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EVOLUTION of EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE 143 Gram Prompts for Users Who Are Uncertain of the Cor- Effectively Educationalsoftware has existed almost as long as computers have been available in academic settings (Crovello 1974, 1980, 1982). The amount, diversity, and quality of such software has undergone great changes, and never as rapidly as today. This article will document the history of changes in educational Evolution of softwareand predictfuture developments. GeneralConsiderations Educational Just as organicevolution occurs in the context of the environmentalsystem of the real world, so software evolution occurs in the real world of an educational Software computing system. It has three essential parts: hard- ware, software, and people. To neglect the simul- taneous consideration of any two essential compo- TheodoreJ. Crovello nents while considering the third will prevent a total Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/46/3/140/41175/4447801.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 understanding of software evolution. Continuing the analogy, just as the environment in which organic evolution constantly changes, so too must we be aware of important changes occurring in hardware and in people with respect to educomputing. For example, while many educators use Apple Ils in the classroom today, they replaced earlier microcompu- ters; and they in turn are not the state of the art today. Major hardware characteristics important in educomputingthat have undergone extensive change include increasedabilities in storage, graphics, access ability,and decreased price. With respect to computing, people have also changed. More educators have become more com- fortablewith computers and are less hesitant to con- sider their use. Others have become even more famil- iar with what computers can and cannot do, so that they are less ready to accept them as an educational panacea. Students at all grade levels are now able to do more with computers than ever before. The simul- taneous evolution of hardwareand of people's under- standing of computers has greatlyincreased the num- ber of bioeducators who have a positive mental attitudetoward computing and now access to realistic educomputing power. The appearance of relatively low-cost, powerful microcomputershas changed the availability of computers from just selected college educatorsto their widespread availabilityat all grade levels. Theodore J. Crovello is Professor and Chairman of the Biology The greatest impetus to expand educomputing Department at The University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN today is due to the huge demand at the high school 46556. After graduatingfrom the State University College of For- and grade school levels. This is partly because educa- estry at Syracuse, New York, he received his Ph.D. in Botany at The University of California, Berkeley. His long-term interests tors at these levels are full-time educators instead of include the taxonomy, evolution, and biogeography of mustards having to divide their time between education and and mosquitoes, and the use of computersin biology. He has used research.Many are highly motivated and will pursue computers in bioeducation since 1967. Currentresearch includes use of artificialintelligence techniques to enhance science educa- any innovation that promises to enhance their teach- tion. Dr. Crovellois departmenteditor of ABT'sComputer Center, ing effectiveness. In addition, while quality software and presents workshops on computers in bioeducation at annual has been in short supply, perhaps more has been avail- meetings of NABT,AIBS, and at Notre Dame. He recently trans- lated a plant geography book from Russian, and is President of able at the high school level than at the college level The IndianaAcademy of Science for 1984. because the programs need not cover topics in as 140 THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 46, NO. 3, MARCH 1984 Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/46/3/140/41175/4447801.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 EVOLUTIONOF EDUCATIONALSOFTWARE 141 much detail, and thus can be created more quickly. processor-basedmicrocomputers are becoming avail- On the other hand, secondary school educators are able, as is large-scalemass storageon harddisks (meas- more apt to demand that a program cover a broader ured in megabytes, millions of characters of range of topics. This could tend to decreasethe rate of information).The result is that we educatorssoon will productionof quality software. have much of the capacity of maxicomputerson our As a result of all of the above forces acting on the learninglab tables! education system and on the educational computing The evolution of microcomputer software can be system in particular,the number of softwaresuppliers observed at two levels. First is the evolution of a par- is greatly increasing every year. The result is healthy ticularprogram (such as one of the early Huntington competition which in turn is producing innovative, II simulations).It had a birth; the programchanged, valuablesoftware. being modified by the authorsas well as by users; now Since software is limited by hardwarecapabilities, perhaps it is being used less and less, being outcom- let us trace the development of computer hardware. peted by more recent programs that accomplish the The dates given will be approximate.They represent same objectivesbetter. Alternatively,it might survive not the year in which the hardware innovation longer by finding a new niche at a different grade occurred,but ratherthe year in which such advances level or with a differentgroup of students. At the sec- became generally available to educators. In 1960 ond level consider the evolution of the entire set of Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/46/3/140/41175/4447801.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 maxicomputerswere availableto some bioeducatorsin bioeducationprograms availableat a given time. For the nation'scolleges. In 1965minicomputers began to example, currentlywe see an increase with respect to appear in biology laboratories. While most of their the number of programs available for a particular use was for research, some professorsalso introduced topic (such as predator-prey relationships or Men- them in their courses. Nevertheless, their price (usu- delian genetics). We also see an increase in the num- ally above $20,000)kept them out of the hands of the ber of topics for which programs are available. majorityof educators. In 1970remote terminalslinked Finally,we see that the scope (amount and depth of by normal telephones to maxicomputers helped to coverage)of many programshas increased.This is the forge a new revolution in educomputing. Now a rel- confusing but dynamic reality of the state of the art of atively inexpensive (under $1,000)purchase of a com- educationalsoftware! puter terminaland modem was all that was needed to One final relevant topic can only be mentioned provide computing power in the biology teachng here. Thatis, along with the evolution of softwarewe lab. Large federally and commercially funded proj- should realize that there exists an evolution of actual ects came into existence. Perhaps the most famous is use of software. For example, a recent survey indi- the PLATOsystem, a joint venture of the University cated that with increased number of years of using of Illinois and Control Data Corporation, aided by microcomputers, students (and more importantly millions of dollars from the United States Govern- their teachers) decreased the relative percentage of ment. The development of educomputing from 1960 time devoted to drill and practice and increased the through about 1978 is a story of logarithmic or sig- percentagedevoted to programmingand simulation. moid growth, no matter what hardware and subse- quentlysoftware characteristics we might consider. Stagesin the Evolutionof Educational While the earliest microcomputersbecame available Software commercially around 1977, 1980 is more accurately While software evolution is perhaps more like a the year when large numbers of educators began to continuum,it is instructiveto recognizeseveral stages. use them. From 1980 to the present, microcomputers Primitiveprograms are quick and simple programs; changed significantly the evolution of hardwareand they are relatively quick to write and perform rela- thus of software available to educators. In certain tively simple tasks (they need notalways be quick and characteristics(amount of availablememory, speed of dirtyas some have suggested). Many early maxicom- computation, etc.,) maxicomputers continued to puter and early microcomputerprograms were of this grow in abilities. But microcomputers caused two type. They rarely were intended to be used by stu- qualitative changes, one producing increased dents in the absence of a professor or teaching capabilities and the other a set of decreased assistant. Nor were they intended for use at other capabilities (at least for the next few years). Among schools. Gradually the programs became civilized. the increased capabilities immediately availablewere These are in part characterizedby being standalone characteristicsrelated to color, sound, and response software,allowing the user to use the programprofita- time. Characteristics that suffered by switching to bly without help from an educator before, during, or microcomputers(compare catastrophetheory in evo- after the computer session. In other words, the pro- lution!)included speed of calculation,speed of access gram is relatively self-contained and considerable of data in mass storage such as on disks, and level of effortshave been made to prevent students from acci-
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