EVOLUTION of EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE 143 Gram Prompts for Users Who Are Uncertain of the Cor- Effectively

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Educationalsoftware has existed almost as long as computers have been available in academic settings (Crovello 1974, 1980, 1982). The amount, diversity, and quality of such software has undergone great changes, and never as rapidly as today. This article will document the history of changes in educational Evolution of softwareand predictfuture developments. GeneralConsiderations Educational Just as organicevolution occurs in the context of the environmentalsystem of the real world, so software evolution occurs in the real world of an educational Software computing system. It has three essential parts: hardware, software, and people. To neglect the simul- taneous consideration of any two essential compo- TheodoreJ. Crovello nents while considering the third will prevent a total Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/46/3/140/41175/4447801.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 understanding of software evolution. Continuing the analogy, just as the environment in which organic evolution constantly changes, so too must we be aware of important changes occurring in hardware and in people with respect to educomputing. For example, while many educators use Apple Ils in the classroom today, they replaced earlier microcomputers; and they in turn are not the state of the art today. Major hardware characteristics important in educomputingthat have undergone extensive change include increasedabilities in storage, graphics, access ability,and decreased price. With respect to computing, people have also changed. More educators have become more com- fortablewith computers and are less hesitant to consider their use. Others have become even more famil- iar with what computers can and cannot do, so that they are less ready to accept them as an educational panacea. Students at all grade levels are now able to do more with computers than ever before. The simul- taneous evolution of hardwareand of people's understanding of computers has greatlyincreased the number of bioeducators who have a positive mental attitudetoward computing and now access to realistic educomputing power. The appearance of relatively low-cost, powerful microcomputershas changed the availability of computers from just selected college educatorsto their widespread availabilityat all grade levels. Theodore J. Crovello is Professor and Chairman of the Biology The greatest impetus to expand educomputing Department at The University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN today is due to the huge demand at the high school 46556. After graduatingfrom the State University College of For- and grade school levels. This is partly because educa- estry at Syracuse, New York, he received his Ph.D. in Botany at The University of California, Berkeley. His long-term interests tors at these levels are full-time educators instead of include the taxonomy, evolution, and biogeography of mustards having to divide their time between education and and mosquitoes, and the use of computersin biology. He has used research.Many are highly motivated and will pursue computers in bioeducation since 1967. Currentresearch includes use of artificialintelligence techniques to enhance science educa- any innovation that promises to enhance their teach- tion. Dr. Crovellois departmenteditor of ABT'sComputer Center, ing effectiveness. In addition, while quality software and presents workshops on computers in bioeducation at annual has been in short supply, perhaps more has been avail- meetings of NABT,AIBS, and at Notre Dame. He recently trans- lated a plant geography book from Russian, and is President of able at the high school level than at the college level The IndianaAcademy of Science for 1984. because the programs need not cover topics in as

140 THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 46, NO. 3, MARCH 1984 Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/46/3/140/41175/4447801.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021

EVOLUTIONOF EDUCATIONALSOFTWARE 141 much detail, and thus can be created more quickly. processor-basedmicrocomputers are becoming avail- On the other hand, secondary school educators are able, as is large-scalemass storageon harddisks (meas- more apt to demand that a program cover a broader ured in megabytes, millions of characters of range of topics. This could tend to decreasethe rate of information).The result is that we educatorssoon will productionof quality software. have much of the capacity of maxicomputerson our As a result of all of the above forces acting on the learninglab tables! education system and on the educational computing The evolution of microcomputer software can be system in particular,the number of softwaresuppliers observed at two levels. First is the evolution of a par- is greatly increasing every year. The result is healthy ticularprogram (such as one of the early Huntington competition which in turn is producing innovative, II simulations).It had a birth; the programchanged, valuablesoftware. being modified by the authorsas well as by users; now Since software is limited by hardwarecapabilities, perhaps it is being used less and less, being outcom- let us trace the development of computer hardware. peted by more recent programs that accomplish the The dates given will be approximate.They represent same objectivesbetter. Alternatively,it might survive not the year in which the hardware innovation longer by finding a new niche at a different grade occurred,but ratherthe year in which such advances level or with a differentgroup of students. At the sec-

became generally available to educators. In 1960 ond level consider the evolution of the entire set of Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/46/3/140/41175/4447801.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 maxicomputerswere availableto some bioeducatorsin bioeducationprograms availableat a given time. For the nation'scolleges. In 1965minicomputers began to example, currentlywe see an increase with respect to appear in biology laboratories. While most of their the number of programs available for a particular use was for research, some professorsalso introduced topic (such as predator-prey relationships or Men- them in their courses. Nevertheless, their price (usu- delian genetics). We also see an increase in the num- ally above $20,000)kept them out of the hands of the ber of topics for which programs are available. majorityof educators. In 1970remote terminalslinked Finally,we see that the scope (amount and depth of by normal telephones to maxicomputers helped to coverage)of many programshas increased.This is the forge a new revolution in educomputing. Now a rel- confusing but dynamic reality of the state of the art of atively inexpensive (under $1,000)purchase of a com- educationalsoftware! puter terminaland modem was all that was needed to One final relevant topic can only be mentioned provide computing power in the biology teachng here. Thatis, along with the evolution of softwarewe lab. Large federally and commercially funded proj- should realize that there exists an evolution of actual ects came into existence. Perhaps the most famous is use of software. For example, a recent survey indi- the PLATOsystem, a joint venture of the University cated that with increased number of years of using of Illinois and Control Data Corporation, aided by microcomputers, students (and more importantly millions of dollars from the United States Govern- their teachers) decreased the relative percentage of ment. The development of educomputing from 1960 time devoted to drill and practice and increased the through about 1978 is a story of logarithmic or sig- percentagedevoted to programmingand simulation. moid growth, no matter what hardware and subse- quentlysoftware characteristics we might consider. Stagesin the Evolutionof Educational While the earliest microcomputersbecame available Software commercially around 1977, 1980 is more accurately While software evolution is perhaps more like a the year when large numbers of educators began to continuum,it is instructiveto recognizeseveral stages. use them. From 1980 to the present, microcomputers Primitiveprograms are quick and simple programs; changed significantly the evolution of hardwareand they are relatively quick to write and perform rela- thus of software available to educators. In certain tively simple tasks (they need notalways be quick and characteristics(amount of availablememory, speed of dirtyas some have suggested). Many early maxicom- computation, etc.,) maxicomputers continued to puter and early microcomputerprograms were of this grow in abilities. But microcomputers caused two type. They rarely were intended to be used by stu- qualitative changes, one producing increased dents in the absence of a professor or teaching capabilities and the other a set of decreased assistant. Nor were they intended for use at other capabilities (at least for the next few years). Among schools. Gradually the programs became civilized. the increased capabilities immediately availablewere These are in part characterizedby being standalone characteristicsrelated to color, sound, and response software,allowing the user to use the programprofita- time. Characteristics that suffered by switching to bly without help from an educator before, during, or microcomputers(compare catastrophetheory in evo- after the computer session. In other words, the pro- lution!)included speed of calculation,speed of access gram is relatively self-contained and considerable of data in mass storage such as on disks, and level of effortshave been made to prevent students from acci- graphics resolution. Today 16 and even 32 bit micro- dentally terminating the program or becoming frus-

142 THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 46, NO. 3, MARCH 1984 tratedor bored. In addition, extensive use is made of ligently about what the role of educational comput- a "Help"option. The result is that questions about the ing can and should be. Such considerations include subject matter often can be answered by the com- whether increased computer use will humanize or puter programinstead of by an educator.Many com- dehumanize our students; whether increased commercially available programs today are civilized to puter use can help forge positive attitudes towardlife- some degree. long learning in an increasingly information-based IntelligentComputer Assisted Instruction(I-CAI) is society; and whether increased computer use may the next stage in the evolution of educational soft- make education more dull or more exciting. Ulti- ware. Unfortunately,at present no examples exist in mately the answers to these and similar questions biology. The goal of I-CAIis to createintelligent com- depend on how we as individual educators use computer based tutors that simulate the behavior a putersin ourclassroom. human tutor might give in differentways to different students in a class. To date I-CAI has concentrated Changesin GeneralSoftware Characteristics more or less on drill and practiceand tutorial educa- While great strides have occurred in the evolution tional strategies. We can expect development of strat- of individual to egies involving simulation, etc. as artificial intel- programs (from primitive, civilized, etc.), relativelylittle change has occurredin program- ligence expands to cover all computer assisted Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/46/3/140/41175/4447801.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 ming languages such as at least those that education and thus becomes Intelligent Computer BASIC, are in AssistedEducation (I-CAE). used widely educomputing. On the other hand, currentlywe are accelerated in the Multi-facetededucational software is mainly still in witnessing growth numberand capabilityof or the future. It will incorporate the good qualities of utility, applications, programs. These include for word the previous types of software just described. But its programs processing, statistics, drill and major characteristicwill be to focus on a particular graphics, practice tutorials, computer managed instruction, and labora- subject,from manyaspects. Forexample, if someone is interfacing tory equipment. While languages such as BASIC interested in maple trees, the program maple may have serious allow the user to explore many topics, including the shortcomings (in both their interpreter and compiler modes), they are following: maple taxonomy; maple phylogeny; relatively easy to learn. More powerful chemicalsfound in maples; worldwide distributionof languages already exist. But for educational uses I maples; economic uses of maples; maple insect and suspect that the growing educational marketwill make it cost effective fungus problems; simulation of maple tree growth, to devote significant etc. resources to the creation of even more powerful applicationsprograms than Let us summarize the state of the art of educational those that exist today. So we can expect applications computing in terms of the above stages. Currently program packages that will allow users (educatorsor and for the next decade differenteducators and com- students) to instructthe computermore and in panies no doubt will be writing or offering programs quickly ways more like a natu- ral language such as English. For example, in of all of the above types, either because the authors a simulation if users are new to the field or because each type of program package want to create a scatter dia- gram of a sample of traits A can serve a particularneed. However, probablyrela- and B, they need just type, "GRAPH B." tively few bioeducators will do much programming A, As an themselves. They will find that students will be able to example, Micro-DYNAMOis a systems mod- eling that createprimitive, quick, and simple programs at least "language" permits simulation of biological, social, as quicklyas they can. But more importantly,students economic, and other systems. Users create their model will also learn much more about the biological phe- in the DYNAMO language and specify in nomena by quickly programminga computer to ana- simple statements what variablesare to be printed and plotted. lyze them. So let the students program!For the more Micro-DYNAMO is now available for the Apple II and sophisticatedprograms, bioeducatorswill find that it Ile systems. It is actually written in Pascal, but requirestoo much of their time, time which will be naturally users need to know nothing about Pascal added to all of their ongoing tasks. And even then to use Micro-DYNAMO.It is available from their programs will not be equal in quality to many Addison-WesleyPublishing Company, Reading, fromcommercial sources. MA 01867;$245. Changesin Specific SoftwareCharacteristics Some GeneralQuestions Specificimproved characteristics include the follow- Since microcomputershave been used in bioeduca- ing: increased user helpfulness and a more positive tion for several years, we can consider several impor- psychologicalpersonality conveyed by computerpro- tant general questions. Many educatorsnow have the grams;increased protectionof input and output files; necessary classroom user background to think intel- increaseduse of the Help option; increaseduse of pro-

EVOLUTION OF EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE 143 gram prompts for users who are uncertain of the cor- effectively. Data retrieval (and not just literature rect answer or what to do next; increaseduse of natu- retrieval),is used when such data bases are available. ral language responses such as allowing users to type Test generation, and course management in general, in prose answers rather than just indicate by a letter also is being used more. Most recently the general which of several choices is correct; increased use of purpose microcomputeris appearing in teaching lab- high resolution graphics, animation, and color; oratories. They have not appeared sooner and in increaseduse of the capabilitiesof the microcomputer more abundance because their use in such situations to move around the screen instead of just linearly requires a certain amount of special programming from top to bottom as was required in many maxi- and hardwarethat usually is not availablefrom micro- computersystems; use of differenttype fonts on video computer vendors. Several companies now offer the displayterminals and of spacing to include blankareas necessary hardwareand software to interfacelabora- when this seems appropriate;the availabilityof several tory teaching equipment to computers. HRM Soft- levels of difficulty or complexity of a topic; increased ware (Pleasantville,NY 10570)offers "ExperimentsIn branching capabilities, increased user-control Human Physiology" and "ExperimentsIn Science," throughout the program; and the ability to save for $249 each. The first allows ten experiments to be results of one session to work on during a subsequent performed, including those related to skin tempera- session. ture and heart rate. Cambridge Development Labo- Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/46/3/140/41175/4447801.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 While present civilized programshave certain char- ratory(100 Fifth Avenue, Waltham,MA 02154)offers acteristicssuch as user protectionand user friendliness, similarinterfacing hardware and software. A journal alreadywe see a continued evolution within civilized dedicatedto this areais ComputerApplications in the programssuch that it is correct to say that some are Laboratory(60 Ridgeway Plaza, Suite 3, Stamford, more highly advanced or evolved than others. CT06905; 4 issues per year at $35). Some free journals Let us consider user control and user orientationin (supportedby advertising)frequently have articlesor detail. Maximumuser control means that the user is in special issues devoted to laboratoryautomation (e.g., maximumcontrol of the computer session. Eachuser American Laboratory,P.O. Box 485, Arlington, MA of the same program decides what to do next, as 02174).Graef (1983)gives a clear introductionto labo- opposed to the computer making such decisions. User ratoryinterfacing. orientationdefines the role of the user with respect to other users and the computer. Several possibilities exist. The user may be competing with the computer FutureEvolution of EducationalSoftware or be competing with other users who compete with Predictingfuture softwareevolution can be as chal- the computer. Or both the computer and other users lenging as predictingorganic evolution. Some aspects may be cooperating with each other to achieve a seem more certain, however. Many of the trends and common goal. Cooperation instead of competition characteristics of educational software described appears to have pedagogic advantages. As an anal- throughout this paper will become reality.For exam- ogy, few educators can increase student learning by ple, more programs on more topics will be available. squaringthem off against each other (all of the educa- They will be more user helpful, more realistic, and tional world is not a spelling bee). Students like to able to educate a heterogeneous group of learners work with their peers and also to use the computeras better. Programs with artificial intelligence will a friendly source of information and analysis rather respond in specific terms when a student asks, Why! than an adversary. Such cooperation does not mean In many cases computeruse will be an integratedpart constant agreement on all matters. A good example of a course (e.g., Crovelloand Smith 1977),instead of of educationallystimulating computer programs is the dealing with only isolated topics. More programswill "SearchSeries"' in energy, geography, geology, etc. actuallybe "integrated"program packages! They will (WebsterDivision, McGrawHill Book Company, 1221 allow users to easily switch from one task to another, Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020). e.g., carrying out a data search, then creating While oriented for students in grades 5-9, the idea graphic summaries of them. As programs allow stu- and philosophy of these programs is important. It dents greatercontrol, we can see that the role of the presentsthe students as a group with a common prob- computerwill change from its being the tutor to being lem and demands that they find the best solution a tutee (Taylor1980). We can expect programs that throughdiscovery learning. requireincreased amounts of role playing by students, Another characteristic of educomputing software and that requireseveral students to interactwith the evolution is the particular uses to which they have computersimultaneously. This last will be made easier been put. Early uses concentrated on drill and prac- as microcomputernetworking increases in popularity. tice or tutorials with animation. While these and all We also can expect continued breakthroughs in uses are still importantin certaincontexts, simulation, hardware, or even just new uses in education. For statistical, and graphic analyses are now being used example, videodisc technology has been availablefor

144 THE AMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 46, NO. 3, MARCH 1984 several years, but the market for them in education can begin with a series of questions. Can computers has been developing slowly. How many schools or increaselevels of discovery learning, of focus on proc- departments own a videodisc player, and of those, ess instead of content, of problemsolving, and of criti- how many have the hardwareto interfaceit to micro- cal thinking? What type of software will be best to computers?And then, assuming the videodisc hard- achievethese goals? Will all grade levels and types of ware is available, where is the software to interact students benefit equally from computer use? Even if with the videodisc? Then we still require the vid- yes, will differenttypes of students in the same class eodisc to have relevantsubject matterin the discipline benefit most from the same type of programs?We still we are teaching. Otherwise, interfacing hardware know too little about how computers can be used to and software have little educational value. These optimizeindividualized instruction. thoughts produce a feeling of dejavu. They recall the We also must rememberthat the future evolution of continuing problems confrontingeducators when we softwarewill occur in a more computer-orientedsoci- try to choose computer hardware. We have to con- ety. In his popular book, TheThird Wave, Alvin Toffler sider the entire educational computing system, states that over the next 10 to 20 years, 20% of the including availablesoftware and type of people (Cro- work force will work at home, and education will vello 1983). shift from the school room to the home, mostly due

Yet, two recent videodisc projects in biology indi- to computers. A serious concern is whether such a Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/46/3/140/41175/4447801.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 cate that interfacingsoftware and biology videodiscs shift will result in integrated learning using positive will soon have an impact on educomputing. Professor interactions between the home and school, or W. Leonard (Department of Curriculumand Instruc- whether home and school will become isolated tion, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA "islandsof learning"as FredD'Ignazio describes them 70803) has interfaced a videodisc with the TRS 80, (Compute!,October 1983:138).Just who will dictate Model 3. It includes material on biomes and respira- what types of software should be used in such situa- tion. Currentlyit is being field tested at several sites. tions?Will we educatorsgive up our rights of decision Cost of the requiredequipment today is about $5,500, to administratorsor to what is availablein the market but within two years he estimates that it will drop to place? As a specific example, will we agree to an about $1,500. A videodisc with 6,000 2 by 2 slide administrator'sor a school board'srequest to replaceall images and some action scenarioswas just introduced biologylaboratory sessions with computersimulations, by Videodiscovery (P.O. Box 85878, Seattle, WA or will we actively work for the soundest pedagogic 98145).Its purchaseprice of $495includes a cross refer- solutions? ence "image" directory. Hardware interfacing Educational software will continue to evolve between an Apple and videodisc player costs several rapidly.We can expect more and better programs as hundreddollars. detailed in this paper. But their effective use in each Large commercial publishers have just entered of our particularcourses will requireserious thought seriously into educomputing. Their contributionwill and evaluation. In other words we must continue to be significant because for several reasons they are be what we are, dedicated professionaleducators! approaching courseware development very thor- oughly. An interesting interview with educomputing References administratorsat several publishers appearedrecently in the AEDS Monitor (volume 27, pps. 8-13). CROVELLO, T.J. 1974. Computers in biological teaching. Bioscience24:20-23. We also can expect the development of an entirely . 1980. Computers in bioeducation:1979 state of the new area in educational and cognitive psychology art report. Oakdale, IA: CONDUIT. centering on computers in education. A particularly . 1982. Computers in biological education. Amer- importantaspect will be the user-computerinterface. icanBiology Teacher 44:476-483. Recentresearch papers in this areainclude those with . 1983. Educationalcomputing systems: The COM- PEACE the guide to evaluationof theirhardware, software, and following titles: "An experimental investigation people.Notre Dame, IN: COMPEACE. using the computer as a tool for stimulatingreasoning ., and SMITH, W.N. 1977. Plants and human skills";"The effect of all capital versus regularmixed affairs:Educational enhancement via the computer.Proceed- print, as presented on a computer screen, on reading ings of the Eighth Conference on Computers in the rate and accuracy";and "Linkingknowledge, realism Undergraduate Curricula: 1-6. Lindquist Center for Meas- urement. and diagnostic reasoning by University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA. computer-assistedconfi- GRAEF, J.L. 1983. The computer connection: Four dence testing." Even entire books on a specific topic approaches to microcomputer laboratory interfacing. Sci- are beginning to appear, such as screen design strat- ence Teacher50:42-47. egies forcomputer assisted education(Heines 1983). HEINES,J.M. 1983. Screendesign strategies for computeraided The future developments mentioned to this point instruction.Billerica, Mass.: Digital Press. are relativelycertain. The next topics are importantin TAYLOR, R. (ed.). 1980. The computer in the school: Tutor, tool, tutee. Columbia University, NY.: Teachers' College futuresoftware evolution, but are less predictable.We Press.

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