2.01 Introduction and Overview H. L. Roediger III, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA

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2.01.1 The Cognitive of : Introduction 1 2.01.2 Cognitive Approaches to Memory 1 2.01.3 Organization of the Volume 2 2.01.4 Conclusion 4 References 4

2.01.1 The asked many fundamental questions about of Memory: Introduction and memory, and virtually all his results have stood the test of time in that they have been widely The main problem in the scientific study of memory replicated. His work dates the start of the cognitive/ is that it proceeds on many different fronts. Neuro- behavioral study of learning and memory in humans, chemical and neurobiological approaches propel although of course centuries of speculation and some researchers; systems neuroscientists examine theorizing (particularly by the British empiricist changes in larger pathways in the nervous system; philosophers) preceded and informed his first experi- animal behaviorists examine learning and memory mental efforts. Bower (2000) provides a brief historical as reflected in behavior of (mostly) infrahuman ani- overview of this approach to studying learning and mals, such as birds finding caches of seed; cognitive memory. psychologists study human memory through behav- Cognitive psychologists approach the problem of ioral means using measures such as and memory through careful experimentation to examine recognition; computer scientists endorse computa- theories that vary in their levels of specification. tional approaches to memory that sometimes pay Some theories (say, transfer-appropriate processing) little to behavioral or neuroscience con- are broad and seek to capture a wide range of per- straints; and, of course, the study of memory has formance across many situations, whereas other been the topic of discourse by philosophers for over approaches (such as mathematical models of perfor- 2000 years. This four-volume series covers a huge mance in specific tasks) are more formal and often selection of topics that are central to the scientific attempt to capture memory performance only in study of memory. In a different edited volume, tightly structured paradigms. Roediger et al. (2007) considered 16 critical concepts Traditionally, up until perhaps 30 years ago, in the science of memory from the various viewpoints cognitive psychologists paid little attention to neu- described above. roscience discoveries, and likewise, neuroscientists paid little attention to the experimental work of the cognitive psychologists. Although this division of 2.01.2 Cognitive Approaches labor is honored to some degree in the separate to Memory volumes of this work, the interests of scientists are clearly broader today. Unlike the case 30 years ago, Practitioners of what is today called cognitive psy- cognitive psychologists today follow advances in neu- chology have a long tradition of the experimental roscience with great interest, and many of the study of various aspects of memory. Experimental concepts and tasks used by neuroscientists were ori- psychology is often dated from the founding of ginally developed by psychologists (either those ’s laboratory in Leipzig in 1879. studying animal learning and memory or those apply- Coincidentally, that same year marks the year that ing cognitive methods to these topics in humans). (1850–1909) began his pains- Although this volume is largely devoted to the cog- taking that led to his great book, U¨ber das nitive/behavioral study of memory, many chapters Geda¨chtnis (On Memory) in 1885 (Ebbinghaus, 1885). lean heavily on neuroscience findings. The authors Ebbinghaus conducted meticulous that were given leeway to cover their particular topic from

1 2 Introduction and Overview the vantage they deemed most appropriate, bringing Robert Greene provides a chapter on the funda- in the types of evidence they considered most rele- mental topic of repetition and spacing effects (See vant. Some chapters rely heavily on neuroscience Chapter 2.06). Perhaps the first principle of learning evidence, whereas others refer to purely behavioral and memory is that repeated experiences are (almost) experimentation. I see this as perfectly appropriate for always better remembered than single experiences; the various topics covered in this volume. further, having two experiences distributed in time (up to some limit that differs for various tasks and retention intervals) leads to greater performance. 2.01.3 Organization of the Volume Another fundamental principle, dating at least to George Miller’s (1956) pioneering work on recoding One time-honored procedure in the study of cogni- in memory, is that events are not remembered as they tive processes is sorting (e.g., Mandler, 1967). An are presented in the outside world (events do not experimenter can give a subject a set of concepts somehow leap into the brain as veridical copies of and ask him or her to sort them into groups. The experience), but, rather, events are coded (or hope is to discover something about how the subject’s recoded) as they are filtered through an individual’s organizes experiences into concepts or cate- personal experiences (or apperceptive mass, to bring gories. The titles of chapters for this volume were back a useful term from early in psychology). Events originally listed alphabetically, but then the editors of are remembered as they are coded and not as they each volume were asked to organize them in some necessarily ‘are’ in the environment. Reed Hunt’s meaningful way, which corresponds reasonably well chapter on coding processes brings out this important to a sorting task. I took several trials to reach criterion point and shows how recoding can improve retention on this task and can still quibble with myself on in some cases but in other cases can lead to errors (See various decisions. Luckily, the editors were not Chapter 2.07). Mental imagery is one type of code asked to create sections of the volume and to label that has received great attention in the literature, our categories. Here I provide some rationale for the and Cesare Cornoldi, Rossana DeBeni, and Irene ordering of the chapters and, at the same time, out- Mammarella review this literature in the next chap- line the contents of the volume. ter (See Chapter 2.08). The volume begins with a chapter on attention An event that differs dramatically from many other and memory by Neil Mulligan (See Chapter 2.02). events that are themselves similar is usually well After all, events in the world that are not attended remembered, which constitutes a distinctiveness effect. will not be encoded well and cannot be remembered For example, a picture of a horse embedded in the later, so this seemed a logical starting point. Nelson middle of a 99-word list of other concrete nouns is Cowan’s chapter on (See Chapter much better remembered than if the word ‘horse’ is 2.03) follows this one. Sensory memory (iconic stor- presented in a uniform list of 100 words (with ‘horse’ age, echoic , and similar processes in other embedded in the analogous position in the list). This modalities) lies at the borderline between perceiving outcome occurs even if the mode of recall is verbal and remembering. No one has ever proposed a good (i.e., people must recall the word ‘horse’ both when it is solution to the question of where perceiving ends and presented as a picture and as a word). Distinctiveness remembering begins, and ideas about sensory storage effects are ubiquitous in memory research, and bridge this gap. Susan Gathercole’s chapter on work- Stephen Schmidt provides a review of what is known ing memory comes next (See Chapter 2.04). The topic about this topic in his chapter ‘A Theoretical and of how people hold information in mind while Empirical Review of the Concept of Distinctiveness manipulating it in reasoning and solving problems in Memory Research’ (See Chapter 2.09). The next represents a huge topic in cognitive psychology chapter, ‘ Devices: Underlying Processes over the past 40 years. The next chapter is on serial and Practical Applications,’ by James Worthen and learning by Alice Healy and William Bonk (See Reed Hunt, brings together the chapters on recoding, Chapter 2.05). Most research on serial learning uses imagery, and distinctiveness by reviewing techniques paradigms requiring short-term recall (such as digit for that have been developed span and similar procedures), so placing it after the over the years (See Chapter 2.10). Some of these tech- chapter seems reasonable. However, niques date back to the ancient Greeks, but modern the chapter also covers long-term processes in serial research has helped to uncover the reasons for their organization. effectiveness. Many of these techniques depend on Introduction and Overview 3 imagery, and some (such as the method of loci) rely on Chapter 2.18). Stephen Lindsay writes on the related humans’ ability to remember routes and spatial layouts topic of source monitoring, or the issue of how people well, especially ones experienced repeatedly. Timothy recollect the source of information they report as a McNamara, Julia Sluzenski, and Bjorn Rump review memory – did I read the fact in the newspaper, did a the interesting topic of human and friend tell me, or was it learned from television (See navigation (See Chapter 2.11). Chapter 2.19)? Janet Metcalfe and John Dunlosky The next chapters in the volume have to do with write on the issue of , or what people memory losses and errors. refers to the know about their own and the strategic loss of information over time, and James Nairne and processes used in regulating and retrieval Josefa Pandeirada review the topic in their chapter by of information (See Chapter 2.20). Alan S. Brown has that name (See Chapter 2.12). A complementary topic provided two chapters on puzzling phenomena of is on inhibitory processes, a chapter by Karl-Heinz memory retrieval, the experience of de´ja` vu (when a Bauml (See Chapter 2.13). Inhibitory processes are person has the strange sensation that an event or scene concerned with another set of phenomena that have has been experienced previously), and the tip-of-the- to do with forgetting. The basic idea is that forgetting tongue phenomenon (the annoying experience when a may result from an active process of memories being desired bit of information can almost, but not quite, be inhibited and therefore forgotten, at least temporar- retrieved) (See Chapters 2.21, 2.22). ily. Forgetting is often considered an error of omission Colleen Parks and Andrew Yonelinas provide the – information does not come to mind when we try to chapter ‘Theories of Recognition Memory’ (See Chapter retrieve it – but errors of commission are of great 2.23), with particular emphasis on whether a single- interest, too. False memories arise when we retrieve factor or two-factor theory best accounts for the data. information differently from the way it was experi- William Hockley writes about the related topic of mem- enced or, in the most dramatic cases, when we orysearchinvarioustypesofmemorytests,including retrieve confident memories of events that never short-term recognition (S. Sternberg’s (1966) item happened at all. Elizabeth Marsh, Andrea Eslick, recognition test), long-term recognition, , and Lisa Fazio review this topic in their chapter titled and other tasks (See Chapter 2.24). Both the chapter on ‘False Memories’ (See Chapter 2.14). Eric Eich, Elke recognition and the chapter on memory search involve Geraerts, Jonathan Schooler, and Joseph Forgas pro- considerations of mathematical modeling, and the next vide a chapter on mood and emotion in memory, chapter by Jeroen Raaijmakers explicitly considers titled ‘Memory in and About Affect’ (See Chapter mathematical models of human memory (See Chapter 2.15). When people are in different moods when 2.25). His chapter is followed by a related one by they experience events and then try to retrieve Michael Kahana, Marc Howard, and Sean Polyn on them later, they often remember more poorly than associative retrieval processes in (See if the moods are the same between encoding and Chapter 2.26). Karl Szpunar and Kathleen McDermott retrieval (the phenomenon of mood-congruent mem- provide an overview on the concept of episodic memory ory). However, when people experience greater as it has developed since Tulving’s seminal chapter in emotional states during encoding (e.g., strong fear), 1972 (Tulving, 1972) (See Chapter 2.27). They discuss they often remember events well. how neural processes involved in episodic memory may The next few chapters have to do with retrieval of also subserve a person’s envisioning the future as well as information from memory, as well as associated states recollecting the past. of and processes during this process. The next series of chapters involves memory of a Suparna Rajaram and Sarah Barber provide an over- different kind from episodic memory. David Balota view of retrieval processes in memory (See Chapter and Jennifer Coane’s chapter on 2.16). John Gardiner writes on the distinction between concerns representation of well-learned information remembering and knowing, which are responses such as words and their meanings (See Chapter 2.28). representing two states of conscious awareness during Brian Ross, Eric Taylor, Erica Middleton, and retrieval (See Chapter 2.17). Asher Koriat, Morris Timothy Nokes survey the related field of how Goldsmith, and Vered Halamish discuss control pro- humans learn concepts and categories in ‘Concept cesses in voluntary remembering, dealing with issues and Category Learning in Humans’ (See Chapter such as the criterion people use when deciding that 2.29). Gideon Dea´k and Anna Holt describe research recovered information should be reported as a mem- on the critical issue of learning and report ory and the factors affecting memory reports (See how theories have advanced over the years (See 4 Introduction and Overview

Chapter 2.30). Peter Frensch and Hilde Haider dis- Gilles Einstein, Mark McDaniel, Richard Marsh, and cuss research on the venerable topic of transfer and Robert West discuss another popular topic in recent expertise (See Chapter 2.31), a topic that really runs research – how people remember to do things in the throughout the book in many ways. future, such as taking an antibiotic pill four times a day Pierre Perruchet reviews the evidence concerning when fighting an infection. Their chapter, ‘Prospective , which uses transfer designs as a major Memory: Processes, Lifespan Changes, and Neuro- tool for understanding (See Chapter 2.32). Dale Stevens, science,’ discusses this interesting line of research (See Gagan Wig, and then review recent Chapter 2.45). evidence on the related topic of and The last three chapters of the volume examine (See Chapter 2.33). Timothy Lee and Richard memory from a broader perspective. Most chapters Schmidt provide an overview on the topic of motor previously described are based on laboratory tasks learning and memory, which is related to implicit concerned with learning and memory. Martin learning in some ways (See Chapter 2.34). Much recent Conway and Helen Williams write on the nature of work has shown that procedural and motor skills (as , which is concerned with well as some other forms of learning) consolidate while how people recollect the events of their lives (See people . , Jeffrey Ellenbogen, Chapter 2.46). Michael Ross, Craig Blatz, and Emily Matthew Walker, and review this Schryer discuss social memory processes, which exciting frontier in memory research in ‘The Role of includes the issue of how people influence one Sleep in ’ (See Chapter 2.35). another as they remember (as well as other topics) The next group of chapters is concerned with (See Chapter 2.47). Finally, James Wertsch discusses development of memory across the lifespan, as well the emerging topic of (See as individual differences among people in memory Chapter 2.48), which is a representation of the past ability. Carolyn Rovee-Collier and Kimberly that is shared by members of a group. The group Cuevas review evidence about infant memory (See might be people in a nation recollecting an important Chapter 2.36), and then Peter Ornstein, Catherine historical event, such as how people in the United Haden, and Priscilla SanSouci consider the develop- States remember the Revolutionary War. Different ment of skilled remembering in children (See Chapter groups may see the past in different ways, as Wertsch 2.37). Elena Grigorenko discusses developmental dis- brings out in his chapter. The empirical study of orders of learning (See Chapter 2.38), and Michelle collective memory is an emerging topic but one Dawson, Laurent Mottron, and Morton Gernsbacher that is sure to be more important in the future. describe learning in autism (See Chapter 2.39). Michael Kane and Tina Miyake write about individ- ual differences in episodic memory among adults (See 2.01.4 Conclusion Chapter 2.40), and Moshe Naveh-Benjamin and Susan Old discuss aging and memory (See Chapter The 47 substantive chapters in this volume represent 2.41). Finally, Anders Ericsson describes research on a marvelous, state-of-the art digest by leading scho- superior memory of mnemonists and experts in var- lars as they summarize what is known about many of ious domains (See Chapter 2.42). the critical topics in the cognitive psychology of The next few chapters of the book focus on more learning and memory. The entries range from topics applied aspects of learning and memory research. that have a long (e.g., transfer) to those that Mark McDaniel and Aimee Callendar discuss work have emerged only recently (, on , memory, and education, focusing on collective memory). Editing the volume has caused applying principles from learning and memory me to learn much, and I believe every reader of this research to educational practice (See Chapter 2.43). volume will share this experience. Jeffrey Neuschatz and Brian Cutler discuss the impor- tant issue of eyewitness identification (See Chapter 2.44). Since the advent of DNA evidence, over 200 References people convicted of crimes – often on the basis of eyewitness evidence - have been released from prison, Bower GH (2000) A brief history of memory research. In: Tulving exonerated by DNA evidence. This state of affairs has E and Craik FIM (eds.) Oxford Handbook of Human Memory, pp. 3–32. New York: Oxford University Press. caused a searching examination of the typical methods Ebbinghaus H (1885) U¨ ber das Geda¨ chtnis. Leipzig: Dunker & used by police to conduct eyewitness identifications. Humblot. Introduction and Overview 5

Mandler G (1967) Organization and memory. In: Spence K and Roediger HL, Dudai Y, and Fitzpatrick SM (2007) Science of Spence JT (eds.) The Memory: Concepts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. and Motivation , Vol. 1, pp. 327–372. New York: Academic Sternberg S (1966) High speed scanning in human memory. Press. Science 152: 652–654. Miller GA (1956) The magical number 7, plus or minus 2: Some Tulving E (1972) Episodic and semantic memory. In: Tulving E limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychol. and Donaldson W (eds.) Organization of Memory, Rev. 63: 81–97. pp. 381–403. New York: Academic Press.