Introduction 1. Although Taft Christened the World in Boston, As a Unitarian Universalist His Theological Views Were Defined by Tolerance of Other Faiths

Notes

Introduction 1. Although Taft christened the World in Boston, as a Unitarian Universalist his theological views were defined by tolerance of other faiths. During his 1908 electoral campaign evangelicals scrutinized him, and as a result he felt obliged to pay respect to the missionary lobby. The lobby in turned praised him (Tyrell 2010:191). 2. In A Mighty Fortress Is Our God , Martin Luther declared his con- fidence in God and commanded all Christians to fight against evil. Basing his words on Psalm 46, he asserted, “We will not fear, for God has willed His truth to triumph through us.” During the Reformation, those persecuted for their convictions sang these words (John 1957:322–25). 3. In putting forth the idea of an ethnography of collecting, O’Hanlon (2000:1) explains that, within anthropology, attention has been given to fieldwork and the making of exhibitions, but little has been done to elucidate the processes through which historical ethnographic collections were gathered. The point of this genre is to reveal the inter- cultural exchanges that made collecting possible, and to illuminate the ethos and practices of metropolitan museums, which incorporated these collections. 4. Anthropology has long interrogated the notion of charity. Charity is never benign, Mary Douglas writes in her foreword to Marcel Mauss’ The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies : “What is wrong with the so-called free gift is the donor’s intention to be exempt from return gifts coming from the recipient. Refusing requital puts the act of giving outside any mutual ties” (1990:vii). The meaning of charity is valorized: it signifies altru- ism, self-sacrifice, generosity, and compassion; it also carries nega- tive connotations. Drawing on Douglas’ work, Janet Poppendiek (1998:231–32, 251) argues that it excuses recipients from obli- gations to reciprocate that are so deeply embedded in both the nature of the gift and the fundamentals of social life. Charity runs against the grain of the gift, which creates a social bond with an 200 NOTES

obligation to reciprocate on the part of the recipient, as objects “are never completely detached from those carrying out the exchange” (Mauss 1990:33). 5. Like Leigh Eric Schmidt (1997:73), I see the concept of lived religion as breaking down the oppositions between popular and elite, high and low, official and normative religion. Though not central to my own analysis of missionary expositions, I recognize that there is a place for the analysis of issues of power, domination, and hierarchy in religious expressions and experience. 6. In the preface to Edith Stanton’s Opportunity , De Gruche (1909:5) writes that the book is not a literal account of a specific missionary exhibition but that it presents the main features of many exhibitions in which the writer has participated. 7. Scholars such as Colleen McDannell (1986), Leigh Eric Schmidt (1995), and Anne Taves (1986) have addressed the ways that Christianity commingled with late nineteenth and early twentieth- century patterns of production and consumption. 8. Overproduction was rampant, exceeding the capacities of the market to absorb goods, and leading economic pioneers to seek out new foreign (and specifically, Asian) ones (Brown 2003; Jacobson 2000; Trachtenberg 1982). 9. Hoganson extends an earlier argument made by Eric Foner (2001:4), who, in his presidential address to the American Historical Association, articulated the need to look at how America’s empire of commercial and cultural influence has not been impervious to the rest of the world, even though little attention has been given by cultural historians to how the history of the United States has been shaped from abroad.

1 Antecedents 1. A. M. Gardner, n.d., “The World in Boston, America’s First Great Missionary Exposition (Home and Foreign), Mechanics’ [ sic ] Building, April 24–May 20, 1911,” Woman’s American Baptist Foreign Mission Society (WABFMS), General, 1910–19, the World in Boston Missionary Exposition, Archived Collections of the Board of International Ministries, American Baptist Historical Society (ABHS), Atlanta, GA. 2. World Missionary Conference, 1910, “Commission VI: The Home Base, Section 3: Promotion of Missionary Intelligence, Through Special Methods (American),” The Missionary Research Library (MRL) 12: World Missionary Conference Records, Series 1, Box 18, Folder 5, The Burke Theological Library (BTL), Columbia University, New York. 3. Since the 1860s, fundraising fairs were often organized as a series of tableaux that included costumed salespeople, set against NOTES 201

scenery, selling thematically related goods. By the 1930s, women’s circles prepared booths with regional or historic themes (Gordon 1998:72, 180). 4. C. C. Vinton to Franz Boas, January 12, 1904, Accession 1904-16; June 1, 1908, Accession 1908-32, Division of Anthropology Archives, American Museum of Natural History (AMNH), New York. 5. The World in Boston was not the only missionary exposition that S. Earl Taylor shaped; he would go on to be the general secretary of the Methodist Centenary Celebration of American Methodist Missions of 1919, which was held in Columbus Ohio. According to Christopher Anderson (2006a:41), he was recognized a businessman with adept organizational skills and an enthusiasm for evangelism. 6. Fred B. Haggard to “Dear Friend,” October 15, 1909, WABFMS, General, 1910–19, the World in Boston Missionary Exposition, Archived Collections of the Board of International Ministries, ABHS. 7. C. C. Miles to Fred B. Haggard, July 13, 1910, WABFMS, General, 1910–19, the World in Boston Missionary Exposition, Archived Collections of the Board of International Ministries, ABHS. 8. Best known to historians of the American Arts and Crafts Movement, LaMont Warner had been the designer and head draftsman for Gustav Stickley and he was responsible for some of his earliest designs of mission furniture. During his career, in addition to designing furniture, he planned the interiors of several YMCAs in the United States and Panama. He went on to serve as the director of fine arts of the Columbus fair of 1919 (Anderson 2006a: 41, 200 n. 10). The Winterthur Library, which holds his personal papers, does not hold any material relating to the World in Boston (LaMont Aldert Warner, Overview of the Collection, The Winterthur Library, n.d.). 9. Théodore Vernes (1867) noted that there was a collaboration of a number of missionary societies in a pavilion of “Missions Evangeliques Protestants” at the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1867 (Wingfield 2010). 10. England had few missions in Japan and Burma, and none in the “Mohammadan Lands.” The United States had no missions in places such as Madagascar, Uganda, New Guinea, and Samoa ( Exposition Herald 1910a:25). 11. The same author continued by saying that a large number of the displayed objects were photographs, which would be made into half- tones for Missions . While the World brought a collection together for Boston, it was an important resource for publications and future exhibitions. 12. Photographs of the exposition’s courts and scenes reveal labels attached to some of the objects. Correspondence describing the artifacts’ ship- ment and care suggest that these tags were attached with the purpose of identification, so that they would be returned to their lenders. 202 NOTES

13. Since the Great Exhibition, viewing merchandise was the chief attraction; visitors commented on the enchantment of the displayed products. The exhibition taught Victorians their first lessons in understanding commodities as a “sensual feast for the eye of the spectator” (Richards 1990:21). 14. The cities of Cleveland and Toronto expressed an early interest in the World, but it never traveled to either of them. 15. Of the 1926 objects (or more accurately, catalogue numbers representing one or more object), there is 1 from Central America, 15 from South America, 217 from Africa, 1661 from Asia, 12 from the Pacific, and 20 from Europe. This number is derived from the internal AMNH collections database that is under construction. The database is searchable by country, donor, culture, object name, material, locale, catalogue, or accession number. Digital images of artifacts are linked to electronic copies of the original catalogue pages. Archived correspondence records suggest that the museum received 1245 objects: 493 from China, 61 from Japan, 391 from Africa, and 300 Miscellaneous; see Franz Boas to Hermon C. Bumpus, January 11, 1905, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. The discrepancy in number likely reflects a difference in how the objects were counted. 16. “Catalog 1,” the AMNH manuscript catalogue, lists the accession as the “Missionary Exhibit,” taking its name from its installation at the ECFM. Its accession records, correspondence, and lists also refer to it as the “Missionary Museum,” “Christian Missions Museum and Library” (alternatively, “Missions Museum and Library”), after the organization initially responsible for its development. I refer to it interchangeably as an exhibit, an accession, and a collection. 17. Franz Boas to C. C. Hall, December 23, 1899, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 18. The Missionary Exhibit’s documentation links the Division of Anthropology and AMNH archives to several denominational and public archives and libraries, where I conducted research. These repositories include the Carnegie Hall Archives, the New York Public Library, The Burke Theological Library of Columbia University (formerly The Missionary Research Library), the American Baptist Historical Society, the Presbyterian Historical Society, and the Methodist Archives and History Center.

2 Setting the Stage 1. One article reports that in the planning of the exhibition, the organizers asked missionaries what a visitor who had two days to spend in their station would be shown, on the one hand of the need, and on the other hand of the work being done to supply that need. With this NOTES 203

information in hand, they reproduced what the missionary would show the “two-day visitor” (Abbott 1911:18). 2. By the late nineteenth century, green tea was a familiar and favorite beverage consumed in America and it made up the bulk of imports from Asia (Hoh and Mair 2009:208). 3. Missionary Exposition Scrapbook, 1910–12, “Sauerkraut Eaten with Chopsticks. In Unique China Day Celebration at the ‘World in Boston’ Exposition,” Missionary Education Movement (MEM) Records, 1901–52, Record Group National Council of Churches (NCC) 20, Presbyterian Historical Society (PHS), Philadelphia, PA. 4. At the time, mass-produced but “authentic” Native American goods like “Yipsi Indian shoes” were advertised in the pages of Cosmopolitan and within the reach of most middle-class Americans. Such moccasins were to be worn “in your boudoir or around the house. They are soft and pliable, with just the dash of true Indian coloring and decoration that suggests elegance” (Cosmopolitan 1913:133). 5. In its general arrangement, the Hall of Religions may have also ref- erenced the Religion Exhibition in the U.S. Government Building at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. There, the librarian of the Smithsonian Institution Cyrus Adler’s displays focused on underlying religious ideas and he classified objects into the ritual settings in which they would be used. Like the exhibits that would follow in Boston, “Judaism” in Chicago, for example, was presented as a unified religion in its emphasis on commonality in spite of differences (Kirshenblatt-Gimblett 1998:94–95). 6. Postcards were also included in the courts of the World in Boston to illustrate the material culture on display (cf. Smalley 2006).

3 First Impressions 1. The “Orient in Providence” was organized as a smaller scale reitera- tion of World in Boston. The Orient highlighted missions in China, Japan, Korea, and Burma ( Missions 1911d:623). 2. The Burke Theological Library, Columbia University, New York, holds photographs of the World in Boston. Many of the photographs are crumpled and torn at the edges, and they have multiple tack and pin marks in their corners. They are also inked, painted on, and cropped. On their reverse side they have several numbering systems and labels reading the “World in Boston,” “Orient in Providence,” the “World in Baltimore,” and the “World in Chicago.” Their condition testifies to the extent to which they were reproduced as half- tones in advertising for each exposition. 3. In the United Kingdom, missionary expositions were hosted in halls like the Royal Agricultural Hall (and the adjoining Gilby Hall) in Islington, where many colonial exhibitions and military tattoos were held. Annie 204 NOTES

Coombes (1994:165) attributes their location as a factor in their accep- tance as an ethnographic and colonial enterprise and as an educational event, because of the functions already associated with those venues. 4. Children caught in the crowds and estranged from their families and school groups were taken to the general office and “pacified with candy and exposition buttons” where apparently they were reluctant to leave the good things that had been offered to them ( Boston Daily Globe 1911i:15). 5. John J. DeMott, “Annual Report of John J. DeMott, Exposition Director, December 31, 1913,” MEM Records, 1901–52, Record Group NCC 20, Box 1, Folder 3, PHS. 6. Missionary Exposition Company Scrapbook, 1910–12, “Phileas Fogg a Snail in Going Around the World. Times-Star Has Mapped out Schedule which Reduces Encircling of Globe to Minutes—Tour Is Made Easy and Comfortable,” MEM Records, 1901–52, Record Group NCC 20, PHS. 7. Exhibition itineraries are not uncommon today; museums continue to rely on them in guaranteeing that visitors can make the most of short, but well-organized, educational visits. For example, the current Visitors Guide to the Canadian Museum of Civilization (n.d.) in Gatineau, Quebec, gives suggested times for touring its permanent exhibition halls, which offer a synoptic overview of a historically, geographically, and ethnically diverse Canada. 8. The idea of the museum effect seems to run parallel to and may even derive from the experience of travel, which gives the traveler the opportunity to place familiar customs in relation to the customs of Others, and “hence to view the ordinary and everyday in a revealing light” (Greenblatt 1991:123).

4 Object Lessons 1. As Birgit Meyer (2006b:438) has discussed, Protestants stressed the importance of the Bible and literacy; their modes of knowing God required a modern literate subject. 2. In India, Protestant missionaries taught object lessons to “wean Hindu children from their fetishistic and idolatrous practices.” These lessons encouraged a shift away from the worship of objects to the truth of Protestant Christianity (Sengupta 2003:100). 3. There was a widespread acknowledgment that churches and Sunday schools could begin the formal religious socialization process much earlier than adolescence or adulthood. This was partly tied to demo- graphics; as Americans lived longer and had fewer children, they invested more resources in the education and socialization of children over greater periods of young peoples’ lives (Morgan 1999:206). 4. The idea that the supernatural was present in things (e.g., relics and holy cards), places (shrines), or at certain times, so that sacred figures NOTES 205

were involved in everyday lives, was marked as “Catholic” by the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (Orsi 2010:xiv). 5. Museums like the AMNH became obligated to promote physical, mental, and moral welfare (Osborn 1897:375, 378–79). From its establishment in 1869, the institution’s founders anticipated that a museum dedicated to natural history would educate the working classes about the laws of nature and raise the intelligence of the general public. The museum’s educational activities were hindered for the first two decades of its existence as its Presbyterian trustees refused to see the building open on the Sabbath, which prevented the working class from visiting the institution (Spiro 2008:88).

5 Spiritless Pleasures 1. This polarization of spirit and matter is an overstatement; it was not set in stone. In Protestant countries where the veneration of images and relics was suppressed, the belief of numinous objects persisted in popular memory and practice (Classen 2005:278). 2. The programming of the World in Boston reflects the participatory nature of entertainment in the early twentieth century and a pre- modern approach to nonpassive amusement, where large numbers of people were involved in pageants, tableaux, and folk dances (Gordon 1998:21). 3. See also Fred G. Benskin, 1910, “Commission VI: The Home Base of Missions, Section 3: Promotion of Missionary Intelligence, Through Special Methods (British),” MRL 12: World Missionary Conference Records, Series 1, Box 18, Folder 5, BTL. 4. The organizers recognized the difficulty in measuring the spiritual impression of the World in Boston, as it could not be tabulated in terms of attendance and apparent popularity (Levy 1910:22). 5. In missionary propaganda, the idiom of darkness and light was com- monly drawn upon to set apart traditional religions, which were associated with darkness and secrecy from Christianity, and its association with light and public presence and its claims of superiority. 6. Choir members had to pass an examination given by the musical director or an assistant to determine whether they could sing and if they were accustomed to obeying the baton. 7. In 1880 the Passion Play was scheduled to open in New York; however, the production was closed following the pressure of the Baptist Ministers’ Conference that noted the general outcry among Protestant leaders of the “sacrilegious use of the most sacred things of our religion” (Musser 1990:208). The event marked a beginning in debates over the religious motives of dramatic arts, and the representation of Christ in entertainments in the United States. Even though Christ was immune from depiction in the Pageant of Darkness and Light, as a dramatic art it was controversial. 206 NOTES

8. This opinion was in line with social reformers who saw the poten- tial of drama and theater for assimilation, spiritual uplift, and social rejuvenation, in contrast to “cheap theater” that Jane Addams (1972[1909]:91–93) and other reformers saw as “driving some youths to crime and even insanity, while on a lesser scale it was corrupting eyesight, the physical health, and the moral judgment of countless viewers” (James 1998:293). 9. According to John Burris, “[t]he idea of a hierarchical order of the world’s religions spiraling downward to the abomination of fetishism was omnipresent” in the Columbian Exposition’s literature (2001:137). 10. Not all nineteenth and early twentieth-century museums and international expositions exhibited religion on a sliding scale. A special exhibition of religious objects in a replica atop the Cambodian Vat Panum in the Paris exhibition of 1900—assembled by French administrators in Indochina—combined Buddhist and Brahmin religious material culture, or “objects from all the different cults in Indochina” (Edwards 2007:131–32). The exhibition appears to have had more in common with indigenous modes of representation, like pagoda and monastery museums found throughout Southeast Asia, than it would with Western museum representations informed by ideas of social evolution (cf. Koanantakool 2004). 11. Missionary Exposition Company Scrapbook, 1910–12, “Heathen Gods are Coming. Jinx Gone,” MEM Records, 1910–52, Record Group NCC 20, PHS. 12. Prayer cards (or holy cards) were, and continue to be, produced and used by Catholics as a common form of popular religious devotion. They are distributed at funerals, and bear the name, birth, and death dates of the deceased, and an image of the Virgin Mary, Jesus, or a saint (Primiano in press). Protestant prayer cards tended to empha- size biblical themes as opposed to devotional subjects (Leonard Primiano, personal communication, 2011). It is unclear from De Gruche’s description of Edith Stanton’s card as to what its con- tent was, and how similar it might have been to cards in either the Catholic or Protestant traditions.

6 An Established Tradition 1. Clifford (1997:192–94) uses the term to describe how non-Western cultural materials structure the contemporary relationships between museums and members of originating cultures. The idea of collections as organizing structures underpins his notion of museums as “frontiers” or “contact zones” between cultures—specifically the metropolitan and the indigenous, geographically and historically separated groups. NOTES 207

2. Gosden, Larson, and Petch (2007:1, 214) see museum collections as being generated through complicated circulations of objects and people, and museums as emergent entities that comprise a range of practices and relationships. They poignantly demonstrate how museums, as “aggregations,” involve a variety of negotiations, and technologies. 3. The ECFM was the successor to overseas field conferences, and it was one of the outcomes of the 1888 London Centenary Conference on the Protestant Missions of the World. In 1893, Presbyterian F. F. Ellinwood and other London attendees initiated the planning of the Ecumenical Conference at the annual gathering of North American mission board executives (later the Foreign Missions Conference of North America). Judson Smith, Boston-based secretary of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, chaired the New York event and traveled to Europe to recruit delegates (Askew 2000a:147; and Forman 1982:54). 4. William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt cultivated positive relationships with the missionary lobby, a feared group that held significant sway in politics. McKinley and Roosevelt’s addresses at the ECFM were not unusual; they spoke at evangelical reform conferences regularly. Their participation in such conferences demonstrates how, by the turn of the century, the evangelical lobby became a key factor in American international relationships and part of the land- scape of politics. The activities of foreign missions was so impressive that it could not be ignored, indicating that expansionism was not premised on the spread of American military and economic might alone (Tyrell 2010:192). 5. Boas was the first anthropologist to use culture in the plural in English but not in German, as German intellectuals had used it since the 1880s. As Glenn Penny (2002:35) has argued, the German anthropology tradition favored culture comparisons. 6. As its outcome, the parliament would usher in the modern interfaith movement and the academic discipline of comparative religion in the United States (Cox 2001[1995]:34). 7. During the nineteenth century, Victorian representations of handmade lace invented a mode of utopian commodity consumption. They encapsulated “the value of slow hands over machines, invoking the quality of both the labor and the fabric” (Freedgood 2003:627). The discourse that emerged around lace helped women to imagine an alter- native economy (defined by handwork done at home) from the moral, physical, social, and aesthetic degradations of industrialization. 8. During 1900, the Paris Exposition Universelle stood out as the “most ambitious attempt to display everything that could pos- sibly be displayed from the intelligible universe of things” (Briggs 2003[1993]:80). It included such examples of western technology as 208 NOTES

steam turbines, dynamos, electrical objects, bicycles, automobiles, and theater phones. In order to compete with it and other international expositions, the Missionary Exhibit had to exhibit the broadest possible range of objects. 9. Rev. Harlan P. Beach was chairman and Rev. William M. Langdon, secretary of the committee. Members of an advisory committee were made up of “specialists in different lands,” who provided advice about their respective departments and were responsible for soliciting artifacts (Exhibit Committee 1899). 10. At the time, Union Theological Seminary was the preeminent non- sectarian school in New York for training domestic and foreign missionaries. C. C. Hall was in a position not only to advise the committee as to what to include in the circular, but also as to which mission societies and missionaries to contact. 11. See Franz Boas to C. C. Hall, December 23, 1899, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 12. Beginning in 1888, the News kept American Baptist missionaries in Burma updated on the lives of their coadjutors, providing information about the opening of mission stations, as well as the arriv- als, departures, births, and deaths of missionaries and their family members. 13. The Burmese objects arrived at the museum in two shipments: the first, one month after the ECFM but included in the 1900-31 accession and later exhibited at the AMNH, and the second, which was accessioned as 1901-10 eight months later. 14. Accession 1900-31, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 15. Harlan P. Beach to John Winsor [sic ], May 9, 1900, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. It was not out of the ordinary for New York merchants to contribute to the Missionary Exhibit. At the Orient in London, the contents of the exhibits were on loan from established dealers of ethnographic objects such as Oldham and Webster (Coombes 1994:174). Missionary exhibitions were viable opportuni- ties for businesses to advertise their wares. 16. The reliance on students as collectors is an important but understudied method of collection with implications not only for how collections are researched, but also for the pedagogical use of them. For example, for the Homelands section of the Newark Museum Textiles Industries of New Jersey exhibition of 1916, a letter was sent in over twenty languages to prospective student collectors. From this query, more than 250 Newark students contributed objects (Shales 2010:199). In the case of the ECFM Burma collection, the students’ objects raise a number of questions that cannot be answered about how teachers communicated the directives of the press to their students, and how knowledgeable pupils were of the outcome of their collection efforts. NOTES 209

17. In contrast, systematic field collections, richly documented by field- notes, photographs, maps, and sound recordings, were acquired according to some coherent plan, and intended as foundations for research and teaching (Jacknis 1996:1–5; and see Lawson 1994; Gardner 2006:129–46). This discussion provides a counterbalance to the perspective of missionaries as invested collectors, a view that has arisen in some of the writing about “missionary-collectors” (see Rubel and Rosman 1996, 1998; Smith 1997; Smith 2005). 18. William M. Langdon to John Winser, April 7, 1900, Early Administrative Archives, American Museum of Natural History (AMNH) Archives, New York. 19. Franz Boas to S. Earl Taylor, April 5, 1904, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 20. Many museums grew out of international expositions in order to accommodate the objects amassed for them. For example, the Victoria and Albert Museum (formerly the South Kensington Museum) was an outcome of the Great Exhibition of 1851, the Trocadéro of the Exposition Universelle of 1878, and the Field Museum (and initially the Walker Museum) of the Columbian Exposition of 1893 (Brinkman 2009; Greenhalgh 1988; McVicker 1992; Dias 1991). 21. Christian Missions Museum and Library (CMML), “Minutes of the Christian Missions Museum and Library (Later Bureau of Missions), 23 January 1900–19 March 1914,” MRL 12: MEM Records, Box 1, BTL. 22. In 1896, the Northwest Coast Hall opened to the public on the ground floor of the original museum constructed in 1887 (Jacknis 2004:224). By 1900, the west wing was completed and most of the anthropology halls were reinstalled there, leaving the entire hall of the original building to the Northwest Coast exhibit (Jacknis 1985:90). 23. Prior to 1900, the AMNH amassed artifacts from Asia via museum- sponsored expeditions: 54 artifacts from Sumatra from Rudolph Weber (Accession 1895-50), 80 objects from Arthur Curtiss James from Japan (1898-17), 1,312 objects from Berthold Laufer from Japan (1898-36, 1898-51, 1900-12) and Siberia (1900-12). These totals are derived from the AMNH collections database. On the AMNH Ainu collections, see Kendall (1999). 24. There are no surviving photographs of the Missionary Exhibit in the Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH Archives, or in The Burke Theological Library, Columbia University. Two letters between Franz Boas and Henry O. Dwight indicate that photographs of the AMNH exhibit were sent to the Bureau of Missions in 1905 for publication in a bureau circular. In spite of consultation with various archi- vists and librarians at both institutions, I have not been able to locate them or the bureau’s circular in my research. See Franz Boas to Henry 210 NOTES

O. Dwight, April 3, 1905; Henry O. Dwight to Franz Boas, May 3, 1905, Bureau of Missions Records, 1900–1907, CMML Records, 1900–1914, MRL 12: MEM Records, Box 1, BTL. 25. See Accession 1900-31, Division of Anthropology, AMNH. 26. Franz Boas to Hermon C. Bumpus, January 11, 1905, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 27. Stuart D. Dodge to John Winser, February 8, 1911 and June 9, 1911, Central Archives 551, AMNH Archives. 28. The interactions that unfolded through the Missionary Exhibit point away from disciplinary histories, which have tended to treat anthro- pologists and missionaries as set apart and uncooperative.

7 Missionary Engagements 1. Franz Boas to Morris K. Jesup, May 10, 1900, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 2. Missionaries in the United Kingdom were instrumental in building up national ethnographic collections like the Royal Scottish Museum in Edinburgh, the University of Cambridge Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, the Horniman Free Museum, and the Pitt Rivers Museum at Oxford (Coombes 1987:310). 3. George W. Stocking, Jr. (1992:114–77) discusses the interwar reori- entation of anthropology to non-American fields sites. Collecting expeditions to Melanesia (e.g., Albert Buell Lewis), Africa (e.g., James P. Lang and Herbert Chapin), and China (e.g., Berthold Laufer) expanded the diversity of American museum holdings during the first two decades of the twentieth century. As Robert Welsch (2003) explains, vast geographical regions were unknown and the selec- tion of fieldwork locales depended more on finding patronage than on the particular research problem (cf. Bronson 2003; Schildkrout 1998; Conn 1998:80–81; Darnell 1998:145–46; Ira Jacknis, personal communication, 2009). 4. The Department of Anthropology accessioned a collection of Philippines objects from the St. Louis World’s Fair of 1904 (Accession 1905-64). According to Laurel Kendall, for Boas, the objects neither provided the museum with a foundation from which to establish a Malay collection, nor did they augment the EAC’s efforts in building a strong Asian collection. The St. Louis materials preempted his plans of developing a Malay research endeavor, and further compounded his disillusionment with the museum, which eventually resulted in his resignation in 1905 (personal communication, 2007). 5. Jacob Schiff to Franz Boas, December 24, 1900, EAC, Correspondence Box 6, Folders 1–13, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. NOTES 211

6. Franz Boas to Jacob Schiff, January 31, 1901, EAC, Correspondence Box 6, Folders 1–13, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 7. Laufer received a doctorate in 1897 from the University of Leipzig, where he focused his studies on Asian languages, which included Semitic, Persian, Sanskrit, Malay, Chinese, Japanese, Manchu, Mongolian, Dravidian, and Tibetan (Bronson 2003:117). 8. Boas’ interest in broadening the AMNH’s scope can be traced to his work at the Field Museum, Chicago. While overseeing the installation of the anthropological displays at the Field in 1894 following the close of the Columbian Exposition, he remarked that the Indian materials predominated to an undesirable degree, with four-fifths of the collection belonging to America, and the remainder to all other continents (Conn 1998:80–81). 9. Franz Boas to Morris K. Jesup, January 7, 1901, EAC, Correspondence Box 6, Folders 1–13, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 10. Franz Boas to Carl Schurz, November 6, 1901, EAC, Correspon- dence Box 6, Folders 1–13, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. In the summer of 1901, Boas traveled to Europe to learn how museums and universities were studying the peoples of Eastern Asia (specifically, China and the Philippines). See Franz Boas to Morris K. Jesup, October 8, 1901, Jesup-Boas Correspondence, Box 9, Folder 19; Franz Boas to Jacob Schiff, October 8, 1901, EAC, Correspondence Box 6, Folders 1–13, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 11. Franz Boas to Morris K. Jesup, January 7, 1901, EAC, Correspon- dence Box 6, Folders 1–13, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 12. Franz Boas to Morris K. Jesup, May 10, 1900, March 16 and 18, 1901, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32; December 22, 1900, Missionary Exhibit, Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 13. After hearing Ellen Mason—a charismatic Baptist missionary from Burma—speak of the needs of Burmese women, Doremus founded the society and Burma became the initial field where the WUMS sent its missionaries (Daggett 1879:194). Doremus assisted missionaries by providing hospitality, outfits, money, correspondence, and psychological support (Kraft 2000:1022; Robert 1998:183–84). 14. Accessions 1900-41 and 1901-49, Division of Anthropology, AMNH. 15. Franz Boas to Morris K. Jesup, May 10, 1900, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 16. A survey of the AMNH accession records reveals the names of several missionaries who made substantial contributions of objects in the years following the ECFM: Albert G. Lea from Liberia (Accession 1901-34), John W. Chapman from Alaska (1902-31, 212 NOTES

1903-35, 1905-36), William A. Raff from the Congo (1902-35), and C. C. Vinton from Korea (1901-78, 1904-16, 1906-20, 1907-6, 1908-32). 17. Franz Boas to Morris K. Jesup, May 10, 1900, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 18. Franz Boas to Morris K. Jesup, May 10, 1900, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 19. Franz Boas to C. C. Vinton, December 14, 1900, Accession 1901-78, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 20. Franz Boas to C. C. Vinton, March 22, 1901, Accession 1901-78; Franz Boas to Morris K. Jesup, May 10, 1900, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. Between 1900 and 1901 the museum sanctioned 1,000 dollars to acquire collections from missionaries Vinton in Korea (Accession 1901-78) and Raff in the Lower Congo (1902-35). 21. Franz Boas to C. C. Vinton, March 22, 1901, Accession 1901-78, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 22. Franz Boas to Clark Wisla [ sic ], July 13, 1906, Accession 1907-30; see Accessions 1901-78, 1904-16, 1906-20, 1907-6, 1907-30, 1908-32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 23. C. C. Vinton to Franz Boas, January 12, 1904, Accession 1904-16; June 1, 1908, Accession 1908-32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 24. C. C. Vinton to Franz Boas, June 1, 1908, Accession 1908-32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 25. Harlan P. Beach to Franz Boas, November 10, 1900; Franz Boas to Morris K. Jesup, December 22, 1900, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 26. Franz Boas to F. F. Ellinwood, March 23, 1901; Beach to Boas, March 28, 1901, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 27. Franz Boas to Morris K. Jesup, May 10, 1900, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 28. Franz Boas to Alexander Maitland, March 13, 1903, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 29. Franz Boas to Edwin M. Bliss, June 28, 1902, Missionary Exhibit, Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 30. At the time, many museum curators actively engaged missionaries, both for their own museums and for exhibits they designed for world’s fairs (Fowler 2000:224–26). NOTES 213

31. Franz Boas to Morris K. Jesup, December 22,1900, Missionary Exhibit, Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology, AMNH. 32. Franz Boas to Alexander Maitland, October 28, 1901, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 33. By 1914, the Department of Education took on the onerous task of maintaining and circulating study collections, which included specimens such as animals, artifacts, and industrial models, to branch libraries and schools (Adams 2007:403). 34. Franz Boas to F. F. Ellinwood, March 23, 1901, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 35. Franz Boas to C. C. Hall, December 23, 1899, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 36. Franz Boas to Edwin M. Bliss, July 28, 1902, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. Boas’ interest in designing a synoptic display on comparative religion may have grown out of the visit he made to Europe during the summer of 1901. While investigating the state of East Asian studies in universities there, he also spent time examining missionary museum displays; see Franz Boas to Harlan P. Beach, May 3, 1901, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 37. Franz Boas to William H. S. Hascall, May 9, 1903, Accession 1900-31, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 38. Franz Boas to Alexander Maitland, October 28, 1901, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32; 13 March 1903, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 39. Franz Boas to C. C. Vinton, February 20, 1904, Accession 1904-16, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 40. From the museum’s correspondence, it seems that the institution loaned at least some articles to the “largest and most comprehensive denominational exhibit ever made in the United States,” which was viewed by more than 100,000 (Fahs 1904:846–47). See George T. Sutherland to Franz Boas, April 22, 1904, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 41. Although Wissler complained about the money the museum spent on popular education, his interest in developing the museum’s study collections is one aspect of his effectiveness at working along this line. His interest in public education may have been partly due to his professional and academic background in education and psychology (Freed and Freed 1983:808; Jacknis 2004:228). See Clark Wissler 214 NOTES

to Hermon C. Bumpus, October 28, 1905, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 42. Clark Wissler to Hermon C. Bumpus, October 26, 1905, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology, AMNH. 43. Between 1902 and 1905, Wissler conducted fieldwork among the Dakota, Gros Ventre, and the Blackfoot, and he published eleven monographs based on this research. He would go on to direct a number of other field projects on the Northern plains, which made it the best-known ethnographic area in the New World. Wissler used his Plains Indian research to develop his theoretical interest in culture (Freed and Freed 1992:476). 44. Clark Wissler to Hermon C. Bumpus, October 26, 1905, Central Archives 1, AMNH Archives.

8 Objects of Missionary Education 1. These lists demonstrate carelessness in cataloguing, tagging, pack- ing, handling, and guarding the collection during the exhibition. Correspondence further suggests that some of the artifacts were misidentified, and then mistakenly boxed up and shipped to lend- ing mission societies, and not returned to their owners or to the museum. Rev. William Brewster Humphrey, in returning objects he had borrowed from the exposition for the American Indian Scene from Clark Wissler, wrote: “I hope you will find your things in good condition. For fear they might get lost or stolen in the general con- fusion of breaking up the Exposition, I packed them last night and shipped them to you at once.” See William B. Humphrey to Clark Wissler, May 27, 1911, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 2. It is difficult to assess the degree to which theft, and not simply care- less handling, resulted in many missing objects. The stealing that may have gone on in missionary expositions seems surprising because theft was apparently averted at world’s fairs. People assumed that they were responsible for the exhibition’s contents, believing that the objects were effectively “theirs” (Rydell 1984:69). 3. Samuel H. Bishop to Clark Wissler, June 2, 1911, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 4. Harlan P. Beach to John Winser, February 9, 1900, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of A nt hropolog y Archives, AMNH. 5. Harlan P. Beach to Franz Boas, April 13, 1901, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. NOTES 215

6. Franz Boas to S. Earl Taylor, March 30, 1904, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 7. Franz Boas to Alexander Maitland, October 28, 1901, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32; March 13, 1903, Missionary Exhibit, Box 12, Folder 5; Franz Boas to Edwin Bliss, April 2, 1902, June 28, 1902, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 8. Initially, the bureau occupied an office in the United Charities Building and then it moved to Bible House, the American Bible Society (ABS) six-story office and printing building (built in 1853) on Astor Place. The Bureau of Missions found a comfortable home in its publishing empire. The ABS remains the largest Bible publishing house in the Western Hemisphere. 9. Bureau of Missions, June 12, 1902, Bureau of Missions Records, 1900–1907, CMML Records, 1900–1914, MRL 12: MEM Records, Box 1, BTL. 10. S. D. Scudder to Franz Boas, January 7, 1905; Franz Boas to Hermon C. Bumpus, January 11, 1905, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 11. Franz Boas to F. F. Ellinwood, March 28, 1901; Franz Boas to Alexander Maitland, March 13, 1903, Missionary Exhibit, Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 12. Henry O. Dwight to D. H. Scanlon, January 3, 1905, Bureau of Missions Records, 1900–1907, CMML Records, 1900–1914, MRL 12: MEM Records, Box 1, BTL. 13. Two tables taken from The Blue Book were published in the Encyclopaedia Britannica’s entry “Missions”: “Statistics of the Great Religions of the World” and “Summary of Protestant Mission Work” (1911:598). The publication of the tables in the encyclopedia could reflect how the Bureau of Missions was seen as the authority on mission statistics. 14. Bureau of Missions Records, 1900–1907, CMML Records, 1900– 1914, MRL 12: MEM Records, Box 1, BTL. 15. Linda M. Clatworthy to Henry O. Dwight, January 2, 1906, Bureau of Missions Records, 1900–1907, CMML Records, 1900–1914, MRL 12: MEM Records, Box 1, BTL. 16. Mrs. James T. Gardiner to Franz Boas, March 22, 1902, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology, AMNH. Boas responded to Gardiner: “I regret to say that we have no Philippine collection in the building which I could let go out. No specimens from the Philippine Islands, except a very few belonging to the Missions Museum, are in this Museum, and we have a very small collection of our own, which, according to our regulations, cannot be removed from the building.” See Franz Boas to Mrs. James T. Gardiner, March 24, 1902, Missionary Exhibit, Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, 216 NOTES

AMNH. As curatorial interests and museum investments shifted over time from preserving ethnological objects for scientific inves- tigation to public education (see below), later responses from Clark Wissler included: “We have your letter . . . requesting the loan of a Missionary Collection for use in your church. We do not have good collections from the Fiji Islands, but can loan you a few objects with additional specimens from other Islands. As you may know, many of the common objects are the same for the different islands.” See Clark Wissler to Edgar O. Silver, April 4, 1907, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 6, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. The initial emphasis that Boas had put on developing duplicates, with the expressed purpose of loaning them as parallel collections to missionary parties, was undermined. Responding to a call for objects, it seems that the museum’s core collections would be drawn upon to fulfill these requests. 17. Bureau of Missions, 1904–6, Bureau of Missions Records, 1900–1907, CMML Records, 1900–1914, MRL 12: MEM Records, Box 1, BTL. 18. The map continued to travel following World War One where it formed a backdrop at the Student Volunteer Movement’s convention in Des Moines, Iowa (Hutchinson 1987:128–29). 19. Clark Wissler to Hermon C. Bumpus, October 26, 1905, Missionary Exhibit, Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 20. Franz Boas to S. Earl Taylor, March 30, 1904, Missionary Exhibit, Correspondence Box 12, Folder 5, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 21. Franz Boas to Hermon C. Bumpus, January 11, 1905, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 22. Although the responsibility of the collection was transferred to the MEM in 1907, it was not until 1914 that it was made the movement’s property. 23. Harry S. Myers to Hermon C. Bumpus, January 20, 1909, Central Archives 1, AMNH Archives. 24. C. C. Michener to Bumpus, June 21, 1907, Central Archives 1, AMNH Archives. 25. The YPMM orchestrated loans of the collection with the museum as requests continued to spill in about borrowing the Missionary Exhibit. In 1909, the parish house of the Church of the Heavenly Rest in Brooklyn assembled “an exhibit illustrative not only of the progress of the American Negro in some schools under the con- trol of [the] church, but also illustrative of African Negro genius and characteristics.” See Samuel H. Bishop to Hermon C. Bumpus, December 10, 1909, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. NOTES 217

26. Executive Committee, July 25, 1905, YPMM, January 1905–April 1906, pp. 29–30. MEM, 1901–52, Record Group NCC 20, Box 3, Folder 8, PHS. 27. “Young People’s Missionary Movement Report, 1 September 1903–4.” MEM, 1901–52, Record Group NCC 20, Box 3, Folder 8, PHS. 28. Drawing from the museum’s collections, the Silver Bay exhibit illustrated the ways of life and habits of the Chinese, and it included clothing from different provinces of China, household utensils, musical instruments, school, and religious items. See C. C. Michener to Hermon C. Bumpus, June 22, 1907, Central Archives 1, AMNH Archives. 29. Although this group of Christian laymen incorporated the MEC, the YPMM largely controlled it through its investments. Subscriptions to a limited number of shares (at 500–5,000 dollars each, payable in installments of 20 percent) were also advertised in the Exposition Herald . From the rental of the material it was hoped that the shares could be repaid within five years at an interest rate of 6 percent ( Exposition Herald 1910h:39). 30. Frank D. Harold, “Annual Report for the Year Ending November 30, 1914,” MEM, 1901–52, Record Group NCC 20, Box 1, Folder 3, PHS. 31. See Samuel Thorne to Henry Fairfield Osborn, February 7, 1911, Central Archives 551, AMNH Archives; “American Museum of Natural History Missionary Collections,” Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 32. AMNH records show that each mission board and society participat- ing in the World in Boston was responsible for amassing objects and costumes for their assigned courts or scenes. Some of these objects were reported as being gathered by missionaries in the field with the expressed purpose of exhibiting them in the World ( Exposition Herald 1910b:40). In other cases, the coordinators took it upon themselves to correspond directly with the museum about incorpo- rating additional objects from the Department of Anthropology’s ethnographic collections to “complete” their exhibits. 33. Annie Coombes (1994:174) attributes the fact that missionary objects were consistently stolen to a public that recognized the objects as being authentic. The ethnografica exhibited in missionary expositions tended to be associated with museums or sales rooms. 34. The MEC’s correspondence with the AMNH shows that it took increas- ing precautions in its care of the museum’s objects. Such measures included the addition of artifact labels provided by the Missionary Exposition Company. See Neil (?) Mead to Clark Wissler, October 7, 1912, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. A label on file in AMNH Special Collections includes 218 NOTES

the following categories: “From,” “Address of Shipper,” “Nature of Contents (Curios, Costumes, etc.),” and “Section.” 35. Like previous missionary loan exhibitions, the MEM encouraged churches to borrow, whenever possible, curios, costumes, and fur- nishings from local missionaries, travelers, and denominational mission boards. 36. There are no comprehensive lists of the MEM objects in either the movement’s archived documents or at the AMNH nor is there a discussion of why they were not deposited with the museum. The clos- est description comes from the MEM’s Publications, Importations, Exposition and Exhibit Material (1914), which includes lists of objects in its outfit rentals. 37. In the pages of Science , George A. Dorsey (1907) of the Field Museum and Henry L. Ward (1907) of the Milwaukee Public Museum debated the design of Wissler’s new exhibits, and the department’s emphasis on transferring the majority of objects to storage, where their access would be limited to staff, specialists, educators, and artists (Science 1907:754–55). 38. Just as Boas had used missionary expositions as an important ground for collecting objects, Wissler’s correspondence with Humphrey shows that he used his meetings with Humphrey as an opportunity to acquire a buffalo hide tipi for the AMNH. See William B. Humphrey to Clark Wissler, April 26, 1911, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 39. William B. Humphrey to Clark Wissler, October 11, 1911, Bureau of Missions, Correspondence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH, New York. 40. Samuel H. Bishop to Clark Wissler, June 2, 1911; Clark Wissler to Thomas Weld, October 10, 1912, Bureau of Missions, Correspon- dence Folder 32, Division of Anthropology Archives, AMNH. 41. Frank D. Harold, “Annual Report for the Year Ending November 30, 1914,” MEM, 1901–52, Record Group NCC 20, Box 1, Folder 3, PHS. 42. Still, in 1914 the MEM borrowed some of the objects in the AMNH North American Indian ethnographic collection for its summer conference. 43. John J. Demott to Harry Hicks, December 31, 1913, “Annual Report of John J. DeMott, Exposition Director,” MEM, 1901–52, Record Group NCC 20, Box 1, Folder 3, PHS. 44. The MEM became a key resource for promoting the organization of exhibitions. Beginning in 1914, an illustrated catalogue enti- tled, Publications, Importations, Exposition and Exhibit Material was distributed annually, and it included extensive lists of textbooks, Sunday school supplies and trinkets, photographs, peri- NOTES 219

odicals and exposition, and exhibit materials for loan or purchase ( Missions 1914:613). 45. Frank D. Harold, “Annual Report for the Year Ending November 30, 1914,” MEM, 1901–52, Record Group NCC 20, Box 1, Folder 3, PHS.

9 Scripted Parts 1. This is not to be confused with what Barbara Kirshenblatt- Gimblett describes as an “in context” approach to museum exhibition where objects are primarily set in context by means of labels, charts, diagrams, and other objects. For her, an “in situ” approach, and that evidenced in the scenes of the World in Boston, relies on recreated environments, reenactments, and murals, enlarging the ethnographic object to include more of what is left behind (1998:20–21). 2. At SPG sponsored expositions in England, when handicapped indi- viduals could not participate as workers, they banded together in a Prayer Union. As The Missionary Exhibition Handbook for Stewards reveals, “[t]his idea was first put forth by an invalid, who herself, in spite of infirmity, was a tower of strength to the missionary cause in her neighborhood” (SPG n.d.:8). 3. Roy B. Guild and E. L. Mills, September 1910, “The World in Boston, America’s First Great Missionary Exposition (Home and Foreign). Mechanics Building, April 24–May 20, 1911, Memorandum Number 3,” WABFMS General, the World in Boston Missionary Exposition, Archived Collections of the Board of International Ministries, ABHS. 4. Notes for each court and scene were produced in advance of the exposition. Notes for Stewards in the Hawaii Court is one of only one of two archived pamphlets accessible in the United States at the time of writing. 5. Missionaries were described as finding the exposition “so well planned and executed that they almost believed that [their] fur- loughs in America were but a dream from which [they] had awakened at ‘home’ on the mission field” (Horne 1911:186). 6. Missionaries had been an important feature of British missionary expositions; at Africa and the East there were more than 300 active or retired missionaries in attendance (Reinders 2004:4). 7. In 1903, Hascall approached Franz Boas with a collection of artifacts from Upper Burma, which he did not accession because it fell beyond his plans for the Missionary Exhibit (see chapter 7). 8. Her husband Sumner R. Vinton illuminated audiences about mission work in Burma with his traveling Pagoda Land Pictures and was the projectionist for the exposition. 220 NOTES

9. Missionary Exposition Company Scrapbook, 1910–12, “Live Indians Excite Wonder of Children, Over Three Thousand Youngsters from all Sections of the City Visit the World in Cincinnati—Pleasing Program is Given,” MEM Records, 1901–52, Record Group NCC 20, PHS. 10. Native performances were a conventional modernist scene mounted for the pleasure of large white audiences, typical to world’s fairs. At the St. Louis World’s Fair of 1904, the desirability of civilizing North American Indian peoples was a key subject. As D. R. Francis (1913:529) noted, “dull-minded and self-centered tribal existence” had to be replaced by the “active, constructive and broad-minded life of modern humanity” (Benedict 1983:50; Corbey 1993:344). The fairs, framed by way of this progressivist ideology, con- firmed in many Westerners a sense of their own racial and cultural superiority. 11. Space was provided for the performance of handwork. In the Indians of the Southwest display, the Navajo were presented as “shepherd people . . . especially gifted at making blankets” that were so tightly woven they could hold water (Chamberlain 1911:63). Here, the technical ability of Navajo weavers and their capacity to make a good living from the sale of their blankets was highlighted (Humphrey 1913:13). Above all, Indians’ weaving was an object lesson of the latent possibility of the Indians of the Southwest, and the American Indians in general, to be civilized in Western habits and demeanor. 12. Nellie Ma Dwe Yaba’s name also appears as “N. Ma Dwe Yaba,” “N. Ma Dive Yaba,” and “Miss Neatome Yaba” in newspaper articles cov- ering the World in Boston. 13. Bernie Minn—Nellie’s adopted son and the ninety-year-old retired leader of the Karen Baptist Theological Seminary Band in Insein, Burma (Myanmar)—remembers his mother as Nellie Minn (nee “Nellie Ya Ba”): “She was always Nellie; no one knew her by any other name.” He recalls that, upon returning to Burma in 1916, Nellie became the first Burmese (specifically, Karen) secretary of the Rangoon YWCA, and established a program to train young women to become nurses and midwives, which persists to present. Around 1924, she opened the Salween Karen Middle School in Papun, located in hills of the Salween District (today, Karen State). She spent much of her time there, although she was often on tour traveling between Karen villages with her organ or a gramophone, spread- ing the Gospel through music. Bernie Minn’s recollection of her is short-lived as she died in 1929 of endemic cerebral malaria on her way “down from the hills” to visit family in Bassein (Bernie Minn, personal communication, 2007). I wish to thank Sayama Naw Paw Gaw of the Karen Baptist Convention in Yangon for locating Bernie Minn and assisting me with interviewing him. NOTES 221

10 Lifelong Lessons 1. A week before the exposition opened, stewards had their first mass meeting in Mechanics Building, where they viewed demonstrations of their parts (Boston Daily Globe 1911e:10). 2. An additional 5,000 church members participated in the Pageant of Darkness and Light. Most of the participants in the pageant learned about mission history and its dramatization at the World in Boston through Oliver Huckel’s (n.d.) Four Epochs of World Conquest . In the years following the exposition the book remained a popular publication and was available through the MEM’s mail-order catalogue. 3. As Beverly Gordon (1998:151) has written, sewing skills were far less universal by the end of the nineteenth century. Women were not equally adept with needle and thread and many were not inculcated with domestic and manual training. 4. Travelers, traders, and collectors had long clothed and represented themselves as embodying the cultures they visited. As Nicholas Thomas shows, the botanist Joseph Banks was painted wearing a Polynesian bark cloth cape after his explorations in the Pacific (Thomas 1991:142–43). By putting on the clothing of peoples of other lands, Westerners could pretend an intimate knowledge of their cultures. 5. The activities of women were linked to the post–Civil War rise of the middle class, which recast the work roles of men and women. As Joan Brumberg (1982:351–52) has written, the assumption that families had the means to support women’s benevolent activities and their own leisure runs through descriptions of the formation of these women’s organizations. 6. The maternalistic and idealistic “Women’s Work for Women” was catalyzed in the post–Civil War period, as women across Protestant denominations and classes saw that the coming of God’s kingdom would be hastened if American women could work for their “heathen sisters.” The thinking behind the movement was that the gender segregation of Asian societies required single female missionaries to evangelize “heathen” women who were beyond the reach of male missionaries and their wives (who were apparently burdened with domestic responsibilities). Female missionaries worked at uplifting what they saw to be their “sisters,” children, and, through them, society (Hill 1985:48; Robert 1997:134–35; 2004:56). 7. The origin of the UNICEF collection boxes can be traced to Emma Allison, a school teacher married to a Presbyterian minister. In 1950, she appealed to Presbyterian Sunday school teachers to collect coins for UNICEF in milk cartons or tins. Collection boxes shortly sup- planted milk cartons ( New York Times 2010:A21). 8. The success of the women’s movement can be seen in the number of missionaries laboring abroad. In 1890, there were 934 American 222 NOTES

missionaries overseas, by 1900 there were nearly 5,000, and in 1915 there were more than 9,000 accounting for 62 percent of all foreign missionaries (Forman 1982:54; and see Robert 2002d:5; 2004:51). 9. The myth of female seclusion and its association with the harem fueled Women’s Work for Women campaigns (Brouwer 2004:193).

Epilogue 1. The collection had long since been split apart and arranged by area and culture, following the museum’s history of displaying and stor- ing material culture according to cultural groupings and curatorial interest in seeing objects in the broadest material culture context possible (Beelitz 1990:3). 2. Similar to other artifacts entered into the catalogue, the “locality,” “name of collector,” and “name of donor” columns are filled with scattered handwritten references. A “remarks” column includes clues to the previous owners or donors: it contains short object descriptions and brief notes about the places of the collection. Clark Wissler was troubled by the fact that objects were not entered into the catalogue according to the country or region from where they were collected and that it was difficult to ascertain individual contributions. 3. AMNH accession records can carry correspondence, artifact descriptions, drawings, photographs, receipts, and original artifacts labels pertaining to the donation or purchase of a single artifact or a group of artifacts catalogued by the Museum. 4. Periodically, eBay and other websites would post a souvenir postcard or badge from the World in Boston upon which I would bid. In searching for archival materials about the exposition, I amassed a small, invaluable collection of my own. 5. Reported to have 6 million visitors per year, Heritage USA had the third largest attendance numbers for any national American theme park, third to Disney World and Disneyland (McNichol 1987). 6. The story is different for Catholic exhibitions. According to Francis Lord, as a tool to promote missions in Canada, they reached their apogee in 1942 with the Ville-Marie Missionaire 1642–1942 Exhibition, which was held at St. Joseph’s Oratory for Montreal’s tri- centennial celebrations (Lord 2005:206–7; and see Pels 1989:34).

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Manuscript Collections American Baptist Historical Society, Atlanta, GA American Museum of Natural History Archives, New York Division of Anthropology Archives, American Museum of Natural History, New York The Burke Theological Library, Columbia University, New York Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA

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Index

ABCFM. See American Board of America in Yonkers, 25 Commissioners for Foreign American Baptist Churches, USA, Missions (ABCFM) 19 , 180 ABFMS. See American Baptist American Baptist Foreign Mission Foreign Mission Society Society (ABFMS), 16 , 46 , (ABFMS) 51 , 112 accessibility of expositions, 59 , American Baptist Missionary Union 219n2 (ABMU), 156 accession records, 114 , 130 , 189–190 , American Baptist Mission Burman 202n16 , 211n16 , 222n3 School, Bassein, 114 Addams, Jane, 206n8 American Baptist Mission Press, admission/hours of World, 21 , 39 , Rangoon, 112–114 52 , 57–58 , 185 American Bible Society, 215n8 advances in evangelism, 25 American Board of Commissioners advertising: of medical equipment, for Foreign Missions 44. See also marketing (ABCFM), 16 , 118 , 139 , 172 Africa, 36 , 38 , 43 , 48 , 197 American dream, 39–40 Africa and the East (1909), 10–11 , American identity, 105 15 , 20 , 144 ; images of in American imperialism, 22 advertising for World, 62 , American Museum of Asmat 64 ; missionaries at, 219n6 ; Art, 197 prayer meetings and, 87 , 95 ; American Museum of Natural stewards in, 155 ; visitors to, History (AMNH), 101 , 57. See also English missionary 198 ; accession records and, expositions ; Orient in London 114 , 130 , 189–190 , 202n16 , (1908) 211n16 , 222n3 ; Bureau African Americans, 42 , 105 , 168 , of Missions and, 27 , 131 , 216n25 138–142 , 215n8 ; CMML and, Afrika Museum (Berg en Dal, 137–138 ; collections database Netherlands), 197 of, 202n15 ; EAC and, 123–125 ; Agricultural Extension Service, 177 education and, 124–125 , Aino (Ainu) collection, 117 205n5 ; interdenominational Alaskan Indians, 48 organizations and, 136 , 250 INDEX

142–143 , 145 , 147–149 ; Around the World in Eighty Days inventories by, 135 , 144 ; (Verne), 64 Jesup and, 118–119 ; Laufer artifacts. See objects and, 117 , 124 , 211n7 ; MEC Arts and Crafts Period, 42 and, 216n34 ; MEM and, Asia, 14 , 26 , 116–117 , 163 , 27 , 136 , 144–146 , 218n36 , 210n4 ; EAC and, 122–125. 218n42 ; Missionary Exhibit See also Burma ; China ; and, 14 , 26–27 , 111 , 115–116 , Japan 119 , 122 , 125 ; requests to attendance of World, 56 , 85 loan collection of, 27 , 137 , audience(s). See visitors to 140–141 , 144 , 146 , 190 , expositions 216n16 ; Sacred Arts of auxiliaries, 16 , 18 , 80 , 141 , Haitian Voudou exhibition 180–182 , 194 and, 195 ; spatial constraints of, 116–117 ; study collection Bakker, Jim, 196–197 at, 124–125, 213n33 ; World Bakker, Tammy Faye, 196–197 in Boston and, 5 , 122 , 154 , Banks, Joseph, 221n4 192 ; YPMM and, 27 , 136 , Banquet Hall (World in Boston), 216n25. See also Boas, Franz ; 51–52 , 95 Department of Anthropology Barnum, P. T., 58 (AMNH) ; Missionary Exhibit baskets/basketry, 11 , 37 , 42 , 132 (Ecumenical Conference on Baudelaire, Charles, 186 Foreign Missions) Beach, Harlan P., 110 , 208n10 amusement. See Christian Benedict, Laura, 124 entertainment Bengalis, 37 Anderson, Christopher, 201n5 Benjamin, Walter, 186 anschauung (sense impression or Bethany Home, 39 sense perception), 73 Bible, the, 106 , 197 ; object lessons anthropology, 5 , 80 , 210n3 ; Boas’ and, 75–76 ; publishing, definition of, 121–122 ; charity 215n8 and, 199n4 ; collecting and, Bible House, 215n8 111 , 116 , 128 ; culture and, Bible Object Book, The (Woolston), 76 12–13 , 207n5 ; duplicates and, Bible Truth Through Eye and Ear 115 , 137 , 216 ; ethnography (1907), 74 and, 4 , 12–13 , 60 , 121 , 130 , blind people, 59 199n3 ; ethnology and, 87 , Blue Book of Missions, The (Dwight), 133 , 149 ; material culture 139–140 studies and, 12–13 ; North Boas, Franz, 5 , 14 , 123–134 , 189 ; American Indians and, AMNH and, 26–27 , 211n8 ; 122 , 133 anthropology definition of, antiques, 11 121–122 ; Asian collection Appalachian life, 23 and, 26 , 210n4 ; CMML Arabia Court (World in Boston), 43 and, 115 , 128 , 129–131 , architecture of World, 21. 137–138 ; comparative religion See also structures and, 213n36 ; culture and, INDEX 251

104 , 207n5 ; donors and 153 , 161–163 ; women and, surrogate collectors and, 161–162 125–129 ; Doremus and, Buddhist temple (World in Boston), 125 ; EAC and, 123–125 ; 34 , 35 ; in Hall of Religions, Hascall and, 219n7 ; Hunt 153–154 and, 128 ; interdenominational Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts organizations and, 121–122 , (1906), 155 192–193 ; labeling objects Bumpus, Herman C., 132 by, 116–117 , 128 , 130 ; Bureau of Missions, 27 , 131 , Missionary Exhibit and, 138–142 , 209n24 , 215n8 , 101 , 127–133 , 149 ; North 215n13 America and, 26 , 119 , 127 , Burma, 45 , 48 , 125 , 164 , 208n13 , 133 ; Northwest Coast and, 208n16 ; Hascall and, 130 , 127 , 128 ; Northwest Coast 161–163 ; Ma Dwe Yaba and, Hall and, 146 , 209n22 ; Taylor 167–168 , 220n13 ; Missionary and, 141–142 ; Vinton, C. C. Exhibit and, 26 , 106 , and, 126–127 , 131–132 , 133. 112–114 , 122 , 161 ; mission See also American Museum of press in, 112–114 ; WUMS Natural History (AMNH) and, 211n13. See also World body knowledge, 173. in Boston (1911) See also religion as Burma and Assam Court sensational form (Missionary Exhibit), 161 Boone, Ilsey, 31 Burma Court (World in Boston), Boston, Massachusetts, 15–16 ; 43 , 130 , 156 , 161–163 Mechanics Building and, 4 , Burma in Boston, 161 15 , 16 , 24–25 , 57 ; Perkins Burris, John, 206n9 Institute for the Blind and, 59 ; St. Paul’s Church and, 96 cabinet of curiosities, 86 Boston Daily Globe (newspaper), 61 , Canada, 59 , 109 , 145 , 204n7 , 135 , 174 222n6 “Boston Day,” 91 Canadian Museum of Civilization, Boston Ladies’ Symphony 204n7 Orchestra, 52 Capen, Samuel B., 3–4 , 8 Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901), 65 Cardinal, Roger, 111 Boy Scouts, 179 Carey, William, 164 Brigham Young University, 197 Carnegie Hall, 25 , 101 , 102 , British missionary loan exhibitions. 104 , 141 See English missionary Carnegie Institution, 133 expositions Catalog of Exposition and Exhibit British Museum, 116 Material (MEM), 148 Brown, William A., 11 8 Catholic expositions, 222n6 Brumberg, Joan, 221n5 Catholicism, 74–76 , 92 Buddhism, 44 , 45 , 92 , 153–154 , Centenary Celebration (1919), 147 206n10 ; devotionalism and, Ceylon Court (World in Boston), 43 74–75 , 95 ; monks and, 34 , Chang, L. N., 60–61 252 INDEX

Chapin, Herbert, 210n3 Christian identity, 105 charity, 6 , 82 , 193–195 ; Christian See also charity; conversion, entertainment and, 86 ; church religious bazaars and, 7 , 10 , 47 , 179 ; Christian internationalism, 147 department stores and, 46 ; Christianity, 45; fetishism and, donors and, 7–8 , 125–129 , 92–93. See also under specific 194 , 199n4 ; fundraising and, denomination 7 , 45–47 , 193–194 , 197–198 ; Christian Missions Museum and gifts and, 7 , 47 , 199n4 ; mite Library (CMML): Boas and, movement and, 180–181 , 194 , 115 , 128 , 129–131 , 137–138 ; 195 ; stewardship and, 14 , 180 ; Missionary Exhibit and, 115 , UNICEF and, 181 , 221n7 ; 117 , 128–131 , 136–137 , Women’s Work for Women 138–139 , 142 and, 180–182 , 221n6 , 222n9 Christian theme parks, 85 , 196–197 , charts and maps, 40–41 , 48 , 51 , 141 198 , 222n5 Chautauqua Institution, 39 church bazaars, 7 , 10 , 47 , 176 , 179 Chicago World’s Fair (World’s churches, 9 , 47 ; archives of, 61 ; Columbian Exposition) (1893), attendance of, 18 ; Christian 32 , 58 , 81 , 86 , 105 , 207n6 entertainment and, 85 , 89 , 90 , child life, 48 , 49 , 59 , 179 196 ; continuation work in, “Child Life in Mission Lands” 173 , 174 ; General Conference (special exhibit), 48 of the Methodist Episcopal, China, 18 , 125 , 131 , 132 ; EAC 19 ; marketing for World in and, 123–124 ; educational Boston at, 53 , 55 , 62 ; object missions and, 48 , 49–50 ; lessons and, 74 , 75 , 77 ; prayer Missionary Exhibit and, 106 , and, 94–95 , 96 ; requests by for 117 ; Scene (World in Boston), collection loans, 27 , 137 , 34–36 , 65 140–141 , 144 , 146 , 190 , “China Day,” 35 216n16 ; in scenery of World in Chinese Consul, 36 Boston, 41 ; smaller expositions Chinese Student’s Alliance of the at, 6 , 18 , 20 , 25–27 , 43 , 115 , Eastern States, 60 137 , 147 , 167. See also Sunday Chinese Students’ Monthly School education (periodical), 60 Church Missionary Society (CMS), chop suey, 35 10–11 , 20 , 94 , 108–110 ; Christian cultural centers, 196 Edith Stanton and, 57 , Christian entertainment, 13 , 32 , 171 ; fundraising and, 47 ; 39 , 83–97 , 147–148 ; criticism missionary education and, 143 ; of, 61 ; curiosity and, 86–88 ; missionary expositions and, fetishism and, 91–94 ; object 36. See also English missionary lessons and, 72 ; prayer and, expositions 94–96 ; theme parks and, Church Mission to the Jews 85 , 196–197 , 198 , 222n5. (1867), 20 See also Pageant of Darkness Church of Zion and St. Timothy, and Light 25 , 101 , 106 , 114 INDEX 253 cinema, 85 , 86 consumption, 11–13 circular of Exhibit Committee, contact zones, 119 , 206n1 110–114 , 128 continuation work, 173 , 187–188 , Civil War (1861–1865), 42 , 105 , 192 , 195 ; study groups and, 6 , 172 , 221n5 , 221n6 174–175 class, 177–178 conversion, religious, 7 , 60 , 129 , Classen, Constance, 183–184 166 ; Ma Dwe Yaba and, Clifford, James, 102 , 119 , 206n1 167–168 clothes and fashion, 221n4 ; Africa Coombes, Annie, 20 , 203n3(b) , Scene (World in Boston) and, 216n33 38 ; Missionary Exhibit and, Corbey, Raymond, 166 113 ; mite movement and, costumes, 9 , 16 , 44 , 145 , 184 ; 180–181 , 194 , 195 ; moccasins church exhibitions and, 20 , 25 ; and, 203n4 ; sewing groups “Immigration Gateway” script and, 172 , 175–180 , 221n3 ; and, 41 ; from Old World, 40 ; of visitors at World in Boston, sewing groups and, 172 , 38. See also costumes ; object 175–180 , 221n3 ; sightseeing lessons and, 52–54 ; stewards and, CMML. See Christian Missions 41 , 158 , 160 , 172 , 175–180 , Museum and Library (CMML) 221n3. See also clothes and CMS. See Church Missionary fashion Society (CMS) courts at World in Boston, 21–22 , Cohn, Bernard, 140 24 ; Burma Court, 43 , 130 , Coliseum (Chicago), 24 156 , 161–163 ; fundraising collecting, 114 , 123 , 125–129 , and, 45–46 ; Hall of Religions 154 ; of curios, 11 , 14 , 18 , and, 44–45, 153–154 , 156 , 20–21 , 22 ; ethnography 161–163 , 203n5 ; in Handbook of, 4 , 12–13 , 121 , 199n3 ; and Guide, 65 ; Industrial O’Hanlon on, 191 ; students Education, 44 ; medical and, 208n16. See also Boas, missions and, 44 ; at Missionary Franz ; Missionary Exhibit Exhibit, 26 , 106–107 , 109–110 ; (Ecumenical Conference on responsibility for amassing Foreign Missions) ; objects objects for, 216n32 ; at World in collective exhibitions, 20 , 114 ; Boston, 43–47. See also scenes at directives of, 110–112 World in Boston ; specific court Columbia University, 123 , 134 ; Crane, Susan, 86 study collection at, 124–125. criticism of World in Boston, 23 , See also East Asiatic Committee 60–61 ; Pageant of Darkness (EAC) and Light and, 90–91 , 96 , common curiosity, 86 , 94 205n7 community involvement, 155 Crosier Asmat Museum (Hastings, comparative religion, 45 , 93 , 129 , MN), 197 131 , 213n36 culture, 33–34 , 104 , 207n5 ; Confucianism, 45 Christian cultural centers and, Conn, Steven, 162–163 196 ; cultural performances 254 INDEX

and, 106–107 ; cultural donors, 7–8 , 125–129 , 194 , 199n4 translation and, 110 , 163 ; high Doremus, Sarah, 125 , 211n13 vs. popular, 58 Doremus, Sarah (1802–1877), 125 curios, 11 , 14 , 18 , 20–21 , 22 ; in Dorsey, George A., 218n37 Courts, 43 ; MEC and, 144 ; drama. See performances missionary education and, 145 ; dress up, 179 , 182–185 Missionary Exhibit and, 101 , duplicates, 115 , 137 , 216 106. See also objects Durkheim, Emile, 194 curiosity, 13–14 , 84 , 86–88 , 93 , Dwight, Henry Otis, 139–140 , 149 , 196 ; common, 86 , 94 ; 209n24 intellectual, 86–87 ; prayer and, 86 , 94–96 East Asia. See Asia East Asiatic Committee (EAC), De Gruche, Kingston, 10–11 , 87 , 122–125 200n6 , 206n12. See also Edith Ecumenical Conference on Stanton’s Opportunity: An Foreign Missions (ECFM), Exhibition Story 14 , 19 , 25–27 , 101–106 , (De Gruche) 110 , 112–115 , 135 ; Bureau Department of Anthropology of Missions and, 138–142 ; (AMNH), 102 , 111 , 128 , Burma collection and, 208n16 ; 132 , 192 ; CMML and, 115 ; Carnegie Hall and, 25 , 101 , Jesup and, 118 ; Missionary 102 , 104 , 141 ; circular of, 189 ; Exhibit and, 137 , 189 ; St. CMML and, 115 , 137–138 ; Louis World’s Fair and, 210n4 ; goals of, 103–104 ; Hascall spatial constraints of, 116–117. and, 161 ; Jesup and, 117–119 ; See also American Museum of London Centenary Conference Natural History (AMNH) and, 207n3 ; McKinley’s and Department of Missionary Roosevelt’s addresses at, 103 , Education (Homework), 46 , 207n4 ; mission statistics and, 51–52 139–140 ; speakers at, 102–103 , department stores, 24 , 46 207n4. See also Missionary devotionalism: Buddhist, 163 ; Exhibit (Ecumenical Christian, 74–75 , 95 , 149 , 155 , Conference on Foreign 193 , 206n12 Missions) de Vries, Hent, 172 ecumenical movement, 25 didacticism of World, 32 , 101 Edith Stanton’s Opportunity: disease of epidermism, 165–166 An Exhibition Story (De Division of Anthropology. Gruche), 10–11 , 47 , 87–88 , See Department of 200n6 ; blind people and, 59 ; Anthropology (AMNH) charity and, 181 ; Christian docents. See stewards/docents entertainment and, 84 ; CMS Dodge, William E., 103 and, 57 , 171 ; sewing groups domestic encounters with missions, 96 and, 176 ; volunteerism and, domestic missionaries, 14 , 111 , 187. See also Stanton, Edith 180–182 (Edith Stanton’s Opportunity) domestic scenes (World in Boston), education, 13 , 58 , 115 , 129–134 ; 40–42 AMNH and, 124–125 , 205n5 ; INDEX 255

Asian studies and, 124 ; Bureau ethnographic monographs, 130 of Missions and, 27 , 138–142 , ethnographic present, 60 215n13 ; curiosity and, 84 , ethnography of collecting, 4 , 121 , 87 ; educational missions and, 199n3 ; material culture and, 48 , 49–50 ; of freed slaves, 42 ; 12–13 immigrants and, 68 ; of Ma ethnology: amateur, 133 ; vs. Dwe Yaba, 167 ; mission study curiosity, 87 and, 46 , 195 ; public, 72–73 , ethnology of culture, 149 213n41 , 216n16 ; SPG and, evangelism, 4 , 9–10 , 25 , 33 , 67 ; 21 ; stewards and, 16 , 172 , “before” and “after” of, 50–51 , 174–175 ; YPMM and, 27 , 136 , 111 ; domestic work of, 14 , 142 , 145. See also missionary 42 ; fellowship and, 8 ; North education ; Missionary American Indians and, 42 ; Education Movement (MEM) ; progress of, 7 , 18 , 83 , 107–108 ; object lessons ; World in Boston propaganda of, 142 ; stewards’ (1911) familiarity with, 149 , 187 ; youth Educational Missions Section, 48 , 156 and object lessons and, 75 Education Palace (Panama-Pacific Exhibit Committee (of Missionary Exposition), 48 Exhibit), 25–27 , 110–112 , Egypt Court (Word in Boston), 43 137–138 , 192 , 208n10 Eliot, John, 42 Exhibition Herald (LMS Ellinwood, F. F., 207n3 magazine), 62 Ellis Island, 40 exoticism, 105 “Ellis Island Examination of expansionism, 4–6 , 41 , 89 , 123 , Immigrants,” 41 207n4 Elsner, John, 111 exposition-goers. See visitors to embodiment, 193 expositions empire, American, 200n9 Exposition Herald (newspaper), 32 , Encyclopedia Britannica (1911), 55–56 , 62–65 , 66 , 156 135 , 136 , 215n13 England’s Crystal Palace (1851), 21 fakir on bed of spikes, 36 , 37 English missionary expositions, Falwell, Jerry, 197 13 , 19–23 , 108 ; Gardner Far East, 123 and, 4 , 20 , 31–32 ; LMS and, fashion. See clothes and fashion 19–20 , 45 , 62 , 116 , 143 , fellowship, 6 , 8 , 9 , 147 , 144 ; locations of, 203n3(b) ; 194–195 , 197 medical equipment and, 44 ; female consumers, 12 missionaries in attendance at, female mission societies, 16 , 18 , 80 , 219n6 ; opium dens and, 36 ; 141 , 180–182 , 194 prayer and, 94 ; visitors to, 57 ; fetishism, 38 , 44 , 84 , 91–94, 96 , World in Boston as outgrowth 106 , 196 of, 15. See also Africa and the Field Museum, 124 , 209n20 , East (1909) ; Orient in London 211n8 (1908) “First Draft of a System of enlightenment, 53 , 72 , 85 Classification for the World’s entertainment. See Christian Columbian Exposition” entertainment (Goode), 81 256 INDEX

Fisher, Fred B., 85 , 187 194 ; Women’s Work for Fisk University, 50 Women and, 180–182 , 221n6 , Fitzgerald, John F., 91 222n9. See also women flâneurs, 186 General Conferences of the Fleischer, Charles, 61 Methodist Episcopal Church, 19 floor plan of World in Boston, 13 , gifts, 7 , 47 , 199n4. See also charity 20 , 32–54 , 101 ; courts and, Gilman, Benjamin Ives, 58 43–47 ; domestic scenes and, Glassberg, David, 89 40–42 ; educational missions God-given pedagogy, 74 , 83 and, 48 ; foreign scenes and, Goode, George Brown, 13 , 72 , 32–40 ; ground floor, 32–47 ; 80–82 , 84 in Handbook and Guide, 65 ; Gordon, Beverly, 221n3 itinerary of viewing, 64–65 ; Gosden, Chris, 12 , 102 marketing and, 56 ; Pageant gospel procession, 15 of Darkness and Light and, Government Immigration 52 ; second floor, 48–54 ; Station, 40 sightseeing and, 52–54 ; special Grand Hall, 51 , 89 ; Pageant of exhibits and, 48–52 Darkness and Light and, 52 ; food and drink: Africa Scene prayer meetings in, 95 ; tickets (World in Boston) and, for, 58 38 ; “China Day” and, 35 ; Great Britain, 59. See also English Mohammedan Lands and, 39 ; missionary expositions packaged, 38 ; tea and, 32–33 , Greater Boston Missionary 35 , 46 , 203n2 Institute, 143 Foreign Sales Stall, 47 Greenblatt, Stephen, 164 Four Epochs of World Conquest, The (Huckel), 90 Haddon, Alfred C., 45 , 116 fragrances, 34 Haggard, Fred P., 3 Francis, D. R., 220n10 Hall, Charles Cuthbert, 110 , Frontier Scene (World in Boston), 208n11 40 , 41 Hall of Religions, 44–45 , 153–154 , fundraising, 7 , 45–47 , 193–194 ; 203n5 ; ABMU and, 156 ; after World War One, 197–198. Hascall and, 161–163 See also charity Handbook and Guide of the World in Boston (Chamberlain), 32 , Gardner, A. M., 4 , 20 , 31–32 55–56 , 64 , 65–66 , 77 Geis, George, 132 Handbook for Stewards: Educational Gell, Alfred, 12 Missions (SPG), 21 gender, 49 , 52 , 85 , 172 , 221n5 ; Handbook on Burma (SPG), 21 Buddhism and, 161–162 ; Handbook on Medical Missions consumption and, 12 ; (SPG), 21 organization of World and, Handbook to the Hall of Religions, 45 157 ; stewards and, 16 , 18 , 157 , handiwork, 7–8 , 11–12 , 52 ; 180–182 ; women’s auxiliaries baskets/basketry and, 11 , 37 , and, 16 , 18 , 80 , 141 , 180–182 , 42 , 132 ; China Scene and, 36 ; INDEX 257

courts and, 43 ; Department Exhibit and, 106 , 109 ; Notes of Missionary Education and, for Stewards and, 78 46 ; at Foreign Sales Stall, 47 ; illustration, 182 industrial training and, 44 ; lace imagination, 26 , 73 , 75 , 84 , 87 ; and, 207n7 ; Native American, Missionary Exhibit and, 11 , 42 , 220n11 ; native helpers 133 ; object lessons and, 77 ; and, 166 , 220n11 ; sewing religious, 8 , 9 , 194 and, 172 , 175–180 , 221n13 ; immersion in World, 185–187. stewards and, 155 See also religion as Harrison, Benjamin, 103 sensational form Hascall, William H. S., 130 , immigrants, 40–41 , 68 , 73 , 105 153–154 , 161–165 , 219n7 “Immigration Gateway” script, 41 Hawaii Court, 43 Immigration Scene (World in heathens/heathenism, 111 , 221n6 ; Boston), 41 Ma Dwe Yaba and, 167–168 ; India, 48 , 49 , 117 , 125 , 204n2 ; native helpers and, 167 ; EAC and, 124 ; Scene (World stewards and, 158 , 166–169, 188 in Boston), 36–38 , 40 hedonism, 86 Indian corners (cozy corners), Heidegger, Martin, 186 11–12 Helping Hand, 181–182 Industrial Education Court, 44 “Heritage USA” (Christian theme Infantry Hall (Providence), 24 park), 196–197 , 222n5 installation (staging) of Herskovits, Melville, 122 exhibitions, 109 Hicks, Harry W., 153 , 182 intellectual curiosity, 86–87 Hinduism, 44 , 92 , 153 Interdenominational Conference in Hoganson, Kristin, 12 , 177–178 , Pittsburgh, 19 200n9 interdenominational missionary holy cards, 76 , 206n12 expositions, 6 , 8 , 14 , 96 ; Holy Land Experience, The CMML and, 136–138 ; (Orlando, FL), 195 , 196 interwar period of, 147 Holy Land living history museums, interdenominational missionary 39 , 195 , 196 , 198 organizations, 102 , 119 ; “Homelands” exhibitions, 25 , AMNH and, 136 , 142–143 , 208n16 145 , 147–149 ; Boas and, Home Work Sales Stall, 47 121–122 , 192–193 How Gertrude Teaches Her Children intermediary objects, 132 (Pestalozzi), 72 international expositions, 66 , Huckel, Oliver, 88 , 90 81–82 , 185 ; religion and, Hull House, 48 206n10. See also English Humphrey, William Brewster, 146 , missionary expositions 214n1 , 218n38 internationalism, 6 , 147 Hunt, George, 128 Introduction to Primitive Religions (Haddon), 45 idols, 37 , 74 , 197 , 204n2 ; fetishism inventories, 135–136 , 144 and, 92 , 93 ; Missionary Islam, 45 , 92 , 153 258 INDEX

itineraries, 32 , 53 , 64–65 , labeling objects, 109–110 , 113 ; 204n7 by anthropological standards, 128 ; Boas and, 116–117 , 128 , Jackson, Sheldon, 18 130 ; carelessness of, 214n1 ; James, Arthur Curtiss, 117 , 209n23 Missionary Exhibit and, 80 , Japan, 48 , 124 , 125 ; as first stop 115 , 117 ; Orient in London in World’s floor plan, 32–34 ; and, 22 ; Wissler and, 222n2 ; Korea and, 33 ; Missionary World in Boston and, 22–23 , Exhibit and, 106 , 117 ; 110 , 201n12. See also missionary study and, 46 ; objects Scene (World in Boston), Ladies’ Home Journal (magazine), 32–34 , 40 ; Shintoism and, 45 38 , 179 Japanese collection (Laufer), 117 , Lang, James, 210n3 126 , 209n23 Langdon, William M., 208n10 Jenks, Albert, 124 Larson, Frances, 102 Jerusalem, 39 Latter Day Saints, 197 Jesup, Morris K., 103 , 117–119 , Laufer, Berthold, 117 , 124 , 211n7 126 , 127 , 129 Lawrence, William, 171 Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Laymen’s Missionary 122–123 , 124 Movement, 85 Jesus Christ, object lessons and, 76 leaflets, 56 , 62 , 64 , 66–67 Jewish Settlement House of League of Nations, 147 Cincinnati, 25 lectures, 74 ; illustrated, 16 , 18 , 21 , Jews In Many Lands Exposition 109 , 137 ; at World in Boston, (1913), 25 31 , 36 , 50–51 , 57 , 65 John Eliot Memorial Chapel, 42 Leonard and Gertrude Jones, William, 124 (Pestalozzi), 72 Jubilee Singers, 50 Lewis, Albert Buell, 210n3 Judson, Adoniram, 45 , 164 , Liberal Arts Building (Panama- 166–167 , 180 Pacific Exposition), 48 Library and Missionary Literature Kali temple, 36 Court, 106 Kashmiris, 37 lieutenants, 157 , 159. Kendall, Laurel, 123 See also stewards/docents King David Street, 39 lighting, 108–109 Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara, 67 Lincoln’s Cabin, 42 Kiwanis International, 198 lithography, 74 Knowles, Chantal, 12 lived religion, 6 , 8–10 , 92 , Kohlstedt, Sally, 80 172–173 , 193 ; Christian Korea, 48 , 132 ; Court (World entertainment and, 198 ; in Boston), 43 ; as Japanese prayer and, 95 ; scope of, 194 ; colony, 33 ; Missionary Exhibit as unifying, 200n5 ; World in and, 106 , 117 ; Vinton, C. C. Boston as site of, 95 and, 126–127 Livingstone, David, 164 Kracauer, Siegfried, 85–86 living style, 106 INDEX 259

London Centenary Conference and, 6 , 37 , 50 , 110 , 142 , (1888), 207n3 205n5 ; World’s audience and, London Missionary Society (LMS), 56–61 19–20 , 45 , 62 , 143 ; museum Mason, Ellen, 211n13 collections of, 116 , 144. Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic See also English missionary Association (MCMA) building. expositions ; missionary See Mechanics Building expositions (exhibitions) mass culture, 85–86 London’s Architectural Hall, 24 mass-produced goods, 11–13 Louisiana Purchase Exposition material culture, 12–13 , 81 , 85 , (1904), 39 , 58 , 210n4 90 , 116 ; deification of, 93 ; of Luther, Martin, 4 , 199n2 missions, 4–5 , 18 , 39–40 , 192 ; Lyric Theater and Exposition Hall realization and, 183 ; sense (Baltimore), 24 perception and, 187–188 materiality of missionary exposition, McCunn, Hamish, 89 8 , 91–94 McKinley, William, 103 , 207n4 materials, 34 ; for home building, 40 Madagascar market, 21 matter, 130 Ma Dwe Yaba, Nellie, 166–168 , Mauss, Marcel, 199n4 220n13 Maverick Church, 175 magazines: Exhibition Herald, 62 ; Mead, Margaret, 122 Ladies’ Home Journal, 38 , 179 ; MEC. See Missionary Exposition Missionary Herald, 52–53 , Company (MEC) 172. See also media ; Missions Mechanics Building, 4 , 15 , 16 , 57 ; (Baptist magazine) full use of space in, 24–25. make-up, 184 See also floor plan of World Malay Archipelago, 123–124 media, 6–7 , 10 , 181–182 ; Christian male mission societies, 16 , 18 entertainment and, 85 ; Manual for Stewards at Missionary cinema, 85 , 86 ; magazines Loan Exhibitions, A (CMS), 21 , and, 38 , 52–53 , 62 , 172 , 179 ; 108–110 marketing of World and, 13 , Many Lands Expositions: Jews in 54 ; material culture of missions Many Lands, 25 ; Many Lands and, 18 ; mediation and, in Schenectady, 25 172–173 ; MEM mail order marketing, 54 , 55–68 , 218n44 ; catalog, 148 , 218n44 ; object Exposition Herald and, 32 , lessons and, 74–75 ; pageants 55–56 , 62–65 , 66 , 156 ; and, 89–90. See also Missions exposition images and, 62 , 64 , (Baptist magazine) ; newspapers 66–68 ; Handbook and Guide mediation, 172–173 of the World in Boston and, 32 , medical advertising, 64 55–56 , 64 , 65–66, 77 ; leaflets Medical Missions, 44 , 106 , 156 and, 56 , 62 , 64 , 66–67 ; MEM. See Missionary Education “Oriental pilgrim” emblem Movement (MEM) and, 55–56 , 66 ; photographs memory, 73 , 172 , 183 , 185 , 187 , and, 203n2(b) ; propaganda 205n1 260 INDEX

Meskell, Lynn, 12 149 ; Bureau of Missions and, Methodist Episcopal exposition, 51 27 , 131 , 138–142 , 215n8 ; Meyer, Birgit, 6 , 172 , 193 , 204n1 Burmese portion of, 26 , 106 , MFA. See Museum of Fine Arts 112–114 , 122 , 161 ; circular of, (MFA) 110–114 , 128 ; CMML and, Midwest, U.S., 144 115 , 117 , 128–131 , Mighty Fortress Is Our God, A 136–139 , 142 ; design and (Luther), 4 , 199n2 layout of, 108–110 ; Dwight Miller, Daniel, 12 and, 139–140 , 209n24 ; Milwaukee Public Museum, 218n37 EAC and, 122–123 ; Exhibit miniatures, 51 Committee of, 25–27 , missionaries, 50–51 , 125–126 , 176 ; 110–112 , 137–138 , 192 , ethos change of interwar, 147 ; 208n10 ; inventories and, 135 ; local, 218n35 ; recruitment Jesup and, 117–119 ; MEC and, for, 14 , 19 , 172 , 187–188 ; 143–144 ; MEM and, 27 ; New as stewards, 155 , 161–165 , York merchants and, 208n15 ; 219n6 ; women as, 104 , 125 , objects in, 25–27 , 112–117 , 181 , 221n8 ; youth and, 59 135 , 202n15 ; as organizing missionary education, 18 , 26 , structure, 14 , 102 ; requests 135–149 ; Bureau of Missions to loan collection of, 27 , 137 , and, 138–142 ; CMML and, 140–141 , 144 , 146 , 190 , 136–138 ; study groups and, 216n16 ; shipping of items to, 46 , 172 , 174–175 , 182 , 112–114 ; study collection of, 195 ; YPMM and, 142–143. 129–134 , 213n33 , 213n41 ; See also education ; Missionary YPMM and, 142–143. Education Movement (MEM) See also American Museum of Missionary Education Movement Natural History (AMNH) ; (MEM), 6 , 57 , 90 , 144–146 , Ecumenical Conference on 147–148 , 216n22 ; marketing Foreign Missions (ECFM) ; by, 218n44 ; Missionary Exhibit Missionary Education and, 27 ; objects associated Movement (MEM) with, 218n36 , 218n42 ; Missionary Exposition Company World in Boston and, 57 , 90 , (MEC), 24 , 41 , 136 , 147–148 , 148. See also Sunday School 189 , 216n34 ; incorporation of, education 143–144 missionary ethnology, 162 missionary expositions (exhibitions), Missionary Exhibit (Ecumenical 6 ; America in Yonkers, 25 ; Conference on Foreign Burma in Boston and, 161 ; Missions), 5 , 13 , 15 , 25–27 , charity and, 7–8 ; Church 101–119 , 138–142 ; accession Mission to the Jews, 20 ; CMS record of, 189–190 ; AMNH and, 36 ; entertainment and, and, 14 , 26–27 , 111 , 115–116 , 84 ; General Conferences of the 119 , 122 , 125 , 147 ; Asia Methodist Episcopal Church curios and, 116–117 ; Boas’ and, 19 ; Interdenominational augmentation of, 101 , 127–133 , Conference in Pittsburgh and, INDEX 261

19 ; lighting at, 108–109 ; LMS 129–131 , 136–138 ; Laymen’s and, 19–20 , 45 , 62 , 116 , 143 , Missionary Movement and, 85 ; 144 ; Orient in Providence, SPG and, 21 , 143 , 186–187 ; 94–95 , 167 , 203n1 ; Orient Student Volunteer Movement in Waverly, 167 ; as religious for Foreign Missions and, space, 7 , 194 ; SPG and, 21 , 19 , 142 ; WABFMS and, 25 , 143 , 186–187 ; thematic, 22 ; 55 , 180 ; WUMS and, 125 , transnationalism and, 20 ; 211n13 ; YPMU and, 143. World in Baltimore, 184 ; See also Church Missionary World in Chicago, 87 , 148 ; Society (CMS) ; Missionary World in Cincinnati, 25 , Education Movement (MEM) ; 64 , 93 ; world’s fairs and, 5 , Young People’s Missionary 81–82. See also Africa and Movement (YPMM) the East (1909) ; Ecumenical Missionary Society of the Methodist Conference on Foreign Episcopal Church, 141 Missions (ECFM) ; English missionary women. See women missionary expositions ; mission fields, 26 , 40 , 111 , 201n10. Missionary Exhibit See also under specific location (Ecumenical Conference on missionization, 68 , 91 , 93 , 188 , Foreign Missions) ; missionary 192 ; of Burma, 45 , 164 , loan exhibitions ; Orient 169 ; domestic fields of, 40 ; in London (1908) ; specific Doremus and, 125 ; foreign exposition fields of, 45 , 60 , 169 ; Missionary Herald (ABCFM Missionary Exhibit and, 133 ; magazine), 52–53 , 172 sewing groups and, 176 ; missionary hospitals, 44 transformations by, 7 , 78 Missionary Loan Exhibition missions, 48 , 96 ; material culture (Glasgow 1899) 21 of, 4–5 , 18 , 39–40 , 192 ; missionary loan exhibitions, 7 , statistics of, 139–140 15 , 20–21 , 24–25 , 191–192 ; Missions (Baptist magazine), 31 , directions for hosting, 21 ; 62 , 71 , 82 , 96 ; Christian popularity of, 136 ; requests for, entertainment and, 83 ; 27 , 137 , 140–141 , 144 , 146 , Pageant of Darkness and Light 190 , 216n16 ; theft and, 135. and, 91 ; stewards and, See also missionary expositions 153 , 160 (exhibitions) ; traveling Mitchell, Timothy, 173 , 185–186 collections mite movement, 180–181 , 194 , 195 missionary museums, 18 , 92 , models, 50–51 , 85 , 118 ; of Bible 196–198 , 213n36 ; Missionary stories along U.S. highways, Exhibit as, 121 , 131 , 202n16. 197 ; Missionary Exhibit and, See also museums 113 ; of mission fields, 111 missionary organizations: ABCFM Mohammed, 39 and, 16 , 118 , 139 , 172 ; Mohammedan Lands Scene (World ABFMS and, 16 , 46 , 51 , 112 ; in Boston), 38–40 CMML and, 115 , 117 , 128 , moral reform groups, 5 262 INDEX

Morgan, David, 6 , 75 native helpers, 155 , 165–169 , Morgan, John Pierpont, 103 220n10. See also stewards/ Moslems, 45. See also Islam docents Moving Pictures Hall (World in Needham, Mary Master, 184 Boston), 51 , 58 needlework, 43 , 176 Müller, F. Max, 92 “Negroes of the South” Scene, 42 museum contexts, 185 , 219n1 Newark Museum, 195 museum effect, 67–68 News (Baptist missionary paper in Museum of Archaeology and Burma), 112–113 , 208n13 Anthropology, Cambridge newspapers, 59 , 77 ; Boston Daily University, 45 Globe, 61 , 135 , 174 ; Exhibition Museum of Fine Arts (MFA), 58 , Herald, 62 ; Exposition Herald, 155–156 32 , 55–56 , 62–65 , 66 , 156 ; museums, 14 , 45 ; Afrika Museum, marketing images and, 66–67 ; 197 ; American Museum of News, 112–113 , 208n13 ; New Asmat Art, 197 ; ethnography of York Times, 106 ; New York collecting and, 4–5 ; exhibitions Tribune, 109 , 139 ; Watchman, of, 54 , 61 , 67–68 , 80–82 ; 90 , 161 , 171 , 187 ; World’s Field Museum, 124 , 209n20 , itineraries published in, 64. 211n8 ; MFA, 58 , 155–156 ; See also media Newark Museum, 195 ; Pitt New York Times (newspaper), 106 Rivers Museum, 81 , 92 , 210n2 ; New York Tribune (newspaper), Royal Scottish Museum, 109 , 139 210n2 ; sacred objects and, North America, 20 , 31 , 44 , 116 ; 195 ; Smithsonian Institution, Boas and, 26 , 119 , 127 , 133 ; 80–82 ; United States National Missionary Exhibit and, 106 ; Museum, 80 , 81 ; missionary modes of display in, University of Pennsylvania 18 ; Wissler and, 146 Museum of Archaeology North American Indians, 51 , and Anthropology, 163 ; 166 ; anthropology and, 122 , Walker Museum, 209n20. 133 ; clothing of, 203n4 ; See also American Museum of educational missions and, Natural History (AMNH) ; 48 ; handiwork and, 11 , 42 , Boas, Franz ; 220n11 ; Missionary Exhibit Missionary Exhibit (Ecumenical and, 106 , 107 ; native helpers Conference on Foreign and, 220n10 ; Scene (World in Missions) ; missionary museums Boston), 40 , 41–42 , 59 , 165 , music, 41 , 50 , 52 , 89 , 166 , 205n6 184 , 189–190 , 191 ; stewards Music Hall (Cincinnati), 24 , 64 acting as at World in Boston, 165 , 184 , 220n10 ; Wissler and, National Council of Churches 214n43 (NCC), 145 Northwest Coast, 127 , 128 Native American Indians. See North Northwest Coast Hall, 146 , American Indians 209n22 native dress, 177 nostalgia, 111 INDEX 263

Notes for Stewards, 77–79 , 110 , theft of, 135 , 148–149 , 214n2 , 158 , 174 216n33. See also curios ; Notes for Stewards in the Hawaii handiwork ; labeling Court, 158 , 219n4 objects ; Missionary Exhibit (Ecumenical Conference on object-based learning. See object Foreign Missions) ; object lessons lessons object labels. See labeling objects O’Hanlon, Michael, 4 , 191 , 199n3 object lessons, 13 , 23 , 68 , 71–82 ; opium dens, 21 , 36 , 60–61 clothes and fashion and, organization: of Missionary Exhibit, 178–179 ; God-given pedagogy 141 ; of objects at AMNH, 117 , and, 74 , 83 ; Goode and, 119 ; of Orient in London, 24 ; 80–82 ; Hall of Religions and, SPG and, 21 44–45 ; missionaries and, 161 ; organization of World. See floor Missionary Exhibit and, 107 ; plan of World native helpers and, 165–169 ; organizers of World, 13 , 66–67 ; Notes for Stewards and, 77–79 ; women and, 157. See also floor pedagogical architecture of, plan of World 192 ; Pestalozzi and, 72–74 ; “Oriental pilgrim” emblem, 55–56 , 66 sewing groups as, 176 , Orient in London (1908), 4 , 15 , 179 ; Woolston and, 71–72 , 20–24 , 88 ; Exhibition Herald 75–77 , 79. See also Christian and, 62 ; fundraising and, 47 ; entertainment ; Pageant of Haddon and, 45 , 116 ; images Darkness and Light ; World in of in advertising for World, Boston (1911) 62 , 64 ; organizers of, 24. objects, 16 , 18 , 60 , 92 ; broad See also Africa and the East classifications of, 22–23 ; (1909) ; English missionary containment of, 84 ; display of expositions as described in CMS manual, Orient in Providence (1911), 108–110 ; diversity of, 7 , 94–95 , 167, 203n1 12 , 114–116 ; ECFM and, Orient in Waverly (1911), 167 114–115 ; handling of at World Otherness, 8 , 23 , 158 , 163 ; sewing in Boston, 59 , 185–187 ; lists groups and, 176 , 178 , 179 , 180 of in Handbook and Guide, Oxenham, John, 89 65 ; mass production and, 11–13 ; MEM and, 218n36 ; paganism, 41–42 Missionary Exhibit and, 25–27 , Pageant of Darkness and Light: 112–117 , 135 , 202n15 ; Notes criticism of, 90–91 , 96 , 205n7 ; for Stewards and, 78 ; Relic curiosity and, 14 , 93 ; as Court and, 45 ; religion as object lesson, 77 , 79 ; Orient sensational form and, 193 ; in London and, 22 ; World requests for collection loans of, in Boston and, 22 , 52 , 58 , 27 , 137 , 140–141 , 144 , 146 , 65 , 79 , 88–91 , 96 , 205n7 , 190 , 216n16 ; shipping of to 221n2. See also Christian Missionary Exhibit, 112–114 ; entertainment 264 INDEX

pageants, 85 , 89 photographs/photography, 74 , Pagoda Land Pictures, 51 , 219n8 111 , 113 , 201n11 , 203n2(b) , Palestine, 39 210n24 Palestine in the Bronx (1913), 25 Pietz, William, 92 Panama-Pacific International Pitt Rivers Museum, 81 , 92 , 210n2 Exposition (1915), 36 , Plain Dress Societies, 180 40–41 , 48 Polynesia Cultural Center (La’ie, parables, 76 Oahu), 197 Paris Exhibition Universelle (1867), Porto Rico Court (World in 201n9 Boston), 43 Paris Exhibition Universelle (1889), postcards, 158 , 190 , 191 , 203n6 , 185–186 222n4 ; as souvenirs, 21 , 46 , 47 Paris Exhibition Universelle (1900), Praise Publishing Company, 71 , 74 207n8 prayer, 14 , 54 , 86 , 94–96 , 101 Parliament of Religions (Chicago prayer cards, 76 , 206n12 World’s Fair), 105 , 207n6 pre-Christian cultures, 23 participation in World, 172 , 179 , Presbyterian missionary 221n2 ; immersion and, conferences, 19 185–187. See also stewards/ press coverage of World, 62–65. docents See also marketing Paul Revere Hall, 50–51 primitive religion, 92 pedagogical architecture of World print ephemera, 18 , 21 , 61 , 189 ; in Boston, 13 , 82 , 101, 192 Oriental pilgrim and, 55–56 , 66 pedagogy, adult instruction and, Progressive Era, 16 , 81 , 90 73. See also object lessons Progressivism, 48 , 105 Pels, Peter, 186 progress of evangelism, 7 , 18 , 83 , Penny, Glenn, 207n5 107–108 performances, 9 , 14 , 37 ; controversy propaganda, 6 , 37 , 50 , 110 , on, 205n7 , 206n8 ; of Hascall, 142 , 205n5 , 205n5(b). 161–165 ; North American See also marketing Indians and, 220n10 ; object Protestant Christianity: fetishism lessons and, 73 , 82 ; Taylor and, 92 ; object lessons and, and, 183. See also Pageant of 74–77 , 80 ; Pageant of Darkness and Light ; stewards/ Darkness and Light and, docents 90–91 Perkins Institution for the Blind, 59 Protestant Episcopal Church, 25 , 101 Persia Court (World in Boston), 43 Providence, Rhode Island, 144 personal transformations, 87 Publications, Importations, Pestalozzi, Johann, 13 , 72–74 , 75 , Exposition and Exhibit 82 , 84 Material (MEM mail order Petch, Alison, 102 catalog), 148 , 218n44 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition public education, 72–73 , 213n41 , (1876), 80 216n16 Philippines, 22 , 43 , 44 , 123–124 , public religion, 133 148 , 210n4 , 211n10 , 215n16 Putnam, Frederic W., 87 INDEX 265 race, 50 ; African Americans and, Lands, 38–40 ; “Negroes of the 42 , 105 , 168 , 216n25 South,” 42 ; North American Rand, J. L., 63 Indian, 40 , 41–42 , 59 , 165 , realism, 154 184 , 189–190 , 191 ; structures realization, 182–183 in, 34. See also courts at World recruitment, 14 , 19 , 172 , 187–188 in Boston Redfield, Robert, 122 Schiff, Jacob, 123 Reformation, 74 Schmidt, Leigh Eric, 200n5 , 200n7 Regiment Armory, 25 secular instruction, 74 , 76 relational museum, 102 Seeing Truth: A Book of Object Relic Court, 45 Lessons with Magical and religion as sensational form, 6–10 , Mechanical Effects (Woolston), 172–173 , 185–187 , 193–194 71 , 75–76 religion(s), 18 , 45 ; centrality of, sensational form(s), 6–7 , 8 , 87 , 104–105 ; exhibitions of, 25 , 172–173 , 193 , 194 92–93 , 203n5 , 206n10 ; as sense perception, 172–173 , 185–187 , media, 7 , 13 , 173 ; traditional 193–194 ; anschauung and, 73 ; studies of, 9. See also under material culture and, 187–188 ; specific religion realization and, 183 ; visual Rockefeller, John D., 103 media and, 7 , 173 , 186 , 188 Roman Catholic Congregation sensory effect, structures and, 34 of the Holy Spirit sewing groups, 172 , 175–180 , (Spiritans), 197 221n3. See also handiwork; Roosevelt, Theodore, 103 , 207n4 stewards/docents Rotary International, 198 Shintoism, 45 Royal Scottish Museum, 210n2 sideshows, 21 sightseeing, 52–54 , 65 Sacred Arts of Haitian Voudou sin, 71 exhibition, 195 Siva, 36–37 sacrifice, 7 slavery, 42 St. Andrew’s Cross (journal), 83 Smithsonian Institution, 13 , St Louis World’s Fair (1904), 39 , 80–82 , 203n5 58 , 210n4 Society for the Propagation of St. Paul’s Church (Boston, MA), 96 the Gospel (SPG), 21 , 143 , salvage paradigm, 116 186–187 Sandberg, Mark, 154 Sommerville, Maxwell, 163 Sanitary Fairs, 172 souvenirs, 36 , 195 ; postcards as, 21 , scale of World, 23–25 , 79 , 147 46 , 47 scenery, 34 , 41 ; MEM and, special exhibits at World, 48–52 145–146 SPG. See Society for the scenes at World in Boston, 21–24 , Propagation of the Gospel 48 , 216n32 ; China, 34–36 , (SPG) 65 ; in Handbook and Guide, spirit worship, 130 65 ; India, 36–38 , 40 ; Japan, Spyer, Patricia, 179 32–34 , 40 ; Mohammedan stamps, 46 , 55 266 INDEX

Standard (journal), 87 Stocking, George W., Jr., 210n3 Stanton, Edith (Edith Stanton’s structures, 21 ; Africa Scene and, Opportunity), 10–11 , 87 , 38 ; Chinese pagoda, 34 ; 94 , 171–172 , 206n12. construction and building See also Edith Stanton’s of, 40 , 41 , 47 , 109 , 145–156 ; Opportunity: An Exhibition homes and, 39–40 ; India Story (De Gruche) Scene and, 36 ; Japan Scene Steedman, Carolyn, 189 and, 34 ; Lincoln’s Cabin and, stereopticon shows, 20 , 56 , 62 ; 42 ; Mohammedan Lands Missionary Exhibit and, 107 , Scene and, 38–39 ; North 111 , 142 ; at World, 48 , 49 , 51 , American Indian Scene, 42. 65 , 66 See also courts at World in stewards/docents, 4 , 14 , 149 , Boston ; scenes at World in 153–161 , 171–188 ; charity Boston and, 7 ; at church and students, 168 , 175 , 197 ; Boas and, denominational expositions, 124 , 137 , 141 ; 25 ; continuation work and, Chinese-American, 36 , 60 ; 192 ; costumes and, 41 , 158, CMML and, 138 ; comparative 160 , 172 , 175–180 , 221n3 ; religion and, 45 , 93 ; Native duties of, 16 , 40 , 110 , 157 ; at American, 51 , 59 , 166 ; object educational missions, 48 ; effect lessons and, 72 , 73 , 75 , 77 ; of World on, 96 ; gender and, objects and, 114–115 , 208n16 ; 16 , 18 , 157 , 180–182 ; at gospel Student Volunteer Movement procession, 15 ; as heathens, for Foreign Missions and, 19 , 158 , 166–169 , 188 ; immersion 110 , 142 ; YPMM and, in World and, 185–187 ; 143 , 145 interpretation responsibility of, Student Volunteer Movement for 110 , 163 ; lived religion and, Foreign Missions, 19 , 110 , 142 194 ; Manual for Stewards and, study collections, 129–134 , 21 , 108–110 ; MFA and, 58 , 213n33 , 213n41 155–156 ; missionaries as, 155 , study groups, 46 , 195 ; for stewards, 161–165 , 219n6 ; at Missionary 16 , 172 , 174–175 ; for women Exhibit, 106–107 ; native on missions, 182 helpers and, 155 , 165–169 , Sunday School education, 46 , 48 , 220n10 ; numbers of, 155 , 185 ; 52 , 55 , 204n3; object lessons object lessons and, 23 , 77–79 ; and, 71–72 , 74 , 75 , 76–77 , at Orient in Providence, 94 ; 79 ; traveling collections and, prayer and, 95 ; preparation 24 , 27 ; YPMM and, 145. of, 182–185 , 187 ; sewing See also Missionary Education groups and, 172 , 175–180 , Movement (MEM) 221n3 ; sightseeing and, 52–54 ; surrogate collectors, 125–129 Stanton and, 10 , 171–172 ; studying by, 16 , 172 , 174–175 ; Tableau Hall, 50 , 58 women and, 16 , 18 , 157 , tableaux, 50 180–182. See also costumes Taft, William H., 3 , 27 , 103 , 199n1 INDEX 267

Taoism, 45 United States Sanitary Taylor, Diana, 183 Commission, 172 Taylor, S. Earl, 20 , 131 , 141–142 , University of Pennsylvania 201n5 Museum of Archaeology and tea, 46 , 203n2 ; Chinese-style, 35 ; Anthropology, 163 Japanese-style, 32 teachers, 73–74. See also education Veblen, Thorstein, 177 students vernacular religion, 8 technology, 7. See also media Verne, Jules, 64 temporality, 23 Vinton, C. C., 126–127 , 131 , testimonials of evangelical success, 132 , 133 107–108 , 161–165 Vinton, Sumner R., 51 , 161–162 , theft of objects, 135 , 148–149 , 219n8 214n2 , 216n33 visitors to expositions, 13 , 24 , Thomas, Nicholas, 12 , 221n4 56–61 , 129 ; fashion of, 38 ; Thorne, Samuel, 144 special-needs, 59 ; “two-day Tibetan altar, 195 visitor” and, 202n1 ; World “Tierra Santa” (Buenos Aires, attendance and, 56 , 85. Argentina), 196 See also marketing Toledo, Ohio, 67–68 visual media, 7 , 173 , 186 , 188 traffic flow, 160 volunteerism, 4 , 7–8 , 82 , 174 , 181 ; transcendental experiences, 7 , 87 , inspiration for, 187–188 92 , 172–173 , 193 transnationalism, 20 , 178 WABFMS. See Woman’s American travel, 11 , 32 , 54 , 56 , 163 , 204n8 Baptist Foreign Mission Society traveling collections, 24–25 , 43 , (WABFMS) 148 , 196 ; difficulties with, Walker Museum, 209n20 135–136 ; requests for, 27 , Wanamaker, John, 103 137 , 140–141 , 144 , 146 , 190 , Wanamaker’s department store, 114 216n16. See also missionary Wants Department (World in loan exhibitions Boston), 47 Turkish Court (Missionary Wardlaw Thompson Hospital, 47 Exhibit), 107 Warner, LaMont, 4 , 20 , 201n8 Turner, Victor, 194 Washington, Booker T., 4 Watchman (American Baptist UNICEF (United Nations weekly newspaper), 90 , 161 , Children’s Fund), 181 , 221n7 171 , 187 Union Theological Seminary, Weber, Rudolph, 209n23 110 , 118 westward expansionism, 41 Unitarian Universalists, 199n1 Whitewright, J. S., 18 United Charities Building, 215n8 Wilson, Woodrow, 6 , 147 United States: Asia and, 123–124 ; Wingfield, Christopher, 144 as Protestant nation, 105 Winterthur Library, 201n8 United States National Museum, Wissler, Clark, 214n43 ; design of 80 , 81 exhibits of, 218n37 ; Humphrey 268 INDEX

and, 214n1 , 218n38 ; labeling Herald and, 32 , 55–56 , objects and, 222n2 ; Missionary 62–65 , 66 , 156 ; Gardner and, Exhibit and, 131–132 , 146 , 4 , 20 , 31–32 ; Hall of Religions 222n2 ; public education and, and, 44–45 , 153–154 , 156 , 213n41 , 216n16 161–163 ; imperialism and, witnesses/witnessing, 162–165 22 ; international expositions Woman’s American Baptist Foreign and, 66 , 81–82 , 185 , 206n10 ; Mission Society (WABFMS), itineraries and, 32 , 53 , 64–65 , 25 , 55 , 180 204n7 ; labeling objects and, women, 40 , 221n5 ; auxiliaries of, 22–23 , 110 , 201n12 ; lived 16 , 18 , 80 , 141 , 180–182 , religion and, 95 ; Mechanics 194 ; Boston Ladies’ Symphony Building and, 4 , 15 , 16 , 24–25 , Orchestra and, 52 ; Buddhism 57 ; native helpers and, 155 , and, 161–162 ; entertainment 165–169 , 220n10 ; organizers and, 85 ; as missionaries, 104 , of, 13 , 66–67 , 157 ; Otherness 125 , 181 , 221n8 ; as organizers, and, 8 , 23 , 158 , 163 , 176 , 178 , 157 ; sewing groups and, 172 , 179 , 180 ; pageants and, 85 , 89 ; 175–180 ; stewards and, 16 , 18 , pedagogical architecture of, 157 , 180–182 ; Women’s Work 13 , 82 , 101 , 192 ; prayer and, for Women and, 180–182 , 14 , 54 , 86 , 94–96 , 101 ; public 221n6 , 222n9 ; WUMS and, education and, 72–73 , 213n41 , 125 , 211n13 ; zenanas and, 216n16 ; scenery of, 34 , 41 , 37–38 , 40. See also gender 145–146 ; as sensational form, Women’s Union Missionary Society 6–7 , 8 , 87 , 172–173 , 193 , 194 ; (WUMS), 125 , 211n13 souvenirs of, 21 , 36 , 46 , 47 , Women’s Work for Women 195 ; temporality and, 23 ; theft (Woman’s Work for Woman), of objects and, 135 , 148–149 , 180–182 , 221n6 , 222n9 214n2 , 216n33 ; as travel Woolston, Clarence Herbert, 13 , substitute, 11 , 32 , 54 , 56 , 163 , 71–72 , 75–77 , 79 , 82 , 84 204n8 ; volunteerism and, 4 , world friendship (world fellowship), 7–8 , 82 , 174 , 181 , 187–188 ; 6 , 147 , 197 World War One and, 6 , 147 , World in Baltimore (1912), 184 181 , 197 ; youth and, 48 , 49 , World in Boston (1911), 144 ; 59 , 75 , 179 , 204n3 ; YPMM accessibility and, 59 , 219n12 ; and, 8 , 136 , 143 ; YPMU and, admission/hours of, 21 , 39 , 52 , 143. See also Africa and the 57–58 , 185 ; AMNH and, 5 , East (1909) ; anthropology ; 122 , 154 , 192 ; architecture of, charity ; Christian 21 ; attendance of, 57–58 , 185 ; entertainment ; courts at World Capen and, 3–4 , 8 ; church in Boston ; curios ; curiosity ; involvement in, 53 , 55 , 62 , Department of Anthropology 90 , 155 , 221n2 ; comparative (AMNH) ; evangelism ; floor religion and, 45 , 93 , 129 , plan of World in Boston ; 131 , 213n36 ; consumption at, handiwork ; marketing ; 11–13 ; criticism of, 23 , 60–61 , media ; missionization ; 90–91 , 96 , 205n7 ; Exposition missionaries ; Missionary INDEX 269

Education Movement YMCA (Young Men’s Christian (MEM) ; Missionary Exhibit Association), 40 , 46 (Ecumenical Conference on Young People’s Missionary Foreign Missions) ; missionary Movement (YPMM) expositions (exhibitions) ; (Missionary Education object lessons ; objects ; Movement), 216n25 ; Orient in London (1908) ; fundraising for, 45–46 ; Pageant of Darkness and Interdenominational Light ; performances ; scenes Conference of, 19 ; Missionary at World in Boston ; stewards/ Exhibit and, 27 , 142–143 ; docents ; structures ; traveling renaming of, 145 ; scenery and, collections ; visitors to 34 ; World in Boston and, 8 , expositions ; Wissler, Clark ; 136 , 143 World’s Fairs Young People’s Missionary Union World in Chicago (1913), 87 , 148 (YPMU), 143 World in Cincinnati (1912), 25 , youth, 75 , 204n3 ; child life and, 64 , 93 48 , 49 , 59 , 179 World of Council Churches YPMM. See Young People’s (WCC), 145 Missionary Movement world’s fairs, 5 , 80–82 ; Chicago (YPMM) (Missionary World’s Fair (1893), 32 , 58 , Education Movement) 81 , 86 , 105 , 207n6 ; St. Louis YPMU. See Young People’s World’s Fair (1904), 58 , 210n4 Missionary Union (YPMU) World War One: missionary YWCA (Young Women’s Christian expositions/exhibitions and, 6 , Association), 167 , 220n13 147 , 181 , 197 Wrexham exhibition, 144 zenanas, 21 , 37–38 , 40 , 162 , 183 ; WUMS. See Women’s Union stewards and, 188 ; tableaux Missionary Society (WUMS) of, 50