barth, ncan Dialect Stories on Tape," Studies in ed. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Difference (Boston, 94- BARBARA KIRSHENBLATI-GIMBLETI

1969); Robert A. Levine and Donald T. Campbell, Ethnocentrism: Themes ifConflia, Ethnic Attitudes, and Group BehaPior (New York, 1972): and Anya Peterson Royce, Ethnic Identity: StratfiJies ifDi."ersity (Bloomingron, 1982). 28. Number Our Days (New York, 1978). See also Giselle Hendel-Sebestyen, "The Sephardic Home: Ethnic Homogeneity and Cultural Traditions in a Total Institution," Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1969, and Jack Kugelmass, "The Miracle of Inter­ vale Avenue: Aging in the South Bronx," Natural History 89, no. 2 (1980), pp. 26-35. 29. The Havurah is a religious fellowship established as an alternative to established congregations. Small, intimate, egalitarian and highly participatory, the Havurah offers its members the opportunity to experiment with Jewish tradition and find personal meaning in the liturgy and ritual. Since the 1960s many such groups have formed. 30. "Making Judaism Meaningful: Ambivalence and Tradition in a Havurah Com­ Klezmer Music munity," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1982. See also, Riv-Ellen Prell­ Foldes, "Strategies in Conflict Situations: Ritual and Redress in an Urban Jewish Prayer Community," Ph.D. dissertation, University ofChicago, 1978. For comparable treatments of modem orthodoxy, see Samuel C. Heilman, Synagogue Life: A Study in Symbolic Interaction (Chicago, 1976) and id. The People ifthe Book: Drama, Fe/.lQwship, and Religion (Chicago, 1983). 31. A theoretical framework for analysing such activities is provided by Richard Schechner, "Restoration of Behavior," Studies in Visual Communication 4- (Summer 1981), pp. 2-4-5. See also Mark Slobin, "The Neo-Klezmer Movement and Euro-American Musical Revivalism," Journal ifAmerican Folklore 97 (January-March, 1984-): pp. 98-104-.

n 1973 Robert Klymasz dl immigrant folklore in No I sition from Old World expressive culture, and noted doned without any massive n reexamined, revamped, and re~ perpetuate the community's sel Klymasz's urgings, little has b His own work with Ukrainian dian, Barbara Kirshenbiatt-Gil almost alone in the field. The aim of this paper, th. pioneered, bearing in mind h different answers, "since so rr given folklore complex itself as I will examine the secular in! klezmer music as it has come professional instrumental folk : popular song during the immi, point of view, and some of m that research provide a conteJl