Government of Karnataka

Evaluation of the Processes in the Implementation of Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission in Karnataka

KARNATAKA EVALUATION AUTHORITY PLANNING, PROGRAMME MONITORING AND STATISTICS DEPARTMENT OCTOBER 2013

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

he Jawharlal Nehru National so in the advanced world where the urban- T Urban Renewal Mission has been rural relationship has been defined for a conceptualized as more than the sum of its century or more. But while India is in the projects. Its strategy is designed to link midst of rapid urbanization we are still in a urban policy interventions to the specific situation where the 2011 Census records that requirements of individual cities. The less than a third of the population lives in exercise begins with the formulation of the urban areas. The process of transformation City Development Plan with the help of from the rural to the urban is thus far from consultants, which identifies projects that are over. And the relationship between villages expected to generate specific outcomes in and cities remains alive, not just because of the city. And the support of the Government migration from the rural to the urban but of India in the financing of this process is also because the old homes in villages linked to the state governments and urban remain a safety net for workers who find local bodies introducing reforms in their the pressures of the city unrelenting. A functioning. An evaluation of JnNURM must meaningful understanding of policy then look at the entire process and not interventions in the urban cannot then begin confine itself to the implementation of the with individual cities. It must go back a step projects. and begin with a glimpse into the process of In evaluating JnNURM in Karnataka, urbanization and its influence on individual as indeed any other Indian state, we are cities. faced, right at the outset, with a fundamental The process of urbanization in question: is the city the ideal starting point Karnataka is not evenly spread across the for an urban policy intervention? It may be state. In terms of trends in urbanization there

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 1 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

are at least five distinct categories of process of urbanization may not be as strong districts. The four districts of Bengaluru, in these districts as it is in Dakshina Kannada Mysore, Dakshina Kannada and Udupi are and Udupi, the fact that they are a part of the marked by strong urbanization trends. relatively backward region of northern Dharwad, Bagalkot, Belgaum, Ramnagara Karnataka may be reason enough to develop and Bengaluru Rural have registered them as engines of growth. Taking this larger moderate signs of urbanization. Bidar, Kolar, picture into account would require that the Chikballapur, Haveri, Chitradurga, Hassan, City Development Plans be designed to not Davangere, Tumkur and Chamarajnagar are just cater to the needs of a particular city in districts with weak urbanization. Mandya, isolation but also in a way that helps manage Chikmagalur, Shimoga, Uttar Kannada, the larger process of urbanization as a whole. Kodagu and Gadag raise the possibility of de-urbanization. And Bellary, Gulbarga, CITY DEVELOPMENT PLANS Yadgir, Bijapur, Koppal and Raichur are There are also other reasons why the districts facing population pressure in both current approach to the City Development their rural and urban areas. Plans may need a review. At the outset, even In terms of the dynamic roles they play when seen in isolation, the City Development in the larger process of urbanization it is Plans are not consistent with the task of useful to categorize the districts into three urban renewal highlighted in the name of groups: those that are primarily engines of the Mission. The renewal of the inner city growth; those that are primarily centres of has a very low priority in the CDPs of the skill development for the neighbouring rural two Mission cities, Bengaluru and Mysore. population; and urban centres under The CDPs do relatively better when dealing population pressure and thus in urgent need with heritage, especially in Mysore. But the of basic facilities. While the precise place of heritage in the CDP for Bengaluru, categorization of all of Karnataka's urban as revised in 2009, is minimal and rather centres into these three groups is beyond the superficial. It is thus clear at the very first scope of this evaluation there are a couple of stage of the Mission that the focus is more cases that stand out even in preliminary on urban development rather than on urban analysis. In addition to Bengaluru and renewal. Mysore, Mangalore with its influence over In dealing with urban development the the districts of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi CDPs tended to come up short when faced would be an urban centre that needs to be with four major challenges. First, there was treated as an engine of growth. In addition, a the challenge of the mismatch between the city in the three contiguous districts of administrative area and the economic area Dharwad, Bagalkot and Belgaum can also of a city. The CDP was expected to plan for be treated as an engine of growth. While the the area that came within the administrative

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boundaries of the city. Indeed, when A third constraint built into the City Bengaluru transformed it administrative Development Plans is that the poor are boundaries with the creation of the Bruhat believed to live only in slums. Thus projects Bengaluru MahanagaraPalike in 2007, after catering to the Basic Services to the Urban the first CDP was made, it was decided to Poor are entirely confined to slums. A create another plan leading to the revised striking result of the NIAS survey however CDP of 2009. The administrative boundaries is that slums are far from being the only of Bengaluru, however, left out large parts places where the poor reside. Less than 30 of the information technology industry, per cent of the very poor in Bengaluru live including Electronic City. As a result the area in slums, and slums account for the residence that was being planned for in Bengaluru left of less than 14 per cent of the other poor. A out the main engine of growth in the city. In fairly significant number of the poor live in Mysore too there is a mismatch between the villages that have been engulfed by the city. boundaries that emerge by tracing the built And over three-fourths of all of Bengaluru's up areas of the city and the administrative poor live outside slums. The pattern in boundaries of the city. Moreover, the tourism Mysore is equally interesting. The city is well circuit around Mysore, which is an on its way to becoming slum free. But this important economic resource of the city, only means the poor have to live elsewhere. includes Srirangapatna which is beyond not A fourth limitation of the CDPs arises only the city's administrative boundaries but from the fact that when planning for the city also the district boundary. in isolation there is a tendency to ignore the The second major challenge was in pressures that the city places on its terms of managing the growth of the city. surrounding areas. The CDP for Bengaluru The revised CDP for Bengaluru laid shows a lack of sensitivity to the possibility considerable emphasis on the development of a conflict of interests between the city and of townships. It did not however adequately the rural areas. In its SWOT analysis the distinguish between a residential township CDP for Bengaluru lists the water and one that was built around an economic availability in the Cauvery basin as one of activity. Bengaluru's history suggests that the strengths of the city. But the availability townships built around an economic activity, of this water is subject to an inter-state such as the public sector townships, do dispute. It is also not clear that farmers succeed. But residential townships, like the within Karnataka will be willing to allow one built in Kengeri, tend to stagnate until Bengaluru as much water as the city they grow towards areas of the city offering demands from the Cauvery. The city is economic activity. The CDPs however already beginning to feel these pressures in focused primarily on residential townships. poor-monsoon years.

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These limitations of the City to carry out either through their own funds or Development Plans were compounded by through funds from various lending agencies. erroneous estimates of the growth in the They then try to use the JnNURM funding as populations of Bengaluru and Mysore. The an alternative source of finance. CDP for Bengaluru begins by estimating In making these projects consistent with that if existing trends continue the city (the JnNURM requirements, as well as in later core BMP area and the CMCs together) will stages of the process, consultants play an reach a population of 98.15 lakhs by 2011.1 important role. Their inputs are used both in The CDP however goes on to argue that the formulation of the detailed project report Bengaluru cannot maintain its growth rate and the management of the implementation and hence projected the 2011 population of of projects. Each component under JnNURM Bengaluru to be just 80.15 lakhs. The 2011 has its own panel of consultants and it is rare Census provisional figure of the population to see a consultant working on a range of of BBMP is, at 84.44 lakhs, more than 5 projects under different components. In per cent greater than the estimates used in dealing with consultants both at the level of the CDP. In the case of the CDP for Mysore the CDP and individual projects there is the the error was in the opposite direction with challenge of finding the appropriate inputs the provisional population figures in the that they can provide. On the one hand, in 2011 Census being around nine per cent less cases where their inputs are not in line with than the figure projected in the CDP. And government thinking, there is the possibility since the projected population of the CDP of officials not buying into the was used as the basis for calculations for recommendations of the consultants. On the the subsequent sections the errors were other hand, when consultants merely transferred to the rest of the Plans. rearticulate official thinking their value to the entire process is reduced. The system works CHOICE OF PROJECTS best only when the knowledge deficits in In theory, the implementing agencies are official circles are clearly identified and the expected to develop a shelf of projects based consultants brought in to remove them. In on the CDPs and JnNURM guidelines. But with such cases the officials take responsibility for the CDPs being less than overwhelming, these the entire strategy even as they make full use agencies have gained a greater freedom in their of inputs sought from consultants. choice of projects. Indeed, it is not entirely Given the prominent role played by the unknown for the implementing agencies to implementation agencies in the choice of already have a shelf of projects which they try projects the overall direction of JnNURM

1 Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, Revised City Development Plan, Bengaluru 2009, Vol I, p 57.

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in Karnataka has to be traced from the CHOICE OF UIG PROJECTS patterns that emerge on the ground. Within this dominance of Bengaluru JnNURM is predominantly an urban and Mysore there is a further concentration infrastructure programme. The Urban in specific sectors of Urban Infrastructure Infrastructure and Governance (UIG) and Governance. In both Bengaluru and component accounts for around two-thirds Mysore mobility has an important place in of the approved costs of JnNURM projects. terms of approved costs under the UIG Together with the costs of the projects under component of JnNURM. Transport accounts the Urban Infrastructure Development for as much as 44 per cent of the approved Schemes for Small and Medium Towns costs of UIG projects in Mysore. The number (UIDSSMT), infrastructure accounts for seems somewhat lower for Bengaluru at 22 nearly four-fifths of the approved costs of per cent. But once we add other mobility JnNURM. The relative importance given to related projects like underpasses, grade infrastructure when compared to anti- separators, sidewalks and flyovers to the list, poverty components is large enough in the the share goes up to a third of the approved small and medium towns with the approved costs of UIG projects. In Bengaluru costs in infrastructure accounting for twice drainage projects as well as storm water the approved costs in schemes for the poor. drains account for close to another third each Bengaluru and Mysore reveal an even of the approved costs. As a result the three sharper difference as in the two Mission cities sectors – mobility, storm water drains and taken together infrastructure accounts for other drainage – account for 99 per cent of well above four times the costs of the Basic the approved costs. Services to the Urban Poor component. In Mysore the degree of concentration A second, somewhat predictable, of approved costs of projects under pattern that emerges from the distribution JnNURM across different sectors is less, even of approved costs is the primacy of if only in comparison to Bengaluru. The non- Bengaluru in JnNURM in Karnataka. The transport related projects under the UIG projects in Bengaluru account for 61 per cent component do have one major alternative of the total approved costs of projects under focus in water projects. The water sector JnNURM in the state. This dominance occurs accounts for 33.9 per cent of the approved within a larger preference for the chosen costs for UIG projects so that water and JnNURM cities over other small and medium transport together account for nearly 78 per towns. Bengaluru and Mysore, taken cent of the total UIG costs. But the together, account for over four-fifths of the remaining 22.1 per cent is distributed across approved costs of JnNURM projects in several sectors: storm water drains, heritage, Karnataka. This pattern is consistent with zoo infrastructure and solid waste the focus of JnNURM on major cities. management.

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The picture that emerges from the flooding of houses. The NIAS survey points mobility related projects under JnNURM in out that this challenge is particularly serious Bengaluru is one that is focused primarily in some of the older areas of the city, with on improving the conditions for vehicular the West Zone being the most seriously traffic. Underpasses, grade separators and affected. The CDP has suggested the flyovers are meant to increase the speed of construction, remodelling and rehabilitation the traffic, the TTMCs help organize the bus of storm water drains and roadside drains, system as well as provide parking, and the removing silting, construction of retaining Volvo and Marco Polo buses are expected walls, laying of beds, providing enabling and to tempt car and other private vehicle users awareness information architecture, and to switch to public transport. Some of the Green Area development. JnNURM has other projects mentioned in the CDP, targeted the most urgent task of remodelling particularly those relating to pedestrians primary and secondary storm water drains and cyclists do not find a place in the in the four major valleys, namely Hebbal projects that were chosen. valley, Vrushabhavathi valley, In Mysore too the JnNURM projects that Koramanagala valley, and the Challaghatta gained approval were designed to help vehicle valley. users. The two-lane Bengaluru to Mysore- Solid waste management is an issue Nanjangud segment of the Outer Ring Road that has reached crisis proportions in was to be upgraded to six lanes. Transport Bengaluru. This problem may have been infrastructure facilities were to be developed, accentuated in Bengaluru by the city's including building of an Intelligent Transport decision to rely almost entirely on door-to- System and an Innovative Environment Project door collection of household garbage. The for Mysore city. JnNURM also funded the NIAS survey saw as many as 20.5 per cent acquisition of 150 buses. of the households in Bengaluru admiting to The storm water drain system in disposing their garbage at the street corner. Bengaluru has come under severe strain due This problem is particularly acute in the to the inadequately planned growth of the slums as well as the outlying zones of city. BWSSB notes that cleaning natural Byatrayanapura and Rajarajeshwarinagar. drains is becoming a challenge for most And since street corner garbage bins have municipal authorities owing to factors such been removed in most parts of the city, a as the discharge of untreated wastewater, significant portion of the city's garbage is encroachment, and illegal buildings. This has left directly on the side of the streets. In led to the overflow of storm water or the contrast Mysore's performance in garbage flooding of rainwater. This is most visible collection is very much better with as high when roads turn into drains, and there have as 97.2 per cent of the households saying also been deaths in storm water drains and they use the corporation's collection system.

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The BBMP has been planning a and Byatarayanapura, more than half the strategy to deal with the challenge of solid households do not have a functioning tap waste, including developing Public Private inside them. The economic divide is reflected Partnerships at different stages of the MSW in the fact that over 80 per cent of the management cycle through service households in the slums of Bengaluru do not contracts, management contracts and have a functioning tap inside them. concession contracts.Municipal Solid Waste JnNURM's contribution to addressing Management in Bengaluru is not however this emerging water crisis is through two funded under the JnNURM initiative. major projects. The first of these approved The projects that have been chosen projects is the augmentation of drinking under JnNURM in Mysore show a greater water to the seven former municipal councils awareness than the CDP of the need for a that form the periphery of Bengaluru. This broader approach to solid waste is to be done by providing an additional management. As of March 2013, MCC has 100 million litres per day from Cauvery approved ` 29.85 crores for the development Water Supply Scheme,Stage IV,Phase 1. The of an integrated municipal solid waste second approved project seeks to develop management plan using the PPP model. bulk flow metering and monitoring systems Water supply is potentially for Bengaluru's water distribution network. Bengaluru's most serious infrastructure The water crisis in Mysore does not concern. The city originally relied on the appear to be as severe as that in Bengaluru. many lakes within it. But as the lakes dried The proportion of households without a up and the lake beds put to other uses, functioning tap inside them is only a fraction Bengaluru became more dependent on river of that in Bengaluru. This is also true for all water and groundwater. Till recently the the indicators of water stress that the table north of the city was supplied largely lists: using public taps, buying water from through water from River Arkhavati. But tankers or in pots, or buying drinking water now that source too has dried up, leaving in cans. The difference however seems Bengaluru dependent on only the River primarily one of magnitude. The issues that Cauvery and the city's groundwater. There affect water supply and distribution in Mysore are already some signs of an emerging crisis are similar to those in Bengaluru, only they visible in the access to water in Bengaluru. are on a smaller scale. The crisis is accentuated by the The main thrust of the JnNURM problems of uneven distribution. There is influence on the water situation in Mysore differential access to tap water both across is on modernization and augmenting water different zones of the city as well as across supply. The focus on modernization was also economic classes. In two of the zones in the enhanced by the Centre. The only suggestion periphery of the city, Rajarajeswarinagar to change a project in the JnNURM process

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came in the case of a water supply project focusing on sanitation in the erstwhile City in Mysore where the CSMC suggested that Municipal Councils of Krishnarajapuram the proposed water scheme be converted to and Mahadevapura. Other projects look at a 24/7 supply scheme. the underground drainage systems in Despite being a globally recognized Yelahanka, Kengeri, Rajarajeshwarinagar, metropolis Bengaluru is still short of Dasarahalli, Byatarayanapura and ensuring that every household has a toilet Bommanahalli. In addition, a project seeks within it. The NIAS survey indicated that to replace or rehabilitate parts of the existing three per cent of households in Bengaluru sewerage system of Bengaluru. do not have a toilet within them. What makes Mysore is one of the oldest cities to the problem more serious is that there are have an underground drainage network. some parts of the city where the problem is Most of the old city had underground much more pronounced. In at least one zone drainage by 1904. JnNURM projects are in the periphery of Bengaluru, aimed at remodelling the underground Mahadevapura, the proportion is nearly 12 drainage (UGD) network in the old areas of per cent. And in the slums across the city the city and developing a sewage treatment the proportion of households without a toilet plant (STP) for the areas that are currently in them is as high as 22 per cent. not covered. The situation is made worse by The heritage strategy of JnNURM in pressures that have been developing on the Karnataka is focused primarily on Mysore. underground sewage network. The capacity The Mysore CDP focuses on the six areas of the sewers, both primary and secondary, which have been highlighted in the JnNURM is insufficient. With storm water also getting heritage tool kit. These are mainly defining into sewage lines there are increased sewage the importance of heritage, identifying, flows in the rainy season, sometimes even listing and grading heritage buildings, leading to the mix of sewage and rainwater understanding the legal status as well as the overflowing onto streets. Just as storm water institutional set up, sorting out the financial gets into sewage lines, there is also the system and also the infrastructure which is problem of sewage getting into storm water required to promote tourism around heritage drains. Sewers from slums and low-lying buildings. areas are sometimes directly connected to Two main projects have been approved storm water drains. This also contributes to under the heritage component of JnNURM. the pollution of lakes and the resultant The first project focuses on the heritage core growth in the number of mosquitoes. and urban renewal. And the second is on JnNURM addresses the challenge of water management through surface and sanitation and sewage in Bengaluru at rainwater harvesting at Sri Chamarajendra multiple levels. It has two approved projects Zoological Gardens.

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The Bengaluru CDP however is not as water drains and underground drainage comprehensive. It outlines the various well taken together account for around 22 per known tourist destinations in Bengaluru and cent of the approved costs of projects, with proposes to renovate 300 heritage buildings, projects covering roads and drains develop cultural centers, budget hotels and accounting for over 16 per cent. convention centers. There has however been The multiplicity of factors determining no heritage project approved under the choice of UIDSSMT projects may make JnNURM for Bengaluru. it difficult to come up with a simple explanation for their location. It is quite CHOICE OF UIDSSMT PROJECTS clear,though, that the projects are not evenly The Urban Infrastructure Development distributed across the state. As many as ten Scheme for Small and Medium Towns eligible districts – Chamarajanagar, (UIDSSMT) was launched by simply Kodogu, Udupi, Chikballapura, Tumkur, merging the two then existing schemes: the Chitradurga, Bellary, Raichur, Gulbarga and Integrated Development of Small and Bidar – have not received any projects while Medium Towns (IDSMT) and Accelerated the per capita cost of projects in some other Urban Water Supply Programme (AUWSP). districts is quite high. And there is no The choice of specific projects is expected apparent reason related to urbanization that to be based on City Level Investment Plans explains this distribution. There are zero (CLIPs). But the shortfalls in the small and project districts in regions that are rapidly medium towns are so widespread that a urbanizing, like Udupi; districts that are large number of projects come into deurbanizing, like Kodagu; and districts that consideration. And the possibilities were we have classified as being under population further extended by a willingness to go pressure, like Gulbarga. The case of Udupi beyond the strict prioritization in individual is particularly interesting as it is getting no CLIPs. A look at CLIPs for 18 of the 30 support for its own internal tendency to towns with UIDSSMT projects reveals that urbanize. in nine of them the projects were among the priorities listed in the plans while in another CHOICE OF BSUP PROJECTS nine they were not. But the projects were JnNURM calls for an inclusive generally among the important approach to the challenge of providing basic infrastructure requirements of the towns. services to the urban poor. In practice, though, Water and drainage account for the major a considerable part of this inclusiveness is chunk of the 38 UIDSSMT projects spread lost. The first source of loss of inclusiveness over 30 districts. Water supply alone is the method used to identify the poor. As accounts for over 60 per cent of the has already been pointed out, JnNURM approved costs of UIDSSMT projects. Storm identifies the poor as those living in slums,

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while the NIAS survey shows a significant cent of them giving birth at home. And when proportion of the poor do not live in slums. they have a more stable place to stay, even A further scope for exclusion of the if it is in a slum, close to 36 per cent of the poor has been built into the JnNURM births are at home. If we add those in slums initiative concentrating on housing alone. who go back to their hometown or village As a result the focus of the projects was for the birth, close to half the slum concentrated on services that could be population of Bengaluru prefers not to use expected to come with housing, such as water the medical facilities the city provides, and sanitation. And by the very nature of whether public or private for the birth of the projects, these services account for only their children. a small fraction of the total costs. Moreover, In education the situation would since these facilities came with the JnNURM appear to be a little better. Almost all houses they did not quite address the children between 5 and 15 in both Bengaluru problem in the other poor households. This and Mysore are attending school, though this is a particularly serious concern in a is still not quite the 100 per cent that it should situation where nearly all the houses in be. More importantly the very significant slums have to use either public taps or shared proportion of children, even of the poor, who taps. take tuition after school could be interpreted There should, arguably be greater as a vote of no confidence in the quality of concern on the health front. JnNURM is education provided in class. And the expected to address these concerns by JnNURM response is almost non-existent. providing health centres. But the size of these Housing projects that had existing initiatives is meagre when compared to the educational facilities close by have not been task at hand. The minimal expenditure on provided with new ones in the plan. health facilities must be seen in the context Consequently in Bengaluru, providing of the crisis of confidence that the poor have school buildings to BSUP houses is expected in the urban health system. This is perhaps to cost barely ` 0.2 crores out of the total most evident in the decision the poor make infrastructure cost ` 113.84 crores. In on where their children should be born. The Mysore, there is no provision for school NIAS survey indicated that in Bengaluru, buildings in the on-going projects; however, over the preceding three years of the survey there is a provision for an informal less than a fifth of slum dwellers and well education centre that is expected to cost below half of the lowest asset category went ` 0.19 crores. to government hospitals to give birth. Being Within this framework the Basic forced into the hands of more expensive Services to Urban Poor component of the private nursing homes and hospitals the poor JnNURM generated 14 projects in considered other options, with around 16 per Bengaluru.While the pattern in terms of

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number of units suggests a focus on have been completely left out of the JNURM construction, the picture in terms of dwelling process: they are not eligible for the UIG units – a more relevant indicator – points and BSUP projects and have not been given to a clear emphasis on rehabilitation. Nearly any UIDSSMT or IHSDP projects. two-thirds of these units – 14,754 units – were under rehabilitation projects. IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS In the development strategy for slums There are then two distinct stages in there is a strong case for an in-situ approach. evaluating the effects of JnNURM. The first This allows for minimal displacement of the step is to look at the implementation of the population, allowing them to remain as close projects. It is only after the projects have as before to their workplace and possible been completed that we can move on to the schools for their children.And an attempt question of looking at their outcomes. The was made to prefer this approach.In-situ process of implementation of projects is development accounted for 66 per cent of sought to be controlled primarily through the dwelling units in Rehabilitation projects, the release of funds.Till early 2013 72 per cent in Construction projects and 90 instalments were released once the per cent in Redevelopment projects in utilization certificate was submitted; this Bengaluru. The preference for in-situ projects process has been changed wherein the can be seen in Mysore as well, though the release of funds has been tied up with the success has been a little less than in physical progress of the project.This process Bengaluru. of monitoring is undoubtedly useful in preventing leakages of funds as well as CHOICE OF IHSDP PROJECTS monitoring the quality of the assets As in the case of the UIDSSMT projects created.But they are less sensitive to delays, the distribution of Integrated Housing and as holding back funds is the instrument of Slum Development Programme projects is enforcing control.This monitoring process also not even across the state. There is a is also not adequately equipped to help large contiguous belt consisting of Kodagu, identify and remove other causes of delays, Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, Uttara Kannada, which are widespread cutting across various Haveri and Davangere that have not centres. received any IHSDP projects. Along with Bijapur and Charmarajnagar they constitute IMPLEMENTATION OF UIG PROJECTS a set of eight districts that have not received Transportation projects are among any projects. They stand out in contrast to those that have had the least delays, though Ramnagara that has received the most they have not always been completed on attention. It must be pointed out that three schedule.Since the projects in Bengaluru districts Udupi, Kodagu and Chamarajnagar have all been completed it is possible to gain

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some insights into their outcomes for the city. decline in the growth of the average The TTMCs have, in effect, three broad roles: percentage load factor both in the city and they improve the bus terminuses; they the suburban bus networks. provide parking facilities, and they are The long-term impact of this success revenue generating assets that taps the real would however have to be measured in terms estate value of land owned by the transport of its ability to draw commuters away from corporations.With over three-fourths of the private transport and towards public built up space being used up for parking transport. A successful initiative would result and office space that is rented out, the in a decline in the growth rate of the cars TTMCs are clearly a successful exercise in and two-wheelers registered. The picture here creating revenue generating assets. Since is mixed both across cities and across modes over a fifth of the built up space is available of private transport. The growth rate in the for bus depots, terminuses, passenger number of cars registered in Bengaluru district amenities, and office space for BMTC there in the seven-year JnNURM period is higher is a significant contribution to the smooth than the growth rate in the seven years running of the bus system as well. preceding the launch of JnNURM. This would In evaluating the effect of the buses suggest that the luxury buses have not quite funded by JnNURM we come up against the been able to get car owners in Bengaluru to difficulty in separating the effect of the rely more heavily on the public transport JnNURM contribution from that of the other system. In contrast the rate of growth of two- components of Bengaluru's bus system. The wheelers registered in Bengaluru district over JnNURM buses were distributed across the the two periods has declined sharply. It would depots of the BMTC and then merged into appear that two-wheeler owners in Bengaluru the regular service. Thus there is little are being drawn towards public transport. difference between the JnNURM buses and Mysore presents the opposite picture. The rate the rest of the buses in the same segment of of growth of car owners has declined while the system.Evaluating the impact of that of two wheelers has increased, if only JnNURM is then best done by comparing marginally. Any shift away from public the progress during the JnNURM years and transport in that city is occurring with car a comparable number of years immediately owners, while two-wheeler owners seem preceding the setting up of the Mission. The largely unaffected. growth in the average earnings per kilometre Beyond the public transport system the was higher in the JnNURM period than in JnNURM initiatives in transportation in the earlier period, with the growth being Bengaluru are primarily in improving much higher in suburban routes. And if we mobility on the city's roads. Bengaluru take the percentage load factor as a sign of Development Authority has undertaken three congestion in buses, there is a noticeable projects – two flyovers and one underpass.

12 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

All three projects have taken significantly the projects had to get approval before they longer periods to complete than was proceeded with land acquisition. The real estimated in their Detailed Project Reports. estate boom in 2005 made many landowners This has caused the costs of all the projects reluctant to give up their land for the to escalate quite significantly. It is also worth compensation offered by BBMP. Moreover, noting that the delay was greater in the flyover many slum dwellers were given land in areas projects than in the single underpass where the storm water drain was planned. project.The BBMP had a much larger In order to meet the higher costs BBMP had bouquet of projects aimed at improving to request the Government of Karnataka for mobility on Bengaluru's roads. It too faced assistance, which resulted in further the challenge of delays and cost overruns, delay.Also, getting labour to work in the with all the projects being delayed.The delays unavoidable unhygienic conditions led to in the BBMP projects are the result of a very workers falling ill, thus adding to the human wide variety of reasons. The availability and and financial costs.The MUDA project for acquisition of land would appear to be the remodelling storm water drains in Mysore single largest cause for delay, with Lokayukta has also been delayed. investigations, financing cost overruns and the absence of work fronts also being IMPLEMENTATION OF UIDSSMT PROJECTS significant causes.Mysore too has seen Given the year-wise approval of considerable delays for similar reasons. projects and the status of projects, it may In the case of water and sewerage not be farfetched to state that most of the projects in Bengaluru there has been delay projects seem to have been delayed. in the implementation of 10 of the 11 Discussions with DMA officials reveal that projects.One of the main reasons for delay the reasons for the delay in UIDSSMT was the time take in obtaining clearances for projects are not fundamentally different the right of way from numerous from those affecting UIG projects. The departments.The picture in Mysore on the absence of coordination between agencies implementation of water and sewerage is a serious problem with UIDSSMT projects is not very different from that in projects as well. There were land acquisition Bengaluru. Going by the time schedules given problems in Nanjangud and Shikaripura, in the DPR, both the projects in Mysore which led to litigation in the High Court of handled by KUWSDB have been delayed. Karnataka. But there were also more local The Storm Water Drain projects in factors affecting some projects.In Bengaluru have had to overcome several Channapatna and Nanjangud the local obstacles. This has taken its toll both on the representatives were not interested in the time schedules of the projects as well as their sewerage projects, and were insisting on cost.Among the causes for the delay was that roads and water projects.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 13 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

IMPLEMENTATION OF BSUP PROJECTS IMPLEMENTATION OF IHSDP PROJECTS As some of the projects have been The implementation of the 34 projects completed it is useful to get an idea of the sanctioned in Karnataka under the IHSDP impact of JnNURM by comparing the brings out several unusual features. As per conditions in JnNURM project units with information on the stated parameters of those in other slums. And the picture that IHSDP that could be obtained from KSDB, emerges in terms of the effects of JnNURM the tender release and the tender award date on basic services to the urban poor is not for a number of projects were the same. There very encouraging. There is very little could be various interpretations for this difference in terms of the access to services pattern, including perhaps the lack of good between JnNURM households and contractors who can take up the work in households in other slums. Arguably the small towns. Again, in a few projects, tenders most striking result is that the provision were already awarded before they were of these houses does not change even the sanctioned by the CSMC. Despite the proportion of households living in rented promptness in awarding the tenders there accommodation. Those living in these were considerable delays. Discussions with dwelling units spoke of other beneficiaries KSDB officials revealed a variety of reasons who had preferred to rent out the units they for the delay. Since the construction of were allotted. In terms of connection to houses and infrastructure works were taken sewage lines too there was not much of a up in-situ, the existing units had to be shifted difference. Four-fifths of the slum dwelling in a phased manner, thus causing delay. In units in Bengaluru were without a some cases the delay was due to the lack of functioning tap in them and the picture payment of the initial deposit by slum was not very different in the JnNURM dwellers. The overall picture in terms of dwelling units. This number was much completion of projects is not entirely lower in the slums in Mysore, at less than negative. As much as 92 per cent of the a fifth, and the JnNURM dwelling units dwelling units have been completed. Among had an even lower percentage of houses the completed units, 83.1 per cent have been without a functioning tap in them. The one occupied. area where there was a noticeable difference was in the proportion of REFORMS households without a ration card. The The 23 JnNURM reforms have been JnNURM households did much better on prioritized into two groups, those that are this score. But this was only to be expected mandatory and those that are optional. In as the allotment of these units would itself addition, Karnataka has targeted 12 sector- depend on the ability to access entitlements specific reforms in the transport sector. The from the government. 35 reforms can further be distinguished

14 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

between whether they are to be implemented steps prescribed by JnNURM at the outcomes at the state or ULB level.The Ministry of in terms of actual e-Governance, the Urban Development (MoUD) of the differences between the Mission cities and Government of India has verified that some other cities in Karnataka are much Karnataka has completed 89.6 per cent of less stark. While several of the procedural the total reform target as on May, 2013. This rules stipulated are not followed in the non- puts Karnataka behind only Andhra Pradesh JnNURM cities, most of cities have already (92.6 per cent) and Maharashtra (90.6 per managed to integrate information cent) at the national level. technology. Similarly, following a state-level Underlying this overall success are two migration to the double-entry accounting questions: are the reforms that have been system in 2005-06, we find that all the ULBs, left out the more difficult, and important, both JnNURM and non-JnNURM cities, ones? And how much of this reform process already have this reform in place. is attributable to JnNURM? The answers to In the case of property tax too it is these questions are somewhat less difficult to attribute the implementation of comforting. Among the state-level reforms entirely to JnNURM. There are mandatory reforms that have not been specific elements like those related to completed are the creation of District guidance values where Hubli-Dharwad has Planning Committees and a Metropolitan done better than Mysore.What is more Planning Committee for Bengaluru. This interesting is the difference that can be seen hampers the development of a between the picture that emerges in terms comprehensive view of the needs of of the implementation of reform measures Karnataka's urban centres. In addition, and the one that the NIAS survey throws up some of the reforms, like rent control and from the ground. This difference is the repeal of the urban land ceiling, that particularly wide in the case of the need to are listed as completed cannot be attributed achieve a 90 per cent ratio in the collection to JnNURM for the simple reason that they of property tax. The picture that emerges were carried out before the Mission began. from the ground is that this condition has In the mandatory reforms at the ULB– been met in all the cities and towns surveyed level a somewhat similar pattern emerges. with the exception of Bengaluru. Though the Both Bengaluru and Mysore have managed official view is that the 90 per cent target to complete 92.5 per cent of the mandatory has been achieved in Bengaluru, nearly a reforms designated for ULBs under quarter of the house owners in the metropolis JnNURM.The two Mission cities of said they did not pay property tax. Bengaluru and Mysore have achieved all The emphasis of JnNURM on user the e-Governance elements prescribed in charges can be seen in the reforms laying JnNURM.But if we look beyond the specific out a series of steps that will help capture

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 15 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

the O&M costs of the services being provided A significant portion of the ULB-level and to then recover these costs. Not optional reforms have been completed in the surprisingly the first part of this process is JnNURM mission cities. The primary easier to accomplish than the latter part. All reforms that are pending to be implemented the cities, both JnNURM and non-JnNURM are administrative in nature. Some have separate accounting systems for the administrative reforms that have been services they provide. But ensuring the O&M suggested by the Government of India have costs are covered in the user charges for the however not been implemented fully. These services provided is more difficult. primarily consist of rationalisation of the Bengaluru and Mysore only manage to ULB staff and expenditures. Though it is recover around 70-75 per cent of their total usual for every Municipal Commissioners costs every year. to have a term two to three years, the ULBs One area where there is a clear do not offer the guarantee of the same which difference in approach between the JnNURM is required by the reforms. cities and the other cities is in organizing services for the urban poor. While internal CONCLUSIONS AND earmarking of funds for services to the urban RECOMMENDATIONS poor follows JnNURM specifications in the The picture that emerges from our Mission cities, the other cities do not follow evaluation of JnNURM in Karnataka is that this norm. The earmarking of funds for the contrary to its name the Mission is more an urban poor in the other cities is based on urban development strategy rather than one existing systems of targeting the urban poor of urban renewal. Much as a case can be including funding for SC/ST, Backward made out for a stronger urban renewal Classes and the physically handicapped. dimension to the Mission, the focus on urban Karnataka has managed to complete development cannot be scoffed at in a most of the state-level optional reforms. process of significant urbanization. Keeping Broadly speaking, there are only two this wider view of the Mission the experience categories of reforms that are still pending. in Karnataka leads us to the following They are the introduction of a property title recommendations: certification system and earmarking of at least 20 to 25 per cent of developed land in 1. A strategy for intervention in urban all housing projects for the economically Karnataka must move beyond the weaker sections.In the case of the Property simple JnNURM classification of Title Certification System, though Mission cities and small and medium Karnataka believes that it has achieved this towns, to a threefold classification of reform, the MoUD does not concur. urban centres in the state.

16 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

2. A separate toolkit must be created for the 8. In districts where labour is leaving City Development Plans that are to be agriculture buses must be introduced made for each category of city or town. at a nominal charge linking the rural 3. A detailed list of heritage sites must areas with urban centres at times that be developed in Bengaluru and each would help workers go to and return of them be marked with a board that from nearby working places. not only identifies them as heritage 9. The government must fix a specific sites but also provides a brief account amount of time that can be taken for of why they qualify to be treated as each task in the implementation of the such. In Mysore brief accounts of why projects that have potential for individual sites qualify to be avoidable delays. These details must considered of value to heritage can be be put up on the relevant websites, added to the existing boards. along with the actual performance. 4. Administrative units of the cities must 10. Basic Services to the Urban Poor must be reduced to viable administrative sizes, include schemes that directly affect the while economic plans must be made for poor wherever they live, and not be several administrative units put together. confined to slum dwellers alone. 5. Government officials must play a 11. A significant portion of resources set larger intellectual role in the aside for the urban poor through formulation of City Development Plans JnNURM or other similar programmes as well the formulation of projects that must be allocated to projects that make arise from those plans. a substantial difference to the 6. There must be greater convergence availability of health facilities for the between JnNURM and economic urban poor. policies, particularly policies for 12. The government must consider joint information technology, biotechnology ventures with small landowners of and manufacturing sectors. As a first step villages that have been recently towards such a convergence, a viability absorbed into the city to create gap fund must be created to provide for effective housing for the poor. satellite town projects that involve both 13. When judging the efficacy of reforms industry and real estate developers. the government must evaluate not just 7. Standing-room-only buses at a nominal the implementation of the prescribed charge should be introduced within reform measures but also the outcomes cities at the times when workers go to that the measures were supposed to and return from work. generate.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 17

1 INTRODUCTION

he Jawaharlal Nehru National and Governance (UIG), and the other on T Urban Renewal Mission was Basic Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP). started in 2005 with the aim "to encourage Both these missions were confined to the 63 reforms and fast track planned development cities originally identified for the Mission. of identified cities. [Its focus was to be] on Later the Mission was extended to all other efficiency in urban infrastructure and service towns and cities through the Urban delivery mechanisms, community Infrastructure Development Scheme for participation, and accountability of ULBs/ Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT) as Parastatal agencies towards citizens."1 In the well as the Integrated Housing and Slum initial documentation itself it was clear that Development Programme (IHSDP). this specific mission was to be seen in a In addition to the expansion on the broader context. In outlining the objectives ground to potentially cover all urban centres of the Mission it was made clear that the in the country, JnNURM can also be seen as identified cities were to include "peri-urban an indicator of official thinking on state areas, outgrowths and urban corridors intervention in India’s urbanization. In the leading to dispersed urbanisation".2 This absence of an Urban Policy Statement the canvas was further widened by extending conceptualization of JnNURM has been JnNURM beyond the initially identified treated as the official statement of the cities. The Mission initially consisted of two direction and priorities of urban policy. And submissions, one on Urban Infrastructure the experience of JnNURM is expected to

1 Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission: An Overview. Ministry of Urban Employment and Poverty Alleviation, and Ministry of Urban Development; Government of India, p 5. 2 Overview, p 5.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 19 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

play a key role in determining future urban become major engines of growth. A policy. There were official statements about comprehensive evaluation of Karnataka’s a second version of JnNURM being experience with JnNURM will help the state introduced when the original mission ended make its case even as the new urban strategy in 2012,3 though it was finally decided to that has to come into play after 2014 is being only extend the initial version till 2014. And conceptualized. there have been indications that future In defining the boundaries of such a exercises in urban policy will build on the comprehensive framework we would need conceptualisation and experience of to identify the larger processes that are JnNURM, as was reflected in the affected by, or affect, JnNURM. These recommendation of the High Powered processes become evident when we remind Expert Committee for Estimating the ourselves of the broad objectives and Investment Requirements for Urban strategy of JnNURM. The Mission had seven Infrastructure Services (HPEC) that the specific objectives: integrated development Mission be replaced by a twenty-year of infrastructure services; reforms to link programme. When seen in this larger context asset creation and asset management; a meaningful evaluation of JnNURM cannot addressing fund deficiencies in urban confine itself to the implementation of the infrastructure services; planned development projects being carried out under the Mission. of identified cities; scale up of urban services It must also look at the role JnNURM has with emphasis on access of the urban poor; played in the larger context of urbanization urban renewal of the old city; and basic and point to its implications for future services to urban poor. These objectives were exercises in urban policy. to be achieved through the four major The need for such a comprehensive components of JnNURM: Urban approach is even greater when the working Infrastructure and Governance (UIG); Urban of a national mission like JnNURM is Infrastructure Development Scheme for evaluated for a single state like Karnataka. Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT); The progress of JnNURM on the ground and Integrated Housing and Slum Development its interaction with the local processes of Programme (IHSDP); and Basic Services urbanization tend to vary from state to state. to Urban Poor (BSUP). The priorities in infrastructure development Using this central administrative too could be different, with at least some structure the conceptualization of JnNURM states being less inclined to ignore the needs is based on the idea of reducing the entire of towns that are not immediately poised to process of national policy intervention in

3 "JnNURM: Nath blames local bodies" Asian Age, May 1, 2012. http://www.asianage.com/india/jnnurm- nath-blames-local-bodies-834. Accessed on May 8, 2012.

20 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES INTRODUCTION

urbanization into a few critical projects and Given this process it is not difficult to then using the leverage of funding these identify the components of a comprehensive projects to ensure other desired reforms. evaluation of JnNURM in Karnataka. We Thus, as can be seen in Figure 1.1, the Urban begin with an analysis of urbanization in Local Body is expected to develop a City the state and the role of the chosen cities in Development Plan on the basis of an implicit this process. This provides a backdrop for understanding of local urban processes. The an evaluation of the City Development Plan possibility of the Urban Local Bodies not in terms of the dynamics of growth of the being adequately equipped to make these chosen cities. We then move on to an plans is addressed by allowing for evaluation of the choice of projects within consultants in this process. The critical the framework provided by City components of this CDP are to be seen as Development Plan. This creates the stage to individual projects. JnNURM then outline the issues that arise in the undertakes to help finance these projects implementation of these projects. We then using resources from both the Centre and trace the progress of reforms using two the states. It is further believed that the Urban different reference points. First, we look at Local Body will be so committed to these the progress of the projects in terms of projects that it would be willing to reform meeting the norms laid out by JnNURM. itself in order to be eligible to receive And second, we compare the performance JnNURM funds. And these funds are then of the two cities chosen for the UIG, expected to result in the desired outcomes. Bengaluru and Mysore on the one hand and

Central

government Consultants

State government Urban Local Body

Process of City Develop- Projects Condional Outcomes urbanizaon ment Plan funding

Figure 1.1: The JnNURM process

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 21 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

three other cities on the other. The entire in the right direction it can be argued that exercise allows us to identify the gaps that JnNURM funds have contributed to that have emerged in the conceptualization and success, just as cautionary flags must be implementation of JnNURM, and raised when the direction of change on the recommend a set of measures Karnataka ground is less than ideal. can prioritize when the next stage of national As this approach places considerable urban policy is conceptualized. emphasis on the picture that emerges from When evaluating each of these the ground, a systematic effort has been made elements of JnNURM we have been acutely to develop as authentic a picture as possible. aware of the distinction between an This picture has been drawn from both evaluation and an audit. We have at no point secondary sources, including the 2011 census, tried to verify the facts that were made as well as a large sample survey of five cities available to us, as an auditor might. We in Karnataka. In addition to Bengaluru and have accepted these facts in their totality, Mysore, the two UIG cities chosen for and acknowledge with gratitude the JnNURM, we have also surveyed urban areas generosity with which they were given to us from three other districts of Karnataka: by a large number of government officials Mangalore, Dharwad and Gulbarga. In order in different departments. Our focus has been to ensure that the picture is not confined to on evaluating JnNURM by placing these the main city in the districts where there are facts in the context of the picture of other towns in the UIDSSMT, the sample Karnataka’s urbanization that emerges from covers three of these towns as well: the ground. This allows us to compare the Nanjangud in Mysore, Mulki in Dakshin objectives of specific JnNURM initiatives Kannada, and Shahbad in Gulbarga. This with the outcomes that can be seen on the widening of the area covered under the sample ground. This task is unambiguous when the ensures that small town urbanization is not results of JnNURM initiatives can be completely left out of this picture. This multi- separated from that of other initiatives, as stage stratified sample survey covered 4,371 in the case of housing for the poor. But there households and collected information on are a number of other initiatives where 18,242 individuals. A note on the sample JnNURM funds have been merged with a design is provided in Annexure II. In addition, broader state initiative. In such cases we a separate sample survey was carried out of have to necessarily focus on the overall those who had received JnNURM houses in patterns. Where these outcomes are moving Bengaluru and Mysore.

22 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 2 PATTERNS OF URBANIZATION IN KARNATAKA

he Jawaharlal Nehru National countries where the boundaries between the T Urban Renewal Mission urban and the rural are clearly demarcated (JnNURM) exercise in urban renewal has and stable, the urban processes have only a moved beyond its initial focus on 63 minor and well understood role for the rural. important cities. The recognition that the An effective urban strategy in such countries urban challenge in India goes well beyond cannot afford to waste too much time and the country’s main cities led to the Mission resources understanding trends in the rural being expanded to cover urban infrastructure areas. But in countries where the demarcation as well as slum development in small and between the urban and the rural is still medium towns. This wider perspective changing, we cannot be as certain that what undoubtedly takes the Mission into aspects is happening in rural areas is not affecting of the urban challenge that India cannot urban centres. If conditions in the rural areas afford to ignore, but it still falls short of are encouraging, if not forcing, the contesting the dominant view that the population to move to urban centres, the country’s urban problems can be understood growth of the cities and towns will be directly by studying the urban areas alone. All that affected. Conversely, when rural conditions is required to be done then is to shift the are less oppressive the costs of getting skilled focus of policy makers and academia from and semi-skilled rural labour in the cities the rural parts of the country to urban India. would go up. And when rural conditions vary This view would appear to have substantially across the country, migration common sense on its side and would be could take place from distant parts of the supported by much of the literature that country thereby affecting the ethnic mix of comes out of the developed world. In the cities. In situations where the

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 23 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

transformation from the rural to the urban PATTERNS OF URBANIZATION IN is still in progress, urban centres – whether KARNATAKA they are metropolises or small and medium As the case for considering the larger towns – must be seen in the context of the process of urbanization is made on the larger process of urbanization. grounds that the transformation from the In this chapter we try to place rural to the urban in India and Karnataka is JnNURM in the context of the larger process far from complete, it would be useful to begin of urbanization in Karnataka. We begin by by first setting this matter at rest. It does not looking at the overall patterns of require much insight to recognise that the urbanization, making a case for a more process of urbanization in India is yet to dynamic understanding of this process. We stabilize. India has been urbanizing at a then look at the rural areas in the districts steady rate and will continue to do so for at of Karnataka to identify the districts that least a few more decades. As Chart 2.1 are likely to be releasing their rural suggests, over the last half a century the population towards the process of proportion of urban population in India has urbanization. We then find the points of increased from 18 per cent in 1961 to 31 per urbanization in the state that are attracting cent in 2011. Significant as this change is, population from both urban and rural areas the fact that urban areas still account for less within the state and outside. We then outline than a third of the country’s population leaves the implications of this process of little room for doubt that the urbanization urbanization for the strategy underlying process is some way from being completed. JnNURM. We are still some distance away from being

Chart 2.1: Urbanization in India and Karnataka

45 40 35

on 30 Ɵ 25 20 % Urban (IN) 15 % Urban (KA)

% Urbanisa 10 5 0 2011 1991 2001 1961 1971 1981 1921 1931 1941 1951 1901 1911

Source – Census of India (1991, 2001, 2011) and NarendarPani, (1987) ‘A Demographic and Economic Profile of Bengaluru’ Times Research Foundation, Calcutta.

24 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES PATTERNS OF URBANIZATION IN KARNATAKA

able to ignore the rural when trying to To begin with the base from which understand the growth of our urban centres. urbanization is taking place varies very This picture is true for Karnataka as well. substantially across districts, with the The urbanization of the state has been above percentage of urban population in a district the national average, as is clear from Chart ranging from a low of less than 15 per cent 2.1. But with just around 38 per cent of in Kodagu to a high of 91 per cent in Karnataka’s population living in urban centres Bengaluru. And the rate at which in 2011, the process of urbanization in the state urbanization is growing too varies quite too has some distance to go. And while it might substantially. The neighbouring districts of be urbanizing a little faster than the country Dakshina Kannada and Udipi have seen the as a whole, the slope of Karnataka’s proportion of their urban population to total urbanization curve is not all that much steeper population increasing by over 9 percentage than that of India. Karnataka’s towns and points, between 2001 and 2011, while cities too must then be seen in the context of Raichur has seen a corresponding increase the larger process of the transformation of of just 0.1 percentage point. The number of larger proportions of the rural population into percentage points by which the proportion the urban. This transformation could be driven of urban population in the districts in 2011 both by migration as well as rural areas being exceeds the corresponding 2001 figures is re-classified as urban. higher than the state average of 4.6 per cent The indicator most commonly used to in Kolar, Gulbarga and Bengaluru Rural, understand the extent of urbanization is the while in the remaining districts it is below proportion of urban population. The Overview the state average. of JnNURM begins with an estimate of the The fact that Bengaluru is not among proportion of urban population for the country the districts measured as urbanizing faster as a whole. And this figure is not without its than the state average points to one of the uses. It could be used to suggest broad patterns two major limitations of this measure. The of the urbanization process. And this size of cities is better captured through the indicator serves this purpose for Karnataka absolute numbers of their populations rather as well.Table 2.1 tells us that the process of than changes in the percentage points of urbanization is spread across the state. Every urbanization. The absolute numbers that are district in Karnataka is more urbanized in represented by a one percentage point 2011 than it was in 2001. Equally interesting increase in urbanization would be much is that there is no district – not even greater in a more populous district than it Bengaluru – that is 100 per cent urbanized. would be in a sparsely populated one. With the 2011 population of Bengaluru being And yet the process of urbanization is more than six times that of Kolar, comparing far from being evenly spread across the state. percentage point changes in the two districts

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 25 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

Table 2.1: Proportion of urban population in Karnataka In per cent State / District 1991 2001 2011 Bagalkot NA 28.97 31.67 Bengaluru 86.16 88.11 90.94 Bengaluru Rural 18.13 21.65 27.11 Belgaum 23.49 24.03 25.34 Bellary 29.86 34.87 36.30 Bidar 19.57 22.96 24.90 Bijapur 23.52 21.92 23.02 Chamarajanagar NA 15.34 17.17 Chikballapura NA NA 22.26 Chikmagalur 16.89 19.52 21.07 Chitradurga 27.00 18.07 19.78 Dakshina Kannada 28.30 38.43 47.60 Davanagere NA 30.32 32.31 Dharwad 34.94 54.97 56.83 Gadag NA 35.21 35.65 Gulbarga 23.62 27.23 32.46 Hassan 17.37 17.70 21.23 Haveri NA 20.78 22.27 Kodagu 15.96 13.74 14.62 Kolar 23.32 24.67 31.38 Koppal NA 16.58 16.79 Mandya 16.23 16.03 17.08 Mysore 29.71 37.19 41.35 Raichur 20.79 25.20 25.32 Ramanagara NA NA 24.69 Shimoga 26.51 34.76 35.50 Tumkur 16.57 19.62 22.48 Udupi NA 18.55 28.36 Uttara Kannada 24.14 28.66 29.14 Yadgir NA NA 18.80 KARNATAKA 30.92 33.99 38.57 Note: Districts marked ‘NA’ were not created at the time of Census Source: Census of India 1991, 2001, and 2011

26 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES PATTERNS OF URBANIZATION IN KARNATAKA

is quite misleading. Not much can then be this exercise for Karnataka alone would read into the fact that the proportion of urban also not capture the entire process of population in Bengaluru district has only urbanization. A significant portion of the increased from 88.1 per cent in 2001 to 90.9 migration to and from centres in per cent in 2011, an increase in terms of Karnataka occurs from outside the state. percentage points that is well below the state But if we seek not to capture the entire average. process but look only for the role that The second major limitation of different districts of Karnataka play in the focusing on the district-wise proportion of overall process, it would provide a picture urban population alone is one similar to the of the impact urbanization is having on story of the blind men and the elephant. Just various parts of the state. This would help as each blind man recognised only a part of us identify the districts of the state from the elephant, district level proportions of which the rural population is moving out urbanization provide only a part of the and districts which have the urban centres picture. The proportion of urban population to attract additional population. What we in a district only captures the relationship need then is to get some idea of the absolute between the urban population and the rural numbers of the increase in urban population in that district. But the process population. of urbanization is not a local process alone. It also involves people moving in and out INDICATORS OF THE RELEASE OF RURAL of a district’s urban areas from other POPULATION IN KARNATAKA districts, states and indeed countries. It is In looking for absolute numbers of the then quite possible for the proportion of increase or decrease in rural and urban urban population in a district to rise sharply populations in the districts of Karnataka we simply because a large part of its rural would need to take into account the fact that population has migrated elsewhere. As we urban centres could be growing not because shall see in a while, this factor is far from they have become centres of rapid insignificant in several districts of urbanization but simply due to natural Karnataka. causes. In a country where the population We would therefore need to look as a whole is growing, the urban population beyond the proportions of urbanization, at would also increase. In order to capture the the actual movement of populations from real tendency towards urbanization it would the rural to urban areas, and indeed from then be important to first adjust the one set of urban places to another. This population of the urban centres for the would be more effectively done by providing natural increase that can be expected, based a greater role for absolute numbers rather on the number of births and deaths in the than percentages alone. But carrying out district. One way to do so would be to first

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 27 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

estimate an expected population in each areas of districts, it would appear imprudent district for 2011 by multiplying the 2001 to dismiss all the variations as simply being population by the Rate of Natural Increase the result of variations in birth and death (RNI), where the RNI is given by the birth rates. Second, as already noted, the number rate minus the death rate.1 Since three new of districts in Karnataka went up from 27 districts have been carved out between 2001 to 30 between 2001 and 2011. The and 2011, the exercise can be carried out calculations have been done on the basis of for the 2001 districts by clubbing the 2011 the districts as demarcated in 2001. figures for the new districts with their mother When we look at the RNI-adjusted districts. We could then treat the difference flows of population,Table 2.2 tells us that between the actual 2011 population and the the tendency for the actual rural population expected 2011 population, after taking the in 2011 to be less than the estimates based RNI into account, as a broad indicator of on the Rate of Natural Increase is quite whether people have migrated into the widespread. Of the 27 districts as district or migrated out of it. By carrying demarcated in 2001 the only part of out this exercise separately for urban and Karnataka where the actual rural rural areas we could also get a picture of population in 2011 is greater than the whether people are migrating in and out of estimated natural increase is the region each of these areas in each district. In the consisting of the five districts to the process we may also be able to get a picture northeast of the state – Bellary, Gulbarga, of the rural to urban migration within a Bijapur, Koppal and Raichur. It could be district. argued that this part of the state also does In practice this calculation needs to not fare too well in terms of development. take into account two other factors. First, It is possible then that the birth rate in this the calculation would ideally use the RNI region is higher than the state average that specific to the rural and urban areas in each has been used in our calculations. But this district. However we have to make do with would have to be offset against the fact that the single RNI that is available for the entire backwardness could also imply a higher state. This would necessarily mean that the death rate thereby reducing the impact on differences in the birth and death rates across the difference between the birth and death the rural and urban areas of the districts rates that was used in our calculations. would be ignored. But to the extent that the In contrast to these five districts, the final results show major differences across tendency for the population of rural areas districts and between the rural and urban to grow less rapidly than their natural rates

1 Rate of Natural Increase (RNI) = Crude Birth Rate (CBR) – Crude Death Rate (CDR) . The RNI has then averaged for the decade. Then, RNI x Population (year) = Population (year+1). The figure for the decade has been compounded annually.

28 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES PATTERNS OF URBANIZATION IN KARNATAKA

Table 2.2: Difference between actual 2011 population and projections from 2001 based on rate of natural increase State / District Rural Population Urban Population KARNATAKA -2479615 3245077 Tumkur -305097 28613 Dakshina Kannada -248782 166141 Hassan -226666 32106 Mandya -199477 -11195 Udupi -195601 100480 Kolar -160045 54352 Bengaluru Rural -156473 73859 Chikmagalur -155454 -12458 Mysore -147031 126528 Davanagere -114103 14396 Belgaum -106065 64297 Shimoga -97208 -23178 Chitradurga -94978 17919 Chamarajanagar -92195 7650 Uttara Kannada -89877 -20500 Kodagu -69273 -4232 Haveri -65719 17563 Bagalkot -54307 57088 Bidar -51482 32960 Gadag -37021 -7578 Dharwad -31388 51201 Bengaluru -22726 2199426 Raichur 4326 11011 Koppal 12773 9159 Bijapur 55507 52404 Gulbarga 70627 87899 Bellary 98120 119165 Source: Calculated from Census of India, 2001 and 2011 and the Sample Registration System, Registrar General of India. Districts are as per demarcation in 2001. of growth would warrant is much more Kannada, Hassan, Mandya, Udupi, Kolar, evident and quite significant. In 11 of the Bengaluru Rural, Chikmagalur, Mysore, 27 2001-districts – Tumkur, Dakshina Davangere and Belgaum – the actual

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 29 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

population in 2011 falls short of the estimates largely ranged in contiguous areas on either based on natural growth by over 100,000 side of this belt: Udupi, Chikmagalur and persons. In another eight districts – Shimoga, Davangere to the north of the belt and Chitradurga, Chamrajanagara, Uttara Mysore, Mandya, Ramanagara, Bengaluru Kannada, Kodagu, Haveri, Bagalkot and Rural and Kolar to the south. The only non- Bidar – the actual figures fall short of the contiguous district in this category is estimates by a margin of between 50,000 Belgaum. and 100,000 persons. Thus in 19 of the 22 The eleven districts where the difference districts where the actual numbers in 2011 is between zero and 100,000 are relatively are less than the estimates based on natural more dispersed with five of these districts – growth, the differences are not negligible. Bidar, Bengaluru, Chamarajanagar, Kodagu A distinguishing feature of the and Chitradurga – not sharing the pattern widespread indication of population of their neighbours. But the other six districts preferring to exit rural areas in the districts – Uttar Kannada, Shimoga, Haveri, of Karnataka is the extent to which they fall Dharwad, Gadag and Bagalkot – are into a larger regional pattern. If we classify contiguous. The five districts where the the districts according to the extent to which actual rural population in 2011 is greater their actual rural populations in 2011 were than the projections – Bellary, Koppal, less than the projections based on RNI we Raichur, Bijapur and Gulbarga – are once can identify four clear groups: districts in again contiguous. The map also suggests that which the actual rural population was the tendency to leave rural areas is strongest greater than the projected figure, districts in southern Karnataka. This tendency is where the actual 2011 rural population was more moderate in Northwest Karnataka. less than the projection by between 0 and And Northeast Karnataka largely presents 100,000 persons, districts where the the opposite picture with the rural population difference was between 100,001 and 200,000 tending to be greater than the projections. persons, and districts where the difference Explaining these patterns would call was more than 200,000 persons. What is for a larger analysis of the transformation striking is the extent to which the districts of rural Karnataka than is the purpose of falling into each of these groups are this chapter. But it is important to note that contiguous. As can be seen from Map 2.1, some of the instinctive expectations about the districts with the greatest estimated this transformation need not be true. It is release of rural population – Tumkur, sometimes assumed, on the basis of the Hassan and Dakshina Kannada – form a patterns seen in the Industrial Revolution belt cutting across the state from east to west. in Europe, that the migration from rural to The next set of districts, in terms of the extent urban areas is essentially caused by severe of estimated release of rural population, are distress in the countryside. But this

30 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES PATTERNS OF URBANIZATION IN KARNATAKA

UTTARA KANNADA

50 km

DAKSHINA KANNADA

Legend >0 0 to - 1 lakh - 1 lakh to - 2 lakh - 2 lakh and above

Map 2.1: Estimates of decline in rural population in Karnataka

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 31 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

contention does not stand closer statistical Table 2.3:Analysis of Variance of District scrutiny. If the movement away from rural Literacy Rates Across Groups of Districts areas was being driven by poverty we would Classified by the Difference Between Actual expect to find an inverse relationship and Projected Population in Rural Areas between the per capita income of districts Variable F ratio Level of significance and the tendency to move out of rural areas. Literacy 6.241 1 per cent But the correlation coefficient between per Source: Tabulated from data generated in Table 2.2 and Census of India, 2011. capita income of districts and the extent to which the actual rural population in 2011 where the actual rural population in 2011 in the districts falls below the estimates is less than the projected figure by between based on RNI is 0.02, suggesting virtually 100,001 and 200,000, and those where the no correlation between the two variables. actual rural population in 2011 is less than A more striking relationship emerges the projected figure by more than 200,000 between literacy rates and the inclination persons. Table 2.3 tells us that literacy rates to leave rural areas. This is evident if we do in fact vary significantly between these group the districts according to the extent groups. to which the actual rural population in 2011 A closer look at the nature of this is above or below the estimates based on variation also does not fully support the RNI. Using the same cut-off points that we conventional wisdom of distress-led have used in Map 2.1, we can create four migration away from rural areas. Distress groups of districts: those where the actual led migration would be consistent with a rural population in 2011 is greater than the pattern of the regions with the lowest literacy projected figure, those where the actual rural rates seeing the greatest tendency to leave population in 2011 is less than the projected rural areas. This would have meant a figure by less than 100,000 persons, those positive relationship between the literacy

Table 2.4: Literacy rates across groups of districts classified by the difference between actual and projected population in rural areas Groups of districts Average of district literacy rates Districts where rural population is greater than RNI based projections 63.47 Districts where actual population is below projections by 100,000 persons or less 76.10 Districts where actual population is below projections by between 100,000 and 200,000 persons 75.69 Districts where actual population is below projections by more than 200,000 persons 79.61 Source: Calculated from data generated in Table 2.2 and Census of India, 2011.

32 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES PATTERNS OF URBANIZATION IN KARNATAKA

rates and the difference between the actual rural areas and persons moving into urban population and the projected population. But centres are visible in them. the correlation coefficient between these two Just as has been done for rural areas variables is negative at – 0.42. Table 2.4 we can get an indication of population elaborates this picture telling us that the moving in or out of urban areas by group of districts with the lowest level of comparing 2011 actual populations with literacy are least inclined to leave rural projections from 2001 based on the Rate of areas and the groups of districts with the Natural Increase. The most striking result highest literacy rates have the greatest of this exercise is the widespread tendency tendency to leave rural areas. This pattern for the actual 2011 populations to exceed would be more consistent with the view that the projections. In 21 of the 27 districts as migration requires assets including literacy. demarcated in 2001 the urban areas have seen actual 2011 populations exceed the INDICATORS OF URBAN CENTRES projections. But before we move into greater The population that appears to be details of this process it would be prudent to moving out of large parts of rural Karnataka note that this list includes the five districts – have the option of moving to areas in other Bellary, Gulbarga, Bijapur, Koppal and districts of the state, to other states and out Raichur – that also recorded an actual rural of the country. By the same token there are population in 2011 that was in excess of the urban centres in Karnataka that can attract projections based on the Rate of Natural persons from within the district, other Increase. In these districts it is difficult to districts in the state, other states and even rule out the possibility that the patterns of expatriates from other countries. When we birth and death rates are different from the see the rural population in many districts of state averages underlying the RNI used in Karnataka not growing as rapidly as the calculations. It is also important to note projected and some urban centres growing that among these five districts Bellary more rapidly than expected it is important records the greatest extent to which the to remember that both these trends are parts actual figures exceed the projections in both of processes that extend well beyond the urban and rural areas. Given the history of state. But the extent to which a district is mining in this district it would be important contributing to the overall process of to distinguish between trends in this district urbanization can be captured by the extent and the tendency towards larger, more to which it records either or both of these broad-based, processes of urbanization. It trends. Our search for centres of urbanization may then be prudent to classify these five in Karnataka can then begin by classifying districts as a separate group marked by districts according to the extent to which the pressure in greater-than-projected twin processes of persons moving out of populations in both urban and rural areas.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 33 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

The urban areas of these districts are coming that two of these six districts, Chikmagalur under increasing population pressure that and Kodagu, are plantation districts. The is not accompanied by a relative easing of figures would suggest not only that the the pressure of population in their rural plantation sector is not able to support the areas. We could refer to the urban areas of natural growth in population but also that these five contiguous districts as the districts the urban centres in the plantation districts of urban population pressure. are not able to support the additional When we focus our attention on the population either. This pattern could be wider remaining 22 districts, as demarcated in as two more districts in the six – Shimoga 2001, it is difficult to ignore the possibility and Uttar Kannada – have a significant that some districts may in fact be presence of tree crops. The presence of deurbanizing. There are six districts – Mandya in this list is a point of concern. It Kodagu, Gadag, Mandya, Chikmagalur, indicates that the leading light of the Green Uttar Kannada and Shimoga – where the Revolution in Karnataka is no longer able actual urban population in 2011 is less than to support the natural increase in its rural the estimates of the population based on population. What is more, its urban centres natural growth. We could argue that the far from being able to absorb the population differences are not sharp enough to make a from the rural areas are not able to provide strong case that these districts are for the natural increase in the district’s urban deurbanizing, particularly in the context of population. It is in this sense that these six the common RNI that has been used in the districts could be treated as districts with a calculation. But it does challenge the potential for de-urbanization, where the impression that all districts in Karnataka relative decline of its urban centres cannot are necessarily urbanizing at a comparable be ruled out. pace. And these six districts are potentially The remaining 16 districts (as ones that could be deurbanizing. demarcated in 2001) show signs of This is not to suggest that these districts urbanization in varying degrees. The are seeing a return to the rural. In these six criterion used to identify the districts with a districts the actual population is less than potential for de-urbanization could be useful the estimates based on natural growth in here as well. We could estimate the ability rural areas as well. Indeed, in Chikmagalur of the urban centres within the district to the actual population in the district as a absorb the population that is seeking to whole in 2011 is less than its population in move out of its rural areas. It would be useful 2001 without even taking its natural growth to make a distinction between those districts into account. These districts are likely to be that have the potential to absorb a substantial seeing a migration of population from both portion of the population being released their urban and rural areas. It is worth noting from the rural areas of the district and those

34 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES PATTERNS OF URBANIZATION IN KARNATAKA

that do not. We have taken the extent to districts that are able to absorb more than which the actual rural population in 2011 50 per cent of the migration from their rural is less than the estimates based on the Rate areas and whose actual urban population of Natural Increase as an indicator of the in 2011 is at least 100,000 persons above population moving out of the rural areas of the RNI estimates have been treated as that district. By the same token we have rapidly urbanizing districts. Districts that are taken the extent to which the actual urban able to absorb more than 50 per cent of the population in 2011 is greater than the migration from their rural areas and whose estimates based on the Rate of Natural actual urban population in 2011 is at least Increase as an indicator of the ability of the 50,000 persons but less than 100,000 persons urban centres in the district to absorb above the RNI estimates have been treated additional population. The proportion of the as moderately urbanizing districts. And indicator of urban centres absorbing those districts where the urban centres absorb additional population to the indicator of less than 50 per cent of the migration from migration out of rural areas will give us an their rural areas and/or have an urban indication of the strength of urbanization in population that is less than 50,000 persons the district. But this cannot be the sole above the RNI estimates have been treated criterion. In districts where only small as districts with weak urbanization. numbers are migrating out of the rural areas Bengaluru clearly heads the first even a slow-growing urban centre may be category with its indicator of urban able to absorb the entire set of rural absorption being a whopping 9678 per cent migrants. We could then run the risk of of its rural migration. The other strongly treating the slow growing urban centre as a urbanizing districts are Mysore, Dakshina case of strong urbanization. It would thus Kannada and Udupi. The fact that these four be useful to add a criterion that captures 2001-districts meet the criteria for rapid the magnitude of urban growth. In our case urbanization must not lead us to we can take the extent to which the actual underestimate the differences between them. urban population in 2011 is greater than As we shall see Bengaluru has to be treated the RNI based estimates. We can then as a separate entity in terms of its influence distinguish between the strongly urbanizing on Karnataka’s urbanization. But when seen districts and those with relatively weak in terms of potential it is important to note urbanization. that Mysore, Dakshina Kannada and Udupi We then divide the 16 2001-districts are on the first steps of the ladder of rapid that have not already been classified, into urbanization. three sets: the rapidly urbanizing districts, In identifying the districts with the moderately urbanizing districts and the moderate potential for urbanization, we may districts of weak urbanization. Those need a minimal degree of flexibility. Three

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 35 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

districts – Dharwad, Bagalkot and population pressure, districts with the Belgaum – meet the criteria for moderately possibility of de-urbanization, districts with urbanizing districts perfectly. Their urban weak urbanization, districts with moderate areas absorb between 50 and 99 per cent of urbanization, and districts with strong the estimates of those leaving rural areas urbanization. Since this classification has and their actual urban population in 2011 had to use data from 2001 it has necessarily was more than 50,000 persons above the RNI been based on the districts as they existed estimates. There is however a case to include in 2001. We can now return to the 30 districts Bengaluru Rural in this list. This district of 2011 with the assumption that the trends comfortably meets the criterion for the towards urbanization in the combined magnitude of increase of urban population district would be valid for the divided but falls slightly short of the cut off for the districts as well. That is to say the proportion of rural population it can absorb. categorization for Bengaluru Rural is It absorbs 47 per cent of the population relevant for Ramanagara as well; that for leaving its rural areas. Since this is not very Kolar is relevant for Chikballapura as well; much below the cut-off of 50 per cent, and and that for Gulbarga is relevant for Yadgir we must make allowance for the attraction as well. Table 2.5 gives us the list of these of the neighbouring Bengaluru metropolis, districts. this district too has been added to the As is to be expected the five category of moderately urbanizing districts. categories of urbanization have a strong The eight 2001 districts that fall into location dimension to them. The location our category of weak urbanization – Bidar, of these groups of districts is not Kolar, Haveri, Chitradurga, Hassan, unrelated to the pattern noticed earlier Davangere, Tumkur and Chamarajnagar – in the rural areas. The five 2001 districts present a mixed picture in terms of their that were seeing an increase in rural and development history. Districts like Hassan urban population are, by definition, the have been known to have their share of six 2011 districts of urban population agricultural and plantation success, while pressure. The location of the centres of Chamarajnagar and Bidar have long been urbanization too is consistent with broad considered areas where the task of patterns that we noticed in Map 2.1. We development is most challenging. In terms saw in that map that the tendency to of our criteria of population leaving rural leave rural areas was concentrated in the areas too there is considerable variation, southern part of the state. Map 2.2 tells from very high levels in Hassan to much us that the areas attracting this more modest levels in Bidar. population that is being released from This would leave us with a total of five the rural areas are primarily Bengaluru, categories of districts: districts of urban Mysore and the contiguous districts of

36 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES PATTERNS OF URBANIZATION IN KARNATAKA

Table 2.5: Districts in Karnataka by the nature of urbanization

Category Districts Districts of urban population pressure Bellary, Gulbarga, Yadgir,Bijapur, Koppal and Raichur Districts with the possibility of de- Mandya, Chikmagalur, Shimoga, Uttar urbanization Kannada, Kodagu and Gadag Districts with weak urbanization Bidar, Kolar, Chikballapura, Haveri, Chitradurga, Hassan, Davangere, Tumkur and Chamarajnagar Districts with moderate urbanization Dharwad, Bagalkot, Belgaum, Ramnagara and Bengaluru Rural Districts with strong urbanization Bengaluru, Mysore, Dakshina Kannada and Udupi

Dakshina Kannada and Udupi, all urbanization is more than double that of the districts located in the southern half of districts with urban population pressure and the state. the districts with weak urbanization. What is The moderately urbanizing districts worth noting is that the average of the per surrounding Bengaluru are also tapping the capita incomes of the districts with weak population being released from the rural urbanization is less than that of the districts areas in the south of the state. The main with urban population pressure. The income moderately urbanizing region is in one of the districts with weak urbanization is also contiguous set of districts – Belgaum, substantially lower than that of the districts Bagalkot and Dharwad – to the northwest with the possibility of de-urbanization. This of the state. For those seeking a wider spread last fact strengthens the view that those of urbanization in Karnataka, this is a moving out of their districts require the promising trend. income levels that are needed to enable them As is perhaps to be expected each of to find greener pastures. these regions also show very distinct levels of both income and literacy. Table 2.6 tells Table 2.6: Analysis of variance of income us that the variation of both literacy and and literacy across different categories of income between these categories is significant urbanization at the 1 per cent level. Equally predictably, Variable F ratio Level of as can be seen in table 2.7, the districts with significance strong urbanization have a significantly Literacy 9.49 1 per cent higher literacy rate than all the other Per Capita income categories. Again the average of the per (`) 2008-09 4.88 1 per cent Source: Calculated from data generated in Table 2.2 and Census of capita incomes of the districts with strong India, 2011.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 37 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

UTTARA KANNADA

50 km

DAKSHINA KANNADA

Legend Populaon pressure Deurbanisaon Weak urbanisaon Moderate urbanisaon Strong urbanisaon

Map 2.2 : Degrees of urbanisation in Karnataka

38 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES PATTERNS OF URBANIZATION IN KARNATAKA

DISTRIBUTION OF URBAN POPULATION varies across categories. It is also a It should be evident from the five summary figure for the changes in categories we have defined in the process urbanization that have taken place over of urbanization that the spread of this the years. To get a more dynamic picture process is not uniform across the state. of the process of urbanization it might be Table 2.8 tells us that the districts with more useful to look at the distribution of strong urbanization accounted for 48 per the additions to urban population between cent of Karnataka’s urban population in 2001 and 2011. A comparison of these 2011 while districts with the possibility of figures with those of the overall de-urbanization accounted for less than proportions will give us an idea of the nine per cent. This picture however direction in which each category is moving includes the distortions caused by the fact in terms of their contribution to fresh that the number and size of the districts urbanization.

Table 2.7: Literacy and per capita income across categories of urbanization Average literacy Average per capita income Category rate of districts % of districts in 2008-09 (`) Districts of urban population pressure 63.47 32964.67 Districts with the possibility 78.60 38533.17 of de-urbanization Districts with weak urbanization 72.72 29749.33 Districts with moderate urbanization 74.22 42722.40 Districts with strong urbanization 83.99 72796.50 Source: Census of India (2011) and Karnataka at a Glance 2010-11, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Bengaluru.

Table 2.8: Distribution of urban population Percentage of Percentage of addition to Category Karnataka’s urban Karnataka’s urban population population in 2011 between 2001 and 2011 Districts of urban population 13.55 11.03 pressure Districts with the possibility of 8.70 3.01 de-urbanization Districts with weak urbanization 15.50 10.82 Districts with moderate urbanization 14.40 10.92 Districts with strong urbanization 47.86 64.21 Of which Bengaluru 36.98 52.70 Source: Calculated from Census of India, 2011.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 39 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

The broad pattern that emerges is the identification of the cities that can be one of an urbanization that is highly engines of growth cannot be confined to concentrated in a few pockets of the state, those that have already been on the growth particularly Bengaluru. The districts with path for a while. The process of urbanization strong urbanization which already came is likely to get an equal, or greater, benefit up to nearly 48 per cent of the urban by also focusing on cities that have population in Karnataka, accounted for demonstrated a potential for emerging as 64 per cent of the increase in urban engines of growth. A prime candidate for population between 2001 and 2011. And this position in Karnataka is Mangalore and within this group too the dominance of its surrounding areas. Indeed, in terms of Bengaluru is very evident. The urban the general availability of workers seeking population of Bengaluru district to move out of the rural, the catchment area accounted for 37 per cent of the state’s for a Mangalore-based urbanization would urban population in 2011, and its share extend through to the entire Dakshina of the increase in urban population in Kannada district as well as Udipi. The data Karnataka between 2001 and 2011 was generated from the NIAS survey also 53 per cent. As a corollary the districts suggests that the towns around Mangalore with the possibility of de-urbanization that may also have the potential to contribute accounted for under nine per cent of capital to the effort. Mulki, near Mangalore, Karnataka’s urban population in 2011, has eight per cent of its population in the saw their share of the increase in urban highest asset class. This level is only a little population dropping to just three per cent. less than the 9.3 per cent recorded by Mysore The districts under urban population and well above the two per cent of pressure, those with weak urbanization, Nanjangud near Mysore. and those with moderate urbanization all The choice of engines of growth must saw their share of the increase in urban also pay attention to Karnataka’s problem population between 2001 and 2011 of being excessively dependent on dropping below their share of the overall Bengaluru. In addition to supporting urban population in 2011. The picture of alternative engines of growth with strong the urban processes in Karnataka that potential, like Mangalore, there may also clearly emerges then is one of Bengaluru- be a case to support the process of centric urbanization. urbanization in the contiguous districts of Dharwad, Belgaum and Bagalkot. Since the IMPLICATIONS FOR JNNURM current trends in these districts only suggest The patterns of urbanization in moderate tendencies to urbanization, Karnataka have at least three implications developing this engine of growth would for the working of JnNURM in the state. First, require a more broad-based effort. It would

40 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES PATTERNS OF URBANIZATION IN KARNATAKA

need to not only improve conditions in the affect other choices in the process of cities to make them more attractive to urbanization. As Table 2.9 tells us, a fifth of capital, but would also have to improve the households in Mangalore continue to use education levels in rural areas to encourage firewood as their main source of energy for rural labour to seek urban opportunities. cooking, though the city is otherwise much In developing engines of growth more open to modern practices. JnNURM would also have to be more open The patterns of urbanization in to dramatically different strategies for each Karnataka also throw up another issue that centre of urbanization. The nature of is at the heart of JnNURM. It is clear that landholding around Mangalore is such that not all towns and cities can become engines households are widely dispersed. Given the of growth. There are towns that are no more fact that as much as 82 per cent of than facilitators of the process of individuals stay in their own houses – more urbanization. This role could take various than twice the corresponding percentage in forms. The towns could be points of transit Bengaluru – they may be less inclined to for people from rural areas seeking urban move into a crowded city. But it should be futures. They could have a longer-term role possible to mobilize this workforce for an of providing the education facilities that effective engine of growth through a strategy are needed to seek better urban that lays greater stress on mobility. The opportunities. It could be argued that nature of the engines of growth would then Mandya is playing this role for villages need to vary with some of them being more that have benefitted from the Green sensitive to mobility than others. Similarly, Revolution. The needs of these towns are the nature of the environment could also very different from most engines of growth.

Table 2.9: Features of selected cities and towns in Karnataka In per cent Proportion of TOWN Proportion of Proportion of households Proportion of houses with no where firewood is main households in households living toilet inside energy source for cooking highest asset class in their own house Bengaluru 3.0 2.9 10.2 40.4 Dharwad 1.5 7.1 8.6 65.2 Gulbarga 23.1 18.5 3.0 70.3 Mangalore 0.7 20.0 11.3 82.0 Mulki 0.0 22.0 8.0 94.0 Mysore 2.0 3.1 9.3 67.3 Nanjangud 2.0 0.0 2.0 70.0 Shahbad 44.0 24.0 0.0 56.0

Source: NIAS Survey 2013

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 41 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

These towns may need to emphasize Shahbad. In terms of human development education infrastructure much more than providing basic facilities to the entire infrastructure that attracts manufacturing population of such towns is at least as investment. much a necessity of the process of There is also the question of what is urbanization as the need to provide world to be done about towns and cities that are class infrastructure to the major cities. This way down in terms of the quality of life. requires a focus not just on the poor within As Table 2.9 informs us, 23 per cent of the the cities as the BSUP component of households in Gulbarga do not have a JnNURM does, but also alternative toilet inside the house and this number strategies for cities that are at the bottom goes up to as much as 44 per cent in of the human development scale.

42 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 3 THE CITY DEVELOPMENT PLANS

he City Development Plan (CDP) based on the inclusion of the new areas under T is at the core of JnNURM, providing the jurisdiction of BBMP. In this report, the framework in which projects are unless stated otherwise, the CDP for identified and prioritized. Any city that seeks Bengaluru refers to the one revised in 2009. to avail financial assistance under the Consultants had a major role to play Mission needs to prepare a CDP and get it in the making of the CDPs. The mandate approved. The CDP is supposed to be a six for the consultants from the Urban Local year policy and investment plan that has to Bodies was to project the population of the be designed to articulate a vision of how Bengaluru and Mysore, and provide capital the city will grow. Thus CDPs had to be investment plans for projects in these cities. prepared for both Bengaluru and Mysore. The consultants held stakeholders meetings In reality two CDPs were prepared for for a group of wards in the city that included Bengaluru, one in 2006 and a revised one citizen groups, NGOs, and elected in 2009. The first CDP was approved by the representatives from these wards. The Ministry of Urban Development, consultants also collected data through a Government of India in 2006. However there questionnaire survey on sectors such as water was a change in the governance structure supply and sewerage. The systematic manner as a result of the formation of the Bruhat in which the opinion of various stakeholders Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) was collected did not however always along with the addition of 110 villages to translate into significant contributions to the the city area in 2007. As a result, the CDP making of the CDP. The consultants felt that was revised to incorporate this change and most of the issues raised in the stakeholder provide an update of the investment plan meetings were individual issues which were

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not very useful with respect to their mandate. would lose some of its population growth to At the same time a view was also expressed other cities has been belied. Karnataka’s sole in official circles that since the consultants metropolis accounts for an increasing share were not local they could not adequately of the additional urban population. The capture the finer details of the city. The general economic slowdown may have exercise did however lead to CDPs that, by prevented it from reaching the and large, met the stated requirements of extrapolations based on earlier growth, but the JnNURM toolkit. the 2011 Census provisional figure of the An evaluation of a CDP would use the population of BBMP is, at 84.44 lakhs, more benefit of hindsight to compare the than 5 per cent greater than the estimates projections of the CDP with the reality that used in the CDP. And since the projected has emerged. The CDP for Bengaluru as population of the CDP was “used as the basis revised in 2009 does not do particularly well for service assessment and delivery for all in this regard. In projecting the growth of infrastructure sectors considered in the Bengaluru's population the CDP first subsequent sections,”3 the underestimation considers the growth of the core Bengaluru was transferred to the rest of the Plan. Mahanagara Palike area and the CMCs that If the population of Bengaluru has were added to it separately. It then estimates been underestimated in its CDP, the opposite that if existing trends continue the city (the is the case with Mysore. The CDP for Mysore core BMP area and the CMCs together) will had projected various levels of population reach a population of 98.15 lakhs by 2011.1 according to the growth rate the city was The CDP however goes on to argue that likely to achieve. As per these projections Bengaluru cannot maintain its growth rate. the population of Karnataka’s second most It states that "there is a likely saturation of populous city would be 10.1 lakhs in 2010 the current space dedicated to urbanization. even if the city grew at what the CDP . . This stress is already leading to a trend in referred to as the base rate, with the economic investment moving to Tier-II cities, population expected to reach 12.2 lakhs in such as Mysore."2 It thus projected the 2011 the same year if the city achieved a high population of Bengaluru to be just 80.15 growth rate. The reality, the Census of India lakhs. 2011 tells us, is that a year after the year As we have seen in the previous for which projections were made the chapter the expectation that Bengaluru population was just 9.2 lakhs, nearly 9 per

1 Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission,Revised City Development Plan, Bengaluru 2009, Vol I, p 57. 2 Revised City Development Plan, Bengaluru, 2009, Vol I, p 58 3 Revised City Development Plan, Bengaluru, 2009, Vol I, p 58

44 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE CITY DEVELOPMENT PLANS

cent below the expected levels. With the the Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike. projections for both Bengaluru and Mysore As the CDP notes, “BBMP was formed in being significantly off the mark, and in 2007, by amalgamating the erstwhile opposite directions, it would not be Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BMP), particularly useful to lay much emphasis on surrounding eight smaller urban local a mechanical comparison of the projected bodies and110 villages.”5A city is however figures with the reality that has emerged. not just an administrative entity; it also has The value of a CDP is however not its economic, social and political limited to its precise projections. JnNURM dimensions. Indeed, JnNURM provides a in fact treats the CDP as being much more prominent place for the economic than the earlier Master Plans which were dimension by emphasizing the role of a city concerned primarily with land use. as an engine of growth, if not consisting of JnNURM’s revised toolkit points out that a multiple engines of growth. The boundaries “City Development Plan is a comprehensive of these other dimensions of a city are document outlining the vision and arguably better captured by the extent of development strategy for future development its built-up area. These boundaries will give of the city.”4 It is important then to look us an idea of the magnitude and direction beyond the precise estimates to the overall of the city’s growth. To the extent that the approach to urban development that is administration is designed to meet the reflected in the CDP. And the Revised City requirements of the entire urban entity, the Development Plan for Bengaluru of 2009 administrative boundaries should not be too points to at least four issues that need to be different from the boundaries that emerge addressed when preparing future plans for by tracing the outer limits of the built up the city: what constitutes the city; how we space. mangage the city’s growth; how we protect In Bengaluru’s case, however, these two the vulnerable; and how we generate and boundaries do not match. The outer manage resources. boundary of the built up space of Bengaluru can be drawn using satellite imagery. We WHAT CONSTITUTES THE CITY? can then superimpose this boundary on the In laying out the city profile as the ward map of BBMP. Map 3.1 carries out basis for its plan, the CDP identifies this exercise using satellite imagery for 2008 Bengaluru with the administrative area of the year after the creation of BBMP. The

4 Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, Sub-Mission for Urban Infrastructure and Govern- ance, Revised Toolkit for Preparation of City Development Plan, Ministry of Urban Development, Govern- ment of India 5 Revised City Development Plan, Bengaluru, 2009, Vol I, p11

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5 km

Legend BBMP ward boundary

Bangalore city built-up area in 2008

Bangalore city built-up area in 2012

Map 3.1: BBMP ward map and the outer boundary of Bengaluru’s built up space

46 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE CITY DEVELOPMENT PLANS

map makes it clear that there is a mismatch the city’s development to the potential both in terms of areas that the city has growth of these sectors. It would have, for apparently not yet reached being included instance, ensured there was adequate in the Pallike, as well as of substantial parts housing close to this part of the city so that of the city being left out. A significant the commute from home to work does not portion of several wards, like Varthur, do not place a more-than-necessary strain on the show signs in the satellite imagery of being city’s transport system. But with a major a part of the expansion of Bengaluru’s built- engine of growth outside its administrative up space. And there are such areas to the boundaries the CDP itself has tended to play north and the east of the city, and to a lesser down the potential of this sector. The CDP extent to the west. The inclusion of areas notes that the growth of the IT corridor “is that the city has not yet reached is perhaps concentrated in the southeast quadrant, with to be expected once the BBMP area was some spill over into the northeast quadrant. defined to include 110 villages. It could be This scenario depends on the fact that growth argued that the inclusion of these areas is will be concentrated in a pattern that reflects not a serious shortcoming. It could be seen the current spread of the IT Industry. as an attempt to be prepared for the city However, given the fact that there are when it reaches these villages. attractors elsewhere – north for the new What is more significant is the large airport, and southwest for the Bengaluru- part of the built up area to the southeast of Mysore axis, this may not be [a] very the Bengaluru that does not come within the probable scenario.”6 administrative boundaries of the BBMP. And The projected growth scenarios did not leaving out this particular part of Bengaluru prove to be entirely accurate, as is evident from the BBMP, and hence the boundaries from Map 3.1. As was to be expected during the CDP works with, is particularly a time of a global slowdown that hurt significant because of its implications for several of the city’s industries, Bengaluru’s Bengaluru’s engines of growth. The southeast growth, as seen through the outer limits of part of Bengaluru that falls outside the its built up space, between 2008 and 2012 BBMP limits houses a significant portion was very limited. But a part of this limited of the city’s information technology and growth was found in the Information biotechnology industries. These sectors have Technology industry-led south east quadrant been among the more substantial engines as well. of Bengaluru’s growth since the mid-1980s. The challenge of defining boundaries An effective CDP would have tried to link in Mysore is no less complex. As in the

6 Revised City Development Plan, Bengaluru, 2009, Vol I, p 52

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Map 3.2: The wards and outer boundaries of Mysore in 2009

48 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE CITY DEVELOPMENT PLANS

case of Bengaluru, the outer boundaries HOW DO WE MANAGE THE CITY’S of Mysore as defined by its built up space GROWTH? is not consistent with boundaries defined A common theme when planning for by the map of its wards. As Map 3.2 tells Bengaluru’s growth has been that setting up us, there are large areas of Mysore’s built satellite towns will release at least some of up space to the west of the city that lie the pressure on Karnataka’s sole metropolis. outside the limits marked by its wards. It is not entirely surprising then that a There are also areas to the southeast of strategically significant component of the the city that are within the limits marked CDP is the emphasis it lays on the by the wards of the city, but are outside development of satellite towns that involve the boundaries drawn by the built-up area the “design of smaller towns governed under of the city. Defining the economic different municipalities that are adjacent to boundaries of the city is also not without a major city which is the core of the its ambiguities. If, as is often done, metropolitan area.”7 These satellite towns heritage is seen as an important part of are expected to be self-sufficient communities the city and its economy, the boundaries – with work, live and play spaces – that can of the city would have to be extended make use of their connection to the centre further. The heritage potential is not of the metropolitan area. The five major confined to the limits of the city defined towns that are being taken up by the either by its wards or by its built-up space. Bengaluru Metropolitan Region From a tourism perspective it is usually Development Authority are Bidadi, linked to the other nearby heritage centre, Ramanagara, Sathanur, Solur, and Srirangapatna. As the two centres can Nandagudi. In addition the CDP notes that easily be covered in a day working out a the “private sector is also in the process of common strategy for them would have its planning and developing large, self-sufficient economic value. The CDP of Mysore townships, particularly along the Bengaluru- provides a prominent place for the Mysore corridor.”8 heritage of the city. It however confines The CDP does not however pay any itself to Mysore city alone. In the process attention to Bengaluru’s historical it loses the synergy that could be found experience with satellite townships. The by planning for the compact circuit of public sector townships, which had their own Mysore and Srirangapatna. In Mysore’s local institutions like the HAL Sanitary case too the economic boundaries and the Board, did have considerable success. They administrative boundaries do not match. created effective work, live and play islands

7 Revised City Development Plan, Bengaluru, 2009, Vol I, p 53 8 Revised City Development Plan, Bengaluru, 2009, Vol I, p 56

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to the north and east of Bengaluru. In a to first create the township and then hope to national ethos dominated by the public attract the appropriate industry. sector several of these units claimed This approach is also reflected in listing significant roles in Indian post-independence housing as one of the economic activities industrialization. The living spaces provided around which a township could be built. The the education and health facilities that idea would then seem to include purely helped the children of public sector workers residential townships. Indeed, the private to emerge as trained technologically townships on the Bengaluru-Mysore corridor advanced manpower. These institutions also that the CDP refers to are essentially dominated Bengaluru’s sporting, especially extended gated communities. soccer, environment. And by using their own Bengaluru’s experience with the network of buses they placed a relatively development of primarily residential satellite limited strain on Bengaluru’s transport townships has not been very encouraging. facilities. Typically these satellite towns do not take At the heart of this success was off until the city expands to meet them. This production activity. The areas of production pattern was noticed when Kengeri satellite were well funded and seen as being a part town was created. The private townships of India’s effort to catch up with the rest of created since then have seen a similar pattern. the world, especially in terms of technology. Map 3.3 uses satellite imagery to capture the The townships thus had both the resources pockets of built-up spaces within the outer and the status to build around their boundaries of Bengaluru that were recorded workplace. With the benefits of unionization in the earlier map in this chapter. And the the townships were also able to attract pattern that clearly emerges is one of a built- scientific and other manpower from all over up area being created a short distance from the country. the city, and then the city grows to occupy In contrast the CDP’s advocacy of the area between the new built-up area and satellite townships does not provide the same the city. The 1973 picture captures the process central role for the workplace. While there of the area between the public sector is a mention that individual satellite townships and the city being occupied townships could house certain industries, through urbanization. By 1992 a new pocket there is little exploration of how that emerged around Yelahanka to the north of investment is to be made. The long list of the city. By 2000, after the IT boom took off requirements for the developer emphasizes a further set of new pockets emerged to the the making of physical amenities from roads southeast of the city. The period from 2000 to housing. There is very little on why to 2008 sees many of these pockets being investors should come to that particular absorbed into the city, a process that sees a township. The strategy would appear to be further consolidation, particularly in the

50 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE CITY DEVELOPMENT PLANS

Map 3.3: Built up spaces in Bengaluru

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southeast between 2008 and 2012. Bengaluru can be identified with its slums. The toolkit has thus tended to grow by the emergence of for the CDP after its second revision states, pockets a little away from the city, prompted “The key issues pertaining to Basic by, among other things, the availability of Services for Urban Poor is lack of basic land at affordable prices. But these new infrastructure facilities in slums like pockets do not develop into self-contained inadequate access to sanitation facilities, satellite towns. Instead they become points water supply (public stand posts), dearth towards which the city grows. Many of the of access to health, education and other gated communities that are coming up on social infrastructure facilities” [Emphasis the Bengaluru-Mysore corridor may just be added].9 Having effectively defined the investments in areas that Bengaluru is poor as those living in slums, the main expected to reach, rather than potential thrust of the Basic Services to the Urban satellite townships. Poor component in the Mission cities and the Integrated Housing and Slum HOW DO WE PROTECT THE Development Programme in the other VULNERABLE? towns is on housing for slum dwellers. The process of urbanization makes In order to evaluate this identification several groups vulnerable, with the poor of the poor with slums we first developed an having the least resources to protect indicator based on whether or not the themselves against the uncertainties of household in our survey owned particular change. An effective strategy for assets.10 In deciding the weights for each asset urbanization would ensure the basic needs in the indicator market prices were used to of the poor are addressed. JnNURM is answer a simple question: What would be acutely aware of this task as is evident in the minimum economic value a household the Basic Services to the Urban Poor could claim if it owned that asset? The weight component of the Mission. The process for a particular asset was then the proportion through which it identifies the poor is of its economic value to the sum of the however not beyond dispute. The economic values of all the chosen assets. The documents of the Mission reflect an indicator was calculated from data collected underlying belief that the poor in a city from five cities – Bengaluru, Mysore,

9 JnNURM, Toolkit for Preparation of City Development Plan, Sub-Mission for Urban Infrastructure and Governance, April 2013, Second Revision, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, p 50. 10 The indicator was constructed by first asking whether and how many of the following nine assets the household owned: cycle, geyser, cell phone, radio, colour TV, computer, refrigerator, two-wheeler and car. The weight given for each of these assets was cycle=0.3695, geyser=0.7391, cell phone=0.2094, radio=0.1231, colour TV=0.9855, computer=2.4639, refrigerator=1.4783, two-wheeler (motor cycle and scooter)= 7.3918, car= 36.9594. The asset indicators were classified in the following order: 1 = 0 to 1.40; 2 = 1.41 to 5.00; 3 = 5.01 to 9.50; 4=9.51 to 13.00; 5 = 13.01 to 40.00; 6= Above 40

52 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE CITY DEVELOPMENT PLANS

Mangalore, Hubli-Dharwad and Gulbarga all those belonging to category 1, roughly – and three towns – Nanjangud, Mulki and corresponding to the bottom 20 per cent of Shahbad. The indicator was arranged from the population as the poor. For the specific the lowest to the highest for all the cities purpose of identifying where the poor stay and towns together. The indicator for the 20th, we further broke up the category of poor to 40th, 60th, and 80th percentiles were taken as create a group of the very poor, which the cut off points to define asset classes. The roughly corresponded to the bottom 5 per top fifth was then further divided to create a cent of our sample. sixth class. This division was to separate The most striking result of this exercise those households whose indicator score is that slums are far from being the only would allow them to own a car and a few places where the poor reside. As can be seen other assets. This sixth class was treated as from Table 3.1 less than 30 per cent of the the highest in the asset score. Clearly this very poor in Bengaluru live in slums, and indicator is not designed to capture the rich slums account for the residence of less than or the super-rich. But since the focus of the 14 per cent of the other poor. A fairly BSUP and the IHSDP was to be on the poor significant number of the poor live in villages it was deliberately decided to choose a that have been engulfed by the city. And measure that is more sensitive to capturing over three-fourths of all of Bengaluru’s poor variations among the poor and the middle live outside slums. The pattern in Mysore is classes rather than the rich. We then treated equally interesting. The city is well on its

Table 3.1: Distribution of poor households by place of residence In per cent Bengaluru Mysore Other areas Slums Urban villages Other areas Slums Very poor 63.2 29.2 7.5 100.0 0.0 Other poor 79.8 13.9 6.3 90.6 9.4 All poor 75.7 17.7 6.6 92.5 7.5 Source: NIAS Survey, 2013

Table 3.2: Distribution of population living in slums by asset class In per cent Asset Asset Asset Asset Asset Asset class 1 class 2 class 3 class 4 class 5 class 6 Bengaluru 50.0 28.0 8.7 11.3 2.0 0.0 Mysore 12.0 26.0 52.0 8.0 2.0 0.0 Source: NIAS Survey, 2013 Note: Asset classes are numbered from the poorest to the richest. Asset Class 1 corresponds to the All Poor category in the previous table.

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way to becoming slum free. But this only owning a house, particularly in Bengaluru. means the poor have to live elsewhere. As per Table 3.3 in that city 57 per cent of The slums may not always be the worst the poor households that live in slums claim place for the poor to live. The slums also seem ownership of their houses. In contrast, 81 to attract those who do not fall into the asset per cent of the poor living in ‘other areas’ class which we have identified as the poor. live in rented houses. Even in Bengaluru’s Table 3.2 tell us that only half the households urban villages 75 per cent of the poor live of slums in Bengaluru fall in that category. in rented accommodation. This pattern And the number in Mysore is only 12 per however cannot be generalized as Mysore cent. The rest belong to higher classes going provides the opposite picture. all the way up to Asset Class 5. The fact that slums are recognized by One of the reasons why those who are the government does seem to offer these not among the poorest would stay in slums areas some marginal benefits when could be the high cost of housing in other compared to the condition of the poor in, areas of the city, particularly in Bengaluru. say, villages of Bengaluru. As Table 3.4 tells Slums may be the only houses those not too us, 72 per cent of the poor living in slums far away from being poor can afford. Even have access to sewage lines, while this among the poor households, slums are the number is only 61 per cent for the poor areas where they have a better chance of living in urban villages. Nearly 40 per cent

Table 3.3: Distribution of poor households by ownership status of house In per cent Bengaluru Mysore Owned Rented Leased Owned Rented Leased Other areas 18.4 80.6 0.9 62.2 36.5 1.4 Slums 57.3 42.7 0.0 33.3 66.7 0.0 Urban villages 21.4 75.0 3.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 Source: NIAS Survey, 2013

Table 3.4: Distribution of poor households by access to sanitation In per cent Bengaluru Mysore Sewage Septic Pit Sewage Septic Pit Others Others line tank latrine line tank latrine Other areas 76.6 0.3 22.8 0.3 95.9 0.0 1.4 2.7 Slums 72.0 1.3 10.7 16.0 83.3 0.0 0.0 16.7 Urban Villages 60.7 0.0 39.3 0.0 — — — — Source: NIAS Survey, 2013

54 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE CITY DEVELOPMENT PLANS

of those living in Bengaluru’s urban villages The different places where the poor live have to make use of pit latrines. This is not provide very different living environments. to suggest that all the poor households in And each environment has different levels of slums are better off with 16 per cent of these access to even something as basic as cooking households having to use ‘other’ means for fuels. A significant proportion of the non-slum sanitation, something that those living in poor in Bengaluru have access to LPG – 75 urban villages do not have to do. per cent in urban villages and 66 per cent in Slums also have greater access to other areas – whereas in slums in Bengaluru public taps. As Table 3.5 tells us, close to 90 this access is less than 15 per cent. The same per cent of the poor living in urban villages difference is noticeable in Mysore as well. and other areas of Bengaluru use public taps Table 3.6 tells us that all the poor households or shared taps for water. This number is in slums use kerosene as their primary fuel higher for slums at nearly 99 per cent. But for cooking while 73 per cent of the poor in 95 per cent of the poor living in slums in other areas use LPG as their primary source Bengaluru have access to public taps of energy for cooking. compared to just around 61 per cent for the The identification of the poor with those poor households in other areas and urban residing in slums is thus quite misleading. villages in the city. Only a fraction of the poor live in them,

Table 3.5: Distribution of poor households by use of public taps In per cent Bengaluru Mysore Only Only Public Shared Public Shared private private taps taps taps taps taps taps Other areas 60.9 27.5 11.6 28.4 17.6 54.1 Slums 94.7 4.0 1.3 83.3 16.7 0.0 Urban Villages 60.7 28.6 10.7 — — — Source: NIAS Survey, 2013

Table 3.6: Distribution of poor households by main source of energy for cooking In per cent Bengaluru Mysore LPG Electricity Kerosene Firewood LPG Electricity Kerosene Firewood Other areas 66.3 1.3 28.4 4.1 73.0 0.0 17.6 9.5 Slums 14.7 1.3 45.3 38.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 Urban Villages 75.0 0.0 17.9 7.1 — — — — Source: NIAS Survey, 2013

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and only a fraction of the slums are occupied dependent on Cauvery water that enters the by the poor. And urban strategy that ignores city through the Tathaguni pumping station. this element will, at best, be ineffective and This entry point is to the south-west of the partial. city. But as Map 3.4 tells us, the consumption points are predictably spread HOW DO WE GENERATE AND MANAGE across the city, with some of the relatively THE RESOURCES THAT ARE NEEDED? larger points of billed consumption being One of the difficulties with planning to the north. As the terrain from the for the city in isolation is that it ignores southwest of Bengaluru to the northern the pressures that the city places on its parts of the city is not smoothly downward surrounding areas. This problem reached sloping, supplying water to the north of the crisis proportions when villages near the city necessarily involves the higher energy city strongly opposed the location in their cost of pumping water to these areas. Is vicinity of landfills for Bengaluru’s there a case then for encouraging the main garbage. The CDP for Bengaluru shows a water consumers to locate towards the south similar lack of sensitivity to the possibility of the city? While there may be no easy of a conflict of interests between the city answers to such questions the CDP does not and the rural areas. In its SWOT analysis even explicitly recognize such issues in the the CDP for Bengaluru lists water distribution of resources across the city. availability in the Cauvery basin as one of the strengths of the city. But the availability THE PRESENT IN THE FUTURE of this water is subject to an inter-state One of the major shifts JnNURM seeks dispute. It is also not clear that farmers to make is from a largely spatial Master within Karnataka will be willing to allow Plan to a strategic plan for the city. It seeks Bengaluru as much water as the city to look not only at the use of space but demands from the Cauvery. The city is also at the other elements of the quality of already beginning to feel these pressures life as the city develops as an engine of in poor-monsoon years. Indeed, there may growth. To this end there is considerable even be a case to shift the availability of attention paid in the CDP to the water in the Cauvery basin from the availability of facilities for the citizens Strengths box of the SWOT analysis to the including, and especially, the poor. What is Weaknesses box. not adequately recognized however is that The problems of sharing resources are the citizens of a city are not just users of not only between the city and the various facilities, but also a part of the countryside but within the city as well. This resources that determine the course a city can be seen in the case of water supply. takes. The role of education and culture does Bengaluru has become increasingly not find much place in the CDP for

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5 km Total Consumption in millions of litres 0.0 -6.0 6.0-12.0 12.0-18.0 18.0-24.0 24.0-30.0 30.0-36.0 36.0 and above

Map 3.4: Total Per-day Billed Water Consumption in Bengaluru city, 2012

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Bengaluru. Culture does find greater more difficult to treat these spaces as mention in the CDP for Mysore, with necessarily being dominated by traffic and heritage being a significant component of its rules. They can then tend to treat the that plan. But in both CDPs there is very roads in much more informal ways even little recognition of the relationship between when they drive vehicles. This problem is the growth of a city and the development particularly acute in Bengaluru where, as of its human capital. The development of can be seen in Table 3.7, the proportion of the education system in the two cities does children between the ages of five and fifteen not merit a separate sectoral analysis in whose main places of play are roads is not either of the CDPs.11 negligible, at 8.4 per cent. It is also worth There is also very little attention paid noting that this proportion does not show a to the way the next generation uses the significant decline in the higher asset spaces available in the city in their less classes of our sample. The proportion of formal actions. It can be argued that children in Mysore whose main place of children learn as much in play as in formal play is the road is significantly lower, but education. And the spaces that are available here again there is no decline in the higher to them to play influence their attitudes to asset classes. It must be remembered that the city. Children who have grown up our highest asset class would correspond playing on the streets will find it that much to the middle and upper middle classes and

Table 3.7: Distribution of children between the ages of 5 and 15 by the main places where they play In per cent Asset Park/playgrounds/ class School Home open areas Road Bengaluru Mysore Bengaluru Mysore Bengaluru Mysore Bengaluru Mysore 1 37.3 42.0 36.1 34.0 20.2 20.0 6.0 4.0 2 26.9 65.2 42.0 28.8 21.6 4.5 8.6 1.5 3 17.9 30.6 55.6 65.9 20.5 3.6 6.1 0.0 4 19.7 30.0 37.2 50.0 30.1 15.7 12.6 4.3 5 20.6 31.3 41.3 59.7 30.1 6.0 7.9 3.0 6 30.0 28.9 26.9 52.6 36.9 5.2 6.2 13.2 Total 25.5 38.0 40.2 49.7 25.6 8.8 8.4 3.5 Source: NIAS survey 2013 Note: Rows for individual cities need not add up to 100 as there are other areas where children can play such as sports complexes.

11 The Mysore CDP does list the major educational institutions when providing a background of the city, but there is little attention to the issues in this sector.

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not the rich. Nevertheless the idea of the documents that can determine the course the road being a legitimate place of play two cities must take. In the absence of such appears to be a norm that has some a convincing strategy the CDPs can do little acceptance, and must therefore be factored more than identify the points of pressure in in when planning for a city. If it is believed different elements of the city. The CDPs focus that this is not conducive to the growth of on specific detailed plans for individual a modern city with its high-speed traffic, sectors including water supply and sewerage, adequate attention must be paid in the CDPs management of solid waste, urban drainage to providing safe and adequate spaces for systems, roads and transportation, heritage, play in our cities. urban renewal, civic amenities and urban governance. But without a convincing overall strategy, the CDPs are not in a The CDPs of Bengaluru and Mysore position to provide a strict set of priorities thus fall some distance short of being for the numerous projects that the two cities convincing and comprehensive strategic need.

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4 CHOICE OF INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

n the absence of a clear and Administration (DMA) is the nodal agency for I overwhelming set of priorities from the the UDISSMT component, while the CDPs the choice of projects has been influenced Karnataka Slum Development Board (KSDB) by the agencies and the processes through is the nodal agency for the IHSDP component. which they have been chosen. At the core of The responsibility for implementing these processes are the state level nodal projects lies with the urban local bodies and agencies. A nodal agency generally looks after the various parastatal agencies. There are a the process of inviting projects from urban number of implementing agencies for local bodies or parastatal agencies, managing Bengaluru and Mysore, including the Bruhat funds received from central and state Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP), the governments, and distribution of the funds as Bengaluru Water Supply and Sewerage per the financial pattern given in the JnNURM Board (BWSSB), the Bengaluru guidelines. The nodal agency is expected to Development Authority (BDA), the appraise the submitted detailed project reports; Bengaluru Metropolitan Transport this can be done either in-house or through Corporation (BMTC), the Karnataka State external agencies or state level technical Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC), the agencies. There are three state level nodal Karnataka Slum Development agencies in Karnataka. The Karnataka Urban Board(KSDB), the Mysore City Corporation Infrastructure Development and Finance (MCC), the Mysore Urban Development Corporation (KUIDFC) is the agency for the Authority (MUDA), and the Karnataka UIG and BSUP components of JnNURM in Urban Water Supply and Drainage Board Karnataka. The Department of Municipal (KUWSDB)etc.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 61 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

In theory, these implementing agencies Some consultants felt that the pre-feasibility are expected to develop a shelf of projects analysis carried out by the implementing based on the CDPs and the JnNURM agencies underestimate the work both in guidelines. But with the CDPs being less than terms of the manpower as well as the time overwhelming, these agencies have gained required for completion. a greater freedom in their choice of projects. The implementing agency also interacts Indeed, it is not entirely unknown for the with the state level nodal agency for implementing agencies to already have a applying for funding under JnNURM. Once shelf of projects which they try to carry out the project is approved the implementing either through their own funds or through agency appoints a project management funds from various lending agencies like consultant who looks into the quality and World Bank, Asian Development Bank etc. timeline issues with respect to the project Some projects of the implementing agencies after it has been awarded to contractors. were also funded by the Government of Given the prominent role played by the Karnataka. The implementing agencies have implementation agencies in the choice of tried to use JnNURM funding to reduce the projects the overall direction of JnNURM loan component from these lending agencies. in Karnataka has to be traced from the Before adding a project to the shelf of patterns that emerge on the ground. The projects, an implementing agency generally choice between the different components of conducts a feasibility analysis, which is the Mission, as well as that between the typically done internally. different sectors that the Mission could have The first step that the implementing supported has to be derived from the agency takes after deciding to apply for investment patterns that have emerged funding for a project under JnNURM is to during the course of the Mission. And the appoint a consultant to prepare the detailed pattern that emerges in both sets of choices project report. Consultants play an is quite clear. important role both in the formulation of As can be seen in Table 4.1, JnNURM the detailed project report and the is predominantly an urban infrastructure management of the implementation of programme. The Urban Infrastructure and projects. Each component under JnNURM Governance (UIG) component accounts for has its own panel of consultants and it is around two-thirds of the approved costs of rare to see a consultant working on a range JnNURM projects. Together with the costs of projects under different components. As of projects under the Urban Infrastructure mentioned above, the consultants work on Development Scheme for Small and Medium the detailed project report only after some Towns (UIDSSMT), infrastructure accounts sort of pre-feasibility analysis has been for nearly four-fifths of the approved costs conducted by the implementing agency. of JnNURM. The relative importance given

62 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CHOICE OF INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

Table 4.1: Distribution of approved costs of JnNURM projects JnNURM Bengaluru Mysore Total Share of total JnNURM Component (` Cr) (` Cr) (` Cr) cost in per cent UIG 2887.19 894.01 3781.20 66.52 BSUP 584.83 258.84 843.67 14.84 UIDSSMT NA NA 682.49 12.01 IHSDP NA NA 376.66 6.63 Total 3472.02 1152.85 5684.02 Source: KUIDFC status report December 2012, Department of Municipal Administration status presentation as on December 31, 2012; Karnataka Slum Development Board IHSDP status as on 31st March 2013. The IHSDP figures are estimated costs. NA = Not applicable. to infrastructure when compared to anti- where cities and towns play different roles poverty components is particularly sharp in in the entire process, and require state the Mission cities. The gap is large enough support to play these roles efficiently, the in the small and medium towns with the overemphasis on Bengaluru and Mysore can approved costs in infrastructure accounting be a serious limitation. for twice the approved costs in schemes for The pattern that emerges from the the poor. Bengaluru and Mysore reveal an approved costs is broadly reflected in the even sharper difference as in the two cities number of projects as well. Bengaluru with taken together infrastructure accounts for 53 projects has the maximum number of well above four times the costs of the Basic JnNURM projects in Karnataka. Of these Services to the Urban Poor component. projects, 39 projects come under the UIG A second, somewhat predictable, component, with the remaining 14 projects pattern that emerges from the distribution being a part of the BSUP component. of approved costs is the primacy of Mysore has 14 projects under JnNURM, with Bengaluru in JnNURM in Karnataka. 10 UIG projects and 4 BSUP projects. The Projects in Bengaluru account for 61 per size of the projects is understandably smaller cent of the total approved costs of projects in the small and medium towns. The under JnNURM in the state. This dominance relatively lower share of JnNURM funds that occurs within a larger preference for the have been provided to UIDSSMT has been chosen JnNURM cities over other small and spread over various projects in 30 towns. medium towns. Bengaluru and Mysore, With respect to IHSDP, KSDB received 48 taken together, account for over four-fifths proposals of which 34 proposals were of the approved costs of JnNURM projects approved by the SLEC and the CSMC. 25 in Karnataka. This pattern is consistent with projects were approved in the first phase the focus of JnNURM on major cities. If we while nine were approved in the second take the process of urbanization as a whole, phase.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 63 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE AND GOVERNANCE

Within the dominance of Bengaluru flyovers to the list, the share goes up to a and Mysore there is a further concentration third of the approved costs of UIG projects. in specific sectors of Urban Infrastructure In Bengaluru drainage projects as well as and Governance. In both Bengaluru and storm water drains account for close to Mysore mobility has an important place in another third each of the approved costs. As terms of approved costs under the UIG a result the three sectors – mobility, storm component of JnNURM. Table 4.2 tells us water drains and other drainage – account transport accounts for as much as 44 per for 99 per cent of the approved costs. This cent of the approved costs of UIG projects focus on just three sectors leaves out several in Mysore. The number seems somewhat critical areas from benefiting significantly lower for Bengaluru at 22 per cent. But once from JnNURM funds, including water, solid we add other mobility related projects like waste management and the preservation of underpasses, grade separators, sidewalks and Bengaluru’s heritage.

Table 4.2: UIG projects in Bengaluru Total approved cost Sector No. of Projects % Share of projects in ` crore Bengaluru Mysore Bengaluru Mysore Bengaluru Mysore Transport 11 4 636.08 393.05 22 44 Development of TTMC 10 0 333.01 0 11.5 0 Funding of buses 1 1 303.07 45.58 10.5 5.1 Transport infrastructure/ Intelligent systems 0 2 0 107.96 0 12.1 Outer ring road 0 1 0 239.51 0 26.8 Underpass/Grade Separator/ Sidewalks/Flyover 13 0 356.15 0 12.3 0 Water 2 2 25.96 303.36 0.9 33.9 Drainage/Sewerage/ Underground Drainage 9 0 943.62 0 32.8 0 Storm water drains 4 1 925.38 125 32 14 Heritage core and urban renewal 0 1 0 39.45 0 4.4 Zoo infrastructure 0 1 0 3.3 0 0.4 Solid Waste Management 0 1 0 29.85 0 3.3 Total UIG projects 39 10 2887.19 894.01 100 100 Source: KUIDFC status report December 2012 Note: TTMC stands for Traffic and Transit Management Centre.

64 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CHOICE OF INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

In Mysore the degree of concentration Bengaluru does not have any solid waste of approved costs of projects under management project, while Mysore has JnNURM across different sectors is less, even utilized the JnNURM opportunity to prepare if only in comparison to Bengaluru. The non- a plan. Water projects in Mysore both in transport related projects under the UIG share as well as absolute number have an component do have one major alternative important presence compared to Bengaluru, focus in water projects. The water sector which ironically, is a more parched city. accounts for 33.9 per cent of the approved Approved cost of storm water drain projects costs for UIG projects so that water and in Bengaluru in absolute terms is more than transport together account for nearly 78 per seven times that in Mysore. cent of the total UIG costs. But the The prominent role of the implementing remaining 22.1 per cent is distributed across agencies in the choice of projects could be several sectors: storm water drains, heritage, seen as a sign of effective decentralization. zoo infrastructure and solid waste These agencies are closer to the reality on management. the ground and are hence in a better position The difference between Bengaluru and to determine what a city needs. But to Mysore in their emphasis on individual evaluate the extent of effective sectors is not just in the degree of decentralization we need to also take on concentration. The choice of specific sectors board the difference between decision too does tend to vary quite significantly. The making by parastatals and that by elected share of funding of buses at 5.1 per cent in local bodies. Since parastatals are in effect Mysore is half of that in Bengaluru, while controlled by the state government, the share of the Outer Ring Road project in extent of decentralization is better captured Mysore is at 26.8 per cent more than double by the share of elected urban local bodies the share of road projects in Bengaluru. It in the projects funded through JnNURM. must also be noted that under JnNURM And the picture here is less than ideal. As

Table 4.3: Share of implementing agencies in UIG projects Bengaluru Mysore Implementing No. of Total approved Share in Implementing No. of Total approved Share in agency projects cost ` crore per cent agency projects cost ` crore per cent BBMP 14 1196.87 41.45 KUWSDB 2 303.36 33.93 BWSSB 11 969.58 33.58 MCC 3 194.30 21.73 BMTC 11 636.08 22.03 KSRTC 3 153.54 17.17 BDA 3 84.66 2.93 MUDA 1 239.51 26.79 Zoo Authority of Karnataka 1 3.30 0.37 Source: KUIDFC status report December 2012

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Table 4.3 tells us the elected urban local then use the CDP’s assessment of the bodies are not the main implementing problems in each sector as the starting point agencies in either Bengaluru or Mysore. The of our comparison between the city’s Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike requirements and the choice of projects. (BBMP) accounts for only 41.45 per cent of Additional information has been used, the total approved costs of UIG projects. The wherever possible, to strengthen the picture picture in Mysore is very much worse with of the city’s requirements in specific sectors. the Mysore City Corporation accounting for just a little over a fifth of the approved costs. TRANSPORT The JnNURM process is thus predominantly The CDP of Bengaluru provides a parastatal led, especially in Mysore. central role to transport in its belief that The implications of this parastatal-led ‘When citizens and visitors refer to the choice of projects have to be understood in infrastructure in Bengaluru being “under terms of the requirements of each city. As stress,” a large part of such reference is to we have already argued, the City the transportation infrastructure and Development Plans fall short of identifying congestion in the road and transport the overall strategic priorities of Bengaluru system.’1 The growth of the city, as is only and Mysore. The plans do however list out to be expected, has been marked by a growth the challenges in individual sectors. We can in the number of vehicles. What is interesting

Chart 4.1: Percentage of vehicles registered in Bengaluru

Source: Government of Karnataka

1 Revised City Development Plan, Bengaluru, 2009, Vol I, p 102

66 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CHOICE OF INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

about the growth since the information those in the south and east that have grown technology revolution in the city is the with the information technology industry. In growing share of cars in the total vehicles Bommanahalli zone in the southern registered. As is reflected in Chart 4.1 the periphery of Bengaluru nearly 54 per cent share of cars in vehicles registered increased of car-owning households park their cars on from 13 per cent in 1992-93 to 19 per cent the road at night, with 7.7 per cent of these in the first eight months of 2012-13. The households parking two cars on the road at growth was sharper in the later years, with night. In Mahadevapura zone on the eastern the share of cars being just 14.4 per cent in periphery of Bengaluru 37.5 per cent of the 2003-04. car-owning households park their cars on The effects of the increase in the share the road at night, with 4.2 per cent parking of cars in Bengaluru’s transport system must two cars on the road. In Byatrayanpura in be seen in the context of car owners laying the northern periphery of Bengaluru, an area claim to road space, even when the car is less associated with the information not being used. This is best seen in their technology spurred growth of the city, too inability or unwillingness to make space for the number of car-owning households using their cars inside their compounds. As Table the road as parking space in the night is not 4.4 tells us 30 per cent of car-owning low at 39.1 per cent, though there is no households in Bengaluru park their cars on evidence of households parking more than roads at night, with some of them parking one car on the road at night. more than one car on the road. What is more In responding to the challenge of striking is that this is not a problem of old rapidly growing vehicular traffic, the overall city areas alone. Indeed, it is more serious strategy the revised CDP offers is to make in the newer areas of Bengaluru, particularly the Bengaluru transport system compliant

Table 4.4: Distribution of car-owning households by number of cars they park on roads Zone 0 Cars 1 Car 2 Cars Bommanahalli 46.2 46.2 7.7 Byatarayanapura 60.9 39.1 0.0 Dasarahalli 68.2 31.8 0.0 East 79.7 20.3 0.0 Mahadevapura 62.5 33.3 4.2 Rajarajeshwarinagar 87.5 12.5 0.0 South 68.6 31.4 0.0 West 68.9 31.1 0.0 Total 69.5 29.7 0.8 Source: NIAS Survey 2013

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 67 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

with the National Urban Transport Policy. systems to increase load factors and speeds. It proposes a public transport system that The CDP proposes bringing about these allows seamless travel between one mode changes while reducing accidents by 50 per and another and between systems managed cent. by different operators. This requires Given the magnitude of this strategy it substantial investments in the construction was only to be expected that JnNURM would of ring roads, bus-based mass transport, rail- play only a partial role. The specific projects based systems, elevated corridors, inter- chosen under JnNURM do however reflect modal interchanges, creation of parking a prioritization within this strategy. The facilities, and amenities for freight traffic. emphasis of JnNURM was on three broad For this to be done in an environmentally sets of activities. There was a significant friendly manner there is a need to shift to emphasis on the construction of underpasses, CNG based vehicular systems, reduction of grade separators, and flyovers. Projects to emissions and the introduction of eco-audits. construct underpasses were taken up at The problems of the environment as well as Malleshwaram Circle, C.N.R Rao Circle, congestion could also be eased by providing Tagore Circle, Magadi Road and Chord a priority to public transport by increasing Road Junction, and on the Ring Road at the public transport modes and discouraging Hennur Banaswadi, Kadirenahalli Road private modes. A critical part of this proposal and Puttenhalli Junctions. There are two is to reduce the growth in the number of projects for grade separators at Gali two-wheelers and cars by 50 per cent. The Anjaneya Temple and Yeshawathpur CDP also makes a case for non-motorized Junctions. Two more projects involved modes as they are environmentally friendly. constructing flyovers on the Outer Ring Road This in turn would require addressing the at Agara and Iblur Junctions. There were safety concerns of cyclists and pedestrians also projects that had the potential to be by encouraging the construction of economically self-sustaining. Ten Traffic and segregated rights of way for them, including Transit Management Centres (TTMCs) were pedestrian walkways/skywalks, cycle paths proposed at Jayanagar, Shantinagar, ITPL and cycle facilities. This reduction in the (Whitefield), Vijayanagar, Koramangala, growth of private vehicles would have to be Banashankari, Bannerghatta, Kengeri, compensated by increasing the modal share Domlur, and Yeshwanthpur. As the TTMCs of BMTC from 56 per cent, or 35 lakh typically had office space as well as parking passengers carried per day, to 50 lakhs space they also had a fund generating passengers per day and enhancing the component. The investment in 1000 buses average speed of buses from 17.5 km per similarly had a revenue generating hour to 22.5 km/hour. This would require component. The revenue generating technology up-gradation in public transport component was enhanced with a significant

68 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CHOICE OF INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

proportion of these buses being Volvo or The CDP proposes the development of Marco Polo buses which charged higher the local commercial areas in Mysore, which fares. are expected to serve as countermagnets in The picture that emerges from the reducing congestion in the city centre. The mobility related projects under JnNURM in activities proposed for developing the system Bengaluru is one that is focused primarily of roads and transportation for this purpose on improving the conditions for vehicular are the completion, expansion, and traffic. Underpasses, grade separators and maintenance of ring roads and radial roads, flyovers are meant to increase the speed of construction and maintenance of road the traffic, the TTMCs help organize the bus bridges and culverts, footpaths, storm water system as well as provide parking, and the drains and street lights. Other proposed Volvo and Marco Polo buses are expected activities include junction improvements, to tempt car and other private vehicle users provision of parking facilities at bus stands to switch to public transport. Some of the and railway stations, and introduction of hop other projects mentioned in the CDP, in-hop off tourist shuttles. The CDP also particularly those relating to pedestrians points to the need for a greater emphasis on and cyclists do not find a place in the safety-related maintenance and upgrades on projects that were chosen. congested roads. The CDP says the city at In the case of Mysore, the CDP some point would need to examine the outlines a plan to decongest the city with feasibility of mass transport systems such a network of ring roads – an Outer Ring as Bus Rapid Transit, electric trolley buses, Road (with a proposed width of 45m), an or light rail systems. Intermediate Ring Road (with a proposed In Mysore too the JnNURM projects width of 30m) along the existing roads, that gained approval were designed to help and an Inner Ring Road, also along vehicle users. The two-lane Bengaluru to existing roads. Some of the key issues in Mysore-Nanjangud segment of the Outer road maintenance are the presence of Ring Road was to be upgraded to six lanes. potholes on important roads, lack of The transport infrastructure facilities were adequate tourism-friendly signages, to be developed including the building of upgradation of roads connecting ring an Intelligent Transport System and an roads with the CBD, the need for a bus Innovative Environment Project for Mysore rapid transport system, the absence of a city. JnNURM also funded the acquisition bypass for diverting through traffic, traffic of 150 buses. congestion arising from lack of parking places in commercial areas, and the lack STORM WATER DRAINS of an organized bus stand for private The undulating terrain of Bengaluru buses. once provided for a natural drainage system

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 69 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

with around 400 lakes. The topography of is particularly serious in some of the older Bengaluru consists of well-defined valleys areas of the city, with the West Zone being radiating from the High Grounds ridge in the most seriously affected. the north. Much of the city lies to the south In the light of this situation the CDP of the ridge and can be divided into distinct has suggested the construction, remodelling drainage zones as the area is characterized and rehabilitation of storm water drains and by distinct valleys: Vrishabhavathi, road side drains, removing silting, Koramangala and Challaghatta Valleys construction of retaining walls, laying of which run in the north and south. There is a beds, providing enabling and awareness fourth valley system, the Hebbal series, information architecture, and Green Area which addresses drainage in the north of the development. JnNURM has targeted the city and runs from north to east. most urgent task of remodelling primary and This system has come under severe secondary storm water drains in the four strain due to the inadequately planned major valleys, namely the Hebbal valley, growth of Bengaluru. The CDP notes that Vrushabhavathi valley, Koramanagala the number of lakes has been reduced to 64. valley, and the Challaghatta valley. BWSSB notes that the cleaning of natural In Mysore the topography is such that drains is becoming a challenge for most the waste water drains into three valleys: municipal authorities owing to factors such the Kesare Valley in the north, Dalvai tank as the discharge of untreated wastewater, feeder valley in the south, and to the encroachment, and illegal buildings. This has Malalavadi tank valley. The CDP for led to the overflow of storm water or the Mysore notes that silting of the existing flooding of rainwater. This is most visible storm water drains leads to flooding in as the roads turn into drains. There have Devraj Urs Road, Agrahara, and the also been deaths in storm water drains and Chamundi hills area. The problem is the flooding of houses. The NIAS survey accentuated by the fact that the sewerage points out, in Table 4.5, that this challenge from several areas is let into the storm water

Table 4.5: Proportion of total houses that were flooded in the last five years In per cent Zone Proportion of houses flooded houses East 2.7 Mahadevapura 3.9 South 3.3 West 5.4 Other zones 0.7 All Bengaluru 2.8 Source: NIAS Survey 2013

70 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CHOICE OF INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

drains and the natural valleys. The CDP introduction of “one-ways”, enforcement of suggests several projects including new parking regulations, ban on entry of remodelling of storm water drains, heavy goods vehicles in such areas, removal increasing the coverage of the storm water of encroachments, providing appropriate drainage network, delinking the sewerage transport system for the commuters to reduce system from the storm water drainage the use of vehicles in these areas, system by completing missing sewer links, development of pedestrian walkways, and desilting to clean up the storm water construction of cycling zones, demarcation drains. of transport and utility zones, maintenance of open spaces, and improvement of civic The JnNURM projects in Mysore are services. designed to remodel the storm water drains. The list of approved projects under JnNURM does not suggest a high priority URBAN RENEWAL to this area. There are projects to upgrade As a city that is more than four and a sidewalks and asphalt roads, but these half centuries old Bengaluru has its core projects are in areas surrounding MG Road areas that require special attention. The CDP and Koramangala and not in the areas identifies Chickpet, Cubbonpet, Cottonpet, identified as requiring urban renewal. Majestic,Gandhi Nagar, Vasanth Nagar, Shivaji Nagar, Richmond Town, and SOLID WASTE M ANAGEMENT Chamarajpet as the core areas requiring Solid waste management is an issue urban renewal. The CDP points out that the that has reached crisis proportions in population in these areas has a density that Bengaluru. The challenge of managing solid is three to four times higher than the average waste has predictably grown with for the entire BBMP area. Its land use is urbanization, both because of the magnitude highly mixed though its economy is of the waste generated as well as the predominantly dependent on trading resistance to urban friendly solutions such activities. Dotted with historic properties the as dumping the waste in rural areas. This area is slow to accommodate new problem may have been accentuated in developments. And its narrow roads Bengaluru by the city’s decision to rely constrain the provision of services such as almost entirely on door-to-door collection water supply, drainage, and solid waste of household garbage. As can be seen in management. Table 4.6 as many of 20.5 per cent of the The CDP proposes a package of households in Bengaluru admit to disposing measures to address the challenge of urban their garbage at the street corner. This renewal in Bengaluru, including the problem is particularly acute in the slums diversion of traffic in these areas by the as well as the outlying zones of

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 71 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

Byatrayanapura and Rajarajeshwarinagar. disposal”.2 But the strategy it proposes is Indeed, in Byatrayanapura over 70 per cent concentrated on collection and disposal. of the households admit to leaving their This is evident from the contours it garbage at street corners. And since street identifies for the proposed strategy: door- corner garbage bins have been removed in to-door collection at household level, most parts of the city, a significant portion transportation to treatment and disposal of the city’s garbage is left directly on the facilities, providing flexibility in MSW side of the streets. In contrast Mysore’s management for addressing local issues, performance in garbage collection is very leveraging the existing initiatives including much better with as high as 97.2 per cent of Swachha Bengaluru and experimentation the households saying they use the on mechanical sweeping, and development corporation’s collection system. of scientific MSW treatment (including Bengaluru and Mysore assign waste to energy projects) and disposal multiple authorities to manage solid waste facilities. The challenges it identifies too are generated in the city. The Urban Local primarily concentrated on the non- Bodies are designated to be responsible for segregated waste at source, logistics issues, municipal solid waste management the absence of regulatory policy for (MSWM). The CDP for Bengaluru speaks promotion of waste re-use and recycle and of the accepted “waste hierarchy principles lack of community participation. of reduction, reuse, recovery, and

Table 4.6: Distribution of households by the main form of garbage disposal In per cent City/zones Corporation collection Road corner Others, including compost Bommanahalli 76.4 22.3 1.4 Byatarayanapura 28.3 71.1 0.6 Dasarahalli 95.1 2.8 2.1 East 81.7 15.6 2.7 Mahadevapura 78.7 17.4 3.9 Rajarajeshwarinagar 60.8 38.1 1.0 South 82.4 16.7 0.9 West 90.4 8.0 1.6 Slums 38.7 51.3 10.0 All Bengaluru 77.1 20.5 2.4 Mysore 97.2 2.8 0.0 Source: NIAS Survey 2013

2 Revised City Development Plan, p 92

72 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CHOICE OF INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

This approach does not also take into Municipal Solid Waste Management in account the role that the informal sector Bengaluru is not funded under the JnNURM comprising of rag pickers, illegal or initiative. unauthorized recyclers used to play before The CDP for Mysore too does not allow door to door collection was introduced. They for an effective use of the 3R approach to did play a role in partially segregating and Municipal Solid Waste Management. This is recycling the waste. There is no doubt that reflected in the virtual absence of any these operations were unorganized and discussion in the CDP on reuse and without the requisite environmental, health recycling. It focuses primarily on collection, and human dignity safeguards. But the secondary storage, transportation, and potential to integrate this existing resource treatment and disposal. In the process it after introducing all the necessary provides an effective summary of the status safeguards and standards was not considered of each of these elements in Mysore. The in the CDP. Annexure II explores the way issues the CDP highlights are therefore the 3R approch has been used in different primarily related to the functioning of these parts of the world. components of the Solid Waste Management The BBMP has been planning a strategy system. Thus the CDP argues that the main to deal with the challenge of solid waste. The challenges with regard to solid waste projects to be undertaken would be based on management in Mysore are the lack of a master plan prep ared by Infrastructure manpower and infrastructure, lack of Development Corporation (Karnataka) Ltd community awareness, staff requires proper (iDeck) and MACE in 2007 after a study was training, lack of residents’ interest and conducted on Municipal Solid Waste support, and the lack of planning. generation and their sources. BBMP sources The projects the CDP advocates are stated that the city had treatment and disposal also concentrated on collection and disposal. facilities with a combined capacity of 3600 The CDP identifies three main targets for MT/D and a proposal to develop new facilities JnNURM projects: achieving 100 per cent for future requirements. Two scientifically efficiency in the collection of municipal engineered landfills at Kannahalli and waste, implementation of source segregation, Mavallipura were under implementation on and the development of an efficient a build-operate-transfer model and a waste treatment and disposal system. to energy plant was being developed with a The projects that have been chosen private organisation. BBMP intended to under the JnNURM in Mysore show a greater develop Public Private Partnerships at awareness than the CDP of the need for a different stages of the MSW management broader approach to solid waste cycle through service contracts, management management. As of March 2013, MCC has contracts and concession contracts. approved ` 29.85 crores for the development

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 73 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

of integrated municipal solid waste This situation has thrown up several management plan using the PPP model. fundamental issues. The most critical of these issues is the inadequacy of resources for WATER augmenting future growth. The Bengaluru Water supply is potentially Water Supply and Sewerage Board supplies Bengaluru’s most serious infrastructure water to the entire Bengaluru Metropolitan concern. The city originally relied on the Region but a large part of the old City many lakes within it. But as the lakes dried Municipal Councils on the periphery of up and the lake beds were put to other uses, Bengaluru still depend quite heavily on Bengaluru became more dependent on river ground water. Water supply from River water and ground water. Till recently the Cauvery has been implemented in four stages north of the city was supplied largely of which stage 1, 2, 3 and phase 1 of stage 4 through water from River Arkhavati. But have been completed. There is no other river now that source too has dried up, leaving resource apart from River Cauvery. The Bengaluru dependent on only the River supply of Cauvery water is dependent on Cauvery and the city’s groundwater. There sharing arrangements not only between are already some signs of an emerging crisis Karnataka and other states, but also between visible in the access to water in Bengaluru. rural areas, including agriculture, and the

Table 4.7: Access to water in Bengaluru and Mysore In per cent Households Households Households that Households Households that Zone with no using a bought water that bought bought drinking functioning tap public tap from tankers water in pots water in cans inside them during the last during the last over the last year year year Bommanahalli 35.8 45.9 10.8 0.7 31.1 Byatarayanapura 71.7 72.3 8.2 1.9 3.8 Dasarahalli 23.8 43.4 39.2 1.4 30.1 East 35.6 49.4 2.5 4.5 13.0 Mahadevapura 40.4 41.6 39.3 6.7 43.8 Rajarajeshwarinagar 50.5 46.4 3.1 8.2 16.5 South 21.2 50.9 18.5 6.1 26.1 West 21.5 32.1 2.3 0.2 7.7 Slums 81.3 80.7 0.7 0.7 0.0 All Bengaluru 64.2 47.7 10.3 3.2 16.6 Mysore 7.0 15.8 1.2 0.0 0.3 Source: NIAS Survey 2013

74 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CHOICE OF INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

cities that are supplied by the river. The city are sometimes, due to the poor quality of is already facing a challenge in accessing supply of water, forced to use public taps. the water required to meet the national Thus in all the zones, except standard of 150 litres per capita per day. Rajarajeshwarinagar, the proportion of The consequences of not being able to households using public taps is greater than meet the national standard are accentuated the proportion of households without a by the problems of distribution. Bengaluru functioning tap within them. faces problems of intermittent supply of The widespread use of public taps also water as well as uneven distribution. As Table has consequences for the management of 4.7 tells us there is differential access to tap water. The flow of water from these taps is water both across different zones of the city not adequately metered. It is then often as well as across economic classes. In two difficult to distinguish between water used of the zones in the periphery of the city, from public taps and wastage. The tendency Rajarajeswarinagar and Byatarayanapura, to focus on billed water consumption alone more than half the households do not have tends to overestimate wastage. And the a functioning tap inside them, with the temptation to reduce this overestimated percentage of such households being over ‘wastage’ by removing public taps will only 70 per cent in Byatarayanapura. The make the access to water more difficult for economic divide is reflected in the fact that those who need it most. over 80 per cent of the households in the The crisis in the supply of piped water slums of Bengaluru do not have a has led to a greater dependence on ground functioning tap inside them. water. This in turn has led to indiscriminate The inadequate access to water within withdrawal of groundwater. By drawing households has necessarily led to a more groundwater than can be naturally dependence on public taps, though some replenished, the groundwater resources in households without a tap inside them have Bengaluru have been rapidly depleted. This access to shared taps. Consequently the zone has contributed to the withdrawal of sub- with the largest proportion of households standard groundwater. This danger has been without a functioning tap inside them, compounded by the pollution of water by Byatarayanapura, also has the highest chemicals and pesticides leading to the risk proportion of households that use public taps. of water borne diseases. The threat of disease Again, the use of public taps in the slums of is not confined to poor quality groundwater, Bengaluru is at over 80 per cent of the with piped water supply also at risk from households, similar to the proportion the occasional leakage of sewerage pipes without a functioning tap inside the contaminating drinking water. household. What is equally interesting is that JnNURM’s contribution to addressing even households that have a functioning tap this emerging water crisis is through two

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major projects. The first of these approved The CDP for Mysore estimates that the projects is the augmentation of drinking supply covers 85 per cent of the households water to the seven former municipal councils which are also metered. The CDP also that form the periphery of Bengaluru. This estimates the consumption of water to be is to be done by providing an additional 135 litres per capita per day. 100 million litres per day from Cauvery The major challenge for water supply Water Supply Scheme, Stage IV, Phase 1. and distribution in Mysore is that of The second approved project seeks to Unaccounted for Water (UFW) which is develop bulk flow metering and monitoring estimated at around 50 per cent of the systems for Bengaluru’s water distribution supply. There is also the challenge of unequal network. distribution of water to different parts of the The water crisis in Mysore does not city. Many of the new residential layouts are appear to be as severe as that in Bengaluru. not provided with adequate water supply. As can be seen from Table 4.7 the proportion The CDP attributes this to the ‘inappropriate of households without a functioning tap augmentation of source, inadequate storage inside them is only a fraction of the same facility, aged and leaking pipes, illegal proportion in Bengaluru. This is also true tapping of water supply pipes, unauthorised for all the indicators of water stress that the house connections, faulty metering, lack of table lists: using public taps, buying water operation and maintenance of system from tankers or in pots, or buying drinking components and adoption of inappropriate water in cans. The difference however seems design methodology’.3 to be primarily one of magnitude. The issues The main thrust of the JnNURM that affect water supply and distribution in influence on the water situation in Mysore Mysore are similar to those in Bengaluru, is on modernization and augmenting water only they are on a smaller scale. supply. The focus on modernization was also Water to the city of Mysore is supplied enhanced by the Centre. The only suggestion from four sources which draw water from to change a project in the JnNURM process River Cauvery and River Kabini. The four came in the case of a water supply project sources are Hongally Water Supply Scheme in Mysore where the CSMC suggested that (Stage I and Stage II), Hongally water supply the proposed water scheme be converted to scheme (Stage III), Belagola Water Supply a 24/7 supply scheme. Though this suggestion Scheme and Melapura Water Supply seemed beneficial, a consultant suggested Scheme. All the sources are situated at a that before a 24/7 supply could be started distance of around 15 kms from the city. there was a need to meter all users. Thus the

3 City Development Plan for Mysore, p 53.

76 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CHOICE OF INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

work of metering all users had to be tendered per cent of households in Bengaluru do not to another contractor as a result of which have a toilet within them. What makes the the project was delayed. problem more serious is that there are some Among the approved projects is the parts of the city where the problem is much remodelling of the water supply distribution more pronounced. In at least one zone in network, automation and an integrated the periphery of Bengaluru, Mahadevapura, management system for Mysore city. A second the proportion is nearly 12 per cent. And in project is to generate bulk water supply from the slums across the city the proportion of River Kabini. A third project on water households without a toilet in them is as high management through surface and rainwater as 22 per cent. harvesting at Sri Chamarajendra Zoological The less than perfect situation in terms Gardens is perhaps better seen as a part of of ensuring every household has a toilet is the heritage component of JnNURM. made worse by the pressures that have been developing on the underground sewage SANITATION AND SEWERAGE network. Bengaluru has had an The challenge of urban sanitation has underground sewage network since 1922 not completely disappeared with but it has been slow to develop. It took more development. Despite being a globally than half a century for the sewage to be recognized metropolis Bengaluru is still treated, with the first treatment taking place short of ensuring that every household has in 1974. And the network has been slow to a toilet within it. As Table 4.8 tells us three expand with only 40 per cent of the area

Table 4.8: Distribution of households by number of toilets in them In per cent City/Zone Number of toilets inside the household 0 1 2 3 4 or more Bommanahalli 1.4 87.8 10.8 0.0 0.0 Byatarayanapura 0.0 89.9 10.1 0.0 0.0 Dasarahalli 0.0 84.6 15.4 0.0 0.0 East 0.5 80.5 18.1 0.8 0.2 Mahadevapura 11.8 77.5 9.6 1.1 0.0 Rajarajeshwarinagar 0.0 93.8 6.2 0.0 0.0 South 2.4 82.1 15.5 0.0 0.0 West 0.9 87.4 11.5 0.2 0.0 Slums 22.0 77.3 0.7 0.0 0.0 All Bengaluru 3.0 83.8 12.9 0.3 0.0 Mysore 2.0 94.0 3.7 0.2 0.2 Source: NIAS survey 2013

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now being covered. The capacity of the as a part of the BWSSB’s Environment sewers too, both primary and secondary, is Action Plan (Part B), a project seeks to insufficient. With storm water also getting replace or rehabilitate parts of the existing into sewage lines there are increased sewerage system of Bengaluru. sewage flows in the rainy season, sometimes Mysore is one of the oldest cities to even leading to the mix of sewage and have underground drainage network. Most rainwater overflowing on to streets. Just as of the old city had underground drainage storm water gets into sewage lines, there is by 1904. Since the old sewerage lines were also the problem of sewage getting into not capable of taking the increased load and storm water drains. Sewers from slums and some parts of the old city were not provided low-lying areas are sometimes directly with drainage lines a comprehensive scheme connected to storm water drains. This also was undertaken in 1955. The topography of contributes to the pollution of lakes and the city has three valleys into which the entire the resultant growth in the number of city drains. The three valleys are northern mosquitoes. Kesare valley, southern Dalvai tank feeder The inadequacy of the sewage lines is valley and Malalavadi tank valley. At compounded by their ineffectiveness. The age present a major part of the city is provided of the old system ensures that some of the with underground sewer lines. The area sewers are damaged. There is also covered is around 100 sq. kms, and this area considerable silting up of sewers. As a result is divided into five drainage districts. The silt, grease and floating debris flow into city has three sewage treatment plants. open drains and into treatment plants. And JnNURM projects are aimed at remodelling the citizens have not helped the situation by the Under Ground Drainage (UGD) network their encroachments on sewage lines and in the old areas of the city and developing a manholes. sewage treatment plant (STP) for the areas JnNURM addresses the challenge of that are currently not covered. sanitation and sewage in Bengaluru at multiple levels. It has two approved projects HERITAGE CONSERVATION focusing on sanitation in the erstwhile City The heritage strategy of JnNURM in Municipal Councils of Krishnarajapuram Karnataka is focused primarily on Mysore. and Mahadevapura. Other projects look at The effort as per the CDP of Mysore is to the underground drainage systems in preserve the city’s heritage, provide a platform Yelahanka, Kengeri, and the erstwhile City for the city’s craftsmen to exhibit their wares Municipal Councils of Rajarajeshwarinagar, to an international audience and ensure better Dasarahalli and Bommanahalli. There are facilities to tourists visiting the city. This also underground drainage works being includes renovation of heritage buildings, craft carried out in Byatarayanapura. In addition, villages (silk, sandalwood and other

78 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CHOICE OF INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

handicrafts), convention centres and exhibition having a heritage commissioner as the zones for exhibiting the city’s heritage. head. This task force is expected to use The Mysore CDP characterizes any the Karnataka Town and Country Planning building depicting characteristics of historic Act 1961 as a tool towards protecting or socio-cultural value, striking architectural heritage buildings in Mysore. The various or artistic significance in respect of style, bodies which are envisaged as being design, use of construction material etc. involved in this aspect are the Urban (Grading system, three tier) as a heritage Development Authorities (UDA) and the building. It also mentions that a heritage Town Planning Authorities (TPA), MHTF, building can be “built or inbuilt, urban or CMC-Mysore and ASI. UDA and TPA, rural, old or recent, exceptional or ordinary, according to the CDP, have already been dense or dispersed, homogeneous or involved and given the list of monuments heterogeneous.” A heritage building “may or to incorporate in CDP and the master may not comprise a historical monument” plan. The role of civic society groups, and an appreciation of the spatial relations industry and trade in protection, between buildings, public space, and private maintenance and development is also courtyards, gardens, perspectives, views, highlighted as being important. The CDP surrounding landscapes etc., and the study proposes to provide incentives like of their inter-relationship is another aspect property tax exemptions to the owners of to be kept in mind while identifying heritage private heritage properties. It also puts buildings. The Mysore CDP focuses on the forward the idea that providing amenities six areas which have been highlighted in the in public places, markets etc. with the aim JnNURM heritage tool kit. These are mainly of catering to the needs of all stakeholders defining the importance of heritage, without losing the heritage characteristics identifying, listing and grading heritage are essential. buildings, understanding the legal status as The endeavour of the stakeholders in well as the institutional set up, sorting out achieving the vision would be to provide the financial system and also the infrastructure and/or improve all amenities required for which is required to promote tourism around tourism activities, including public heritage buildings. conveniences, transport shuttles, and parking The Mysore CDP proposes that an lots. It would also require the development inventory of buildings requiring of cultural centres, heritage works and other maintenance be carried out, and new attractions. The stakeholders should also strengthening and structural work be enable a conducive environment for undertaken. The CDP has mentioned that participation from all quarters, including the in 2004 a committee called Mysore Area private sector. In addition there is need to Heritage Task Force was constituted, build the capacity of implementing agencies

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and service providers such as drivers and a day for a hubba. It also proposes to shopkeepers. renovate 300 heritage buildings, develop Two main projects have been approved cultural centers, budget hotels and under the heritage component of JnNURM. convention centers. Like the Mysore CDP it The first project focuses on the heritage core aims to create some public amenities such and urban renewal. And the second is on as public toilets, transport facilities, water management through surface and information kiosks, car parks etc. It also rainwater harvesting at Sri Chamarajendra calls for proper signage displayed on the Zoological Gardens. buildings. The Bengaluru CDP also provides The Bengaluru CDP however is not as some budgetary proposals for all the work comprehensive. To begin with, it outlines the it has outlined, and has stated that a heritage various well known tourist destinations in committee will be constituted. There has Bengaluru. It has a list of steps to be taken however been no heritage project approved to promote tourism, which includes creating under JnNURM for Bengaluru.

URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT SCHEME FOR SMALL AND MEDIUM TOWNS When it became clear that the sewerage, urban renewal, preservation of challenge of urban infrastructure was not water bodies, and prevention of soil-erosion. confined to the originally chosen Mission The choice of specific projects is cities, it was decided to launch a scheme expected to be based on City Level that would meet this need in small and Investment Plans (CLIPs). But the shortfalls medium towns. There was however no in the small and medium towns are so expectation that the infrastructure needs of widespread that a large number of projects these towns as a group would be come into consideration. And the fundamentally different from that of the possibilities were further extended by a original Mission cities taken as a whole. The willingness to go beyond the strict UIDSSMT was thus launched by simply prioritization in individual CLIPs. A look merging the two then existing schemes the at the CLIPs for 18 of the 30 towns with Integrated Development of Small and UIDSSMT projects reveals that in nine of Medium Towns (IDSMT) and Accelerated them the projects were among the priorities Urban Water Supply Programme (AUWSP). listed in the plans while in another nine they Assistance under the UIDSSMT includes all were not. But the projects were generally urban infrastructure development projects among the important infrastructure such as water supply, roads, parking space, requirements of the towns. Given the role of drainage, solid waste management, the Accelerated Urban Water Supply

80 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CHOICE OF INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

Table 4.9: Sector wise distribution of UIDSSMT projects Sector No. of Projects Total approved cost of projects ` crore % Share Water supply 17 418.06 61.3 Underground drainage 10 78.08 11.4 Roads & drains 8 113.15 16.6 Storm water drains 3 73.2 10.7 Total 38 682.49 100 Source: Department of Municipal Administration status presentation as on December 31, 2012.

Programme in its origins, it is not entirely allocation being for water. The water sector surprising that water and drainage account has not received much attention in the UIG for the major chunk of the 38 UIDSSMT projects of Bengaluru. In the case of storm projects spread over 30 districts. As can be water drains too Mysore is closer to the seen from Table 4.9 water supply and UIDSSMT pattern than Bengaluru: drainage account for the bulk of the projects. allocation for storm water drain projects, at Water supply alone accounts for over 60 per around 10% of the total approved cost, is cent of the approved costs of UIDSSMT similar in UIDSSMT and Mysore UIG projects. Storm water drains and projects, while in Bengaluru UIG projects it underground drainage taken together has been given more importance at 32 per account for around 22 per cent of the cent of the total approved cost. approved costs of projects, with projects A number of factors influence the covering roads and drains accounting for choice of districts and towns which are to over 16 per cent. receive UIDSSMT projects. JnNURM has When compared to the choice of some basic requirements such as the projects in the UIG component of JnNURM condition that funds would be provided to the most striking difference lies in the much only those towns and cities where elections lower emphasis on transport in the to local bodies have been held and elected UIDSSMT allocations. Compared to the bodies are in place. But beyond such near-primacy given to transport projects in necessary conditions the state governments Mysore and Bengaluru, the only transport have considerable room to prioritize towns projects in UIDSSMT are the roads and and cities on the basis of their felt needs drains projects which account for just a little and take into consideration numerous factors over a fourth of the allocations for water like the existing infrastructure deficits. The projects. The dominance of water projects nodal agency, in this case Department of in the UIDSSMT is not replicated in the UIG Municipal Administration, is responsible for cities, though Mysore is closer to the inviting projects from various ULBs or UIDSSMT project with 34 per cent of its UIG parastatal agencies, managing the funds

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UTTARA KANNADA

DAKSHINA KANNADA

Per capita Project Cost 50 km 0 >0 &<500 >500 &<1000 >1000 &<1500 >1500 &<2000 >2000

Map 4.1: District-wise distribution of UIDSSMT projects by per capita project cost

82 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CHOICE OF INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

received from central and state governments, Chitradurga, Bellary, Raichur, Gulbarga and and distributing the funds as per the financial Bidar – have not received any projects while pattern given in the guidelines. The list of the per capita cost of projects in some other UIDSSMT projects along with their districts is quite high. And there is no approved costs in Karnataka is given in apparent reason related to urbanization that Annexure 3. explains this distribution. There are zero The multiplicity of factors determining project districts in both the districts that are the choice of UIDSSMT projects may make rapidly urbanizing, like Udupi, districts that it difficult to come up with a simple are deurbanizing, like Kodagu, and districts explanation for their location. It is quite that we have classified as being under clear from Map 4.1 that the projects are not population pressure, like Gulbarga. The case evenly distributed across the state. As many of Udupi is particularly interesting as it is as 10 eligible districts — Chamarajanagar, getting no support for its own internal Kodogu, Udupi, Chikballapura, Tumkur, tendency to urbanize.

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5 CHOICE OF PROJECTS FOR THE POOR

he discourse around JnNURM argued that the JnNURM components were T provides a significant place for designed to create a base on which other providing services to the poor. This emphasis programmes could be built. Indeed, the Rajiv may not be apparent when we look at the Awas Yojana with its target of slum-free cities allocations for the different components of was set up to build on the JnNURM the mission with the two poorly-related initiatives. It is thus important to take a closer components – BSUP and IHSDP – look at the way the projects for the poor accounting for just a little over a fifth of the were conceptualised and chosen under cost of approved projects. But it can be JnNURM.

BASIC SERVICES FOR THE URBAN POOR

JnNURM calls for an inclusive and ensuring delivery through convergence approach to the challenge of providing basic of other already existing universal services services to the urban poor. Among the of the Government for education, health and original objectives was the “[p]rovision of social security.”1 This approach is confirmed Basic Services to Urban Poor including in the revised CDP for Bengaluru arguing security of tenure at affordable prices, that “adequate urban basic services such as improved housing, water supply, sanitation water supply, sanitation, waste management

1 Modified Guidelines for Sub-Mission on Basic Services to the Urban Poor, Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation. Government of India, New Delhi, February 2009, p 2.

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and providing the means of mobility, poorest. A focus on the slums alone can then, particularly to the urban poor, are central at best, relate to only a portion of the poor. to promoting environmentally sustainable, A further scope for exclusion of the healthy and livable human settlements.”2 It poor has been built into the JnNURM goes on to point to the seriousness of this initiative concentrating on housing alone. challenge by listing the difficult conditions As a result the focus of the projects was faced by the poor including poor sanitation; concentrated on services that could be high illiteracy; high drop-out rates expected to come with housing, such as water particularly among girls; higher infant and and sanitation. In Bengaluru, providing child mortality rates; and low levels of water supply to BSUP houses is expected to utilization of existing services (such as cost approximately ` 16.07 crores out of the maternal and child health care). total infrastructure cost ` 113.84 crores. In In practice, though, a considerable Mysore, providing water supply to BSUP part of this inclusiveness is lost. The first houses is expected to cost approximately source of loss of inclusiveness is the method ` 4.32 crores out of the total infrastructure used to identify the poor. The JnNURM belief cost ` 70.12 crores. And since these facilities that the poor can only be found in slums is came with the JnNURM houses they did not fully supported by the Revised CDP for quite address the problem in the other houses. Bengaluru insisting that a “focus on slums This is a particularly serious concern in a and the inmates would basically address the situation where, as we have seen in Chapter issues relating to urban poor.”3 And the 3, nearly all the houses in slums have to use CDP’s estimate of the number of slum either public taps or shared taps. households was itself lower in each version. There should, arguably, be greater As per the CDP prepared in 2006, the total concern on the health front. JnNURM is number of slum households was 217,257, expected to address these concerns by while in the revised CDP of 2009 this providing health centres. But the size of these number had reduced to 136,486. As we have initiatives is meagre when compared to the seen in Chapter 3 this complete task at hand. In Bengaluru, providing health identification of the slums with the poor is centres, community centres and other social not quite valid for Bengaluru and Mysore. infrastructure taken together to BSUP houses Significant proportions of the poor live is expected to cost around ` 14.34 crores out outside slums, and it is not unknown for the of the total infrastructure cost ` 113.84 crores. slums to also house those who are not the In Mysore, providing health centres,

2 Revised City Development Plan for Bengaluru, Vol III, p 10 3 Revised City Development Plan for Bengaluru, Vol III, p 9.

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community centres and other social The minimal expenditure on health infrastructure taken together to BSUP houses facilities must be seen in the context of is estimated to cost only ` 1.99 crores out of the crisis of confidence that the urban poor the total infrastructure cost ` 70.12 crores. have in the urban health system. This is It must be emphasised that these perhaps most evident in the decision the allocations were for health centres, poor make on where to have their children. community centres and other social Looking at the decisions made on this infrastructure taken together. And there was issue in Bengaluru over the preceding three a tendency to ensure community centres did years of our survey there is a general lack not include health or education facilities. of faith among the poor in government Senior officials at KUIDFC suggested that this hospitals. Less than a fifth of slum dwellers was because it was felt that since there were and well below half of the lowest asset government departments working on these category go to government hospitals. aspects and it was not necessary to Being forced into the hands of more concentrate on them. KSDB officials pointed expensive private nursing homes and out that these community centres were hospitals the poor are beginning to constructed with the intention of providing consider other options. As can be seen in place for numerous social activities including Table 5.1 around 16 per cent of the poor entrepreneurial activities like producing have their children at home. And when agarbattis. Interestingly, KSDB had to cut they have a more stable place to stay, even down even on the number of community if it is in a slum, close to 36 per cent of centres it planned as the requirements of the the births are at home. If we add those in JnNURM toolkit emerged as an additional slums who go back to their hometown or constraint. The JnNURM toolkit specifies the village for the birth, close to half the slum size of plot required for a community centre, population of Bengaluru prefers not to use and there were severe constraints on the the medical facilities the city provides, availability of land. whether public or private.

Table 5.1 : Distribution of births over the preceding three years by place of birth in Bengaluru In per cent Asset Class/ Slum Home Hometown/ village Private hospitals Government /nursing homes hospitals Slums 35.7 10.7 35.7 17.9 Poor 15.9 7.2 33.3 43.5 Others 2.9 2.4 68.2 26.5 Total 5.1 3.2 62.4 29.4 Source: NIAS Survey 2013 Note: Poor refers to all belonging to Asset Class 1, including those belonging to this asset class who live in slums.

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Table 5.2: Proportion of children between five and 15 attending school and taking tuition In per cent Percentage of children attending school Proportion of children taking tuition Asset Class Bengaluru Mysore Bengaluru Mysore 1 98.8 100.0 14.1 26.0 2 97.8 98.5 21.1 33.8 3 98.0 96.5 21.9 34.1 4 99.4 97.1 21.1 35.3 5 98.4 97.0 21.8 27.7 6 99.2 94.7 24.0 36.1 Total 98.6 97.3 20.2 32.2 Source: NIAS Survey 2013

In education the situation would Bengaluru, providing school buildings to appear to be a little better, but only in BSUP houses is expected to cost barely comparison to the alarming picture on the ` 0.2 crores out of the total infrastructure health front. As can be seen in Table 5.2 cost ` 113.84 crores. In Mysore, there is no close to 100 per cent of the children between provision for school building in the on-going five and 15 in both Bengaluru and Mysore projects; however, there is a provision for are attending school. But this is still not quite an informal education centre at ` 0.19 the 100 per cent that it should be. More crores. importantly the very significant proportion A similar minimalist approach can be of children, even of the poor, who take seen in the provisions for necessary tuition after school could be interpreted as infrastructure for the projects in slums, a vote of no confidence in the quality of including livelihood centres and informal education provided in class. And the markets. Projects that had existing JnNURM response is almost non-existent. livelihood centres or informal markets close Projects that had existing educational by have not been provided with new ones in facilities close by have not been provided the plan. As a result in Bengaluru, providing with new ones in the plan. Consequently in livelihood centres and informal markets to

Table 5.3: BSUP projects undertaken by implementing agencies Implementing agency No. of projects Total approved cost, Type of projects ` crore KSDB 11 522.24 Rehabilitation - 2 Construction - 9 BBMP 3 62.59 Redevelopment - 3 Source: KUIDFC status report December 2012

88 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CHOICE OF PROJECTS FOR THE POOR

BSUP houses is supposed to cost around units were to be rehabilitated, constructed, ` 0.72 crores out of the total infrastructure and redeveloped under the BSUP component cost ` 113.84 crores. In Mysore, there is no in Bengaluru. Nearly two-thirds of these provision for livelihood centres and informal units – 14754 units – were under markets to BSUP houses. rehabilitation projects. Within this framework the Basic The approved costs per dwelling unit Services to Urban Poor component of the justify this focus on rehabilitation. At ` 2.61 JnNURM generated 14 projects in lakhs per dwelling unit for rehabilitation, Bengaluru. KUIDFC is the state level nodal these projects were substantially less agency for the BSUP component. In expensive than construction projects that Bengaluru the slums come under two cost ` 4.24 lakhs per dwelling unit or agencies. The declared slums come under the resettlement projects that cost ` 3.47 lakhs responsibility of KSDB while undeclared per dwelling unit. The average cost per slums come under BBMP. As can be seen in dwelling unit for the 19,984 units is ` 2.92 Table 5.3 the major responsibility of slum lakhs. development under JnNURM in Bengaluru In the development strategy for slums is with the KSDB which has 11 projects; nine there is a strong case for an in-situ approach. construction projects and two rehabilitation This allows for minimal displacement of the ones. The three remaining projects are all population allowing them to remain as close for redevelopment and come under the as before to their workplace and possible BBMP. schools for their children. And an attempt While the pattern in terms of number was made to prefer this approach. This process of units suggests a focus on construction, the was not always smooth in Bengaluru. For picture in terms of dwelling units – a more instance, the slum at Laxmanraonagar was relevant indicator – points to a clear proposed for in-situ development using cost emphasis on rehabilitation. As can be seen effective and fast track construction from Table 5.4 a total of 19,984 dwelling technology (light weight foam concrete

Table 5.4: BSUP projects in Bengaluru Type of project No. of Projects No. of Total approved % Cost per dwelling dwelling units cost of projects Share unit, ` lakh ` crore Rehabilitation 2 14754 385.45 65.9 2.61 Construction 9 3426 136.79 23.4 4.24 Redevelopment 3 1804 62.59 10.7 3.47 Total BSUP projects 14 19984 584.83 100 2.92 Source: KUIDFC status report December 2012

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construction technology with RCC shear walls) only 928 of the 3426 units have been in the approved Detailed Project Report. relocated. As can be seen in Table 5.5 in-situ However, the KSCB later pointed out that development accounted for 66 per cent of the there were a number of difficulties in dwelling units in Rehabilitation projects, 72 executing the works using the fast track per cent of the Construction projects and 90 construction technology on Develop-Build- per cent of the Redevelopment projects in Transfer.4 The slum was located in congested Bengaluru. areas with narrow streets. The beneficiaries Mysore had a total of four BSUP were also not willing to allow ground-floor projects with the number of dwelling units construction with light weight concrete in being 8134. This is a higher proportion of view of its limitations for additional floor the estimated slum population than in construction at later stage. It was then decided Bengaluru, as the CDP of Mysore estimated to take up the construction works by adopting number of households in declared slums to conventional technology. However, the in-situ be 18,404. Two of these were rehabilitation character was maintained even when the projects while the other two were construction option was used. Indeed, in the construction projects. In keeping with the case of construction projects too there was lower cost per unit of rehabilitation some success in following an in-situ strategy. projects, their share of dwelling units was Three of the nine projects were in-situ. Thus higher than their share of expenditure. As

Table 5.5: Distribution of dwelling units by in-situ projects and projects requiring relocation Type of slum Bengaluru Mysore development Relocation In situ Relocation In-situ Rehabilitation 5178 (34.0%) 10036 (66.0%) 2466 (46.6%) 2822 (53.4%) Construction 928 (27.1%) 2498 (72.1%) 686 (24.1%) 2160 (75.9%) Redevelopment 176 (9.6%) 1648 (90.4%) NA NA Source: 21th State Level Empowered Committee (SLEC) meeting proceedings. Available at www.kuidfc.com, accessed on January 24, 2013, and KUIDFC Project Management Unit.

Table 5.6: BSUP projects in Mysore Sector No. of No. of Total approved cost % Cost per dwelling Projects dwelling units of projects ` crore Share unit, ` lakh Rehabilitation 2 5288 158.51 61.2 2.99 Construction 2 2846 100.33 38.8 3.52 Total BSUP projects 4 8134 258.84 100 3.18 Source: KUIDFC status report December 2012

4 16th State Level Empowered Committee meeting held on 31st July 2010.

90 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CHOICE OF PROJECTS FOR THE POOR

can be seen in Table 5.6 Rehabilitation because the rehabilitation projects are more projects were to build 5288 units or 65 per expensive in the former city. The cost per cent of the units while its share in total dwelling unit for construction projects is expenditure was 61.2 per cent. however lower than that in Bengaluru. As in Bengaluru the projects were The preference for in-situ projects can undertaken by the Karnataka Slum be seen in Mysore as well, though the Development Board and the local success has been a little less than in corporation. KSDB has undertaken three Bengaluru. This is largely because the of the four projects, two rehabilitation proportion of in-situ rehabilitation projects, projects and one construction project. The as can be seen from Table 5.5, is 53 per other construction project has been cent compared to 66 per cent in Bengaluru. undertaken by the Mysore City Corporation In the case of construction projects, Mysore, at an approved cost of ` 52.35 crore. The with 76 per cent of the dwelling units being overall cost per dwelling unit in Mysore is in situ, does a little better than Bengaluru higher than that for Bengaluru mainly with 72 per cent.

INTEGRATED HOUSING AND SLUM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

The challenge of developing slums is while nine projects were approved in the not confined to Bengaluru and Mysore. It second phase. extends not only to other large cities in As can be seen from Table 5.7 the cost Karnataka but also to much smaller towns. per dwelling unit varies from a low of ` The Karnataka Slum Development Board 1.68 lakh to a high of ` 3.41 lakh. At 1800 estimates that there is no major difference units, Ramanagara town, close to between the proportion of population living Bengaluru, has proposed to build the in slums in Bengaluru and in Karnataka’s maximum number of houses at a per unit other towns, taken as a whole. With KSDB dwelling cost of ` 1.7 lakh. At ` 3.41 lakh, estimating the slum population in Pavagada has the highest cost per dwelling Karnataka to be 40.5 lakhs there is unit. At ` 1.68 lakh, Nanjanagudu in considerable scope for slum development Mysore sub-division has the lowest cost per in the state. dwelling unit. Sindhanoor, Hassan, and KSDB received 48 proposals for Holenarasipura are towns which have projects under the IHSDP of which 34 undertaken to build 1000 dwelling units proposals were approved by the State Level under the IHSDP. Though the conditions Empowered Committee and the CSMC. In are not the same a point to be noted is that the first phase 25 projects were approved the average per dwelling unit cost of an

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 91 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

Table 5.7: IHSDP projects in Karnataka Town No.of dwelling Total estimated Cost per dwelling units cost, ` crore unit, ` lakh Mulubagilu 600 11.25 1.88 Doddaballapura 648 11.52 1.78 Gowribidanur Infra only 1.79 Ramanagara 1800 30.57 1.70 Siddlaghatta 200 4.06 2.03 Chintamani 798 17.61 2.21 Nanjanagudu 540 9.09 1.68 Nagamangala 420 7.20 1.71 Hassan 1000 18.4 1.84 Holenarasipura 1000 18.4 1.84 Kadur 500 11.05 2.21 Hiriyur 123 3.37 2.74 Hubli 600 12.56 2.09 Gadag-Betageri 738 20.47 2.77 Gajendragada 500 8.42 1.68 Belgaum 138 2.99 2.17 Soudatti 145 2.78 1.92 Basavakalyan 170 3.03 1.78 Bhalki 150 3.35 2.23 Gulbarga 786 15.72 2 Chincholi 200 4.01 2.01 Shahapur 207 4.19 2.02 Sindhanoor 1005 20.57 2.05 Koppal 265 4.80 1.81 Bellary 520 9.56 1.84 Kanakapura 727 18.04 2.48 Mandya 558 12.96 2.32 Bagalkot 240 7.61 3.17 Hubli, Phase-III 109 3.21 2.94 Hubli, Phase-II 430 12.13 2.82 Sira 682 17.90 2.62 Pavagada 508 17.31 3.41 Shimoga 600 19.75 3.29 Shikaripura 330 10.84 3.28 Total 17237 376.66 2.19 Source: Karnataka Slum Development Board IHSDP status as on 31st March 2013.

92 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CHOICE OF PROJECTS FOR THE POOR

UTTARA KANNADA

DAKSHINA KANNADA

50 km

Project Cost Per-capita Slum Population 0 >0 & <500 >500 & < 2000 >2000 & < 5000 > 5000 & < 10000 > 10000

Map 5.1: District-wise distribution of IHSDP project costs per individual living in slums

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 93 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

IHSDP project is lesser to that of a BSUP earmarking 25 per cent of municipal budget project in Bengaluru or Mysore. The cost for basic services to the urban poor/slum- per dwelling unit for construction projects dwellers, and bringing in legislative in Bengaluru and Mysore is higher than amendments and policy changes to redress the cost per dwelling unit in Pavagada (the land and affordable housing shortages for highest among IHSDP projects in the urban poor. Fifty per cent of the cost of Karnataka). provision of basic civic and social As in the case of the UIDSSMT projects infrastructure and amenities and of housing, the distribution of IHSDP projects is also not including rental housing and transit housing even across the state. As can be seen in Map for in-situ redevelopment in slums, is borne 5.1 there is a large contiguous belt consisting by the Centre. For the North East and Special of Kodagu, Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, Uttara Category States the share of the Centre is 90 Kannada, Haveri and Davangere that have per cent including the cost of land not received any IHSDP projects. Along with acquisition, if required. Bijapur and Charmarajnagar they constitute Under the preparatory phase of the a set of eight districts that have not received Rajiv Awas Yojana an amount of ` 810.40 any projects. They stand out in contrast to lakh has been approved for preparation of Ramnagara that has received the most Slum Free City Plan of Action (SFCPoA) in attention. It must be pointed out that three 10 cities in Karnataka. Of the 10 cities, districts Udupi, Kodagu and Chamarajnagar Hubli-Dharwad, Mangalore, Belgaum, have been completely left out of the JnNURM Gulbarga, Davanagere, Bellary, Shimoga, process: they are not eligible for the UIG and Tumkur have finalised or completed their BSUP projects and have not been given any action plans. Only Bengaluru and Mysore UIDSSMT or IHSDP projects. are yet to finalize their action plans. Three pilot Detailed Project Reports RAJIV AWAS YOJANA (DPR) in three cities have also been In order to build on the initiatives approved. The first is the construction of developed under the JnNURM further the 1200 dwelling units including infrastructure Centre also announced the Rajiv Awas at Dibbur in Tumkur city with a total project Yojana (RAY) which aimed at slum-free cost of ` 6996.48 lakh. The second is the cities. Under RAY, central assistance is construction of 900 houses including extended to States that are willing to meet infrastructure at Varthur Hobli, Bengaluru certain conditions. These include assigning with a total project cost of ` 5709.62 lakh. property rights to slum dwellers, reserving And the third is the construction of 1072 land for Economically Weaker Sections houses (ground + three floors) including (EWS) or Low Income Groups (LIG), infrastructure at Hubli-Dharwad.

94 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 6 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS

mission as wide-ranging as Agreement (MoA) by the State Government, A JnNURM is best evaluated through ULB or parastatal agency. Irrespective of its outcomes on the urban situation. Specific the number of projects, each ULB or initiatives have been undertaken in the parastatal agency signs only one MoA. This expectation that they will have clear installment is a sum of 25 per cent of ACA outcomes. But before we get to the point and 25 per cent of the State Government where outcomes can be evaluated we need share. As soon as the ULB or the parastatal to first look at whether and how the projects agency spends 70 per cent of the funds that are the components of these initiatives released in the first installment it can submit have been implemented. There are then two a utilization certificate to the State Level distinct stages in evaluating the effects of Nodal Agency (in this case the SLNA is JnNURM. The first step is to look at the KUIDFC) which will then forward it to the implementation of the projects. It is only State and Central Government. The balance after the projects have been completed that amount of assistance is released in three we can move on to the question of looking installments upon receipt of utilization at their outcomes. certificates to the extent of 70 per cent of The process of implementation of the Central fund and also that of the State/ projects is sought to be controlled primarily ULB/parastatal agency share and subject through the release of funds. The first to achievement of milestones agreed for installment of 25 per cent of the Additional implementation of mandatory and optional Central Assistance (ACA) for a project is reforms at the State and ULB/parastatal released upon signing of a Memorandum of agency level as envisaged in the MoA.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 95 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

In the process of releasing the next project into suitable packages. Tenders for installment, the nodal agencies ask the the packages are floated once the packages Independent Review and Monitoring Agency are finalized. These tenders are floated for (IRMA) or the Third Party Inspection and both the consultant work as well as the Monitoring Agency (TPIMA) to review the contract work, with the work awarded to the amount of work done and submit a report lowest eligible bidder. The implementing so that the subsequent installment of the agency also provides a work front to the ACA and the State Government share can contractor, this includes getting all requisite be released. permissions from various departments and There are three stages of IRMA/ clearing any encroachments on the work TPIMA inspection: pre-construction, front. The contractor can start work once construction, and post-construction. The the work front has been provided. IRMA has to submit a pre-construction While the process of monitoring and report, quarterly reports during the the response of the implementing agencies construction stage, a trial run and are designed to play the role of an effective completion report. The nodal agencies then watchdog, they are less sensitive to delays. appraise the quarterly progress of the The scope for procedural delays is enhanced project/projects to the State as well as the when JnNURM procedures are added on to Central government. existing procedures followed by the Till early 2013 installments were implementing agency. This is evident is the released once the utilization certificate was case of the procedures followed by the submitted; this process has been changed BBMP. wherein the release of funds has been tied For projects which do not come under up with the physical progress of the project. JnNURM, BBMP has standing committees Now the second, third, and fourth comprising of elected representatives, for installments are released only when the approving all activities regarding utilization certificate is submitted and there administration. Technical committees is 30 per cent, 40 per cent, and 60 per cent approve the technical aspects of the projects. physical progress, respectively. The technical committee consists of an This process of monitoring is Executive Engineer, a Superintendent undoubtedly useful in preventing leakages Engineer and a Chief Engineer. Any project of funds as well as monitoring the quality of value up to ` 50 lakhs has to be approved of the assets created.The implementing by the commissioner; projects worth between agencies have responded to these norms by ` 50 lakhs and ` 2 crores are approved by seeking external assistance. They appoint a the Standing Committee; projects worth project management consultant (PMC), and between ` 2 crores and ` 5 crores are in consultation with the PMC break up the approved by the BBMP Council and if the

96 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS

project costs exceed ` 5 crores government three consultants currently engaged by approval is required. For tenders which cost BBMP are: Kon Test House Ltd, Strut up to ` 60 lakhs tender premiums up to 8 Geotech Lab, and Gooly consultants. As the percent are approved by the Commissioner; work progresses bills are submitted by the if the cost is between ` 60 lakhs and ` 2 contractors which are verified by the crores tender premiums up to 12 per cent consultants and the accounts section and the are approved by the Standing Committee, if funds are released. Submission of Interim the cost is between ` 2 crores and ` 5 crores reports is not a requirement. tender premiums up to 15 per cent are In 2010 a PIU (Project approved by the Council and if the cost Implementation Unit) was constituted on a exceeds ` 5 crores it is approved by the state contract basis to monitor, facilitate and government. Projects worth less than ` 50 access JnNURM projects. This team consists lakhs are cleared by members of the of a Human Resource officer, a procurement Technical Committee: the Executive officer, an information technology officer, a Engineer approves projects worth up to municipal finance officer and a social and ` 20 lakhs, the Superintendent Engineer community development officer. This is the approves projects worth between ` 20 lakhs technical team which along with Chief and ` 50 lakhs and projects worth more than Engineer's office prepares the Detailed ` 50 lakhs are approved by the Chief Project Report and works to get the project Engineer. sanctioned by the State Level Nodal Agency Draft tender schedules are prepared (which is KUIDFC) and SLEC (State Level and uploaded on to the internet. Tenders less Empowerment Committee). The third party than ` 50 lakhs are chosen under one bid IRMA approval is also required for where only financial capability is considered sanctioning any project. After the projects whereas if it is more than Rs50 lakhs then it are sanctioned tenders are floated and is under the two-bid method where technical projects are allocated for the lowest bidding and financial capabilities of the contractors contractors and implemented. Monthly and are taken into consideration. quarterly reports are prepared and meetings The supervision of the implementation are held with KUIDFC to monitor the of the project is ideally done within the physical and financial progress of the organization. If however enough staff is not projects. Periodically utilisation certificates available in the organisation private project are also issued to sanction funds. management consultants are hired for Before getting to the JnNURM stage, checking the quality at every stage. If further the projects also have to go through the quality evaluation is required three approval process of the BBMP. JnNURM consultants who are empanelled as third projects also have to acquire the approval party members will carry out the work. The of the Standing Committee, the Council and

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 97 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

the Technical Committee. The approved causes of delays. And as we shall see in a projects are then submitted to the Urban while there are multiple causes for delays. Development department of Government of In moving on to the next stage of Karnataka. It then goes to the State Level evaluating outcomes after projects are Empowering Committee which is headed completed we come up against the challenge by the Chief Secretary. State Level Nodal of separating the contribution of the JnNURM Agency which is the KUIDFC in Karnataka component to the total outcome. In cases where has been appointed as the convener by JnNURM resources have been used to SLEC for carrying out further the strengthen strategies that already exist, such a procedures laid out specifically for separation is very difficult, if not impossible. JNNURM projects. In evaluating outcomes then we first see if the The numerous procedures to be JnNURM component can be separated. In cases followed for implementation of JNNURM where this is possible this component is projects have the potential to add to delays. evaluated independently. In cases where such a In addition, the process is not adequately separation is not possible we focus on the overall equipped to help identify and remove other outcome that JnNURM has contributed to.

URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE AND GOVERNANCE PROJECTS

TRANSPORT AND MOBILITY Management Centre projects are estimated There are three agencies implementing to take more than 24 months, it can be seen projects in relation to transport and mobility from Table 6.1 that the minimum time to in Bengaluru: Bengaluru Metropolitan build a TTMC has been around two years Transport Corporation, Bengaluru and nine months for the Bannerghatta and Development Agency and Bruhat Bengaluru Kengeri TTMCs. Discussions with Mahanagara Palike. Table 6.1 tells us that consultants revealed that loose soil and the the projects undertaken by the BMTC are prevalence of hard rock were two important all complete. Estimating the delays involved reasons for delay in the construction of the in their completion is not easy as TTMCs. They argue that this cannot be information on the tender release date or accurately predicted by the soil testing done award date is not available. We could for the DPR. BMTC officials also noted that however use the dates the project was there is always a difference in estimation approved by the Central Sanctioning and and actual implementation due to some Monitoring Committee for the project and changes in plans during the implementation the duration of the project as per the DPR. phase.In Mysore too the project for the Though none of the Traffic & Transit development of the traffic infrastructure

98 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS

dĂďůĞϲ͘ϭ͗/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐďLJDdŝŶĞŶŐĂůƵƌƵĂŶĚ<^ZdŝŶDLJƐŽƌĞ ^D ƉƉƌŽǀĞĚ dŽƚĂů WƌŽũĞĐƚ ŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶĂƐƉĞƌ WƌŽũĞĐƚ ĂƉƉƌŽǀĂů ĐŽƐƚ͕ ĐŽƐƚ͕ ĐŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶ WZΎ ĚĂƚĞ# ` ĐƌŽƌĞ `ĐƌŽƌĞ ĚĂƚĞ# ĞŶŐĂůƵƌƵ Development of TTMC at 18 months excluding 8-12-06 8.90 13.9 July 2009 Jayanagar monsoon (4QFY08) Development of TTMC at 17-8-07 24 months (4QFY08) 22.24 30.68 May 2011 Banashankari Development of TTMC at 17-8-07 24 months (4QFY08) 38.12 53.06 March 2011 Vijaynagar Development of TTMC at 17-8-07 24 months (4QFY08) 50.58 61.44 March 2011 Koramangala Development of TTMC at September 17-8-07 24 months (4QFY08) 84.68 99.8 ^ŚĂŶƟŶĂŐĂƌ 2010 Development of TTMC December 17-8-07 24 months (4QFY08) 26.56 39.84 at ITPL 2010 Development of TTMC at 17-8-07 24 months (4QFY08) 3.93 5.01 May 2010 ĂŶŶĞƌŐŚĂƩĂ Development of TTMC at 17-8-07 24 months (4QFY08) 21.13 35.54 May 2010 Kengeri Development of TTMC at 23-11-07 24 months (4QFY08) 15.55 14.97 March 2011 Domlur Development of TTMC at 23-11-07 24 months (4QFY08) 61.32 79.62 May 2011 Yeshwanthpur Proposal for funding of 13-2-09/ 303.07 319.83 October 2010 buses 26-2-09 DLJƐŽƌĞ

ĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚŽĨdƌĂĸĐ 24 months (4QFY08) 85.26 113.5 June-2013** Infrastructure system Purchase of buses -- 45.58 50.46 February-2010 Intelligent Transport ^LJƐƚĞŵĂŶĚ/ŶŶŽǀĂƟǀĞ -- 22.7 -- June- 2013** Environment Project for Mysore City ΎƐŵĞŶƟŽŶĞĚŝŶƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚŶŽƚĞĚŝŶƉĂƌĞŶƚŚĞƐŝƐ͘&ŽƌĞdžĂŵƉůĞ͕ϮY&zϬϴŝŵƉůŝĞƐƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚĨŽƌƚŚĞƐĞĐŽŶĚ ƋƵĂƌƚĞƌŝŶ&zϬϴ͘ #As per KUIDFC status report December 2012. ** As per KUIDFC status report May 2013. EŽƚĞ͗ƐƉĞƌ

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 99 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

system was delayed. The funding of buses followed by litigation. Going by SLEC did not of course face the same problems. proceedings, there was also delay in This is not to suggest that there was no scope obtaining clearances from other for delay in the acquisition of 1000 buses departments, especially the forest for Bengaluru and the purchase of buses for department. Mysore.Officials did point out that there Since the projects have all been could be delays in the release of payment completed it is possible to gain some by the Central Government when some insights into their outcomes for Bengaluru. required reforms were not carried out. The TTMCs have, in effect, three broad roles: The delays invariably involved cost they improve the bus terminuses; they overruns. In Bengaluru only the Domlur provide parking facilities, and they are TTMC was completed at 96 per cent of the revenue generating assets that taps the real approved cost, while there was cost estate value of land owned by the transport escalation in all the other projects. The corporations. With nearly 54 per cent of the consultants argued that since loose soil and built up area in the TTMCs being office space hard rock were not accounted for correctly that is rented out, it is clear that tapping the in the DPR, changes in the plan required to real estate value of the land has been the handle these issues led to an increase in costs. most important outcome. Indeed, Table 6.2 In Mysore KSRTC officials said only the tells us that the real estate component of the Chamundi hills project was delayed due to built up space has gone up to nearly 86 per a land dispute with an individual, which was cent in the Koramangala TTMC. The second

dĂďůĞϲ͘Ϯ͗ŝƐƚƌŝďƵƟŽŶŽĨďƵŝůƚƵƉĂƌĞĂŝŶddDƐŝŶĞŶŐĂůƵƌƵďLJƵƐĞ In per cent ƵƐĚĞƉŽƚΘ ƌŝǀĞǁĂLJƐΘĂƌĞĂ WĂƌŬŝŶŐ WĂƐƐĞŶŐĞƌĂŵĞŶŝƟĞƐ KĸĐĞƐƉĂĐĞ ddD ďƵƐƚĞƌŵŝŶƵƐ ĚĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚ ĨĂĐŝůŝƟĞƐ ĂŶĚDdŽĸĐĞƐƉĂĐĞ ƌĞŶƚĞĚŽƵƚ Jayanagar 32.56 0.35 0.0 4.10 63.34 Banashankari 16.30 0.09 32.70 1.26 49.75 Koramangala 4.02 0.01 9.47 0.80 85.71 ^ŚĂŶƟŶĂŐĂƌ 6.68 0.01 16.74 12.39 64.19 Domlur 12.31 0.08 40.38 0.48 46.84 Yeshwanthpur 24.24 0.06 36.59 3.94 35.23 Vijayanagar 37.62 0.13 23.93 0.73 37.73 Kengeri 45.11 0.14 26.87 6.16 21.86 ITPL 8.29 0.03 23.91 0.74 67.06 ĂŶŶĞƌŐŚĂƩĂ 31.33 1.14 0.00 9.75 58.92 Total 18.23 0.01 22.60 5.20 53.96 Source: BMTC

100 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS

largest component for all the developed the system. This is evident in Table 6.3 where TTMCs taken together is the provision of the mean Earnings Per Kilometre of the parking facilities, with this facility JnNURM Volvo buses is almost identical to accounting for nearly 23 per cent of the built that of the non-JnNURM Volvo buses. up space. While providing parking space Evaluating the impact of JnNURM is meets an important requirement of the city, then best done by comparing the progress it must be remembered that this too has a during the JnNURM years and a revenue component. With over three-fourths comparable number of years immediately of the built up space being used up for preceding the setting up of the mission. The parking and office space that is rented out, results of an analysis of 343 routes in the TTMCs are clearly a successful exercise Bengaluru – 146 city routes and 197 in creating revenue generating assets. Since suburban routes – over six of the seven years over a fifth of the built up space is available of the JnNURM period compared to the for bus depots, terminuses, passenger preceding six years are presented in Table amenities, and office space for BMTC there 6.4.1 The overall pattern that emerges is is a significant contribution to the smooth running of the bus system as well. dĂďůĞϲ͘ϯ͗ǀĞƌĂŐĞĞĂƌŶŝŶŐƐƉĞƌŬŝůŽŵĞƚƌĞ In evaluating the effect of the buses ŽĨůƵdžƵƌLJďƵƐĞƐŝŶĞŶŐĂůƵƌƵŝŶϮϬϭϬ funded by JnNURM we come up against the dLJƉĞŽĨůƵdžƵƌLJďƵƐ DĞĂŶW

dĂďůĞϲ͘ϰ͗'ƌŽǁƚŚƌĂƚĞƐŝŶĞĂƌŶŝŶŐƐƉĞƌŬŝůŽŵĞƚƌĞĂŶĚƉĞƌĐĞŶƚĂŐĞůŽĂĚĨĂĐƚŽƌĚƵƌŝŶŐ:ŶEhZD ĂŶĚƉƌĞͲ:ŶEhZDLJĞĂƌƐ In per cent ǀĞƌĂŐĞĂƌŶŝŶŐƐWĞƌ<ŝůŽŵĞƚƌĞ ǀĞƌĂŐĞWĞƌĐĞŶƚĂŐĞ>ŽĂĚ&ĂĐƚŽƌ dLJƉĞŽĨƐĞƌǀŝĐĞ ϭϵϵϵͲϮϬϬϱ ϮϬϬϱͲϮϬϭϭ ϭϵϵϵͲϮϬϬϱ ϮϬϬϱͲϮϬϭϭ City 46.13 46.63 3.79 1.43 Suburban 42.73 53.16 6.37 1.90

Source: Calculated from BMTC data

1 We are greateful to BM Satisha for helping access this data.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 101 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

quite positive. The growth in the average de-congested percentage load factor is earnings per kilometre was higher in the greater in the suburban network than within JnNURM period than in the earlier period, the city. But to the extent that the JnNURM with the growth being much higher in the initiative strengthened the response to this suburban routes. And if we take the demand from the periphery, the Mission can percentage load factor as a sign of the take some of the credit for this success. congestion in buses, the picture suggests this The long-term impact of this success element is coming under control. There is a would however have to be measured in terms noticeable decline in the growth of the of its ability to draw commuters away from average percentage load factor both in the private transport and towards public city and the suburban bus networks. transport. A successful initiative would result It must be remembered, though, that in a decline in the growth rate of the cars JnNURM was not the only differentiating and two-wheelers registered. The picture here factor between the two periods. The later is mixed both across cities and across modes period was also marked by a greater of private transport. As can be seen in Table recognition of the BMTC of passenger 6.5 the growth rate in the number of cars movement from one point in the periphery registered in Bengaluru district in the seven- of the city to another. This resulted in an year JnNURM period is 151 per cent increase in BMTC passenger traffic on the compared to 122 per cent in the seven years periphery of Bengaluru. This can be seen in preceding the launch of JnNURM. This would Figure 6.1 where the thickness of the arrows suggest that the luxury buses have not quite reflects the volume of passenger traffic in been able to get car owners in Bengaluru to 2010. Clearly the movement along the IT rely more heavily on the public transport corridor of Bengaluru from the southern system. In contrast the rate of growth of two- periphery to the eastern periphery, and wheelers registered in Bengaluru district has beyond to the north is now an important part declined sharply from nearly 102 per cent of Bengaluru’s public transport system. It is the seven years preceding the launch of then no surprise that the improvement in JnNURM to 21 per cent in the seven years terms of both earnings per kilometre and a of the original schedule of JnNURM. It

Table 6.5: Growth rates in cars and two-wheelers registered in Bengaluru and Mysore districts In per cent Bengaluru Mysore Period Cars Two-wheelers Cars Two-wheelers 1997-98 to 2004-05 122.17 101.62 123.73 79.91 2004-05 to 2011-12 152.22 21.18 87.34 80.94 ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗ĂůĐƵůĂƚĞĚĨƌŽŵĚĂƚĂĐŽůůĞĐƚĞĚĨƌŽŵƚŚĞĞƉĂƌƚŵĞŶƚŽĨ^ƚĂƟƐƟĐƐ͕'ŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚŽĨ<ĂƌŶĂƚĂŬĂĂŶĚƚŚĞĞƉĂƌƚŵĞŶƚŽĨdƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚ͕ 'ŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚŽĨ<ĂƌŶĂƚĂŬĂ͘

102 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS

Figure 6.1: Direction and volume of movement of BMTC passengers would appear that two-wheeler owners in lowest asset class, which accounts for around Bengaluru are being drawn towards public 20 per cent of the city's working population, transport. Whether this shift is being caused 32 per cent of the workers walk to work. In by the availability of luxury buses or by a the second lowest asset class, which accounts better performance of ordinary buses would for around another 20 per cent of Bengaluru's require further study. Mysore presents the opposite picture. The rate of growth of car dĂďůĞϲ͘ϲ͗ŝƐƚƌŝďƵƟŽŶŽĨƉĞƌƐŽŶƐŐŽŝŶŐƚŽ owners has declined while that of two ǁŽƌŬďLJŵĞĂŶƐŽĨƚƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚĂƟŽŶƵƐĞĚ In per cent wheelers has increased, if only marginally. Asset Two- Walk BMTC Others Any shift away from public transport in that class wheeler city is occurring with car owners, while two- 1 31.7 3.5 48.9 15.9 wheeler owners seem largely unaffected. 2 28.0 6.3 50.4 15.3 It is also important to note that there 3 13.4 43.0 32.8 10.8 4 12.3 47.4 24.0 16.3 could be room for improvement in terms of 5 12.6 50.1 18.1 19.2 the effect of the JnNURM initiative on the 6 4.3 41.6 9.3 44.8 mobility of the poor. This is particularly true dŽƚĂů 17.9 31.1 32.3 18.7 of Bengaluru. As Table 6.6 tells us in the ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗E/^^ƵƌǀĞLJϮϬϭϯ

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 103 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

population, 28 per cent walk to work. The significantly with the actual cost of the significant proportions of poorer workers flyover at Agara junction being more than walking to work have a negative impact not 80 per cent greater than the approved costs. only on the drudgery of these workers but It is also worth noting that the delay was on the economy of the city as well. The lack greater in the flyover projects than in the of access to public transport of these workers single underpass project. hurts their ability to access jobs further away The BBMP had a much larger bouquet from their homes. This in turn hurts the of projects aimed at improving mobility on availability of labour for economic Bengaluru’s roads. And as can be seen in Table initiatives across the city. 6.8 which gives the picture on BBMP Beyond the public transport system the underpass projects as on December 2012, it JnNURM initiatives in transportation in too faced the challenge of delays and cost Bengaluru are primarily in improving overruns. All the projects have been delayed. mobility on the city’s roads. Bengaluru For the underpass projects it took on an Development Authority has undertaken average more than a year’s time for a released three projects – two flyovers and one tender to be awarded. As per the DPR, the underpass. If we use the CSMC approval Tagore circle under pass was supposed to be date as the starting point for the projects completed by March 2008 but was actually Table 6.7 tells us that all three projects have completed only in April 2012. taken significantly longer periods to There has been cost escalation in four complete than was estimated in their out of the five projects that were completed. Detailed Project Reports. This has caused The exception was the Puttenahalli the costs of all the projects to escalate quite underpass which was completed well within

dĂďůĞϲ͘ϳ͗/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐďLJ CSMC ƉƉƌŽǀĞĚ Total cost, WƌŽũĞĐƚ ŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶ cost, WƌŽũĞĐƚ ĂƉƉƌŽǀĂů ` crore ĐŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶ date# ĂƐƉĞƌWZΎ ` crore date #

ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨ&ůLJŽǀĞƌĂƚ 20-7-07 ϭϮŵŽŶƚŚƐ 38.10 69.8 December 2010 ŐĂƌĂ:ƵŶĐƟŽŶ ;ϰY&zϬϴͿ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨ&ůLJŽǀĞƌĂƚ ϭϮŵŽŶƚŚƐ 20-7-07 18.74 25.99 :ƵůLJϮϬϭϬ /ďůƵƌ:ƵŶĐƟŽŶ ;ϰY&zϬϴͿ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨhŶĚĞƌƉĂƐƐ along Chord Road at the ϭϮŵŽŶƚŚƐ 7-9-07 27.82 43.7 &ĞďƌƵĂƌLJϮϬϬϵ :ƵŶĐƟŽŶŽĨDĂŐĂĚŝZŽĂĚĂŶĚ ;ϰY&zϬϴͿ Chord Road ΎƐŵĞŶƟŽŶĞĚŝŶƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚŶŽƚĞĚŝŶƉĂƌĞŶƚŚĞƐŝƐ͘&ŽƌĞdžĂŵƉůĞϮY&zϬϴŝŵƉůŝĞƐƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚĨŽƌƚŚĞƐĞĐŽŶĚ ƋƵĂƌƚĞƌŝŶ&zϬϴ͘#ƐƉĞƌ

104 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS

Table 6.8 : Underpass projects of BBMP in Bengaluru Tender Tender Approved Total Likely Project release award ŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶĂƐ cost, cost, per DPR* ĐŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶ date* date* ` crore ` crore date # ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨ hŶĚĞƌƉĂƐƐĂƚ ϮϱͲϬϭͲϬϱ ϭϱͲϭϮͲϮϬϬϲ ĞĐĞŵďĞƌϮϬϬϳ 12.45 15.69 ŽŵƉůĞƚĞĚŝŶ DĂůůĞƐŚǁĂƌĂŵ (2QFY08) (2QFY08) (2QFY08) &ĞďƌƵĂƌLJϮϬϬϵ Circle ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨ WƌŽũĞĐƚ ϮϱͲϬϵͲϬϳ -- DĂƌĐŚϮϬϬϴ 19.32 hŶĚĞƌƉĂƐƐĂƚdĂŐŽƌĞ (3QFY08) (2QFY08) ϭϳ͘ϱϲ ĐŽŵƉůĞƚĞĚŝŶ Circle ƉƌŝůϮϬϭϮ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϬϴ WƌŽũĞĐƚ hŶĚĞƌƉĂƐƐĂƚ ϱͲϮͲϬϳ ϭϬͲϬϯͲϬϴ ;ϮY&zϬϴͿ 25.44 Ϯϲ͘ϵϳ ĐŽŵƉůĞƚĞĚŝŶ ,ĞŶŶƵƌͲĂŶĂƐǁĂĚŝ (4QFY08) (4QFY08) :ƵůLJϮϬϬϴ ĞĐĞŵďĞƌϮϬϬϵ ZŽĂĚũƵŶĐƟŽŶ (3QFY08) ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨ KĐƚŽďĞƌϮϬϬϴ WƌŽũĞĐƚ hŶĚĞƌƉĂƐƐĂƚ ϱͲϮͲϬϳ ϯͲϯͲϬϴ ;ϯY&zϬϴͿ Ϯϰ͘ϴϳ 28.1 ĐŽŵƉůĞƚĞĚŝŶ <ĂĚŝƌĞŶĂůůŝͲZŝŶŐ (4QFY08) (4QFY08) :ĂŶƵĂƌLJϮϬϬϵ ƵŐƵƐƚϮϬϭϮ ZŽĂĚũƵŶĐƟŽŶ (4QFY11) ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨ KĐƚŽďĞƌϮϬϬϴ WƌŽũĞĐƚ hŶĚĞƌƉĂƐƐĂƚ ϱͲϬϮͲϬϳ ϳͲϬϯͲϬϴ (3QFY08) 22.84 20.56 ĐŽŵƉůĞƚĞĚŝŶ WƵƩĞŶĂŚĂůůŝͲZŝŶŐ (4QFY08) (4QFY08) DĂƌĐŚϮϬϬϴ :ĂŶƵĂƌLJϮϬϭϭ ZŽĂĚũƵŶĐƟŽŶ (4QFY11) KĐƚŽďĞƌϮϬϬϴ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨ ϱͲϬϮͲϬϳ ϭϬͲϬϯͲϬϴ (3QFY08) ĞĐĞŵďĞƌ hŶĚĞƌƉĂƐƐĂƚEZ 22.61 -- (4QFY08) (2QFY10) DĂƌĐŚϮϬϬϵ 2013** ZĂŽŝƌĐůĞ (4QFY11) ΎƐŵĞŶƟŽŶĞĚŝŶƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚŶŽƚĞĚŝŶƉĂƌĞŶƚŚĞƐŝƐ͘&ŽƌĞdžĂŵƉůĞϮY&zϬϴŝŵƉůŝĞƐƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚĨŽƌƚŚĞƐĞĐŽŶĚ ƋƵĂƌƚĞƌŝŶ&zϬϴ͘#ƐƉĞƌ

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 105 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

dĂďůĞϲ͘ϵ͗ZŽĂĚƵƉŐƌĂĚĂƟŽŶĂŶĚŐƌĂĚĞƐĞƉĂƌĂƚŽƌƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐŽĨDW ŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶĂƐ ƉƉƌŽǀĞĚĐŽƐƚ͕ >ŝŬĞůLJĐŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶ WƌŽũĞĐƚ # ƉĞƌWZΎ ` Crore ĚĂƚĞ hƉŐƌĂĚĂƟŽŶŽĨ^ŝĚĞǁĂůŬĂŶĚĂƐƉŚĂůƟĐ ĞĐĞŵďĞƌϮϬϬϳ ŽŵƉůĞƚĞĚŝŶ ǁŽƌŬŽĨƌŽĂĚƐĂŶĚƐƵƌƌŽƵŶĚŝŶŐƐ͕ ϱϬ͘ϰϱ ;ϮY&zϬϴͿ ƵŐƵƐƚϮϬϬϵ <ŽƌĂŵĂŶŐĂůĂ hƉŐƌĂĚĂƟŽŶŽĨ^ŝĚĞǁĂůŬĂŶĚĂƐƉŚĂůƟĐ ĞĐĞŵďĞƌϮϬϬϳ ŽŵƉůĞƚĞĚŝŶ ϰϯ͘ϲϭ ǁŽƌŬŽĨƌŽĂĚƐĂŶĚƐƵƌƌŽƵŶĚŝŶŐƐ͕D͘'͘ZŽĂĚ ;ϮY&zϬϴͿ ƵŐƵƐƚϮϬϬϵ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨ'ƌĂĚĞ^ĞƉĂƌĂƚŽƌ'Ăůŝ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϬϴ ϯϬ͘Ϭϴ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϭϰΎΎ ŶũĂŶĞLJĂdĞŵƉůĞ:ƵŶĐƟŽŶŝƌĐůĞ ;ϮY&zϬϴͿ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϬϴ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨ'ƌĂĚĞ^ĞƉĂƌĂƚŽƌĂƚ ;ϮY&zϬϴͿ ŽŵƉůĞƚĞĚŝŶ Ϯϭ͘ϱϴ zĞƐŚǁĂŶƚƉƵƌŝƌĐůĞ KĐƚŽďĞƌϮϬϬϳ ƉƌŝůϮϬϬϵ ;ϰY&zϭϭͿ ΎƐŵĞŶƟŽŶĞĚŝŶƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚŶŽƚĞĚŝŶƉĂƌĞŶƚŚĞƐŝƐ͘&ŽƌĞdžĂŵƉůĞϮY&zϬϴŝŵƉůŝĞƐƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚĨŽƌƚŚĞƐĞĐŽŶĚ ƋƵĂƌƚĞƌŝŶ&zϬϴ͘#ƐƉĞƌ

the consultant for the Gali Anjaneya Temple clear, Lokayukta investigations, financing junction project revealed that initially cost overruns and the absence of work KSRTC wanted a direct road from the grade fronts have contributed to delays in four separator to the satellite bus stand. When projects each. this requirement was dropped the project Mysore too has seen considerable plan had to be altered. Moreover, the delays for similar reasons. Table 6.11 tells contractor for the project did not use the us that the outer ring road project has been right technology, as a result, some plans had to be altered to suit the technology used by dĂďůĞϲ͘ϭϬ͗ZĞĂƐŽŶƐĨŽƌĚĞůĂLJŽĨDWƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐ the contractor. Realignment of the grade ZĞĂƐŽŶƐ EŽ͘ŽĨWƌŽũĞĐƚƐ separator due to a metro pillar was also a >ŽŬĂLJƵŬƚĂŝŶǀĞƐƟŐĂƟŽŶ ϰ part of the cause for the delay in the Gali EŽĨƵŶĚƐĨŽƌĂĚĚŝƟŽŶĂůĐŽƐƚ ϰ Anjaneya Temple project. tŽƌŬĨƌŽŶƚŶŽƚĂǀĂŝůĂďůĞ ϰ >ĂŶĚŶŽƚĂǀĂŝůĂďůĞ ϰ The delays in the BBMP projects >ĂĐŬŽĨƉƌŽƉĞƌǁŽƌŬďLJ ϭ are the result of a very wide variety of ĐŽŶƚƌĂĐƚŽƌ reasons ranging from Lokayukta KƉƉŽƐŝƟŽŶͬŝŶƚĞƌĨĞƌĞŶĐĞĨƌŽŵ ϭ investigations to clearances from other ůŽĐĂůƌĞƉƌĞƐĞŶƚĂƟǀĞƐ 5 departments. The availability and >ĂŶĚĂĐƋƵŝƐŝƟŽŶƉƌŽďůĞŵ ůĞĂƌĂŶĐĞƐĨƌŽŵŽƚŚĞƌ ϯ acquisition of land would appear to be the ĚĞƉĂƌƚŵĞŶƚƐ single largest cause for delay. This is not &ƌĞƋƵĞŶƚŝŶƵŶĚĂƟŽŶ ϭ to suggest that the other causes are not a ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗ŵĞĞƟŶŐ ƉƌŽĐĞĞĚŝŶŐƐĂǀĂŝůĂďůĞĂƚǁǁǁ͘ŬƵŝĚĨĐ͘ĐŽŵ͕ĂĐĐĞƐƐĞĚ frequent impediment. As Table 6.10 makes ŽŶ:ĂŶƵĂƌLJϮϰ͕ϮϬϭϯ͘

106 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS

dĂďůĞϲ͘ϭϭ͗/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨDLJƐŽƌĞƌŝŶŐƌŽĂĚƉƌŽũĞĐƚďLJDh Likely ŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶĂƐ Approved ZĞǀŝƐĞĚĂƉƉƌŽǀĞĚ WƌŽũĞĐƚ ĐŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶ ƉĞƌWZΎ ĐŽƐƚ͕`ĐƌŽƌĞ ĐŽƐƚ͕` ĐƌŽƌĞ # ĚĂƚĞ hƉŐƌĂĚĂƟŽŶŽĨKƵƚĞƌZŝŶŐ ϮϰŵŽŶƚŚƐ Ϯϭϵ͘ϬϮ Ϯϯϵ͘ϱϭ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϭϰ ZŽĂĚ ;ϰY&zϬϴͿ ΎƐŵĞŶƟŽŶĞĚŝŶƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚŶŽƚĞĚŝŶƉĂƌĞŶƚŚĞƐŝƐ͘&ŽƌĞdžĂŵƉůĞϮY&zϬϴŝŵƉůŝĞƐƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚĨŽƌƚŚĞƐĞĐŽŶĚ ƋƵĂƌƚĞƌŝŶ&zϬϴ͘#ƐƉĞƌ

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 107 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

Table 6.12: BWSSB projects in Bengaluru CSMC approval Approved Project ŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶ >ŝŬĞůLJĐŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶ date# as per DPR* cost, ` crore date # ƵŐŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨĚƌŝŶŬŝŶŐǁĂƚĞƌ ĨƌŽŵt^^^ƚĂŐĞ/sWŚĂƐĞ/ďLJ ŽŵƉůĞƚĞĚŝŶ ϴͲϭϮͲϬϲ -- ϭϮ͘Ϯϲ ĂĚĚŝƟŽŶĂůϭϬϬŵůĚĨŽƌƐĞǀĞŶŝƚLJ ĞĐĞŵďĞƌϮϬϬϳ DƵŶŝĐŝƉĂůŽƵŶĐŝůƐ ƵůŬŇŽǁŵĞƚĞƌŝŶŐΘŵŽŶŝƚŽƌŝŶŐ ϴͲϭϮͲϬϲͬϭϮͲ ϭϮŵŽŶƚŚƐ ŽŵƉůĞƚĞĚŝŶ ƐLJƐƚĞŵƐĨŽƌĞŶŐĂůƵƌƵǁĂƚĞƌ ϭϯ͘ϳ ϳͲϭϮ ;ϰY&zϬϴͿ ĞĐĞŵďĞƌϮϬϬϵ ĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƟŽŶŶĞƚǁŽƌŬ ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂůĐƟŽŶWůĂŶ;WĂƌƚ ͿZĞŚĂďŝůŝƚĂƟŽŶŽĨĞdžŝƐƟŶŐ ϯϬŵŽŶƚŚƐ ϭϰͲϮͲϬϳ ϭϳϲ͘ϳϱ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϭϰ ƐĞǁĞƌĂŐĞƐLJƐƚĞŵŝŶĞŶŐĂůƵƌƵ ;ϰY&zϬϴͿ ŝƚLJ hŶĚĞƌŐƌŽƵŶĚƌĂŝŶĂŐĞ^LJƐƚĞŵΘ ϮϰŵŽŶƚŚƐ ZŽĂĚZĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶĨŽƌzĞůĂŚĂŶŬĂ ϳͲϵͲϬϳ ϭϱ͘Ϭϭ :ƵŶĞϮϬϭϯΎΎ ;ϰY&zϬϴͿ ƌĂŝŶĂŐĞŽŶĞͲ/ hŶĚĞƌŐƌŽƵŶĚƌĂŝŶĂŐĞ^LJƐƚĞŵ ϮϰŵŽŶƚŚƐ ΘZŽĂĚZĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶĨŽƌ<ĞŶŐĞƌŝ ϳͲϵͲϬϳ ϭϴ͘ϳϲ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϭϰ ;ϰY&zϬϴͿ ƌĂŝŶĂŐĞŽŶĞͲ/ hŶĚĞƌŐƌŽƵŶĚƌĂŝŶĂŐĞ ^LJƐƚĞŵΘZŽĂĚZĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶ ϮϰŵŽŶƚŚƐ ϭϭͲϭͲϬϴ ϭϮϱ͘ϭϳ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϭϰ ĨŽƌLJĂƚĂƌĂLJĂŶĂƉƵƌĂƌĂŝŶĂŐĞ ;ϰY&zϬϴͿ ŽŶĞͲ// hŶĚĞƌŐƌŽƵŶĚƌĂŝŶĂŐĞ^LJƐƚĞŵΘ ϮϰŵŽŶƚŚƐ ϭϭͲϭͲϬϴ ϰϭ͘ϱϰ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϭϰ ZŽĂĚZĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶĨŽƌZZEĂŐĂƌ ;ϰY&zϬϴͿ hŶĚĞƌŐƌŽƵŶĚƌĂŝŶĂŐĞ ϯϲŵŽŶƚŚƐ ƐLJƐƚĞŵΘZŽĂĚZĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶĨŽƌ ϭϰͲϭϬͲϬϴ ϭϭϬ͘ϭϴ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϭϰ ;ϭY&zϭϬͿ DĂŚĂĚĞǀƉƵƌĂD hŶĚĞƌŐƌŽƵŶĚƌĂŝŶĂŐĞƐLJƐƚĞŵΘ ϯϲŵŽŶƚŚƐ ZŽĂĚZĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶĨŽƌĂƐĂƌĂŚĂůůŝ ϭϰͲϭϬͲϬϴ ϭϯϲ͘ϱϳ ^ĞƉƚĞŵďĞƌϮϬϭϯ ;ϭY&zϭϬͿ D hŶĚĞƌŐƌŽƵŶĚƌĂŝŶĂŐĞƐLJƐƚĞŵΘ ϯϲŵŽŶƚŚƐ ZŽĂĚZĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶĨŽƌ<ZWƵƌĂŵ ϭϰͲϭϬͲϬϴ ϴϳ͘ϴϵ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϭϰ ;ϭY&zϭϬͿ D hŶĚĞƌŐƌŽƵŶĚƌĂŝŶĂŐĞ ϯϲŵŽŶƚŚƐ ƐLJƐƚĞŵΘZŽĂĚZĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶĨŽƌ ϭϰͲϭͲϬϵ Ϯϯϭ͘ϳϱ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϭϰ ;ϭY&zϭϬͿ ŽŵŵĂŶĂŚĂůůŝD ΎƐŵĞŶƟŽŶĞĚŝŶƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚŶŽƚĞĚŝŶƉĂƌĞŶƚŚĞƐŝƐ͘&ŽƌĞdžĂŵƉůĞϮY&zϬϴŝŵƉůŝĞƐƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚĨŽƌƚŚĞƐĞĐŽŶĚ ƋƵĂƌƚĞƌŝŶ&zϬϴ͘#ƐƉĞƌ

EŽƚĞ͗ƐƉĞƌ

108 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS

delayed. As there is no information on cost overcome several obstacles. This has taken its escalation till December 2012, we take it in toll both on the time schedules of the projects Table 6.13 that there is no escalation in the as well as their cost. As can be seen from Table estimated cost. Discussions with consultants 6.14 the Hebbal valley project as per its initial for the distribution network project revealed DPR was supposed to be completed by that one of the sanctioning committees December 2008. This was changed to March approved the project on the condition that 2011 in the revised DPR, which was later the water supply would be 24/7. This was in changed to March 2013. The implementing contrast to the existing situation of supply agency now expects the work to get over by of water which was once in two days. As a March 2014. As a result the cost of the Hebbal result, KUWSDB completed all the work valley project has also escalated by 46 per under the project except the distribution part cent. This also is the case with the of the project. The consultant informed us Vrishabhavathy valley and Koramangala that installing of meters is currently being valley, with the cost escalation being more undertaken before the 24/7 supply could than 84 per cent in the case of Vrishabhavathy begin. In addition there were delays due to valley. It must be mentioned that though there the extra time taken in preparing the DPRs has been a delay in the Challaghatta valley for these projects and the problems in there has been a reduction in the cost of the acquiring land for the augmentation project. project. Among the causes for the delay was that the projects had to get approval before STORM WATER DRAINS they proceeded with land acquisition. The real As we have seen in Chapter 4 storm water estate boom in 2005 made many landowners drain projects form an important part of the reluctant to give up their land for the UIG component of the JnNURM in Bengaluru compensation offered by BBMP. Moreover, and a much less significant part in Mysore. many slum dwellers were given land in areas The projects in Bengaluru have had to where the storm water drain was planned. In

dĂďůĞϲ͘ϭϯ͗/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨh/'ƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐďLJŝŬĞůLJĐŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶ WƌŽũĞĐƚ # ƉĞƌWZΎ ĐŽƐƚ͕`ĐƌŽƌĞ ĚĂƚĞ - ZĞŵŽĚĞůŝŶŐŽĨǁĂƚĞƌƐƵƉƉůLJĚŝƐƚƌŝďƵƟŽŶŶĞƚ 30 months 194.54 March 2014 ǁŽƌŬ͕ĂƵƚŽŵĂƟŽŶĂŶĚŝŶƚĞŐƌĂƚĞĚŵĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ (4QFY08) system for Mysore 24 months ƵŐŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨǁĂƚĞƌƐƵƉƉůLJƚŽDLJƐŽƌĞĐŝƚLJ 108.82 December 2013 with Kabini River as source (1QFY10) ΎƐŵĞŶƟŽŶĞĚŝŶƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚŶŽƚĞĚŝŶƉĂƌĞŶƚŚĞƐŝƐ͘&ŽƌĞdžĂŵƉůĞϮY&zϬϴŝŵƉůŝĞƐƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚĨŽƌƚŚĞƐĞĐŽŶĚ ƋƵĂƌƚĞƌŝŶ&zϬϴ͘# As per KUIDFC status report May 2013. ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗YƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJWƌŽŐƌĞƐƐZĞƉŽƌƚʹǀĂƌŝŽƵƐŝƐƐƵĞƐ͕ĂǀĂŝůĂďůĞĂƚŚƩƉ͗ͬͬďďŵƉ͘ŐŽǀ͘ŝŶ͕ͬĂĐĐĞƐƐĞĚ:ĂŶƵĂƌLJϮϬϭϯ͖

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 109 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

order to meet the higher costs BBMP had to adding to the human and financial costs. The request the Government of Karnataka for contractor wanted this increase in cost to be assistance, which resulted in further delay.Also, given by the IA or the government. As a result, getting labour to work in the unavoidable many contractors stopped work on the project. unhygienic conditions was a serious problem. The MUDA project for remodelling storm water Many labourers fell ill working on the project, drains in Mysore has also been delayed.

dĂďůĞϲ͘ϭϰ͗^ƚŽƌŵǁĂƚĞƌĚƌĂŝŶƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐŽĨDWŝŶĞŶŐĂůƵƌƵĂŶĚDhŝŶDLJƐŽƌĞ ƉƉƌŽǀĞĚ ZĞǀŝƐĞĚ ŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶĂƐƉĞƌ >ŝŬĞůLJĐŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶ WƌŽũĞĐƚ ĐŽƐƚ͕ ĂƉƉƌŽǀĞĚ # WZΎ ĚĂƚĞ `ĐƌŽƌĞ ĐŽƐƚ͕`ĐƌŽƌĞ ĞŶŐĂůƵƌƵ a) December 2008 Remodelling of primary & (2QFY08) secondary Storm Water b) March 2011 (Revised 184.74 269.98 March 2014 Drains (SWD) in Hebbal DPR) (4QFY11) Valley c) March 2013 (Revised DPR) (1QFY12) Remodelling of primary & secondary storm water a) December 2008 drains at Vrishabhavathy (2QFY08) Valley including 228.26 420.89 March 2014 b) March 2013 (Revised Kethamaranahalli & DPR) (1QFY12) Arkavathy and Kathriguppa Minor Valley a) December 2008 Remodelling of Primary (2QFY08) & Secondary Storm b) March 2012 (Revised 111.49 128.58 March 2014 Water Drains (SWD) in DPR) (4QFY11) Koramangala Valley c) March 2013 (Revised DPR) (1QFY12) a) December 2008 Remodelling of Primary (2QFY08) & Secondary Storm b) March 2011 (Revised Water Drains (SWD) in 118.57 105.93 March 2014 DPR) (4QFY11) ŚĂůůĂŐŚĂƩĂsĂůůĞLJΘϭ c) March 2013 (Revised Minor Valley DPR) (1QFY12) DLJƐŽƌĞ Remodeling of storm water 30 months (1QFY10) 125.00 September 2013** drains ΎƐŵĞŶƟŽŶĞĚŝŶƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚŶŽƚĞĚŝŶƉĂƌĞŶƚŚĞƐŝƐ͘&ŽƌĞdžĂŵƉůĞϮY&zϬϴŝŵƉůŝĞƐƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚĨŽƌƚŚĞƐĞĐŽŶĚ ƋƵĂƌƚĞƌŝŶ&zϬϴ͘# As per KUIDFC status report December 2012. ** As per KUIDFC status report May 2013. ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗YƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJWƌŽŐƌĞƐƐZĞƉŽƌƚʹǀĂƌŝŽƵƐŝƐƐƵĞƐ͕ĂǀĂŝůĂďůĞĂƚŚƩƉ͗ͬͬďďŵƉ͘ŐŽǀ͘ŝŶ͕ͬĂĐĐĞƐƐĞĚ:ĂŶƵĂƌLJϮϬϭϯ͖

110 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS

OTHER PROJECTS external development of the town hall The Mysore City Corporation has which includes excavations, retaining wall taken up a number of projects including casting and centering works. Internal one on solid waste management. The solid development of town hall which includes waste management project has been delayed dismantling and false ceiling work has been by more than two years. This delay may completed. Under the internal work require more detailed analysis as the land plumbing and flooring works are also being required for secondary storage, compost carried out. The heritage project has also treatment, and landfill facility was in the been delayed. possession of MCC. The MCC is also The final UIG project, Water overseeing the heritage core and urban Management through Surface and renewal project, under which improvements Rainwater Harvesting at Sri to roads around the palace, duct and drains Chamarajendra Zoological Gardens is works, and construction of tonga stands are being undertaken by the Zoo Authority of being carried out. Work here also includes Karnataka. The approved cost of this project construction of basement parking and is ` 3.3 crores.

URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT SCHEME FOR SMALL AND MEDIUM TOWNS PROJECTS

The UIDSSMT projects in Karnataka the projects for roads, drains, and storm are implemented by different agencies water drain projects are handled by the depending on the nature of the project. The concerned urban local body. In Karnataka water supply and sewerage projects are there were 38 projects sanctioned under implemented by the Karnataka Urban the UIDSSMT at various points of time. Water Supply and Drainage Board, while As can be seen in Table 6.15, 23 of the 38

Table 6.15: Year wise approval of UIDSSMT projects by SLSC

SLSC date Water Supply UGD Roads & drains SWD Total 1st SLSC, 2/ 461112 Nov/2006 2nd SLSC, 15/ 333211 Feb/2007 3rd SLSC, 14/ 10 1 4 -- 15 Aug/2007

UGD- Underground drainage, SWD- Storm water drains ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗ĞƉĂƌƚŵĞŶƚŽĨDƵŶŝĐŝƉĂůĚŵŝŶŝƐƚƌĂƟŽŶƐƚĂƚƵƐƉƌĞƐĞŶƚĂƟŽŶĂƐŽŶĞĐĞŵďĞƌϯϭ͕ϮϬϭϮ͘

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 111 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

Table 6.16: Physical progress of UIDSSMT projects in Karnataka Total Financial Physical Likely ULB name Project approved expenditure, progress cost, ` crore ` crore (%) ĐŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶĚĂƚĞ Birur Water supply 13.39 -- 70 December 2013 Siddapura Water supply 5.25 7.22 100 Completed Hirekerur Water supply 16.17 18.11 100 Completed Davanagere Water supply 3.56 4.02 80 December 2012# Davanagere Sewerage 3.36 3.03 80 March 2013* Storm water Davanagere 50.6 40.25 90 March 2013* drains & drains Davanagere Roads 31.28 32.39 95 March 2013* Pandavapura Sewerage 6.02 6.13 70 December 2013 Srirangapatna Sewerage 5.22 5.84 70 December 2013 Nanjangud Sewerage 9.75 10.82 65 January 2014 Malavalli Sewerage 7.3 6.14 60 January 2014 Channapatna Sewerage 13.11 7.16 55 March 2014 Hubli-Dharwad Water supply 9.9 11.96 95 November 2012* Hubli-Dharwad Roads 4.14 6.8 100 Completed Ramanagara Roads & drains 17.41 17.81 100 Completed Storm water Ramanagara 14.6 3.3 50 March 2013* drains Shikaripura Sewerage 13.17 14.23 75 December 2013 Holenarasipura Roads & drains 20.24 18.7 70 March 2013# Holenarasipura Sewerage 3.03 2.9 70 March 2013* Holenarasipura Water supply 0.9 1.12 100 Completed Storm water Holenarasipura 8 8.8 96 Completed drains Basavana Sewerage 8.44 7.41 70 March 2013# Bagewadi Yargol Water supply 79.93 68.42 68 March 2014 Mulbagalu Water supply 18.95 -- Not starteda -- Kerur Water supply 11.73 13.59 70 May 2013 ^ŽƵŶĚĂƫ Sewerage 8.68 1.7 50 December 2014 Mundgod Water supply 3.77 5.01 100 Completed Bijapura Water supply 62.78 65.17 90 July 2013# Chikkodi Water supply 20.4 21.52 80 June 2013# Hunagunda-Ilkal- Water supply 58.21 67.39 80 November 2013 Kustagi Mulki Roads 2.14 2.13 100 Completed

112 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS

dĂďůĞϲ͘ϭϲ͗ŽŶƟŶƵĞĚ Total Financial Physical Likely ULB name Project approved expenditure, progress cost, ` crore ` crore (%) ĐŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶĚĂƚĞ Gajendragad- Water supply 36.32 24.36 60 December 2013 Naregal Vijayapura Water supply 11.09 -- 50 December 2013

^ŚŝƌĂŚĂƫͲ Water supply 25.96 29.2 83 November 2013 Mulagunda Shiggaon-Savanur- Water supply 39.76 35.73 65 March 2014 Bankapura Roads & storm Harihara 24.22 20.65 65 March 2013* water drains Chennagiri Roads & drains 6.21 6.22 100 Completed Konnur Roads & drains 7.51 4.13 70 March 2013* Note: * implies work not completed, # implies work is complete/commissioned, ‘a͛ǁŽƌŬŶŽƚƐƚĂƌƚĞĚ͕ĂƐŽŶ:ƵŶĞϮϬϭϯĂƐƉĞƌDŽĸĐŝĂůƐ͘ ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗ĞƉĂƌƚŵĞŶƚŽĨDƵŶŝĐŝƉĂůĚŵŝŶŝƐƚƌĂƟŽŶƐƚĂƚƵƐƉƌĞƐĞŶƚĂƟŽŶĂƐŽŶĞĐĞŵďĞƌϯϭ͕ϮϬϭϮ͘ projects were approved in 2006-07, while different from those affecting UIG the other 15 projects were approved by the projects. The absence of coordination second quarter of 2007-08. between agencies is a serious problem According to information provided by the with UIDSSMT projects as well. There Directorate of Municipal Administration as on were land acquisition problems in December 31st 2012, work had commenced on Nanjangud and Shikaripura, which led to all but one water supply project. As can be seen litigation in the High Court of Karnataka. in Table 6.16, nine of the 38 projects have been In the sewerage project for Nanjangud, a completed. Except the Mulbagalu project, in priest filed a case arguing that the terms of physical progress, all projects are at compensation offered for land was low least half complete. Of the remaining projects, compared to that offered for the Mysore only six projects are expected to go into 2014, airport project. Finally, Government of with the rest of the projects expected to be India did not release funds for 12 projects completed by the end of 2013. The cost of eight in 2009, which was also a reason for delay. of the nine completed projects has escalated. It But there were also more local factors must also be noted that most of the yet to be affecting some projects.In Channapatna completed projects show signs of cost escalation. and Nanjangud the local representatives Discussions with DMA officials were not interested in the sewerage reveal that the reasons for the delay in projects, they were insisting on roads and UIDSSMT projects are not fundamentally water projects.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 113 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

PROJECTS FOR BASIC SERVICES TO THE URBAN POOR

BENGALURU slums also delayed the projects. There were The work on slums in Bengaluru under also location specific problems. For example, the Basic Services to Urban Poor component slums in low lying areas or quarries had to of the JnNURM was handled either by the be dealt with appropriately, which took time. BBMP or the KSDB. And in both cases the In the rehabilitation of the 28-slums project process was marked by considerable delays. the approved cost has already been exceeded Table 6.17 provides a picture of the extent of by 38 per cent. delay in the implementation of BSUP projects In Mysore three of the four BSUP by BBMP. Litigation and land acquisition projects were undertaken by KSDB while the were the two important reasons for delay in other remaining project was handled by the completed project. Among the reasons for MCC. Table 6.19 points to the delays in the the delay in the other, yet to be completed, rehabilitation projects among those projects are land litigation,non-cooperation undertaken by KSDB, with the 20-slums by existing slum dwellers,and delay in inter- project being delayed by at least three years, departmental transfer of land. and the 46-slums project by at least four Table 6.18 shows us that all 11 projects years. Among the reasons for the delay is undertaken by KSDB have been delayed due the need to change the location of the slums. to a variety of reasons. KSDB officials said In the 20-slums project three locations were that in many projects it took more than two dropped and one new location was included years to convince people to accept when a revised DPR was submitted to the accommodation on higher floors. Getting CSMC in 2011. Though the exact duration land for transit accommodation close to the of the construction project is not available,

dĂďůĞϲ͘ϭϳ͗/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨ^hWƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐďLJDW Revised Approved Project ŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶĂƐ approved # per DPR* cost, ` crore >ŝŬĞůLJĐŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶĚĂƚĞ cost, ` crore Two slums completed in November 2011 Redevelopment of 5 March 2008 9.73 10.1 Three slums to be (2QFY08) ŝĚĞŶƟĮĞĚƐůƵŵƐ completed by March 2014. Redevelopment of 16 March 2008 52.86 -- March 2014 slums (2QFY08) ΎƐŵĞŶƟŽŶĞĚŝŶƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚŶŽƚĞĚŝŶƉĂƌĞŶƚŚĞƐŝƐ͘&ŽƌĞdžĂŵƉůĞϮY&zϬϴŝŵƉůŝĞƐƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚĨŽƌƚŚĞƐĞĐŽŶĚ ƋƵĂƌƚĞƌŝŶ&zϬϴ͘# As per KUIDFC status report May 2013. ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗YƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJWƌŽŐƌĞƐƐZĞƉŽƌƚʹǀĂƌŝŽƵƐŝƐƐƵĞƐ͕ĂǀĂŝůĂďůĞĂƚŚƩƉ͗ͬͬďďŵƉ͘ŐŽǀ͘ŝŶ͕ͬĂĐĐĞƐƐĞĚ:ĂŶƵĂƌLJϮϬϭϯ͖

114 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS

dĂďůĞϲ͘ϭϴ͗/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨ^hWƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐďLJ<^ ^DĂƉƉƌŽǀĂů ŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶ ƉƉƌŽǀĞĚ >ŝŬĞůLJĐŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶ WƌŽũĞĐƚ # $ # date ĂƐƉĞƌWZΎ ĐŽƐƚ͕`ĐƌŽƌĞ date ZĞŚĂďŝůŝƚĂƟŽŶŽĨϮϴƐůƵŵƐŝŶ ϮϴͲϭϭͲϬϲͬϭϬͲ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϬϵ ϭϴϵ͘ϭϳ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϭϰ ĞŶŐĂůƵƌƵŝƚLJ ϯͲϭϭ ;ϰY&zϬϴͿ ZĞŚĂďŝůŝƚĂƟŽŶŽĨϭϲƐůƵŵƐŝŶ ϮϴͲϭϭͲϬϳͬϭϬͲ ϭϱŵŽŶƚŚƐ ϭϮϰ͘Ϯϴ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϭϰ ĞŶŐĂůƵƌƵŝƚLJ ϯͲϭϭ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨϰϲϰhƐĂƚ ϮϭͲϭͲϬϵ ϭϱŵŽŶƚŚƐ ϭϵ͘ϭϵ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϭϰ ŚĂůůĂŐŚĂƩĂ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨϭϬϬhƐĂƚ ŽŵƉůĞƚĞĚŝŶ ŚŽǀŝŽůŽŶLJ<ŽůŽŶLJ͕^' ϯϬͲϭͲϬϵ ϭϮŵŽŶƚŚƐ ϯ͘Ϭϱ ĞĐĞŵďĞƌϮϬϭϭ WĂůLJĂ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨϮϬϴhƐĂƚ ϯϬͲϭͲϬϵ ͲͲ ϭϬ͘Ϭϯ ĞĐĞŵďĞƌϮϬϭϯ ,ĂŬŬŝƉŝŬŬŝĐŽůŽŶLJ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨϯϭϬhƐĂƚ ϯϬͲϭͲϬϵͬϯϬͲ ϭϮŵŽŶƚŚƐ ϵ͘ϰϱ ĞĐĞŵďĞƌϮϬϭϯ >ĂdžŵĂŶĂƌĂŽEĂŐĂƌ ϴͲϭϭ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨϮϬϴhƐĂƚ ϯϬͲϭͲϬϵ ϭϮŵŽŶƚŚƐ ϵ͘ϴϰ ^ĞƉƚĞŵďĞƌϮϬϭϯ EĂŐĂƌĞƐŚǁĂƌĂEĂŐĞŶĂŚĂůůŝ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨϯϮϬhƐĂƚ ϯϬͲϭͲϬϵͬϯϬͲ sŝŶŽďŚĂƐůƵŵ͕ŵďĞĚŬĂƌƐůƵŵ͕ ϭϮŵŽŶƚŚƐ ϭϰ͘ϵϵ ĞĐĞŵďĞƌϮϬϭϯ ϴͲϭϬ DƵŶŝƌĂLJĂƉƉĂƐůƵŵ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨϮϱϲhƐĂƚ ϯϬͲϭͲϬϵͬϯϬͲ ϭϮŵŽŶƚŚƐ ϭϭ͘ϴϰ ^ĞƉƚĞŵďĞƌϮϬϭϯ ŚĞĞŵĂŶĂŬƵƉƉĞ ϴͲϭϬ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨϴϴϬhƐĂƚ ϮϭͲϮͲϬϵ ϭϮŵŽŶƚŚƐ ϯϳ͘ϲϴ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϭϰ ŚƵǀĂŶĞƐŚǁĂƌŝŶĂŐĂƌ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨϰϴϬhƐĂƚ <ĂŶƚĞĞƌĂǀĂŶĂŐĂƌ͕ϭϬϬhƐĂƚ ϮϭͲϮͲϬϵͬϮϴͲ ϭϮŵŽŶƚŚƐ ϮϬ͘ϳϮ ĞĐĞŵďĞƌϮϬϭϯ ZĂũĞĞǀĂŶĂŐĂƌ͕ĂŶĚϭϬϬhƐĂƚ ϮͲϭϮ 'ŽǀŝŶĚĂƌĂũŶĂŐĂƌ͘ ΎƐŵĞŶƟŽŶĞĚŝŶƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚŶŽƚĞĚŝŶƉĂƌĞŶƚŚĞƐŝƐ͘&ŽƌĞdžĂŵƉůĞϮY&zϬϴŝŵƉůŝĞƐƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚĨŽƌƚŚĞƐĞĐŽŶĚ ƋƵĂƌƚĞƌŝŶ&zϬϴ͘#ƐƉĞƌ

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 115 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

dĂďůĞϲ͘ϭϵ͗/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨ^hWƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐďLJ<^ ŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶ ƉƉƌŽǀĞĚ ZĞǀŝƐĞĚĂƉƉƌŽǀĞĚ >ŝŬĞůLJĐŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶ WƌŽũĞĐƚ # ĂƐƉĞƌWZΎ ĐŽƐƚ͕`ĐƌŽƌĞ ĐŽƐƚ͕` ĐƌŽƌĞ ĚĂƚĞ ϮϰŵŽŶƚŚƐ ZĞŚĂďŝůŝƚĂƟŽŶŽĨϮϬƐůƵŵƐ ϰϱ͘Ϯϴ ϲϳ͘ϱϴ DĂƌĐŚϮϬϭϰ ;ϰY&zϬϴͿ ϭϮŵŽŶƚŚƐ ZĞŚĂďŝůŝƚĂƟŽŶŽĨϰϲƐůƵŵƐ ϵϬ͘ϵϯ -- DĂƌĐŚϮϬϭϰ ;ϰY&zϬϴͿ ŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶĂƚŬĂůĂǀLJĂ -- ϰϳ͘ϳϳ ϰϳ͘ϵϴ ^ĞƉƚĞŵďĞƌϮϬϭϯ EĂŐĂƌƐůƵŵ ΎƐŵĞŶƟŽŶĞĚŝŶƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚŶŽƚĞĚŝŶƉĂƌĞŶƚŚĞƐŝƐ͘&ŽƌĞdžĂŵƉůĞϮY&zϬϴŝŵƉůŝĞƐƋƵĂƌƚĞƌůLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐƌĞƉŽƌƚĨŽƌƚŚĞƐĞĐŽŶĚ ƋƵĂƌƚĞƌŝŶ&zϬϴ͘#ƐƉĞƌ

conditions in JnNURM project units with difference. Four-fifth of the slum dwelling those in other slums. And the picture that units in Bengaluru were without a functioning emerges in terms of the effects of JnNURM tap in them and the picture was not very on basic services to the urban poor in Table different in the JnNURM dwelling units. This 6.20 is not very encouraging. There is very number was much lower in the slums in little difference in terms of the access to Mysore, at less than a fifth. And the services between JnNURM households and JnNURM dwelling units had an even lower households in other slums. Arguably the most percentage of houses without a functioning striking result is that the provision of these tap in them. The one area where there was a houses does not change even the proportion noticeable difference was in the proportion of households living in rented of households without a ration card. The accommodation. Those living in these JnNURM households did much better on this dwelling units spoke of other beneficiaries score. But this was only to be expected as who had preferred to rent out the units they the allotment of these units would itself were allotted. In terms of connection to depend on the ability to access entitlements sewage lines too there was not much of a from the government.

dĂďůĞϲ͘ϮϬ͗ŝƐƚƌŝďƵƟŽŶŽĨ:ŶEhZDŚŽƵƐĞƐĂŶĚƐůƵŵŚŽƵƐĞƐďLJƐƉĞĐŝĮĐĨĞĂƚƵƌĞƐ ĞŶŐĂůƵƌƵ DLJƐŽƌĞ ŚĂƌĂĐƚĞƌŝƐƟĐŽĨĚǁĞůůŝŶŐƵŶŝƚ :ŶEhZD ^ůƵŵ :ŶEhZD ^ůƵŵ ZĞŶƚĞĚ ϯϱ͘ϬϬ ϯϴ͘ϬϬ Ϯϲ͘ϬϬ Ϯϲ͘ϬϬ tŝƚŚĐŽŶŶĞĐƟŽŶƚŽƐĞǁĂŐĞůŝŶĞ ϳϳ͘ϬϬ ϳϮ͘ϳϬ ϵϰ͘ϬϬ ϵϴ͘ϬϬ tŝƚŚŶŽĨƵŶĐƟŽŶŝŶŐƚĂƉǁŝƚŚŝŶŝƚ ϴϬ͘ϬϬ ϴϭ͘ϯϬ ϭϮ͘ϬϬ ϭϴ͘ϬϬ ,ŽƵƐĞŚŽůĚƐǁŝƚŚŽƵƚƌĂƟŽŶĐĂƌĚ Ϯ͘ϬϬ ϭϵ͘ϯϬ ϰ͘ϬϬ ϭϬ͘ϬϬ

^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗E/^^ƵƌǀĞLJϮϬϭϯ

116 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS

INTEGRATED HOUSING AND SLUM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

The implementation of the 34 projects payment of the initial deposit by slum sanctioned in Karnataka under the IHSDP dwellers. brings out several unusual features. As per A more welcome, if somewhat information on the stated parameters of unexpected, feature is that the delay in the IHSDP that could be obtained from KSDB, execution has resulted in cost escalation in only the tender release and the tender award date a few of the projects. Table 6.21 shows that the for a number of projects is the same. There costs in only four of the 34 projects have could be various interpretations for this escalated between June 2011 and March 2013. pattern, including perhaps the lack of good The overall picture in terms of contractors who can take up the work in such completion of projects is not entirely towns. Again, in a few projects, tenders were negative. As Table 6.22 tells us, 15886 of already awarded before they were the 17237 dwelling units – 92 per cent of sanctioned by the CSMC. Despite the the dwelling units – have been completed. promptness in awarding the tenders there Among the completed units, 83.1 per cent, were considerable delays. Discussions with that is 13198 units, have been occupied by KSDB officials revealed a variety of reasons families. In terms of the total number of for the delay. Since the construction of dwelling units planned, only 76.6 per cent houses and infrastructure works were taken have been occupied as on 31st March, 2013. up in-situ, the existing units had to be shifted It can also be seen from the table that work in a phased manner, thus causing delay. In has not started in around 2.2 per cent of the some cases the delay was due to the lack of total number of dwelling units.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 117 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

Table 6.21: Cost of IHSDP projects % Share % Share Town dŽƚĂůĞƐƟŵĂƚĞĚĐŽƐƚ dŽƚĂůĞƐƟŵĂƚĞĚĐŽƐƚ ` crore/June 2011 ` crore/March 2013 (2011) (2013) Mulubagilu 11.25 11.25 3 3 Doddaballapura 11.52 11.52 3.1 3.1 Gowribidanur (infra only) 1.79 1.79 0.5 0.5 Ramanagara 30.57 30.57 8.2 8.1 ^ŝĚĚůĂŐŚĂƩĂ 4.06 4.06 1.1 1.1 Chintamani 17.61 17.61 4.7 4.7 Nanjanagudu 8.42 9.09 2.3 2.4 Nagamangala 7.20 7.20 1.9 1.9 Hassan 16.96 18.4 4.6 4.9 Holenarasipura 16.96 18.4 4.6 4.9 Kadur 11.05 11.05 3 2.9 Hiriyur 3.37 3.37 0.9 0.9 Hubli 12.56 12.56 3.4 3.3 Gadag-Betageri 20.47 20.47 5.5 5.4 Gajendragada 8.42 8.42 2.3 2.2 Belgaum 2.99 2.99 0.8 0.8 ^ŽƵĚĂƫ 2.78 2.78 0.7 0.7 Basavakalyan 3.03 3.03 0.8 0.8 Bhalki 3.35 3.35 0.9 0.9 Gulbarga 15.72 15.72 4.2 4.2 Chincholi 4.01 4.01 1.1 1.1 Shahapur 4.19 4.19 1.1 1.1 Sindhanoor 20.57 20.57 5.5 5.5 Koppal 4.80 4.80 1.3 1.3 Bellary 9.56 9.56 2.6 2.5 Kanakapura 18.04 18.04 4.8 4.8 Mandya 12.96 12.96 3.5 3.4 Bagalkot 7.61 7.61 2 2 Hubli, Phase-III 2.90 3.21 0.8 0.9 Hubli, Phase-II 12.13 12.13 3.3 3.2 Sira 17.90 17.90 4.8 4.8 Pavagada 17.31 17.31 4.6 4.6 Shimoga 19.75 19.75 5.3 5.2 Shikaripura 10.84 10.84 2.9 2.9 Total 372.65 376.66 100 100

Source: Karnataka Slum Development Board IHSDP status as on June 2011 and 31st March 2013.

118 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS

dĂďůĞϲ͘ϮϮ͗ŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶŽĨ/,^WƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐŝŶ<ĂƌŶĂƚĂŬĂ hƐĨŽƌǁŚŝĐŚ dŽǁŶ dŽƚĂůŶŽ͘ŽĨhƐ ŽŵƉůĞƚĞĚhƐ KĐĐƵƉŝĞĚhƐ ǁŽƌŬŶŽƚƐƚĂƌƚĞĚ Mulubagilu 600 491 491 66 Doddaballapura 648 641 641 0 Gowribidanur Infra only 0 Ramanagara 1800 1450 1192 20 ^ŝĚĚůĂŐŚĂƩĂ 200 160 0 40 Chintamani 798 716 716 29 Nanjanagudu 540 533 352 2 Nagamangala 420 369 347 45 Hassan 1000 1000 1000 0 Holenarasipura 1000 1000 1000 0 Kadur 500 500 500 0 Hiriyur 123 121 121 0 Hubli 600 600 0 0 Gadag-Betageri 738 738 738 0 Gajendragada 500 486 486 0 Belgaum 138 138 138 0 ^ŽƵĚĂƫ 145 145 145 0 Basavakalyan 170 170 170 0 Bhalki 150 150 150 0 Gulbarga 786 754 302 0 Chincholi 200 117 0 0 Shahapur 207 203 0 0 Sindhanoor 1005 925 925 0 Koppal 265 265 0 0 Bellary 520 501 501 0 Kanakapura 727 714 714 0 Mandya 558 100 100 146 Bagalkot 240 240 240 0 Hubli, Phase-III 109 109 109 0 Hubli, Phase-II 430 430 0 0 Sira 682 682 682 0 Pavagada 508 508 508 0 Shimoga 600 600 600 0 Shikaripura 330 330 330 0 Total 17237 15886 13198 376 Note: ‘DU’ implies dwelling unit. Source: Karnataka Slum Development Board IHSDP status as on 31st March 2013.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 119 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

VOICES FROM JNNURM DWELLING UNITS

“For 40 years, we have been living here. Earlier this whole place was a wet swamp. We put mud over it and leveled it, made it habitable. In 1987, there were floods here and houses were destroyed. The MLA at that time gave sheets to make houses and ` 2000 to each family. Now, that the plot is leveled and made ready by us, the government wants it. There were 25 families living in the slum, out of these only 15 have got allotment.The 10 families that did not get allotment have been living under the staircase for the past three years. The quarters meant for the 10 families who were left out have been given to employees of government hospitals and other government departments. The top floor of the quarters has been given illegally to them. We have complained in several departments but have got no response. These people have rented it out to others who now live here. In between we were told that 11 houses have been made in Yelahanka and that we must shift there, two people signed some documents not knowing what it was. But we refused to go so far away. This is where we were born and have lived all our lives, you cannot ask us to go to the edge of the city.”

“I am 76 years old and an SC. My daughter in law was among those that didn’t get an allotment. So now with five children and all of us adults there are 12 people living in this small house.”

“I lived in Hubli before and was married off to my husband and came here after marriage. He used to live with his extended family.They lived on the road for two years before they got the allotment. Here also, many flats have been given for rent and the allottees are making a lot of money from this. We are paying the Sangha ` 100 per month for maintenance. I don’t know how to compare with the earlier house, but this is very comfortable and I feel better than living in a slum.”

“I am 34 years old and a Dalit. Most of the people in the flats are Dalits but if you don’t have an SC certificate, then you have to pay more for the flat. I have been given this milk stand also as support from the government because of my handicap. There are four members in my house. Earlier we used to stay here in pucca houses only but in 2007, the government said they would build flats and demolished the houses. We got biometric cards and gave 30,000 to get the house. The only problem is that because the people live in one building now there are more fights between us. We should learn to not interact too much and live our own lives. Then there is peace. I have got the ground floor because of my handicap. A lot of people living on top floor are not happy they have to climb the stairs but you can’t make everyone happy.”

120 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 7 THE REFORMS

eform of urban governance is a all count of the different types of reforms in R critical objective of JnNURM. The Karnataka. conditional funding is linked to the Table 7.1 – Number of JnNURM implementation of specified reform Reforms by type and level measures. An evaluation of these reform State ULB measures would, as in the case of the Type of reforms Total level level implementation of projects,have two stages. Mandatory 7 6 13 We would first have to look at whether the KƉƟŽŶĂů 5510 prescribed reforms have been put in place. Transport 6 6 12 And in the cases where the reform measures dŽƚĂů 18 17 35 have been implemented we can, wherever possible, look at the outcome of these In terms of the number of reforms that reforms. have been completed Karnataka has done The 23 JnNURM reforms have been quite well. The Ministry of Urban Develop- prioritized into two groups, those that are ment (MoUD) of the Government of India mandatory and those that are optional. In has verified that Karnataka has completed addition to this there are sector specific re- 89.6 per cent of the total reform target as forms. Karnataka has targeted 12 such re- on May 2013. This puts Karnataka behind forms in the transport sector. The 35 reforms only Andhra Pradesh (92.6 per cent) and can further be distinguished between wheth- Maharashtra (90.6 per cent) at the national er they are to be implemented at the state level. In order to ensure that the reforms or ULB level. Table 7.1 provides the over- were implemented by the respective States,

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 121 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

the Centre stipulated that 10 per cent of the forms as all the information we have is total share of the Central Government in the whether the reforms have been completed funding of projects would be released upon or not. At the level of Urban Local Bodies the fulfilment of reforms. Since Karnataka however it is possible to distinguish between had managed to complete 89.6 per cent of the two Mission cities – Bengaluru and the reforms, it has been approved to receive Mysore – and the other cities in Karnataka. the same proportion of the pending funds. The reforms in the mission cities can be treat- Underlying this overall success are two ed as being propelled by JnNURM and that issues that need attention. First, even as an in other cities as being a part of more local overwhelming percentage of the reforms processes of governance. A comparison of have been carried out, are the ones that have reforms in the two sets of cities will then been left out the more difficult, and impor- provide us a picture, howsoever hazy, of the tant, ones? In order to capture this dimen- impact of JnNURM on the process of reforms. sion of the reform process we need to take a In choosing the other cities we have kept in closer look at the reforms that have not yet mind the fact that the two mission cities are been achieved. Second, how much of this from southern Karnataka. The other cities reform process is attributable to JnNURM? are therefore taken from three other regions It is possible that the reform process would of the state: the coastal region, north-west have been carried out even without the Karnataka and north-east Karnataka. The conditionalities of the Mission. It is difficult cities chosen are Mangalore, Hubli-Dharwad to answer this question for State level re- and Gulbarga.

MANDATORY STATE LEVEL REFORMS

Karnataka has completed 93.57 per of the steps in the implementation of the cent of the State level reforms that are man- 74th Constitution Amendment Act at the datory. The two reforms that have not been State level. While, as Table 7.2 tells us, sev- completed emphasize the dangers of just eral other important steps in the implemen- going by the overall percentages. Both the tation of this Act have been taken, the re- incomplete reforms relate to what is argua- form process appears to have hit a road bly the most critical area of overall reform: block on the constitution of these the creation of District Planning Commit- committees.In interviews with officials, it was tees and a Metropolitan Planning Commit- conveyed that the reform had been pending tee for Bengaluru. The creation of these com- due to the preparations for the Karnataka mittees should help ensure that different im- State elections held in May 2013. They ar- plementing agencies do not work at cross gued that since the elections are now com- purposes. Setting up these committees is one pleted, the MPCs were expected to be con-

122 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE REFORMS

stituted. But there are also genuine differ- reason that these committees are yet to exist. ences on some of the provisions of the legis- The clearest case of reforms that can- lation that would bring these committees into not be attributed to JnNURM are those re- being. It may well then be too sanguine to forms which had been carried out before the expect these committees to come into being Mission came into being. This was true of without further debate. the reforms in rent control in Karnataka. The inability to set up the District Plan- Karnataka began the process of reform of ning Committees and the Metropolitan Plan- its rent laws with The Karnataka Rent Act ning Committee had its implications for oth- 1999. The Act met the conditions that er elements of the mandatory reforms as well. JnNURM was to propose six years later that The task of integrating city planning and are listed in Table 7.4. delivery functions was left incomplete. Here The rationalization of stamp duty is again, as Table 7.3 tells us, while all other an area where Karnataka has met the elements of reforms have been completed the JnNURM targets, as is reflected in Table task of having city plans placed before the 7.5. What is less clear is whether the meas- MPC/DPC could not be done for the simple ures have led to the outcomes that were de-

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϮͲ/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨϳϰthŽŶƐƟƚƵƟŽŶŵĞŶĚŵĞŶƚĐƚ REFORM ^ddh^ ĂͿDƵŶŝĐŝƉĂůůĞĐƟŽŶƐ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ďͿŝƐƚƌŝĐƚWůĂŶŶŝŶŐŽŵŵŝƩĞĞ;WͿͬDĞƚƌŽƉŽůŝƚĂŶWůĂŶŶŝŶŐŽŵŵŝƩĞĞ;DWͿ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ĐͿ^ƚĂƚĞ&ŝŶĂŶĐĞŽŵŵŝƐƐŝŽŶ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĚͿŽŶǀĞƌŐĞŶĐĞŽĨhƌďĂŶDĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ&ƵŶĐƟŽŶƐ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĞͿdŝŵĞůŝŶĞŝŶLJĞĂƌƐŽĨǁŚĞŶƚŚĞ^ƚĂƚĞƉůĂŶƐƚŽĐŽŵƉůĞƚĞƚŚĞƚƌĂŶƐĨĞƌŽĨƚŚĞ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĨƵŶĐƟŽŶƐ ĨͿ^ƉĞĐŝĨLJĂƉƉƌŽĂĐŚŝŶƚĞŶĚĞĚƚŽĂĚŽƉƚďLJ^ƚĂƚĞ'ŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚƚŽĂĐŚŝĞǀĞ ĐŽŶǀĞƌŐĞŶĐĞŽĨƵƌďĂŶŵĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚĨƵŶĐƟŽŶƐŝŶƚŽƚŚĞĨƵŶĐƟŽŶŝŶŐŽĨh>Ɛ͕ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ WůĞĂƐĞƐƉĞĐŝĨLJƚŚĞŵĞƚŚŽĚ

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dĂďůĞϳ͘ϯͲ/ŶƚĞŐƌĂƟŽŶŽĨĐŝƚLJƉůĂŶŶŝŶŐĂŶĚĚĞůŝǀĞƌLJĨƵŶĐƟŽŶƐ REFORM ^ddh^ ĂͿZĞƐŽůƵƟŽŶďLJ'ŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚĞdžƉƌĞƐƐŝŶŐĐŽŵŵŝƚŵĞŶƚƚŽĂƐƐŝŐŶŽƌĂƐƐŽĐŝĂƚĞh>Ɛ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ǁŝƚŚƚŚĞĐŝƚLJƉůĂŶŶŝŶŐĨƵŶĐƟŽŶ ďͿŝƚLJƉůĂŶƐƚŽďĞƉůĂĐĞĚďĞĨŽƌĞƚŚĞDWͬW WĂƌƟĂů ĐͿ^ĞƋƵĞŶĐĞŽĨƐƚĞƉƐƚŽŝŶƚĞŐƌĂƚĞh>ͬƐǁŝƚŚƚŚĞĐŝƚLJƉůĂŶŶŝŶŐĨƵŶĐƟŽŶ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĚͿ^ĞƋƵĞŶĐĞŽĨƐƚĞƉƐƚŽŝŶƚĞŐƌĂƚĞh>ͬƐǁŝƚŚƚŚĞĚĞůŝǀĞƌLJŽĨƐĞƌǀŝĐĞƐ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ

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NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 123 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϰͲZĞŶƚĐŽŶƚƌŽůƌĞĨŽƌŵƐĂŶĚƌĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶ REFORM ^ddh^ ĂͿZĞƐŽůƵƟŽŶďLJ'ŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚĞdžƉƌĞƐƐŝŶŐĐŽŵŵŝƚŵĞŶƚƚŽĞƐƚĂďůŝƐŚŶĞǁƌĞŶƚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŽŶƚƌŽůƐLJƐƚĞŵ ďͿŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚŽĨŶĞǁZĞŶƚŽŶƚƌŽůĐƚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐͿĞĮŶŝŶŐƚŚĞƌŝŐŚƚƐĂŶĚŽďůŝŐĂƟŽŶƐŽĨůĂŶĚůŽƌĚƐĂŶĚƚĞŶĂŶƚƐ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĚͿƐƚĂďůŝƐŚŝŶŐĂŶĞǁƌĞŶƚĐŽŶƚƌŽůůĞŐŝƐůĂƟŽŶ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĞͿ/ŶĚŝĐĂƚĞƉĞƌŝŽĚŝĐŝƚLJŽĨƌĞǀŝƐŝŽŶŽĨƌĞŶƚƐͬƌĞŶƚĂůǀĂůƵĞŐƵŝĚĂŶĐĞ͕ĂŶĚǁŚĞŶŶĞdžƚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĚƵĞ ĨͿ^ĞƫŶŐƵƉŽĨĂŵĞĐŚĂŶŝƐŵĨŽƌƉĞƌŝŽĚŝĐƌĞǀŝĞǁŽĨƌĞŶƚƐͬƌĞŶƚĂůǀĂůƵĞŐƵŝĚĂŶĐĞ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ŐͿ/ŶƐƟƚƵƟŽŶŽĨĚŝƐƉƵƚĞƌĞƐŽůƵƟŽŶŵĞĐŚĂŶŝƐŵƐ;Ğ͘Ő͘^ƉĞĐŝĂůdƌŝďƵŶĂůƐͬŽƵƌƚƐĞƚĐͿ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϱͲZĂƟŽŶĂůŝƐĂƟŽŶŽĨƐƚĂŵƉĚƵƚLJ REFORM STATUS ĂͿŽŵŵŝƚŵĞŶƚĨŽƌƌĞĚƵĐƟŽŶŽĨƐƚĂŵƉĚƵƚLJƚŽϱƉĞƌĐĞŶƚ Achieved ďͿ&ŝdžƚŚĞƉĞƌŝŽĚŝĐŝƚLJĨŽƌƌĞǀŝƐŝŶŐƚŚĞŐƵŝĚĂŶĐĞǀĂůƵĞĨŽƌůĞǀLJŽĨƐƚĂŵƉĚƵƚLJ Achieved ĐͿdŝŵĞůŝŶĞƚŽƌĞĚƵĐĞƐƚĂŵƉĚƵƚLJƚŽϱƉĞƌĐĞŶƚ Achieved

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sired. One of the reasons cited for a reduc- The repeal of the urban land ceiling is tion in stamp duty was that high stamp du- another area where Karnataka met the ties led to an undervaluation of property, JnNURM norms, as can be seen in Table 7.6. leading to a decline in revenue. JnNURM But here again this was achieved well before documentation argued that a lower stamp JnNURM was initiated. The reforms related to duty would result in less undervaluation community participation as well as public dis- and hence greater revenue. It is not entire- closure have also been carried out, as can be ly clear that such an increase in revenue seen in Tables 7.7 and 7.8. The actual outcomes has been the outcome. of these measures will have to be studied.

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϲͲZĞƉĞĂůŽĨƵƌďĂŶůĂŶĚĐĞŝůŝŶŐ REFORM STATUS

ĂͿZĞƉĞĂůŽĨh>ZƚŽŝŶĐƌĞĂƐĞƐƵƉƉůLJŽĨůĂŶĚĂŶĚƚŽĞƐƚĂďůŝƐŚĂŶĞĸĐŝĞŶƚůĂŶĚ Achieved market

ďͿdŚĞ^ƚĂƚĞůĞŐŝƐůĂƚƵƌĞƚŽƉĂƐƐĂƌĞƐŽůƵƟŽŶŝŶĐŽŵƉůŝĂŶĐĞǁŝƚŚƚŚĞƌĞƉĞĂůŽĨ Achieved h>ZĐƚƉĂƐƐĞĚďLJƚŚĞWĂƌůŝĂŵĞŶƚŝŶϭϵϵϵ ĐͿEŽƟĮĐĂƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞĂďŽǀĞďLJ'ŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚŽĨ<ĂƌŶĂƚĂŬĂ Achieved

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124 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE REFORMS

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϳͲŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚŽĨĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJƉĂƌƟĐŝƉĂƟŽŶůĂǁ REFORM STATUS

ĂͿZĞƐŽůƵƟŽŶďLJ'ŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚĞdžƉƌĞƐƐŝŶŐĐŽŵŵŝƚŵĞŶƚƚŽĞƐƚĂďůŝƐŚĂŶĞǁ Achieved ĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJƉĂƌƟĐŝƉĂƟŽŶůĂǁ ďͿ/ŶĚŝĐĂƚĞƚŚĞĐŚĂŶŐĞƐLJŽƵƉƌŽƉŽƐĞƚŽŵĂŬĞŝŶLJŽƵƌ:ŶEhZDĐŝƚLJͬĐŝƟĞƐĂŶĚƚŚĞ Achieved ƟŵĞůŝŶĞĨŽƌƚŚĞƐĞĐŚĂŶŐĞƐ ĐͿWƌŽƉŽƐĞĚĂĐƟǀŝƚLJͲŵĂƉƉŝŶŐŽĨĨƵŶĐƟŽŶƐŝŶĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJƉĂƌƟĐŝƉĂƟŽŶůĂǁ;ĨŽƌ Achieved ĞĂĐŚŽĨƚŚĞĨƵŶĐƟŽŶƐŽĨƚŚĞDƵŶŝĐŝƉĂůŝƚLJͿ ĚͿŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚŽĨĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJƉĂƌƟĐŝƉĂƟŽŶůĂǁ Achieved ĞͿEŽƟĮĐĂƟŽŶŽĨƌƵůĞƐŽŶĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJƉĂƌƟĐŝƉĂƟŽŶůĂǁ Achieved ĨͿ/ŶƚĞƌŝŵƉƌŽĐĞƐƐĨŽƌĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJƉĂƌƟĐŝƉĂƟŽŶŝŶŵƵŶŝĐŝƉĂůĨƵŶĐƟŽŶƐǁŚŝůĞ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚͲŝƟnjĞŶ͛Ɛ ĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJƉĂƌƟĐŝƉĂƟŽŶůĂǁŝƐďĞŝŶŐĞŶĂĐƚĞĚĂŶĚŶŽƟĮĞĚ͘WůĞĂƐĞŝŶĚŝĐĂƚĞŝĨ ŽŵŵŝƩĞĞƐŚĂǀĞ ƚŚĞƌĞĂƌĞĂŶLJƐƚĞƉƐďĞŝŶŐƚĂŬĞŶďLJƚŚĞDƵŶŝĐŝƉĂůŝƚLJƚŽĐƌĞĂƚĞŽƉƉŽƌƚƵŶŝƟĞƐĨŽƌ been formed ĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJƉĂƌƟĐŝƉĂƟŽŶǁŚŝůĞƚŚĞĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJƉĂƌƟĐŝƉĂƟŽŶůĂǁŝƐďĞŝŶŐĞŶĂĐƚĞĚ ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϴͲŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚŽĨƉƵďůŝĐĚŝƐĐůŽƐƵƌĞůĂǁ REFORM STATUS ĂͿZĞƐŽůƵƟŽŶďLJ'Žǀƚͬh>ƚŽĨŽƌŵƵůĂƚĞĂŶĚĂĚŽƉƚĂƉŽůŝĐLJŽĨƉƵďůŝĐĚŝƐĐůŽƐƵƌĞ Achieved ďͿ/ŶĚŝĐĂƚĞŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶĚŝƐĐůŽƐƵƌĞƚŚĂƚŝƐŝŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĞĚĂŶĚƚŚĞƟŵĞůŝŶĞ Achieved ĐͿ>ŝƐƚƚŚĞŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶƉƌŽƉŽƐĞĚƚŽďĞĚŝƐĐůŽƐĞĚďLJh>ƐͬƉĂƌĂƐƚĂƚĂůĂŐĞŶĐŝĞƐŽŶĂ Achieved ƌĞŐƵůĂƌĂŶĚŵĂŶĚĂƚŽƌLJďĂƐŝƐ ĚͿ>ŝƐƚƚŚĞƐĞƌǀŝĐĞƐĨŽƌǁŚŝĐŚƐĞƌǀŝĐĞůĞǀĞůƐŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶŝƐƉƌŽƉŽƐĞĚƚŽďĞĚŝƐĐůŽƐĞĚ Achieved ĞͿzĞĂƌĨƌŽŵǁŚŝĐŚƐĞƌǀŝĐĞůĞǀĞůƐŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶǁŝůůƌĞŐƵůĂƌůLJĚŝƐĐůŽƐĞĚ Achieved ĨͿdŝŵĞƐĐŚĞĚƵůĞĚĨŽƌĞŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚŽĨƉƵďůŝĐĚŝƐĐůŽƐƵƌĞůĂǁ Achieved ŐͿdŝŵĞƐĐŚĞĚƵůĞĚĨŽƌŶŽƟĮĐĂƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞƌƵůĞƐƉĞƌƚĂŝŶŝŶŐƚŽƚŚĞƉƵďůŝĐĚŝƐĐůŽƐƵƌĞůĂǁ Achieved

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MANDATORY ULB LEVEL REFORMS

The JnNURM cities have had ULB-lev- E-GOVERNANCE el reforms implemented as per government The two Mission cities of Bengaluru directives. Both Bengaluru and Mysore have and Mysore have achieved all the e-Gov- managed to complete 92.5 per cent of the ernance elements prescribed in JnNURM. mandatory reforms designated for ULBs In terms of these specific measures the under JnNURM. Here again we need to take record of the three non-JnNURM cities a closer look at the specifics of the reform would appear to be quite poor. They have measures that have been completed to eval- made only partial progress in preparing uate their impact. their Municipal e-Governance Design Doc-

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 125 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϵͲ/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨŵĂŶĚĂƚŽƌLJĞͲ'ŽǀĞƌŶĂŶĐĞƌĞĨŽƌŵƐ STATUS REFORM DE'- ,h>/Ͳ 'h>Z- E'>hZh MYSORE >KZ DHARWAD ' a) Appointment of State-level NA NA NA technology consultant as Achieved Achieved State Technology Advisor ďͿWƌĞƉĂƌĂƟŽŶŽĨDƵŶŝĐŝƉĂů e- Governance Design WĂƌƟĂů WĂƌƟĂů WĂƌƟĂů ŽĐƵŵĞŶƚ;DͿĂƐ Achieved Achieved ƉĞƌEĂƟŽŶĂůĞƐŝŐŶ ŽĐƵŵĞŶƚͬEDDW No (State No (State No (State Documen- ĐͿƐƐĞƐƐŵĞŶƚŽĨD Documenta- Documenta- ĂŐĂŝŶƐƚEĂƟŽŶĂů Achieved Achieved ƚĂƟŽŶ e-Governance Standards ƟŽŶƵƐĞĚͿ ƟŽŶƵƐĞĚͿ used)

ĚͿ&ŝŶĂůŝƐĂƟŽŶŽĨ No No No DƵŶŝĐŝƉĂůĞͲ'ŽǀĞƌŶĂŶĐĞ Achieved Achieved ŝŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶĂĐƟŽŶ plan for the city No No No ĞͿWZƉƌŝŽƌƚŽŵŝŐƌĂƟŽŶƚŽ Achieved Achieved e-Governance No No Yes (Spe- ĨͿƉƉŽŝŶƚŵĞŶƚŽĨƐŽŌǁĂƌĞ Achieved Achieved consultants ĐŝĮĐƌĞĂƐͿ ŐͿdžƉůŽƌŝŶŐWWWŽƉƟŽŶƐĨŽƌ No No ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚĞͲ'ŽǀĞƌŶĂŶĐĞ Achieved Achieved Yes modules ŚͿĞͲ'ŽǀĞƌŶĂŶĐĞEDDW Achieved Achieved ƐďĞůŽǁ ƐďĞůŽǁ ƐďĞůŽǁ DŽĚƵůĞ^ƚĂƚƵƐ ϭͿWƌŽƉĞƌƚLJdĂdžŵŽĚƵůĞ 1) Achieved 1) Achieved 1) No 1) Yes 1) Yes ϮͿĐĐŽƵŶƟŶŐŵŽĚƵůĞ 2) Achieved 2) Achieved ϮͿWĂƌƟĂů 2) Yes 2) No 3) Payment of property ƚĂdž͕ƵƟůŝƚLJďŝůůƐĂŶĚ 3) Yes management of 3) Achieved 3) Achieved 3) Yes 3) Yes ƵƟůŝƟĞƐƵŶĚĞƌƚŚĞ ULBs ϰͿZĞŐŝƐƚƌĂƟŽŶĂŶĚŝƐƐƵĞ of births/ deaths 4) Achieved 4) Achieved 4) Yes 4) Yes 4) Yes ĐĞƌƟĮĐĂƚĞ ϱͿŝƟnjĞŶƐ͛ŐƌŝĞǀĂŶĐĞ 5) Achieved 5) Achieved 5) Yes 5) Yes 5) Yes monitoring 6) Personnel 6) Achieved 6) Achieved 6) Yes 6) Yes 6) Yes management system

126 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE REFORMS

STATUS REFORM MANGA- HUBLI - GULBAR- BENGALURU MYSORE LORE DHARWAD GA 7) Procurement and 7) No – In monitoring of 7) Achieved 7) Achieved 7) Yes 7) Yes Plan projects 8) Building plan 8) Achieved 8) Achieved 8) No 8) No 8) No approvals 9) Health programs 9) Achieved 9) Achieved 9) No 9) No 9) No 10) 10) No 10) Licenses 10) Achieved 10) No 10) Yes Achieved ;WĂƌƟĂůͿ 11) Solid waste 11) 11) Achieved 11) No 11) No 11) Yes management Achieved ϭϮͿ^ĞƫŶŐƵƉƐĞƌǀŝĐĞ ĐĞŶƚƌĞƐĂƚĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ 12) Yes 12) 12) Yes (Man- 12) Yes (HD ůŽĐĂƟŽŶƐŝŶƵƌďĂŶ 12) Achieved areas to provide Achieved galore One) One) ;'ƵůďĂƌŐĂ One) ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚƐĞƌǀŝĐĞƐ under one roof Source: KUIDFC, ƌƵŚĂƚĞŶŐĂůƵƌƵDĂŚĂŶĂŐĂƌĂWĂůŝŬĞ;DWͿ͕DLJƐŽƌĞŝƚLJŽƌƉŽƌĂƟŽŶ;DͲDLJƐŽƌĞͿ͕,ƵďůŝͲŚĂƌǁĂĚDƵŶŝĐŝƉĂů ŽƌƉŽƌĂƟŽŶ;,DͿ͕DĂŶŐĂůŽƌĞŝƚLJŽƌƉŽƌĂƟŽŶ;DʹDĂŶŐĂůŽƌĞͿ͕'ƵůďĂƌŐĂŝƚLJŽƌƉŽƌĂƟŽŶ͘ůůŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶŝƐĂƐŽŶDĂLJϮϬϭϯ͘ ument (MEDD) and Gulbarga has ap- MUNICIPAL ACCOUNTING pointed software consultants for a few ar- Following a state-level migration to the eas. On all the other e-governance meas- double-entry accounting system in 2005-06, ures prescribed under JnNURM the other we find that all the ULBs, both JnNURM and three cities have not achieved what the two non-JnNURM cities, already have this reform mission cities have. But if we look beyond in place.Here again since the reforms were the specific steps prescribed by JnNURM in place since the first year of JnNURM and at the outcomes in terms of actual e-Gov- have been implemented in both the Mission ernance, the differences are much less stark. and non-Mission cities, it is not clear just how While several of the procedural rules stip- much of a role JnNURM had in this transi- ulated are not followed in the non- tion. It is also worth noting from Table 7.10 JnNURM cities, we observe that most of that the complete revamp of the Public Fi- cities have already managed to integrate nancial Management (PFM) cycle which in- information technology. Thus, several of cludes internal control has been carried out the basic e-governance measures are al- in the three other cities but information for ready present to a large degree. For ex- this process is not available for Mysore. In ample, as Table 7.9 tells us the Hubli- addition, information on the appointment of Dharwad Municipal Corporation already consultants for development of a state man- has nine out of 12 services being opera- ual on Business Process Reengineering is not tional on e-governance platforms and available either for Mysore or for the three Gulbarga has eight. non-JnNURM cities.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 127 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϭϬͲ/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨŵĂŶĚĂƚŽƌLJƌĞĨŽƌŵƐŝŶDƵŶŝĐŝƉĂůĂĐĐŽƵŶƟŶŐ STATUS HUBLI - Z&KZD BENGALURU GULBARGA Dz^KZ DE'>KZ DHARWAD ĂͿ'Kͬ>ĞŐŝƐůĂƟŽŶͬDŽĚŝĮĐĂ- ƟŽŶŽĨƌƵůĞƐĨŽƌŵŝŐƌĂƟŽŶ Yes (2005- ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ Yes (2006) Yes (2006) ƚŽĚŽƵďůĞͲĞŶƚƌLJĂĐĐŽƵŶƟŶŐ 06) ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ďͿƉƉŽŝŶƚŵĞŶƚŽĨĐŽŶƐƵůƚĂŶƚƐ EĨŽƌDLJ- ĨŽƌĚĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚŽĨ^ƚĂƚĞ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ NA NA NA ƐŽƌĞ ŵĂŶƵĂů ĐͿŽŵƉůĞƟŽŶĂŶĚĂĚŽƉƟŽŶŽĨ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ NA NA NA ŵĂŶƵĂů ĚͿŽŵŵĞŶĐĞƚƌĂŝŶŝŶŐŽĨ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ Yes Yes Yes ƉĞƌƐŽŶŶĞů ĞͿƉƉŽŝŶƚŵĞŶƚŽĨĮĞůĚͲůĞǀĞů ĐŽŶƐƵůƚĂŶƚĨŽƌŝŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂ- ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ Yes Yes Yes ƟŽŶĂƚƚŚĞĐŝƚLJͲůĞǀĞů ĨͿEŽƟĮĐĂƟŽŶŽĨĐƵƚͲŽīĚĂƚĞ ĨŽƌŵŝŐƌĂƟŶŐƚŽƚŚĞĚŽƵďůĞ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ NA NA NA ĞŶƚƌLJĂĐĐŽƵŶƟŶŐƐLJƐƚĞŵ ŐͿƵƐŝŶĞƐƐƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ EĨŽƌDLJ- ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ NA NA NA ƌĞĞŶŐŝŶĞĞƌŝŶŐ ƐŽƌĞ ŚͿsĂůƵĂƟŽŶŽĨĂƐƐĞƚƐĂŶĚůŝ- ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ Yes Yes Yes ĂďŝůŝƟĞƐ ŝͿƌĂǁŝŶŐƵƉŽĨŽƉĞŶŝŶŐďĂů- ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ Yes Yes Yes ĂŶĐĞƐŚĞĞƚ;K^Ϳ͘ ũͿ&ƵůůŵŝŐƌĂƟŽŶƚŽĚŽƵďůĞ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ Yes Yes Yes ĞŶƚƌLJĂĐĐŽƵŶƚƐLJƐƚĞŵ ŬͿWƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶŽĨĮŶĂŶĐŝĂůƐƚĂƚĞ- ŵĞŶƚƐ;ŝŶĐŽŵĞĞdžƉĞŶĚŝƚƵƌĞ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ Yes Yes Yes ĂĐĐŽƵŶƚƐĂŶĚďĂůĂŶĐĞƐŚĞĞƚͿ ůͿdžƚĞƌŶĂůĂƵĚŝƚŽĨĮŶĂŶĐŝĂů ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ Yes Yes Yes ƐƚĂƚĞŵĞŶƚ ŵͿ&ƌĞƋƵĞŶĐLJŽĨĞdžƚĞƌŶĂůĂƵĚŝƚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ŶŶƵĂů ŶŶƵĂů ŶŶƵĂů ŶͿWƌĞƉĂƌĂƟŽŶŽĨŽƵƚĐŽŵĞ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ Yes Yes EŽ ďƵĚŐĞƚ ŽͿŽŵƉůĞƚĞƌĞǀĂŵƉŽĨƚŚĞ WƵďůŝĐ&ŝŶĂŶĐŝĂůDĂŶĂŐĞ- EĨŽƌDLJ- ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ Yes Yes Yes ŵĞŶƚ;W&DͿĐLJĐůĞǁŚŝĐŚ ƐŽƌĞ ŝŶĐůƵĚĞƐŝŶƚĞƌŶĂůĐŽŶƚƌŽů ƉͿƌĞĚŝƚƌĂƟŶŐŽĨh>ƐͬWĂƌĂ- ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ Yes Yes EŽ ƐƚĂƚĂůŐĞŶĐŝĞƐ ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗

128 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE REFORMS

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϭϭͲ/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨŵĂŶĚĂƚŽƌLJƉƌŽƉĞƌƚLJƚĂdžƌĞĨŽƌŵƐ STATUS REFORM HUBLI - BENGALURU MYSORE MANGALORE GULBARGA DHARWAD a) Extension of property tax Achieved Achieved Yes Yes Yes ƌĞŐŝŵĞƚŽĂůůƉƌŽƉĞƌƟĞƐ Yes (Except Yes (Except Yes (Except ďͿůŝŵŝŶĂƟŽŶŽĨĞdžĞŵƉƟŽŶ Achieved Achieved Religious/ Religious/ Religious/ Halls) Halls) Halls) ĐͿDŝŐƌĂƟŽŶŽĨƐĞůĨͲ assessment system of Achieved Achieved No Yes Yes ƉƌŽƉĞƌƚLJƚĂdžĂƟŽŶ ĚͿ^ĞƫŶŐƵƉĂ NA for ŶŽŶĚŝƐĐƌĞƟŽŶĂƌLJŵĞƚŚŽĚ Achieved No Yes No ĨŽƌĚĞƚĞƌŵŝŶĂƟŽŶŽĨ Mysore property tax ĞͿhƐĞŽĨ'/^ͲďĂƐĞĚƉƌŽƉĞƌƚLJ WĂƌƟĂů Achieved Achieved WĂƌƟĂů;ΕϳϬйͿ Yes tax system ;ΕϵϬйͿ f) Next revision of guidance NA for Achieved No Three years No values Mysore g) Fix periodicity for revision Every two NA for of guidance values to be No Three years No Years Mysore adopted h) Establish taxpayer Achieved Achieved Yes Yes Yes ĞĚƵĐĂƟŽŶƉƌŽŐƌĂŵŵĞ ŝͿƐƚĂďůŝƐŚĚŝƐƉƵƚĞƌĞƐŽůƵƟŽŶ Achieved Achieved No Yes No mechanism j) Rewarding and acknowledging honest and Achieved Achieved Yes Yes Yes prompt taxpayers

ŬͿĐŚŝĞǀĞŵĞŶƚŽĨϴϱй Achieved Achieved Yes Yes WĂƌƟĂů ĐŽǀĞƌĂŐĞƌĂƟŽ ;ΕϴϬйͿ Achieved ůͿĐŚŝĞǀĞŵĞŶƚŽĨϵϬй WĂƌƟĂů Achieved but varies WĂƌƟĂů;ΕϴϱйͿ Yes ĐŽůůĞĐƟŽŶƌĂƟŽ year to year ;ΕϴϬйͿ ŵͿ/ŵƉƌŽǀĞŵĞŶƚŝŶĐŽůůĞĐƟŽŶ of arrears, to reach total outstanding arrears less Achieved – Achieved EŽ;ΕϭϯйͿ NA NA ƚŚĂŶŽƌĞƋƵĂůƚŽϭϬƉĞƌ Ongoing cent of current demand for previous year ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 129 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

PROPERTY TAX have done better than their officials believe. In the reforms in property tax there is It is also important to note from Table 7.12 some difference between Bengaluru and that the proportion of those saying they do Mysore. While Bengaluru has achieved all the not pay property tax is typically higher in reforms that have been set out, a confirma- the cities when compared to the towns. tion of the same is not available for Mysore. Mysore has 7 per cent saying they do not As can be seen in Table 7.11, this confirma- pay property tax while its neighbouring tion is not available in Mysore’s case for three town, Nanjangud has 5.7 per cent. A simi- specific reform measures: setting up a non- lar pattern is evident when we compare discretionary method for determination of Gulbarga with Shahbad in the same district, property tax, the next revision of guidance and Mangalore with the nearby Mulki. values, and fixing the periodicity for revision

of guidance values to be adopted. On the whole dĂďůĞϳ͘ϭϮͲWƌŽƉŽƌƟŽŶŽĨŚŽƵƐĞŽǁŶĞƌƐŝŶ

the performance of the Mission cities in re- ĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚĐŝƟĞƐĂĚŵŝƫŶŐƚŽŶŽƚ ƉĂLJŝŶŐƉƌŽƉĞƌƚLJƚĂdž forming the property tax regime is not much better than that of the other three cities. On WƌŽƉŽƌƟŽŶŽĨŚŽƵƐĞ ŝƚLJͬdŽǁŶ ŽǁŶĞƌƐƐĂLJŝŶŐƚŚĞLJĚŽ the contrary, there are specific elements like ŶŽƚƉĂLJƉƌŽƉĞƌƚLJƚĂdž those related to guidance values where Hubli- Bengaluru 23.4 Dharwad has done better than Mysore. It is Dharwad 2.1 difficult then to attribute the implementation Gulbarga 3.8 of property tax reforms at the ULB level en- Mangalore 1.2 tirely to JnNURM. Mulki 0.0 Comparing the official perception of Mysore 7.0 the implementation of the property tax re- Nanjangud 5.7 gime with the perceptions that emerge from Shahbad 0.0 the ground throws up some interesting re- Source: NIAS Survey 2013 sults. This is particularly true of the need to achieve a 90 per cent ratio in the collection USER CHARGES of property tax. The picture that emerges An important target of JnNURM re- from the ground is that this condition has forms is to ensure users are made to meet at been met in all the cities and towns surveyed least the operation and maintenance cost of with the exception of Bengaluru. Though the the services they use. The JnNURM reform official view is that the 90 per cent target guidelines require ULBs to recover cent per has been achieved, nearly a quarter of the cent of the O&M costs of services like water house owners in the metropolis said they did supply and solid waste management through not pay property tax. Equally striking is the higher efficiency in supply of services as well fact that both Mangalore and Gulbarga may as in the collection of receipts. The reforms

130 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE REFORMS

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϭϯͲ/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨŵĂŶĚĂƚŽƌLJƌĞĨŽƌŵƐŽŶƵƐĞƌĐŚĂƌŐĞƐ STATUS REFORM MANGA- HUBLI - BENGALURU MYSORE GULBARGA LORE DHARWAD ĂͿ&ŽƌŵƵůĂƟŽŶĂŶĚĂĚŽƉƟŽŶ ŽĨƉŽůŝĐLJŽŶƵƐĞƌĐŚĂƌŐĞƐďLJ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ zĞƐ zĞƐ zĞƐ ƚŚĞ^ƚĂƚĞͬh> ďͿdŚĞƐƚĂƚĞƐŚŽƵůĚƐĞƚƵƉĂ ďŽĚLJĨŽƌƌĞĐŽŵŵĞŶĚŝŶŐĂ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ NA NA NA ƵƐĞƌĐŚĂƌŐĞƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞ ĐͿƐƚĂďůŝƐŚŵĞŶƚŽĨƉƌŽƉĞƌ ĂĐĐŽƵŶƟŶŐƐLJƐƚĞŵĨŽƌĞĂĐŚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ zĞƐ zĞƐ zĞƐ ƐĞƌǀŝĐĞƐŽĂƐƚŽĚĞƚĞƌŵŝŶĞ ƚŚĞKΘDĐŽƐƚƐƐĞƉĂƌĂƚĞůLJ ϭͿƐƚĂďůŝƐŚƉƌŽƉĞƌtĂƚĞƌ ^ƵƉƉůLJΘ^ĞǁĞƌĂŐĞ ĂĐĐŽƵŶƟŶŐƐLJƐƚĞŵƚŽ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ zĞƐ zĞƐ zĞƐ ĚĞƚĞƌŵŝŶĞƚŚĞKΘDĐŽƐƚ ƐĞƉĂƌĂƚĞůLJ ϮͿƐƚĂďůŝƐŚƉƌŽƉĞƌ^ŽůŝĚ tĂƐƚĞDĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ ĂĐĐŽƵŶƟŶŐƐLJƐƚĞŵƚŽ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ zĞƐ zĞƐ zĞƐ ĚĞƚĞƌŵŝŶĞƚŚĞKΘDĐŽƐƚ ƐĞƉĂƌĂƚĞůLJ ϯͿƐƚĂďůŝƐŚƉƌŽƉĞƌWƵďůŝĐ dƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚ^ĞƌǀŝĐĞƐ ĂĐĐŽƵŶƟŶŐƐLJƐƚĞŵƚŽ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ NA NA NA ĚĞƚĞƌŵŝŶĞƚŚĞKΘDĐŽƐƚ ƐĞƉĂƌĂƚĞůLJ ĚͿdĂƌŐĞƚĞĚƐĞƌǀŝĐĞƐƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƐ ĂŶĚƚĂƌŐĞƚLJĞĂƌĨŽƌ Not ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ 100% 70% ĂĐŚŝĞǀŝŶŐƚŚĞƐŽůŝĚǁĂƐƚĞ ǀĂŝůĂďůĞ ĐŽůůĞĐƟŽŶ ĞͿWůĂŶĨŽƌƌĞĚƵĐƟŽŶŝŶEŽŶͲ ZĞǀĞŶƵĞtĂƚĞƌ;EZtͿĂŶĚ hŶĂĐĐŽƵŶƚĞĚĨŽƌtĂƚĞƌ ZĞŐƵůĂƌŝƐĂͲ WĂĐŬĂŐĞƐƚŽ ;hĨtͿƚŚƌŽƵŐŚŵĞĂƐƵƌĞƐ ƟŽŶͬDĞͲ DĞƚĞƌŝŶŐͲ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ĐŽŶƚƌĂĐƚŽƌƐͲ ƚŚĂƚŝŶĐůƵĚĞǁĂƚĞƌĂƵĚŝƚƐ ƚĞƌŝŶŐͲEŽ EŽƚĂƌŐĞƚƐ EŽƚĂƌŐĞƚƐ ĂŶĚůĞĂŬĂŐĞĚĞƚĞĐƟŽŶ ƚĂƌŐĞƚƐ ƐƚƵĚŝĞƐ͘ŶŶƵĂůƚĂƌŐĞƚƐĨŽƌ ďŽƚŚ͘ ĨͿŽŶĚƵĐƚŽĨĂƐƚƵĚLJƚŽ ƋƵĂŶƟĨLJĂŶĚĞdžĂŵŝŶĞ zĞƐ;^ͬ ŝŵƉĂĐƚŽĨƐƵďƐŝĚŝĞƐĨŽƌ Not E;EŽ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ^dĂŶĚW> EŽƐƚƵĚLJ ĞĂĐŚƐĞƌǀŝĐĞ;ŝŶĚŝĐĂƚĞ ŽŵŵŝƩĞĚ ƐƵďƐŝĚŝĞƐͿ ƐƵďƐŝĚŝnjĞĚͿ ͚ǁŚĞŶ͛ĂŐĂŝŶƐƚƚŚĞ ƟŵĞůŝŶĞͿ

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 131 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

STATUS REFORM MANGA- HUBLI - BENGALURU MYSORE GULBARGA LORE DHARWAD g) Results of such analysis to be tabled in the Municipal Not Council and approved Ongoing NA 2-3 years NA (indicate ‘when’ against the ŽŵŵŝƩĞĚ ƟŵĞůŝŶĞͿ h) Indicate periodicity in which such analysis shall be done regularly, and placed Achieved Ongoing NA 2-3 years NA before the Municipal Council ŝͿdŝŵĞƚĂďůĞƚŽĂĐŚŝĞǀĞ full recovery of O&M In Mysore EŽƟŵĞͲ table ĐŽƐƚƐĨƌŽŵƵƐĞƌĐŚĂƌŐĞƐ ULB report EŽƟŵĞͲ EŽƟŵĞͲ ;KŶĞƟŵĞ (recovery of all direct costs, ʹ^ĞĐƟŽŶ table table including related salaries (e) ƐĞƩůĞŵĞŶƚ and wages) ŽƉƟŽŶͿ 1) Ongoing 1) Ongoing 1) Water supply (~70 per cent) (~75 per cent) 2) Sewerage 2) Achieved 2) Ongoing ϯͿ^ŽůŝĚǁĂƐƚĞŵĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ 3) Ongoing 3) Ongoing 4) Public transport services 4) Achieved 4) NA 5) Others, such as hiring ŽĨŵƵŶŝĐŝƉĂůĂƐƐĞƚƐ 5) Not 5) Not ;ĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJŚĂůůƐ͕ƉƵďůŝĐ ŽŵŵŝƩĞĚ ŽŵŵŝƩĞĚ parks etc) Source: KUIDFC, ƌƵŚĂƚĞŶŐĂůƵƌƵDĂŚĂŶĂŐĂƌĂWĂůŝŬĞ;DWͿ͕DLJƐŽƌĞŝƚLJŽƌƉŽƌĂƟŽŶ;DͲDLJƐŽƌĞͿ͕,ƵďůŝͲŚĂƌǁĂĚDƵŶŝĐŝƉĂů ŽƌƉŽƌĂƟŽŶ;,DͿ͕DĂŶŐĂůŽƌĞŝƚLJŽƌƉŽƌĂƟŽŶ;DʹDĂŶŐĂůŽƌĞͿ͕'ƵůďĂƌŐĂŝƚLJŽƌƉŽƌĂƟŽŶ͘ůůŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶŝƐĂƐŽŶDĂLJϮϬϭϯ͘ NA: Not available

lay out a series of steps that will help capture ed out that complete cost recovery is a fairly the O&M costs of the services being provided long and meticulous process and so this tar- and to then recover these costs. Not surpris- get is one that is under progress. But it does ingly the first part of this process is easier to seem that achieving the JnNURM target on accomplish than the latter part. All the cities, user charges is not yet on the horizon. Table both JnNURM and non-JnNURM have sepa- 7.13 tells us that Bengaluru has not been able rate accounting systems for the services they to commit itself to a study to quantify and provide. But ensuring the O&M costs are cov- examine impact of subsidies for each service, ered in the user charges for the services pro- let along tabling the results of such an analy- vided is more difficult. Bengaluru and Mysore sis in the BBMP. Indeed, it has not even com- only manage to recover around 70-75 per cent mitted to a timetable to achieve full recovery of their total costs every year. It has been point- of O&M costs from user charges.

132 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE REFORMS

FUNDS FOR THE POOR us the internal earmarking of funds for serv- One area where there is a clear differ- ices to the urban poor follows the JnNURM ence in approach between the JnNURM cit- specifications in the Mission cities, the oth- ies and the other cities is in organizing serv- er cities do not follow this norm. The ear- ices for the urban poor. As Table 7.14 tells marking of funds for the urban poor in the

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϭϰͲ/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨŝŶƚĞƌŶĂůĞĂƌŵĂƌŬŝŶŐŽĨĨƵŶĚƐĨŽƌƐĞƌǀŝĐĞƐƚŽƵƌďĂŶƉŽŽƌ STATUS REFORM HUBLI - BENGALURU MYSORE MANGALORE GULBARGA DHARWAD ĂͿZĞĨŽƌŵƐŝŶƚŚĞĂĐĐŽƵŶƟŶŐ ĂŶĚďƵĚŐĞƟŶŐĐŽĚĞƐƚŽ WĂƌƟĂů;&Žƌ WĂƌƟĂů;&Žƌ WĂƌƟĂů;&Žƌ ĞŶĂďůĞŝĚĞŶƟĮĐĂƟŽŶŽĨĂůů Achieved Achieved SC/ST – BC – SC/ST – BC SC/ST – BC income and expenditures, PH) – PH) – PH) related to poor / non-poor ďͿƌĞĂƟŽŶŽĨƐĞƉĂƌĂƚĞ Municipal fund in the Achieved Achieved -do- -do- -do- ĂĐĐŽƵŶƟŶŐƐLJƐƚĞŵĨŽƌ “Services to the Poor” c) Amendment to the municipal rules for ŐŽǀĞƌŶŝŶŐƚŚĞĨƵŶĚ͕ ŽƉĞƌĂƟŶŐƚŚĞĨƵŶĚ͕ƌƵůĞƐ Achieved Achieved -do- -do- -do- for transfer of resources into the fund for “Services to Poor”. ĚͿdĂƌŐĞƚĞĚƌĞǀĞŶƵĞ ĞdžƉĞŶĚŝƚƵƌĞŽŶĚĞůŝǀĞƌLJŽĨ services to poor per annum, Achieved Achieved NA NA NA ĞdžƉƌĞƐƐĞĚĂƐƉĞƌĐĞŶƚĂŐĞŽĨ total revenue income ĞͿdĂƌŐĞƚĞĚƌĞǀĞŶƵĞ ĞdžƉĞŶĚŝƚƵƌĞŽŶĚĞůŝǀĞƌLJ Achieved – of services to poor per Achieved spent more NA NA NA annum, expressed as a ƚŚĂŶƚĂƌŐĞƚ ƉĞƌĐĞŶƚĂŐĞŽĨƚŽƚĂůŽǁŶ source of revenue income ĨͿdĂƌŐĞƚĞĚĐĂƉŝƚĂů ĞdžƉĞŶĚŝƚƵƌĞŽŶĚĞůŝǀĞƌLJ WĂƌƟĂůͲ^ͬ WĂƌƟĂůͲ^ͬ WĂƌƟĂůͲ^ͬ of services to poor per ST – 22.75%, ST – 22.75%, ST – 22.75%, Achieved Achieved annum, expressed as BC – 7.25%, BC – 7.25%, BC – 7.25%, ƉĞƌĐĞŶƚĂŐĞŽĨƚŽƚĂůĐĂƉŝƚĂů PH – 3% PH – 3% PH – 3% expenditure ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 133 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϭϱͲ/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨŵĂŶĚĂƚŽƌLJƌĞĨŽƌŵƐŽŶƚŚĞƉƌŽǀŝƐŝŽŶŽĨ ďĂƐŝĐƐĞƌǀŝĐĞƐƚŽƵƌďĂŶƉŽŽƌ STATUS REFORM HUBLI - BENGALURU MYSORE MANGALORE GULBARGA DHARWAD a) The State Government and ULB must formulate and ĂĚŽƉƚ͕ǀŝĚĞĂƌĞƐŽůƵƟŽŶ͕Ă comprehensive policy on providing basic services to all urban poor which should include security of tenure and improved housing at No policy ĂīŽƌĚĂďůĞƉƌŝĐĞƐ͘dŚĞƉŽůŝĐLJ (Several document should also cover schemes Achieved Achieved No policy No policy ŽƚŚĞƌĞdžŝƐƟŶŐƵŶŝǀĞƌƐĂů through service mandates of the Revenue Government in the areas Dept) ŽĨĞĚƵĐĂƟŽŶ͕ŚĞĂůƚŚĂŶĚ ƐŽĐŝĂůƐĞĐƵƌŝƚLJ͘dŚŝƐƉŽůŝĐLJ document should lay down ĐŽŵŵŝƚŵĞŶƚƐƚŽĂƩĂŝŶ certain benchmark levels of access and standards of service delivery b) Conduct of household level survey of all poor Achieved Achieved Yes Yes Yes ƐĞƩůĞŵĞŶƚƐ c) Household level survey to cover infrastructure ĚĞĮĐŝĞŶĐLJŝŶĚŝĐĂƚŽƌƐĂŶĚ Achieved Achieved NA Yes Yes ƐŽĐŝŽͲĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐĚĞĮĐŝĞŶĐLJ indicators ĚͿƌĞĂƟŽŶŽĨĚĂƚĂďĂƐĞĨŽƌ ŚŽƵƐĞŚŽůĚůĞǀĞůďĞŶĞĮƚƐ Achieved Achieved NA Yes Yes schemes, such as livelihood, ŚŽƵƐŝŶŐ͕ƐŽĐŝĂůƐĞĐƵƌŝƚLJĞƚĐ͘ KUIDFC KUIDFC ĞͿZĂŶŬŝŶŐĂŶĚƉƌŝŽƌŝƟnjĂƟŽŶ No (only of clusters of urban ĂǁĂŝƟŶŐ ĂǁĂŝƟŶŐ NA No BPL ƉŽŽƌƐĞƩůĞŵĞŶƚƐŝŶĂ update from update from ƚĂƌŐĞƟŶŐͿ ƉĂƌƟĐŝƉĂƚŽƌLJŵĂŶŶĞƌ RCUES RCUES KUIDFC According According ĨͿ&ƌĞƋƵĞŶĐLJŽĨƵƉĚĂƟŽŶŽĨ ĂǁĂŝƟŶŐ Achieved NA database created update from to KSDB to KSDB RCUES ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗KUIDFC, ƌƵŚĂƚĞŶŐĂůƵƌƵDĂŚĂŶĂŐĂƌĂWĂůŝŬĞ;DWͿ͕DLJƐŽƌĞŝƚLJŽƌƉŽƌĂƟŽŶ;DͲDLJƐŽƌĞͿ͕,ƵďůŝͲŚĂƌǁĂĚDƵŶŝĐŝƉĂů ŽƌƉŽƌĂƟŽŶ;,DͿ͕DĂŶŐĂůŽƌĞŝƚLJŽƌƉŽƌĂƟŽŶ;DʹDĂŶŐĂůŽƌĞͿ͕'ƵůďĂƌŐĂŝƚLJŽƌƉŽƌĂƟŽŶ͘ůůŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶŝƐĂƐŽŶDĂLJϮϬϭϯ͘ NA: Not available

134 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE REFORMS

other cities is based on existing systems of pending. These reforms are related to the or- targeting the urban poor including funding ganisation of information regarding the ur- for SC/ST, Backward Classes and the phys- ban poor in the cities of Bengaluru and ically handicapped. In the case of provid- Mysore. In our interactions with the KUIDFC, ing services to the urban poor too, Table 7.15 it was conveyed that though a study was con- shows us that the difference remains, with ducted by the Regional Centre for Urban and the other cities laying greater stress on the Environmental Studies (RCUES), Hyderabad, role of the KSDB. the results had not been received. Sections of There are also parts of the services to this mandatory reform are thus awaiting fur- the urban poor where mandatory reforms are ther inputs from RCUES.

OPTIONAL REFORMS

OPTIONAL STATE LEVEL REFORMS gories of reforms that are still pending. They Karnataka has managed to complete are the introduction of a property title certi- most of the state-level optional reforms. fication system and earmarking of at least Broadly speaking, there are only two cate- 20 to 25 per cent of Developed Land in all

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϭϲͲ/ŶƚƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶŽĨƉƌŽƉĞƌƚLJƟƚůĞĐĞƌƟĮĐĂƟŽŶƐLJƐƚĞŵ REFORM STATUS ĂͿZĞƋƵŝƌĞƐŝŶƐƟƚƵƟŶŐĂŶĞīĞĐƟǀĞƉƌŽƉĞƌƚLJƟƚůĞĐĞƌƟĮĐĂƟŽŶƐLJƐƚĞŵĂŶĚ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ŵĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚŽĨƉƌŽƉĞƌƚLJŚŽůĚŝŶŐ ďͿ>ŝƐƟŶŐŽĨĂůůƚŚĞƉƌŽƉĞƌƟĞƐŝŶƚŚĞĐŝƚLJ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ĐͿ&ŝŶĂůŝƐĂƟŽŶŽĨĚĞĐŝƐŝŽŶƐŽŶƚŚĞŶĞǁƌĞŐŝƐƚƌĂƟŽŶƐLJƐƚĞŵ͕ƐƚĂƚĞŐƵĂƌĂŶƚĞĞĂŶĚ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ůĞŐŝƐůĂƟǀĞĂŵĞŶĚŵĞŶƚƐ ĚͿŵĞŶĚŵĞŶƚŽĨůĞŐŝƐůĂƟŽŶĂŶĚŶŽƟĮĐĂƟŽŶ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ĞͿĞƚĂŝůĞĚĚĞƐŝŐŶŽĨƐLJƐƚĞŵ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ĨͿ/ŶǀĞŶƚŽƌLJŽĨĂůůƌĞĐŽƌĚĞĚƉƌŽƉĞƌƟĞƐ;ĂŌĞƌĞŶƋƵŝƌLJŽĨƟƚůĞƐĂŶĚĞdžŝƐƟŶŐĞǀŝ- KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ĚĞŶĐĞͿ ŐͿhƉĚĂƚĞŽĨĂůůƚŚĞƌĞĐŽƌĚƐƚŽƌĞŇĞĐƚĐƵƌƌĞŶƚŽǁŶĞƌĂŶĚƉƌĞƉĂƌĂƟŽŶŽĨĂ͚ZĞŐŝƐ- KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ƚĞƌŽĨdŝƚůĞƐ͛͘ ŚͿŽŵƉƵƚĞƌŝƐĂƟŽŶŽĨĂůůƚŚĞƉƌŽƉĞƌƚLJƌĞĐŽƌĚƐĂŐĂŝŶƐƚŽǁŶĞƌƐŚŝƉ͘ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ŝͿ/ŶŝƟĂƟŽŶŽĨŝƐƐƵĞŽĨWƌŽƉĞƌƚLJdĂdžĞƌƟĮĐĂƚĞ;ŽŶƌĞƋƵĞƐƚͿƚŽƚŚĞĞdžŝƐƟŶŐŽǁŶ- KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ĞƌƐ͕ĂĐĐŽŵƉĂŶŝĞĚďLJĐĂŶĐĞůůĂƟŽŶŽĨĂůůƉƌĞǀŝŽƵƐĐĞƌƟĮĐĂƚĞƐ ũͿ^ĞƫŶŐƵƉĂƐLJƐƚĞŵĨŽƌƌĞŐƵůĂƌƵƉŐƌĂĚĂƟŽŶŽĨƌĞĐŽƌĚƐ;ĞŐ͘D/^ǁŝƚŚůŝŶŬƐƚŽĂůů KŶŐŽŝŶŐ zĞĂƌƐĞǀĞŶŽĸĐĞƐŚĂǀŝŶŐďĞĂƌŝŶŐŽŶůĂŶĚĞŶĐƵŵďƌĂŶĐĞƐͿ ŬͿ^ĞƫŶŐƵƉĂƐLJƐƚĞŵĨŽƌŽŶůŝŶĞƉƌŽǀŝƐŝŽŶŽĨŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶƌĞĐĞŝƉƚ;ƌĞůĂƟŶŐƚŽ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ƚƌĂŶƐĂĐƟŽŶƐͿ͕ĚŝƐƐĞŵŝŶĂƟŽŶĂŶĚƌĞƋƵĞƐƚƐĨŽƌĐĞƌƟĮĐĂƚĞƐ ůͿdŝŵĞůŝŶĞĨŽƌĂĐŚŝĞǀŝŶŐϭϬϬƉĞƌĐĞŶƚƌĞŐŝƐƚƌĂƟŽŶŽĨƉƌŽƉĞƌƟĞƐ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ

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NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 135 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

housing projects (both public and private achieved this reform, the MoUD does not agencies) for the Economically Weaker Sec- concur. Thus, the KUIDFC marks this reform tion/Low Income Group category with a as completed while the MoUD does not mark system of cross subsidization. it as completed. In view of this dispute we In the case of the Property Title Certifi- have classified this reform as ongoing. cation System,though Karnataka already has The case for classifying the reform on a procedure for issuing and maintaining prop- earmarking land in housing projects for erty titles, it has not managed to implement EWS or LIG households as ongoing, as has the Urban Property Ownership Records been done in Table 7.17 is clearer. A draft (UPOR) system across the State. As a result, notification has been sent to the Government even though Karnataka believes that it has of Karnataka and is awaiting publication.

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϭϳͲWƌŽŐƌĞƐƐŽĨĞĂƌŵĂƌŬŝŶŐŽĨĂƚůĞĂƐƚϮϬͲϮϱƉĞƌĐĞŶƚŽĨĞǀĞůŽƉĞĚ>ĂŶĚŝŶĂůůŚŽƵƐŝŶŐ ƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐ;ďŽƚŚƉƵďůŝĐĂŶĚƉƌŝǀĂƚĞĂŐĞŶĐŝĞƐͿĨŽƌt^ͬ>/'ĐĂƚĞŐŽƌLJǁŝƚŚĂƐLJƐƚĞŵŽĨĐƌŽƐƐ ƐƵďƐŝĚŝnjĂƟŽŶ REFORM STATUS ĂͿĞĐŝƐŝŽŶŽŶƚŚĞĞdžƚĞŶƚŽĨƌĞƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶ;ϮϬͲϮϱƉĞƌĐĞŶƚͿ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ďͿŵĞŶĚŵĞŶƚŽĨƚŚĞĞdžŝƐƟŶŐůĞŐŝƐůĂƟŽŶĂŶĚŶŽƟĮĐĂƟŽŶ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ĐͿdŝŵĞůŝŶĞƚŽŝŵƉƌŽǀĞƚŚĞƉĞƌĐĞŶƚĂŐĞŽĨƌĞƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶĨŽƌt^ͬ>/'ŝŶŚŽƵƐŝŶŐ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ;ƉĞƌĐĞŶƚĂŐĞŽĨƌĞƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶĂŐĂŝŶƐƚŵŝƐƐŝŽŶLJĞĂƌƐͿ͘

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Table 7.18 - WƌŽŐƌĞƐƐŽŶƐŝŵƉůŝĮĐĂƟŽŶŽĨůĞŐĂůĂŶĚƉƌŽĐĞĚƵƌĂůĨƌĂŵĞǁŽƌŬĨŽƌĐŽŶǀĞƌƐŝŽŶŽĨ ĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂůůĂŶĚĨŽƌŶŽŶͲĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂůƉƵƌƉŽƐĞ REFORM STATUS ĂͿ&ŝŶĂůŝnjĞŽŶŵŽĚŝĮĐĂƟŽŶŝŶĞdžŝƐƟŶŐƉƌŽĐĞĚƵƌĞƚŽƐƚƌĞĂŵůŝŶĞΘƐƚĂŶĚĂƌĚŝnjĞƚŚĞ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ƉƌŽĐĞƐƐŽĨĐŽŶǀĞƌƐŝŽŶ ďͿŵĞŶĚŵĞŶƚŽĨƚŚĞĞdžŝƐƟŶŐůĞŐŝƐůĂƟŽŶĂŶĚŶŽƟĮĐĂƟŽŶ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐͿŝƐƐĞŵŝŶĂƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞŶĞǁƉƌŽĐĞƐƐƚŚƌŽƵŐŚĂǁĞďƐŝƚĞ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĚͿŝƚLJůĞǀĞůǁŽƌŬƐŚŽƉƐƚŽĂĚĚƌĞƐƐƚŽƚŚĞƋƵĞƌŝĞƐŽĨŐĞŶĞƌĂůƉƵďůŝĐ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĞͿ^ĞƫŶŐƵƉĂŶD/^ƐLJƐƚĞŵǁŝƚŚůŝŶŬƐƚŽĂůůŽĸĐĞƐŚĂǀŝŶŐďĞĂƌŝŶŐŽŶĐŽŶǀĞƌƐŝŽŶ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ŽĨůĂŶĚͲƵƐĞ ĨͿƐƚĂďůŝƐŚŵĞŶƚŽĨŝŶƚĞƌĂĐƟǀĞĐŝƟnjĞŶĞŶƋƵŝƌLJƐLJƐƚĞŵŽŶƚŚĞƐƚĂƚƵƐŽĨĂƉƉůŝĐĂƟŽŶ ĨŽƌĐŽŶǀĞƌƐŝŽŶŽĨůĂŶĚƵƐĞƚŚƌŽƵŐŚŵĞƚŚŽĚƐƐƵĐŚĂƐʹ/ŶƚĞƌĂĐƟǀĞsŽŝĐĞZĞĐŽƌĚͲ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ŝŶŐ^LJƐƚĞŵ;/sZ^Ϳ͕ǁĞďƐŝƚĞ͕ƚĞůĞƉŚŽŶĞ͕ĞƚĐ͘ ŐͿ^ƚĂƌƚŽĨĐŽŶǀĞƌƐŝŽŶƐĂƐƉĞƌƚŚĞŶĞǁůĞŐŝƐůĂƟŽŶ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ

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136 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE REFORMS

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϭϵͲ/ŶƚƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶŽĨĐŽŵƉƵƚĞƌŝnjĞĚƉƌŽĐĞƐƐŽĨƌĞŐŝƐƚƌĂƟŽŶŽĨůĂŶĚĂŶĚƉƌŽƉĞƌƚLJ REFORM STATUS ĂͿ/ŶĚŝĐĂƚĞƚŚĞƚĂƌŐĞƚLJĞĂƌĨŽƌĐŽŶǀĞƌƐŝŽŶƚŽĂŶĞůĞĐƚƌŽŶŝĐƉƌŽĐĞƐƐŽĨƌĞŐŝƐƚƌĂƟŽŶ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ

^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϮϬͲŶĐŽƵƌĂŐŝŶŐWƵďůŝĐWƌŝǀĂƚĞWĂƌƚŶĞƌƐŚŝƉ REFORM STATUS ĂͿZĞŐƵůĂƚŽƌLJͬƉŽůŝĐLJĐŚĂŶŐĞƐĨŽƌĨĂĐŝůŝƚĂƟŶŐWWW ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ďͿ>ŝƐƟŶŐŽĨWWWƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐ͘ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ

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OPTIONAL ULB LEVEL REFORMS decentralization, co-ordination and ac- A significant portion of the ULB-lev- countability, and creation of technical el optional reforms have been completed municipal cadre. The official machinery in the JnNURM mission cities. The prima- does appear to be convinced of the need ry reforms that are pending to be imple- for this optional reform. As can be seen in mented are administrative in nature. As Table 7.22 the non-JnNURM cities are not Table 7.21 tells us, administrative reforms too far behind the Mission cities in achiev- have been implemented at various levels ing these norms. at the ULBs. While being an optional re- Another area where the other cities are form, it has direct consequences on the not lagging too far behind the JnNURM employees of ULBs and is implemented at cities in implementing reforms is in the re- various stages and levels. Some adminis- vision of building byelaws to make rain- trative reforms that have been suggested water harvesting mandatory in all build- by the Government of India have however ings. Bengaluru and Mysore have met the not been implemented fully. These prima- JnNURM norms. As can be seen in Table rily consist of rationalisation of the ULB 7.23 Mangalore too is already fully com- staff and expenditures. Though it is usual pliant with the JnNURM standards and for every Municipal Commissioners to have Hubli-Dharwad has completed 5 out of the a term two to three years, the ULBs do not 6 reforms. offer the guarantee of the same which is There are however other areas where required by the reforms. the performance of the JnNURM cities and Of particular interest is the progress the other cities is quite different, such as the State Government has been able to the revision of building byelaws to stream- claim on structural reforms. Both line the approval process. Bengaluru and Bengaluru and Mysore have been able to Mysore have achieved this reform in line achieve the three major structural reforms: with JnNURM requirements. The picture

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 137 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

dĂďůĞϳ͘ϮϭͲĚŵŝŶŝƐƚƌĂƟǀĞƌĞĨŽƌŵƐ STATUS REFORM HUBLI - BENGALURU MYSORE MANGALORE GULBARGA DHARWAD ĂͿ^ƚĂī ϭͿZĂƟŽŶĂůŝƐĂƟŽŶŽĨƐƚĂī ĂŶĚŚƵŵĂŶƌĞƐŽƵƌĐĞ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ zĞƐ EŽ ŵĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ ϮͿ^ƚĂīƚƌĂŝŶŝŶŐ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ EŽ zĞƐ zĞƐ ϯͿZĞĚƵĐƟŽŶŝŶ ĞƐƚĂďůŝƐŚŵĞŶƚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ EŽ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ EŽ ĞdžƉĞŶĚŝƚƵƌĞ ϰͿŽŶƟŶƵĞŽŶƚĞŶƵƌĞ ŽŶĚĞĐŝƐŝŽŶŵĂŬĞƌƐ͕ ŵĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚʹ EŽƚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ EŽ EŽ EŽ DŝŶŝŵƵŵĂǀĞƌĂŐĞ ŽŵŵŝƩĞĚ ƚĞŶƵƌĞŽĨDƵŶŝĐŝƉĂů ŽŵŵŝƐƐŝŽŶĞƌ ϱͿDĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚƌĞǀŝĞǁ ŽŶƟŶƵŽƵƐ ŽŶƟŶƵŽƵƐ zĞƐ zĞƐ EŽ ƐLJƐƚĞŵƐ ƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ ƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ ďͿ/ĚĞŶƟĮĞĚŵŝůĞƐƚŽŶĞƐǁŝƚŚ ƌĞƐƉĞĐƚƚŽƌĂƟŽŶĂůŝƐĂƟŽŶͬ ƌĞĚĞƉůŽLJŵĞŶƚŝŶŶƵŵďĞƌ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ NA NA NA ŽĨƐƚĂīĂŐĂŝŶƐƚƚŚĞŵŝƐƐŝŽŶ LJĞĂƌ ĐͿ^ƚĂƚĞďLJǁŚĞŶƚŚĞh>ƐŚĂůů ĞǀŽůǀĞĂĚĞƚĂŝůĞĚƚƌĂŝŶŝŶŐ ůƌĞĂĚLJ ƉůĂŶĨŽƌŝƚƐƐƚĂī͘ƚǁŚĂƚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ NA NA džŝƐƟŶŐ ĨƌĞƋƵĞŶĐLJƐƵĐŚƉůĂŶƐŚĂůů ďĞƌĞǀŝĞǁĞĚ ĚͿ/ĚĞŶƟĮĞĚŵŝůĞƐƚŽŶĞƐĨŽƌ ƌĞĚƵĐƟŽŶŝŶĞƐƚĂďůŝƐŚŵĞŶƚ EʹEŽ EʹEŽ EʹEŽ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ĞdžƉĞŶĚŝƚƵƌĞĂŐĂŝŶƐƚƚŚĞ DŝƐƐŝŽŶ DŝƐƐŝŽŶ DŝƐƐŝŽŶ ŵŝƐƐŝŽŶLJĞĂƌ ĞͿŶƐƵƌŝŶŐƐƚĂďŝůŝƚLJŽĨƚĞŶƵƌĞ ;ŵŝŶŝŵƵŵƚǁŽLJĞĂƌƐͿĨŽƌ DƵŶŝĐŝƉĂůŽŵŵŝƐƐŝŽŶĞƌͬ EŽƚ EŽƚ ĞdžĞĐƵƟǀĞŽĸĐĞƌĂŶĚŽƚŚĞƌ NA NA NA ŽŵŵŝƩĞĚ ŽŵŵŝƩĞĚ ŵƵŶŝĐŝƉĂůĨƵŶĐƟŽŶĂƌŝĞƐͬ ƐƚĂī;ĐŽŵŵŝƚŵĞŶƚƚŽďĞ ŐŝǀĞŶďLJƐƚĂƚĞͿ ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗

138 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE REFORMS

Table 7.22 - Structural reforms STATUS REFORM MANGA- HUBLI - BENGALURU MYSORE GULBARGA LORE DHARWAD ĂͿĞĐĞŶƚƌĂůŝnjĂƟŽŶŽĨ Achieved Achieved zĞƐ zĞƐ zĞƐ ĨƵŶĐƟŽŶƐ ďͿŽͲŽƌĚŝŶĂƟŽŶΘ ĐĐŽƵŶƚĂďŝůŝƚLJĂŐĂŝŶƐƚĐŝƚLJ Achieved Achieved NA NA zĞƐ ůĞǀĞůĂŐĞŶĐŝĞƐ ĐͿƌĞĂƟŽŶŽĨĐĂĚƌĞŽĨ DƵŶŝĐŝƉĂůƐƚĂīĨŽƌĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚ Achieved Achieved zĞƐ zĞƐ EŽ ƚĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůĚŝƐĐŝƉůŝŶĞƐ ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗

Table 7.23 - RĞǀŝƐŝŽŶŽĨďƵŝůĚŝŶŐďLJĞůĂǁƐƚŽŵĂŬĞƌĂŝŶǁĂƚĞƌŚĂƌǀĞƐƟŶŐ mandatory in all buildings STATUS REFORM HUBLI - BENGALURU MYSORE MANGALORE GULBARGA DHARWAD ĂͿ&ŝŶĂůĚĞƐŝŐŶŽĨƌĂŝŶǁĂƚĞƌ ŚĂƌǀĞƐƟŶŐƐLJƐƚĞŵĂŶĚ Achieved Achieved zĞƐ zĞƐ zĞƐ ĚĞĐŝƐŝŽŶŽŶĞŶĚƵƐĞ ďͿWƌĞƉĂƌĂƟŽŶŽĨĚƌĂŌ ďƵŝůĚŝŶŐďLJĞůĂǁƐƚŽƌĞŇĞĐƚ Achieved Achieved zĞƐ zĞƐ zĞƐ ƚŚĞŵĂŶĚĂƚŽƌLJĐůĂƵƐĞƐŽĨ ƌĂŝŶǁĂƚĞƌŚĂƌǀĞƐƟŶŐ ĐͿŵĞŶĚŵĞŶƚŽĨƚŚĞĞdžŝƐƟŶŐ ůĞŐŝƐůĂƟŽŶƚŽŝŶƚƌŽĚƵĐĞƚŚĞ Achieved Achieved zĞƐ zĞƐ zĞƐ ŶĞǁďƵŝůĚŝŶŐďLJĞůĂǁƐĂŶĚ EŽƟĮĐĂƟŽŶ ĚͿŝƐƐĞŵŝŶĂƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞŶĞǁ ƐĞƚŽĨďƵŝůĚŝŶŐďLJĞůĂǁƐ͘ Achieved Achieved zĞƐ zĞƐ EŽ ƚŚƌŽƵŐŚĂǁĞďƐŝƚĞ ĞͿŝƚLJůĞǀĞůǁŽƌŬƐŚŽƉƐƚŽ ĂĚĚƌĞƐƐƚŽƚŚĞƋƵĞƌŝĞƐŽĨ Achieved Achieved zĞƐ EŽ EŽ ŐĞŶĞƌĂůƉƵďůŝĐ ĨͿ^ƚĂƌƚŽĨĂƉƉƌŽǀĂůĂƐƉĞƌƚŚĞ Achieved Achieved zĞƐ zĞƐ zĞƐ ŶĞǁďƵŝůĚŝŶŐďLJĞůĂǁƐ ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 139 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

Table 7.24 - Revision of building byelaws to streamline the approval process STATUS REFORM HUBLI - BENGALURU MYSORE MANGALORE GULBARGA DHARWAD ĂͿŽŶƐƵůƚĂƟŽŶǁŝƚŚ ƐƚĂŬĞŚŽůĚĞƌƐŽŶ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ Yes No No ŵŽĚŝĮĐĂƟŽŶƌĞƋƵŝƌĞĚƚŽ ďƵŝůĚŝŶŐďLJĞůĂǁƐ ďͿDŽĚŝĮĐĂƟŽŶŝŶƚŚĞĞdžŝƐƟŶŐ hƉĚĂƚĞĚʹ hƉĚĂƚĞĚʹ hƉĚĂƚĞĚʹ ďƵŝůĚŝŶŐďLJĞůĂǁƐĨŽƌ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ 2011 2004 2010 ƐƚƌĞĂŵůŝŶŝŶŐ ĐͿĞĮŶŝŶŐŵŝƟŐĂƟŽŶ ŵĞĂƐƵƌĞƐĨŽƌƌŝƐŬĨƌŽŵ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ Yes Yes Yes ŶĂƚƵƌĂůĚŝƐĂƐƚĞƌƐ ĚͿŵĞŶĚŵĞŶƚŽĨƚŚĞĞdžŝƐƟŶŐ EŽ;&ŝŶĂů ůĞŐŝƐůĂƟŽŶƚŽŝŶƚƌŽĚƵĐĞŶĞǁ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ƉƉƌŽǀĂů No No ďLJĞůĂǁƐ WĞŶĚŝŶŐͿ ĞͿŝƐƐĞŵŝŶĂƟŽŶŽĨ ŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶŽŶŶĞǁůĂǁƐŽŶ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ Yes Yes No ǁĞďƐŝƚĞ ĨͿŝƚLJůĞǀĞůǁŽƌŬƐŚŽƉƐǁŝƚŚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ Yes Yes No ŐĞŶĞƌĂůƉƵďůŝĐ ŐͿD/^ǁŝƚŚůŝŶŬƐƚŽƌĞůĞǀĂŶƚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ No Yes No ŽĸĐĞ ŚͿƉƉƌŽǀĂůƐĂƐƉĞƌŶĞǁ E;EŽŶĞǁ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ Yes Yes ďLJĞůĂǁƐ ďLJůĂǁƐͿ ŝͿ/ŶƚĞƌĂĐƟǀĞĐŝƟnjĞŶĞŶƋƵŝƌLJ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ No Yes No ƐLJƐƚĞŵ ũͿZĞĚƵĐƟŽŶŽĨĂǀĞƌĂŐĞƟŵĞ EŽʹϯϬ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ EŽʹϯϬĚĂLJƐ zĞƐʹϳĚĂLJƐ ĨŽƌĂƉƉƌŽǀĂůƐƚŽϭϬĚĂLJƐ ĚĂLJƐ ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗

Dharwad had last updated their byelaws as Bengaluru and Mysore have met the only in 2004. The sharpest contrast is in JnNURM norms, this is the only reform the case of creating byelaws on the use of where there is no compliance at all at recycled water. As Table 7.25 tells us, even present in the non-JnNURM cities.

TRANSPORT REFORMS STATE LEVEL TRANSPORT REFORMS transportation related reforms in conjunc- Apart from the reforms that had been sug- tion with its projects. Karnataka managed gested by the Central Government, to complete all the reforms that were put Karnataka chose to also implement several forth at the State level.

140 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES THE REFORMS

Table 7.25 - Byelaws on reuse of recycled water STATUS REFORM HUBLI - BENGALURU MYSORE MANGALORE GULBARGA DHARWAD Achieved a) Decision on end use of Achieved –All ULBs No No No waste water common b) Byelaws to mandate waste Achieved Achieved No No No water usage c) Building byelaws to introduce for use of Achieved Achieved No No No recycled waste water ĚͿŝƐƐĞŵŝŶĂƟŽŶŽĨŶĞǁ building byelaws through Achieved Achieved NA NA NA website e) City level workshops Achieved Achieved NA NA NA f) Approval as per new byelaws Achieved Achieved NA NA NA Source: KUIDFC, ƌƵŚĂƚĞŶŐĂůƵƌƵDĂŚĂŶĂŐĂƌĂWĂůŝŬĞ;DWͿ͕DLJƐŽƌĞŝƚLJŽƌƉŽƌĂƟŽŶ;DͲDLJƐŽƌĞͿ͕,ƵďůŝͲŚĂƌǁĂĚDƵŶŝĐŝƉĂů ŽƌƉŽƌĂƟŽŶ;,DͿ͕DĂŶŐĂůŽƌĞŝƚLJŽƌƉŽƌĂƟŽŶ;DʹDĂŶŐĂůŽƌĞͿ͕'ƵůďĂƌŐĂŝƚLJŽƌƉŽƌĂƟŽŶ͘ůůŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶŝƐĂƐŽŶDĂLJϮϬϭϯ͘ NA: Not available Table 7.26 - State level transport reforms REFORM STATUS ϭ͘^ĞƫŶŐƵƉŽĨĂŝƚLJ>ĞǀĞůhŶŝĮĞĚDĞƚƌŽƉŽůŝƚĂŶdƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚƵƚŚŽƌŝƚLJĨŽƌĂůů ŽŶĞŵŝůůŝŽŶƉůƵƐĐŝƟĞƐ͕ĚƵůLJďĂĐŬĞĚďLJĂůĞŐŝƐůĂƟŽŶ͕ƚŽĨĂĐŝůŝƚĂƚĞĐŽŽƌĚŝŶĂƚĞĚ Achieved ƉůĂŶŶŝŶŐĂŶĚŝŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐƌĞůĂƟŶŐƚŽƵƌďĂŶƚƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚĂŶĚƚŚĞŝƌ integrated management

Ϯ͘EŽŵŝŶĂƟŶŐĂƐŝŶŐůĞĚĞƉĂƌƚŵĞŶƚĂƚƚŚĞ^ƚĂƚĞůĞǀĞůƚŽĚĞĂůǁŝƚŚĂůůƵƌďĂŶ Achieved ƚƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚŝƐƐƵĞƐĂƐĂŐĂŝŶƐƚĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚĚĞƉĂƌƚŵĞŶƚƐĂƚƉƌĞƐĞŶƚ ϯ͘ŚĂŶŐĞŝŶďLJĞůĂǁƐĂŶĚŵĂƐƚĞƌƉůĂŶŽĨĐŝƟĞƐƚŽŝŶƚĞŐƌĂƚĞůĂŶĚƵƐĞĂŶĚƚƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚ Achieved ďLJĚĞŶƐŝĮĐĂƟŽŶĂůŽŶŐǁŝƚŚƚŚĞDZd^ĐŽƌƌŝĚŽƌƐĂŶĚĂƌĞĂƐĂƌŽƵŶĚƚŚĞƐƚĂƟŽŶƐ ϰ͘^ĞƫŶŐƵƉŽĨĂƌĞŐƵůĂƚŽƌLJͬŝŶƐƟƚƵƟŽŶĂůŵĞĐŚĂŶŝƐŵƚŽƉĞƌŝŽĚŝĐĂůůLJƌĞǀŝƐĞĨĂƌĞƐ Achieved for all public and intermediate public transport systems

ϱ͘dŚĞ^ƚĂƚĞ'ŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚĂŶĚh>ƐŚŽƵůĚǁĂŝǀĞŽīͬƌĞŝŵďƵƌƐĞŝƚƐƚĂdžĞƐŽŶƵƌďĂŶ Achieved ďƵƐĞƐĂŶĚĐŝƚLJďƵƐƐĞƌǀŝĐĞͬZd^ ϲ͘^ĞƫŶŐƵƉŽĨĞĚŝĐĂƚĞĚhƌďĂŶdƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚ&ƵŶĚĂƚƚŚĞ^ƚĂƚĞůĞǀĞů Achieved

^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗

ULB LEVEL TRANSPORT REFORMS of a centralised traffic management and At the ULB-level, Bengaluru has managed planning mechanism – and the implemen- to implement all the planned reforms. Some tation of an intra-city bus system. The non- transport reforms have not been complet- JnNURM cities have not achieved any of ed in Mysore. These include the setting up these reforms.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 141 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

Table 7.27 - ULB level transport reforms

CURRENT STATUS REFORM HUBLI - BENGALURU MYSORE MANGALORE GULBARGA DHARWAD ^ĞƫŶŐƵƉŽĨĞĚŝĐĂƚĞĚhƌďĂŶ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ E;<^ZdͿ E;<^ZdͿ E;<^ZdͿ dƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚ&ƵŶĚĂƚƚŚĞĐŝƚLJůĞǀĞů DƵůƟŵŽĚĂůŝŶƚĞŐƌĂƟŽŶ͕ŝŶĐůƵĚŝŶŐ ƐƵďƵƌďĂŶƌĂŝůǁĂLJƐ;ďLJŝŶǀŽůǀŝŶŐ DŽZͿƚŽƉƌŽǀŝĚĞŶĞƚǁŽƌŬ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ NA NA NA ĐŽŶŶĞĐƟǀŝƚLJŝŶƚŚĞƌĞŐŝŽŶĂŶĚ ƐŝŶŐůĞƟĐŬĞƟŶŐƚŽƉƌŽǀŝĚĞƐĞĂŵůĞƐƐ ƚƌĂǀĞů͘ ^ĞƫŶŐƵƉŽĨĂdƌĂĸĐ/ŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ DĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚŽŶƚƌŽůĞŶƚƌĞ ĨŽƌĞīĞĐƟǀĞŵŽŶŝƚŽƌŝŶŐĂŶĚ KŶŐŽŝŶŐ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ NA NA NA ĞŶĨŽƌĐĞŵĞŶƚŽĨƚƌĂĸĐĂƐǁĞůůĂƐ ĚĂƚĂŐĞŶĞƌĂƟŽŶĂŶĚĚĂƚĂĐŽůůĞĐƟŽŶ ĨŽƌĨƵƚƵƌĞƉůĂŶŶŝŶŐ͘ ǁĞůůŽƌŐĂŶŝnjĞĚĂŶĚĞĸĐŝĞŶƚ ĐŝƚLJďƵƐƐLJƐƚĞŵďLJƵƐŝŶŐ/d^ ƚŚƌŽƵŐŚĐŝƚLJƐƉĞĐŝĮĐ^WsĨŽƌďƵƐ ƐĞƌǀŝĐĞƐƉƌĞĨĞƌĂďůLJŽŶWWWƵŶĚĞƌ ǁĞůůƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞĚĐŽŶƚƌĂĐƚƐǁŚĞƌĞ ^Ws ƚŚĞƵŵďƌĞůůĂŝŶƐƟƚƵƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞ &ŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ NA NA NA 'ŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚƉƌŽĨĞƐƐŝŽŶĂůůLJĚŽĞƐ ŽŶŐŽŝŶŐ ƚŚĞƌŽůĞŽĨƉůĂŶŶŝŶŐ͕ĐŽͲŽƌĚŝŶĂƟŽŶ͕ ĐŽŶƚƌĂĐƟŶŐ͕ŵŽŶŝƚŽƌŝŶŐ͕ ƐƵƉĞƌǀŝƐŝŽŶĂƐǁĞůůĂƐŵĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ ŽĨĐŽŵŵŽŶŝŶĨƌĂƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞĂŶĚ ƐĞƌǀŝĐĞƐ͘ WĂƌŬŝŶŐƉŽůŝĐLJǁŚĞƌĞŝŶƉĂƌŬŝŶŐĨĞĞ ƌĞƉƌĞƐĞŶƚƐƚŚĞƚƌƵĞǀĂůƵĞŽĨůĂŶĚ ŽĐĐƵƉŝĞĚ͕ǁŚŝĐŚŝƐƵƐĞĚƚŽŵĂŬĞ ƉƵďůŝĐƚƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚŵŽƌĞĂƩƌĂĐƟǀĞ͖ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ NA NA NA ďĂŶŶŝŶŐŽĨƉĂƌŬŝŶŐŽŶĂƌƚĞƌŝĂů ͬƌŝŶŐƌŽĂĚƐ͕ŵƵůƟůĞǀĞůƉĂƌŬŝŶŐ ĐĞŶƚĞƌƐŝŶĐŝƚLJĐĞŶƚƌĂůǁŝƚŚƉĂƌŬ ĂŶĚƌŝĚĞĨĂĐŝůŝƚLJ ŶĂĚǀĞƌƟƐĞŵĞŶƚƉŽůŝĐLJǁŚŝĐŚ ƚĂƉƐĂĚǀĞƌƟƐĞŵĞŶƚƌĞǀĞŶƵĞŽŶ ƉƵďůŝĐƚƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚ͕ŝŶƚĞƌŵĞĚŝĂƚĞ ĞŶŐĂůƵƌƵ͗ DLJƐŽƌĞ͗ NA NA NA ƉƵďůŝĐƚƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚĂŶĚƉƵďůŝĐƵƟůŝƟĞƐ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĐŚŝĞǀĞĚ ĨŽƌƉƵďůŝĐƉƵƌƉŽƐĞƐƐƵďũĞĐƚƚŽ ƌĞůĞǀĂŶƚůĞŐŝƐůĂƟŽŶƐ ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗

142 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

his exercise set out to evaluate not Bengaluru, that have multiple engines of T just the specific projects under growth, to cities that have the potential to JnNURM in Karnataka but also the larger develop one or more engines of growth. strategy of this Mission to intervene in urban Second, there are cities and towns that serve development. This led to a set of 72 specific the purpose of attracting individuals from Terms of Reference. A summary of the nearby villages and providing them with the answers to each of the 72 questions in the education and skills which enable them to TOR is provided in Annexure I. The wide seek greater fortunes in other cities. These range of issues in the TOR requires that the cities and towns are primarily centres of skill conclusions and recommendations go development for rural individuals. And third, beyond the implementation of specific there are cities and towns that grow projects to the strategies for state intervention primarily because they provide refuge to in urban development whether or not it is to those who are marginalized in the rural take the form of the next stage of JnNURM. areas. It is therefore recommended that When we place the strategy for a strategy for intervention in urban intervening in urban development in the Karnataka must move beyond the larger context of urbanization in Karnataka simple JnNURM classification of it is clear that we need to distinguish between Mission cities and small and medium at least three categories of cities in the state. towns, to a threefold classification of First, there are the cities that are primarily urban centres in the State. engines of economic growth. They could The types of intervention required by range from large metropolises, like each category of city would be different.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES 143 EVALUATION OF JNNURM IN KARNATAKA

While the engines of growth may require of heritage in the CDP for Bengaluru, as an emphasis on infrastructure that foreign revised in 2009, is minimal and rather capital is comfortable with, the skill superficial. It is thus clear at the very first development centres may require an extra stage of the Mission that the focus is more focus on education, and the cities under on urban development rather than on urban population pressure would need a greater renewal. While this shift from urban renewal emphasis on basic infrastructure and poverty to urban development is not entirely alleviation measures. Subject to the results unwarranted in itself, there are costs in that a detailed classification would throw completely ignoring urban renewal and up, there would appear to be a strong case heritage. To cite one important factor, an to develop new engines of growth in the emphasis on heritage helps build citizens' Dakshina Kannada-Udupi region and in the pride in a city, which in turn develops civic Dharwad-Belgaum-Bagalkot region. The consciousness. At a time when the lack of specific steps that need to be taken would civic consciousness on issues like garbage not be confined to the cities but would also disposal is painfully apparent in Bengaluru help the rural population access jobs in the it is important to strengthen the sense of pride urban centres. There is an equally strong case in the city. It is therefore recommended to strengthen Mandya's role as a city that that a detailed list of heritage sites enables the rural population with the skills be developed in Bengaluru and each needed to migrate to larger urban centres. of them be marked with signage that And there is a need to ease the pressures not only identifies them as heritage developing in cities like Gulbarga due to sites but also provides a brief account the distress around them. It is therefore of why they qualify to be treated as recommended that a separate toolkit such. In Mysore the listing and the is created for the City Development boards are in place, but the brief Plans that are to be made for each accounts of why they qualify to be category of city or town. considered heritage sites can be added The nature of the City Development to each of them. Plans also suggests that the name of the Even as a strategy for development the Mission may be somewhat misleading. The CDPs face other challenges; an important CDPs are not entirely consistent with the one being the mismatch between the task of urban renewal highlighted in the administrative and economic areas of the name of the Mission. The renewal of the city. As we have seen the BBMP area in inner city has a very low priority in the Bengaluru leaves out the core area of its CDPs of Bengaluru and Mysore. The CDPs major engine of growth, the IT industry. In do relatively better when dealing with Mysore areas critical to its tourism economy, heritage, especially in Mysore. But the place such as Srirangapatna, are outside the

144 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

administrative boundaries of the city. The government, they may sometimes be able response to this challenge has often been to to do little more than reformulate what is expand the administrative boundaries of the already known in official circles. In either city through the creation of larger entities, case officials in government have little such as the Bengaluru Metropolitan Area. reason to stand up and defend strategies and But such an expansion covers a more diverse projects worked out by consultants. Without area, including both urban and rural spaces. the active support of officials there can be Planning for such a larger area could result delays in the implementation of the projects. in loss of focus on the economic dynamics It is then important that the overall City of the city, even as it makes the Development Plan and the formulation of administrative tasks more difficult. It may the projects that result from it are conceived be more prudent then to create smaller and developed within the government. While administrative areas that are best suited to consultants can be used to provide very meeting the administrative needs of the specific technical inputs, the framing, and population. The economic plan could formal as well as informal responsibility, for however cover a wider area consisting of plans and projects must lie within the several contiguous administrative areas government. This can be done by a which share the same economic dynamic. department that has a comprehensive view It is therefore recommended that the of the entire process, and not just the spatial administrative units of the cities be dimension. And the capacity to take these reduced to viable administrative sizes, initiatives can be developed within the while economic plans are made for government both by training and learning- several administrative units put by-doing alongside consultants. It is together. therefore recommended that the From the stage of making City government officials play a larger Development Plans to the formulation of intellectual role in the formulation projects, consultants play an important role. of City Development Plans as well Their expertise is used to address a wide the formulation of projects that arise range of issues ranging from the from those plans. technicalities of city plans to the costing of Satellite towns have found a prominent projects. Even as their inputs are considered place in the City Development Plan for useful there are questions about their overall Bengaluru. Historically Bengaluru's satellite efficacy. There is often an understated feeling towns have had a mixed history. When these in official circles that consultants tend to towns have been built around manufacturing emphasize global practices and ignore local centres, as in the case of the public sector history. And when they do try to respond to townships, they have been very successful. the experience that already exists in But when the economic basis is left out of

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the towns and they are seen primarily as priorities reflected in JnNURM need not residential areas, they have tended to be less reflect the overall priorities, with other successful. Indeed, the residential townships projects being financed from other sources. only begin to grow rapidly when they expand But even if we ignore the prioritization across towards a manufacturing area. Satellite sectors there are areas within the dominant towns would then work best if we return to transportation sector that need greater the practice of building them around attention. In order to provide greater manufacturing or other economic activities. mobility to labour within the city there is a This could be done through joint ventures need for low-cost mass transport facilities. between a group of manufacturing or These low cost facilities could also offer only services firms and real estate developers. If minimal comforts so that they are not these satellite towns are located in areas attractive to those who do not need them. where labour is leaving agriculture on a It is therefore recommended that the large scale, it would be an incentive for transport corporations introduce industries facing a shortage of labour. This standing-room-only buses at a potential can be tapped if there is greater nominal charge within cities at the convergence between JnNURM and other times when workers go to and return economic policies, particulary policies for from work. the information technology, biotechnolgy We have already noted the potential and manufacturing sectors. It is therefore growth in industrial labour that can be had recommended that as a first step from tapping those who are leaving towards convergence the government agriculture. In order to enable this labour through JnNURM or any other to be employed in urban centres low cost initiative create a viability gap fund transportation would need to be provided that will be provided for satellite to improve connectivity for the poor between town projects that involve both the rural areas and urban centres. It is industry and real estate developers. therefore recommended that in The choice of projects under JnNURM districts where labour is leaving reflects an emphasis on those related to agriculture buses can be introduced mobility. This prioritization may be the result at a nominal charge linking the rural of the way the Mission has worked in areas with urban centres at times that Karnataka. While in theory the projects, and would help workers go to and return the priorities they reflect, should have been from nearby working places. derived from the City Development Plans, In the implementation of JnNURM in reality the links with the CDP were very projects delays are endemic. This is true both weak. As such the projects were taken from for UIG and BSUP projects in the mission an existing set of priorities. Thus the cities as well as for UIDSSMT and IHSDP

146 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

projects in the small and medium towns. they live, and not be confined to slum Some of these delays are unavoidable. For dwellers alone. instance, the acquisition of land can only There is also an excessive reliance on be undertaken after the project is sanctioned. housing alone as the main instrument of But the acquisition of land is a process intervention on behalf of the poor. While no where delays are almost inevitable. But there one can deny the importance of housing for are other delays that are avoidable. Greater the poor, there are also other areas of coordination between agencies will reduce concern. There is reason to believe that the delays due to projects waiting for specific Bengaluru has a major crisis in terms of clearances. There are also administrative providing health facilities to the poor. It is delays. It would then help if a distinction recommended that a significant was made between avoidable and portion of resources set aside for the unavoidable delays. The avoidable delays urban poor through JnNURM or other can be tracked by fixing the time that would similar programmes be allocated to be necessary for each task, in a way similar projects that make a substantial to what the Government has done under its difference to the availability of health Sakala programme. It would then be facilities for the urban poor. possible to fix accountability for those who Another area of concern is the tendency have caused avoidable delays. It is for those who have been allotted houses under therefore recommended that the JnNURM to rent them out. This could either government fix a specific time that be because the non-poor have received can be taken for each task in the allotments or because the poor find that they implementation of the project that would be better off renting their JnNURM have potential for avoidable delays houses and living in areas where the rent is and put up these details on the lower. If the latter is true there would be a relevant websites, along with the case for investing in housing that the poor actual performance. actually live in. This could be in housing A major weakness in the JnNURM built on the residential portions of old targeting of the poor is the assumption that villages that have been absorbed in to the the poor and slum dwellers are identical. In city. It is therefore recommended that reality there can be poor households who the government consider joint do not live in slums. They are necessarily ventures with small landowners of left out of the net when providing basic villages that have been recently services to the urban poor. It is therefore absorbed into the city to created recommended that Basic Services to effective housing for the poor. the Urban Poor must include schemes In the reforms that JnNURM seeks in that directly affect the poor wherever return for its funds, there is reason to believe

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that there is a significant gap between the considered of value to heritage can be implementation of a prescribed reform added to the existing boards. measure and the outcome that the reform 4. Administrative units of the cities must measure was expected to result in. This is be reduced to viable administrative most striking in the case of Bengaluru where sizes, while economic plans must be the implementation of reform measures with made for several administrative units regard to the collection of property tax has put together. still left nearly a quarter of house owners 5. Government officials must play a saying they do not pay property tax. It is larger intellectual role in the therefore recommended that when formulation of City Development Plans judging the efficacy of reforms the as well the formulation of projects that government must evaluate not just the arise from those plans. implementation of the prescribed 6. There must be greater convergence reform measures but also the outcomes between JnNURM and economic that the measures were supposed to policies, particularly policies for the generate. information technology, biotechnology and manufacturing sectors. As a first In short, our recommendations are: step towards such a convergence, a 1. A strategy for intervention in urban viability gap fund must be created to Karnataka must move beyond the provide for satellite town projects that simple JnNURM classification of involve both industry and real estate Mission cities and small and medium developers. towns, to a threefold classification of urban centres in the state. 7. Standing-room-only buses at a nominal charge should be introduced within 2. A separate toolkit must be created for cities at the times when workers go to the City Development Plans that are and return from work. to be made for each category of city or town. 8. In districts where labour is leaving agriculture, buses must be introduced 3. A detailed list of heritage sites must at a nominal charge linking the rural be developed in Bengaluru and each areas with urban centres at times that of them be marked with a board that would help workers go to and return not only identifies them as heritage from nearby working places. sites but also provides a brief account of why they qualify to be treated as 9. The Government must fix a specific such. In Mysore brief accounts of why amount of time that can be taken for individual sites qualify to be each task in the implementation of the

148 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

project that have potential for availability of health facilities for the avoidable delays. These details must urban poor. be put up on the relevant websites, 12. The Government must consider joint along with the actual performance. ventures with small landowners of 10. Basic Services to the Urban Poor must villages that have been recently include schemes that directly affect the absorbed into the city to created poor wherever they live, and not be effective housing for the poor. confined to slum dwellers alone. 13. When judging the efficacy of reforms 11. A significant portion of resources set the Government must evaluate not just aside for the urban poor through the implementation of the prescribed JnNURM or other similar programmes reform measures but also the outcomes be allocated to projects that make a that the measures were supposed to substantial difference to the generate.

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ANNEXURE I : SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS OF THE STUDY FOR EACH OF THE TERMS OF REFERENCE

1. Are the major challenges of Another problem with the CDPs urbanization in Bengaluru and was that they planned for the Mysore adequately reflected in administrative boundaries of the cities, the respective City Development though the built up areas of Bengaluru Plans? and Mysore are quite different from The City Development Plans seek to their administrative boundaries. The identify the Strengths, Weaknesses, CDPs also assumed that the poor and Opportunities and Threats facing slum dwellers are identical, while our individual cities. They are however survey clearly showed that this is not characterised by some fairly serious the case. It is also noted that though limitations. The CDPs try to identify urban renewal finds a place in the name the urban challenges of individual cities of the Mission itself, there is little place independent of the larger process of in practice for aspects like heritage, urbanization. It thus underestimated particularly in Bengaluru. the Bengaluru-centric nature of Karnataka's urbanization. It simply 2. What are the constraints faced assumed that the pressure on by the Urban Local Bodies and Bengaluru would ease due to the Consultants in the preparation of development of Tier II cities. As a result the City Development Plans? it grossly underestimated the growth The formation of the Bruhat Bengaluru of Bengaluru and overestimated that Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) after of Mysore. It also assumed that JnNURM started resulted in two CDPs independent townships could be having to be prepared for Bengaluru, developed without addressing the issue one in 2006 and a revised one in 2009. of the patterns of urbanization in The challenges faced by the consultants Karnataka. As a result it ignored the were with respect to obtaining data for fact that in recent decades Karnataka's the projections. The population urbanization has not been marked by projections for both Bengaluru and the rapid growth of independent Mysore were off the mark. And since townships. these projections were the basis for

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calculating other deficits, the numbers Electronic City becoming a separate in the CDP turned out to be less than township additional questions arise. entirely accurate. Moreover, given that the mandate of the consultants was to 5. What is the sector-wise provide capital investment plans for distribution of projects that are projects in these cities, the consultants taken up from the City felt that most of the issues raised in Development Plans of Bengaluru the stakeholder meetings were and Mysore? individual issues which were not very The original CDP mentions the kind useful with respect to their mandate. of work that needs to be undertaken in various sectors but does not specifically 3. What has been the role played name the projects; these have been left by consultants in the making of to the implementing agencies. The City Development Plans? funds tend to be concentrated in a few The mandate for the consultants from sectors with mobility being a major the ULBs was to project the population thrust area. Moreover, even as the of the Bengaluru and Mysore, and projects in the transport sector address provide capital investment plans for the issue of mobility, there are some projects in these cities. The consultants shortfalls in their reaching out to the held stakeholders meetings for a group poorer sections requiring urban of wards in the city that included transport. citizen groups, NGOs, and elected representatives from these wards. The 6. Are the chosen projects ones consultants also collected data through where alternative sources of questionnaire surveys on sectors such financing are not available? as water supply and sewerage. Qualitative interviews with officials suggest that the implementing agencies 4. What has been the progress in generally have a shelf of projects which making operational a city-wide they try to carry out either through framework for planning and their own funds or through funds from governance in Bengaluru and various lending agencies like World Mysore? Bank, Asian Development Bank etc. A The MPC and DPC are yet to become few implementing agencies were also functional. As such there remain funded by the Government of questions about the nature of the Karnataka. Thus there is reason to planning and governance framework, believe implementing agencies have let alone it becoming operational. With tried to use the JnNURM funding to

152 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES ANNEXURE I

reduce the loan component of projects Financial Management (PFM) cycle, from these lending agencies. appointment of consultants for development of state manual and 7. What is the record of Business Process Reengineering had implementation of selected not been completed in Mysore at the projects? What is the average time of the study. Setting up a non- delay, if any, in their discretionary method for determination implementation? of property tax, the next revision of There has been delay in most of the guidance values, and fixing the projects. Since the exact date of start of periodicity for revision of guidance project is difficult to determine, values to be adopted, had not been particularly when the project has been completed in Mysore at the time of the revised, average delay is not computable. study. Bengaluru had not committed to do a survey on the impact of 8. What has been the progress in subsidies and present this analysis. creating modern and transparent Mysore had not formulated a plan to budgeting, accounting, and reduce Non-Revenue Water (NRW) and financial management systems Unaccounted for Water (UfW) and also for all urban service and not committed to do a survey on the governance functions in impact of subsidies and presenting this Bengaluru and Mysore? analysis. The ULBs had not managed The Mission cities have moved into a to completely recover the costs double-entry accounting systems in incurred by them in provision of 2005-06. However, since that was the services. Both Bengaluru and Mysore first year of JnNURM it is not clear had not completed ranking and how much of this reform can be prioritization of clusters of urban poor attributed to the Mission. settlements.

9. Is there any noticeable deviation 10. What is the role of constraints in the specific reforms that other than funding in the JnNURM has emphasized from implementation of UIG projects? those that have been brought There are a number of constraints other about in the ULBs of Bengaluru than funding. For BBMP, the non- and Mysore? availability of work front and problems The mandatory ULB-Level Reforms, in land acquisition seem to be two a complete revamp of the Public important constraints.

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11. What is degree of e-Governance transparency and promptness. in the implementation of However, it must be noted that the individual projects, as well as in effect on the overall outcome can be the functioning of the ULBs in varied. Though e-Governance was the UIG cities of Bengaluru and implemented in the case of property Mysore? tax collection in Bengaluru, our survey Implementing agencies apprise indicated the overall outcome in terms KUIDFC about monthly progress of collections was still far from through meetings and telephone satisfactory. communications. Implementing agencies also send soft and hard copies 14. What has been the progress in of quarterly progress reports to the levy of property tax and KUIDFC. KUIDFC then circulates the collection in Bengaluru and status of projects to the concerned Mysore? departments as well as uploads the soft The collection of property tax varies copy of the status report on its website. quite substantially between Bengaluru and Mysore. Nearly a fourth of the 12. What has been the extent of owners in Bengaluru said they do not savings in costs that have resulted pay property tax. This proportion is from e-Governance initiatives in significantly lower in Mysore. Bengaluru and Mysore? Since all the e-Governance projects 15. What has been the progress in have not been implemented it would the levy of user charges in be misleading to calculate the savings Bengaluru and Mysore? in costs. However, the focus in terms User charges with respect to solid waste of e-Governance initiatives appeared management and water supply charges to be more on the creation of new have to be collected. The processes facilities rather than reducing costs of required for collection of user charges earlier practices. have been implemented. However, the efficiency of collection has to be 13. What are the improvements in improved. In Bengaluru, SWM charges terms of transparency and have been added to the property tax promptness that have resulted collection thus there is better collection from e-Governance initiatives in compared to that in Mysore. Though ULBs in Bengaluru and Mysore? water meters have been installed, Qualitative interviews indicate an collection of water charges has not improvement in the degree of been efficient.

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16. What has been the share of address the primary constraints UIDSSMT in the JnNURM of urban development in their funding in the state? How does towns? it compare per capita with the Water supply, sewerage, storm water share of the Mission cities? drains, roads and drains, and roads are At 12 per cent the share of UIDSSMT the projects that have been undertaken seems small compared to the UIG in UIDSSMT. The City Level share of almost 67 per cent. Among Investment Plan for nine towns informs UIDSSMT allocations, the district of us that projects that were undertaken Yadgir has the highest per capita in those towns were in the plan but were allocation of ` 3625 compared to per not priority. City Level Investment capita allocation for the mission Plans for another nine towns tells us cities. The per capita allocation was that projects undertaken in those towns ` 3311 for Bengaluru and ` 7219 for were priority projects. Thus some Mysore. UIDSSMT projects did address the primary constraints of urban 17. How effective are the criteria, development in their towns. implicit or explicit, that are used to select the small and medium 19. Does the choice of projects sought towns that receive JnNURM by the Urban Local Bodies differ funding? between the UIDSSMT towns and Ten eligible districts did not obtain the UIG cities? funding from the UIDSSMT At 61 per cent, water supply projects component clearly indicating that the were the focus for UIDSSMT projects. criteria was not effective from a The focus in Bengaluru was equally on distributional point of view. This mobility, sewerage, and storm water pattern must also be seen in the context drain projects. The projects in Mysore of the process of urbanization. A were focussed on mobility and water. district like Udupi which has the potential to be developed as an engine 20. Is there a noticeable difference of growth has received no UIDSSMT in the processes of financing projects, even as it has not been UIDSSMT towns when compared classified as a Mission city. to the UIG cities? The first instalment of 25 per cent of 18. Do the individual projects the Additional Central Assistance (ACA) selected under the UIDSSMT for a project is released upon approval

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of a project DPR by the CSMC. Prior compliance with all project objectives to approval, the Technical Appraisal and submission of UC. Agency of MoUD (CPHEEO, etc.) This process is followed for all the appraises the DPR and recommends sub-components of the JnNURM. There its approval to CSMC. CSMC might is thus no noticeable difference between approve or not, might agree to fund the Mission cities and the UIDSSMT the entire GoI Share (80 per cent or 35 towns. per cent based on city) or cap the DPR cost. Signing of a Memorandum of 21. Is there a noticeable difference Agreement (MoA) by the State in the delay in projects in Government, ULB or parastatal agency UIDSSMT towns when compared might happen anytime after the first to the UIG cities? DPR is approved. Irrespective of the There has been delay in most of the number of projects, each ULB or projects both in the Mission cities as parastatal agency signs only one MOA. well as in the UIDSSMT towns. Since The first instalment is a sum of 25 the exact date of start of project is per cent of ACA and 25 per cent of the difficult to determine, particularly State Government share. The first when projects are approved in stages, instalment of the ACA is released by average delay is not computable. the Centre to the Finance department of GoK as soon as the project is 22. Has the progress in creating approved. GoK then issues a GO and modern and transparent the combined first instalment is released budgeting, accounting, and to the SLNA. As soon as the ULB or financial management systems the parastatal agency spends 70 per cent for all urban service and of the funds released in the first governance functions in small instalment it can submit a Utilization and medium towns been Certificate to the SLNA which will then significantly different from that forward it to the State and Central in the UIG cities? Government. Upon approval, the next A survey of the accounting practices instalment is released by MoUD to GoK, of Mangalore, Hubli-Dharwad and which in turn releases the funds to Gulbarga municipal corporations SLNA. SLNA may or may not found that the practices were uniform immediately release the same to ULB throughout the State for the most part. based on progress of the project and other compliance issues. Each 23. Has the progress in using e- instalment is released subject to Governance in the

156 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES ANNEXURE I

implementation of individual 25. What are the improvements in projects, as well as in the terms of transparency and functioning of the ULBs in small promptness that have resulted and medium towns been different from e-Governance initiatives in from that of UIG cities? ULBs in small and medium towns Visits to the Mangalore, Hubli- in Karnataka? Has this pattern Dharwad and Gulbarga municipal been significantly different from corporations made it clear that there that in the UIG cities? were significant differences in the Qualitative interviews indicate an degree of prevalence and practices improvement in the degree of adopted with regard to e-Governance transparency and promptness. Here from that of UIG cities. again, as in the case of the UIG cities, it must be noted that the effect on the 24. What has been the extent of overall outcomes can be varied. savings in costs that have resulted from e-Governance initiatives in 26. Has the progress in the levy of small and medium towns in user charges in the small and Karnataka? Has this been medium towns been different significantly different from that from that of the UIG cities? in UIG cities? Both the Mission cities and the Visits to the Mangalore, Hubli- UIDSSMT towns are still some distance Dharwad and Gulbarga municipal away from meeting JnNURM targets corporations made it clear that there on this score. were significant differences in the degree of prevalence and practices 27. Has the progress in the levy of adopted with regard to e-Governance property taxes and their from that of UIG cities. As in the case collection in the small and of the Mission cities, since all the medium towns been different projects have not been implemented from that of the UIG cities? it would be misleading to calculate Our survey indicates that the the savings in costs. However, the willingness to pay property taxes is focus in terms of e-Governance greater in the UIDSSMT towns than in initiatives appeared to be more on the UIG cities. The proportion of house the creation of new facilities rather owners who said they did not pay any than reducing costs of earlier property tax was much lower in the practices. smaller towns .

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28. What are the challenges of land As the bulk of the poor in Bengaluru acquisition for projects in small and Mysore do not live in slums they and medium towns? Are they are not covered by JnNURM efforts to different from those in the improve the security of tenure. Mission cities? Moreover, as per KUIDFC officials, With respect to projects in Mission cities, government does not give the title of land acquisition has been an important the land or ownership of the house to reason for delay of numerous UIG as well the urban poor, but only an occupation as BSUP projects. With respect to certificate. It must also be noted that a UIDSSMT projects only two places significant proportion of the residents (Nanjungud and Shikaripura) reported in BSUP houses surveyed said they land acquisition problems. Moreover, no were tenants. land acquisition problems were reported with respect to IHSDP projects. Thus 32. What has been the progress of while there were challenges for land specific projects for urban acquisition for projects in few small and housing for the poor under medium towns, they were not of the scale JnNURM in Bengaluru and of the Mission cities. Mysore? Due to a number of reasons mentioned 29. What has been the share of in the report, progress has been far JnNURM funding for the BSUP from satisfactory. However as the poor component? do not live in slums alone a broader The share of JnNURM funding for the strategy for housing them is required. BSUP component for Karnataka has been 14.84 per cent. 33. What has been the scale of housing projects for the urban 30. What has been the progress in poor in the context of the need the internal earmarking of funds for housing in Bengaluru and for services to the urban poor? Mysore? Internal earmarking of funds for urban The total number of dwelling units poor is done in the UIG cities but is approved in Bengaluru was 19984 not done in other cities. units; this is in contrast to the stated number of 217257 slum households in 31. What has been the progress the original CDP and 136486 slum achieved in terms of security of households in the revised CDP. With tenure for the urban poor in respect to Mysore, the number of Bengaluru and Mysore? dwelling units approved was 8134 units

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as against the 18404 slum households 35. Is there a change in the living in notified slums, as mentioned household size and the number in the CDP. of households when slums are shifted? 34. What has been the progress of Qualitative interviews of beneficiaries slum development under Rajiv of JnNURM houses do not suggest this AwasYojana? is a major concern in the Mission Under RAY, Central Assistance is cities. extended to States that are willing to assign property rights to slum dwellers 36. What has been the progress of and undertake reservation of land for water supply projects for the Economically Weaker Sections (EWS)/ urban poor under JnNURM in Low Income Groups (LIG), earmark 25 Bengaluru and Mysore? per cent of municipal budget for basic In BSUP the necessary infrastructure, services to the urban poor/slum- which includes water supply, is dwellers and bring in legislative provided only after the dwelling units amendments and policy changes to are built. In Bengaluru only two redress land and affordable housing projects have been completed with the shortages for the urban poor. Fifty per rest being under various stages. cent of the cost of provision of basic Similarly, in Mysore, none of the civic and social infrastructure and BSUP projects completed were amenities and of housing, including completed at the time of the survey. rental housing and transit housing for in-situ redevelopment in slums is borne 37. What has been the scale of water by the Centre. supply projects for the urban Under the preparatory phase, an poor in the context of the overall amount of ` 810.40 lakh has been water shortage in Bengaluru and approved for preparation of Slum Free Mysore? City Plan of Action (SFCPoA) in 10 In Bengaluru, providing water supply cities in Karnataka. Of the 10 cities, to BSUP houses is supposed to cost Hubli-Dharwad, Mangalore, Belgaum, approx ` 16.07 crores out of the total Gulbarga, Davanagere, Bellary, infrastructure cost ` 113.84 crores. In Shimoga, Tumkur have finalised/ Mysore, providing water supply to completed their action plans. Only BSUP houses is supposed to cost Bengaluru and Mysore were yet to approx ` 4.32 crores out of the total finalize their action plans at the time infrastructure cost ` 70.12 crores. It of the study. must be also noted that JnNURM

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focuses only on slums while the 40. What has been the progress of problem for the poor living elsewhere specific health projects for the is equally, or more, severe. poor under JnNURM in Bengaluru and Mysore? 38. What has been the progress of Projects that had existing health centres specific projects for sanitation close by have not been provided health for the poor under JnNURM in centres in the plan. In some projects Bengaluru and Mysore? community centres are also expected In BSUP the necessary infrastructure, to function as health centres. which includes sanitation, is provided only after the dwelling units are built. 41. What has been the scale of health In Bengaluru only two projects have projects for the urban poor in the been completed with the rest being context of the overall shortfalls under various stages. Similarly, in in the access to health facilities Mysore, none of the BSUP projects in Bengaluru and Mysore? were completed at the time of the study. In Bengaluru, providing health centres/ community centres/social 39. What has been the scale of infrastructure to BSUP houses is sanitation projects for the urban supposed to cost approximately ` 14.34 poor in the context of the need crores out of the total infrastructure cost for sanitation in Bengaluru and ` 113.84 crores. In Mysore, providing Mysore? health centres/community centres/ In BSUP the necessary social infrastructure to BSUP houses infrastructure, which includes is supposed to cost approximately sanitation, is provided only after the ` 1.99 crores out of the total dwelling units are built. In infrastructure cost ` 70.12 crores. These Bengaluru, these facilities for allocations are not in line with the sanitation cost ` 13.11 crores out of substantial shortfalls that our survey the total infrastructure cost ` 113.84 brought out. crores. For Mysore, these facilities for sanitation cost ` 5.1 crores out 42. What has been the progress of of the total infrastructure cost specific projects for education for ` 70.12 crores. It must be also noted the poor under JnNURM in that JnNURM focuses only on slums Bengaluru and Mysore? while the problem for the poor living In BSUP the necessary infrastructure, elsewhere is equally, or more, severe. which includes educational facilities,

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is provided only after the dwelling 45. What has been the scale of units are built. Projects that had projects for social security of the existing educational facilities close by urban poor in the context of the have not been provided with new ones need for social security in in the plan. Bengaluru and Mysore? In Bengaluru, providing livelihood 43. What has been the scale of centres and informal markets to BSUP education projects for the urban houses is projected to cost poor in the context of the demand approximately ` 0.72 crores out of the for education in Bengaluru and total infrastructure cost of ` 113.84 Mysore? crores. In Mysore, there is no provision In Bengaluru, providing school for livelihood centres or informal building to BSUP houses is projected markets to BSUP houses. to cost approximately ` 0.2 crores out of the total infrastructure cost of 46. What has been the share of ` 113.84 crores. In Mysore, there is JnNURM funding for the IHSDP no provision for school building in the component? ongoing projects; however, there is a The share of JnNURM funding for the provision for a informal education IHSDP component for Karnataka has centre at ` 0.19 crores. been 6.63 per cent.

44. What has been the progress of 47. Has the progress achieved in specific projects for social terms of security of tenure for security for the urban poor under the urban poor in the IHSDP JnNURM in Bengaluru and towns been noticeably different Mysore? from that in the BSUP cities? The aim of BSUP is not only to build Government does not give the title of houses but also to provide necessary the land or ownership of the house to infrastructure facilities to the urban poor the urban poor, but only an occupation to improve their way of living. In BSUP certificate. livelihood centres and informal markets are provided only after the dwelling 48. Has the progress of specific units are built. Projects that had existing projects for urban housing for the livelihood centres or informal markets poor in the IHSDP towns been close by have not been provided with noticeably different from that in new ones in the plan. the BSUP cities?

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Though there have equal delays as Yes there is variation in costs per in BSUP, out of 17237 dwelling dwelling unit between BSUP and units, 13198 units have been IHSDP towns. There is variation even occupied in IHSDP towns. Thus, the within IHSDP towns. progress of IHSDP projects has been noticeably different from that 52. Does the extent of cost escalation in the BSUP. vary between BSUP and IHSDP towns and also within IHSDP 49. Has the progress of slum towns? development in the IHSDP towns Yes, the extent of cost escalation varies been noticeably different from between BSUP and IHSDP towns and that in the BSUP cities? also within IHSDP towns. As per officials at KUIDFC, since IHSDP projects were offering 53. What is the proportion of in situ individual houses they faced little or slum development to total slum no resistance from urban poor. This development? however was not the case with BSUP All IHSDP projects have been in-situ. as the DUs were in ground-plus format With respect to BSUP, in-situ leading to resistance from urban poor. development has been more prominent Thus the progress of IHSDP projects in Bengaluru compared to that in was different from that in BSUP. Mysore.

50. Does the size of the household 54. Are the broad objectives set out and the number of households in the preamble to the Seventy- increase when slums are shifted? fourth Constitution Amendment Is this pattern different from that Act reflected in the functioning in the mission cities? of ULBs? As per officials in KSDB the size of All reforms except one that were a part the household and the number of of the Seventy-fourth Constitution households remain the same. Thus the Amendment Act in JnNURM have been pattern in small towns is not very implemented. The one pending reform is different from that of mission cities. regarding the formation of the District Planning Committee (DPC)/ Metropolitan 51. Is there a variation in costs per Planning Committee (MPC). dwelling unit between BSUP and IHSDP towns and also within 55. Have rent control laws been IHSDP towns? adequately reformed?

162 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES ANNEXURE I

All the reforms that were required as a All the reforms with regard to part of the Rent Control Laws in enactment of public disclosure laws JnNURM have been implemented in have been implemented in Karnataka. Karnataka. But it is not clear how much of this can be attributed to 60. What has been the progress in JnNURM as the process had begun the integration of city planning before the Mission. and delivery functions? Since the reform on MPC/DPC has not 56. What has been the progress on been implemented, city plans have not the rationalization of stamp duty been placed before MPC/DPC. All for the transfer of property? other activities with respect to All the reforms that were required as a integration of city planning and part of the rationalisation of stamp delivery functions have been completed. duty in JnNURM have been implemented in Karnataka. 61. What has been the progress in urban transport reforms at the 57. What have been the steps taken state level? to repeal ULCRA? All the reforms that were required as a All the reforms that were required as a part of the State Level Transport part of the urban land ceiling in Reforms in JnNURM have been JnNURM have been implemented in implemented in Karnataka. Karnataka. 62. What has been the progress in 58. What has been the progress with urban transport reforms at the regard to community participation city level? laws providing for Area Sabhas All the reforms that were required as a below the municipal ward? part of the ULB Level Transport All the reforms with regard to Reforms in JnNURM have been providing community participation implemented in Bengaluru. Two Urban laws have been implemented in Transport Reforms are pending in Karnataka. The actual functioning of Mysore. these reforms is however often a matter of debate. 63. Have the specific reforms that have been suggested had the 59. What has been the progress in desired effects? the enactment of public In terms of having the desired effects disclosure laws? the impact of the reforms have been

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mixed. At the level of implementation installments are released only when the itself, while a vast majority of the utilization certificate is submitted and required measures have been there is 30 per cent, 40 per cent, and implemented, the reforms have tended 60 per cent physical progress, to falter at crucial points like the respectively. setting up of the MPC and the DPC. The effect of reforms like e-Governance 65. What are the specific innovations too has to been seen in perspective. in the processes of While it has modernised services, we implementation of projects cannot assume that the reforms have introduced under the JnNURM? removed the more serious problems. What has been the effect of these For example, the computerization of innovative processes? property tax collection has been quite Arguably the most far reaching widespread in Bengaluru, but it has not innovation is the tying up of the release dramatically reduced the number of of funds not only with the utilization those house owners who say they do certificate but also with the physical not pay this tax. progress of the project. KUDIFC officials believe this process has made 64. Is there any delay in the issue of the implementing agency more Utilization Certificates? accountable. However, given the Implementing or parastatal agencies delays this process often entails there submits a utilization certificate to the is reason to consider other possible nodal agency as soon as it spends 70 mechanisms of ensuring accountability. per cent of the funds released in the previous installment. No undue delay 66. What are the specific innovations was reported either by KUIDFC in the monitoring processes of officials or the implementing agencies. implementation of projects However the procedure itself could be introduced under the JnNURM? time consuming. The time taken has What has been the effect of these been further enhanced in recent innovative monitoring processes? months. Till early 2013 installments In the process of releasing the next were released once the utilization instalment, the nodal agencies ask the certificate was submitted; this process independent review and monitoring has been changed wherein the release agency (IRMA) or the third party of funds has been tied up with the inspection and monitoring agency physical progress of the project. Now (TPIMA) to review the amount of work the second, third, and fourth done and submit a report so that the

164 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES ANNEXURE I

subsequent installment of the 68. What is the extent of effective Additional Central Assistance and the decentralization in the entire State Government share can be JnNURM process? released. The main instrument of There are three stages of IRMA/ decentralization in the way the TPIMA inspection: pre-construction, JnNURM has been conceptualized lies construction, and post-construction. in the process of developing the City The IRMA has to submit a pre- Development Plan. Citizens are construction report, quarterly reports expected to be consulted in the making during the construction stage, a trial of the CDP. And once their views are run and completion report. The nodal taken on board the CDP is expected to agencies then appraise the quarterly be the guiding force for the projects progress of the project/projects to the that are to be taken up. But as already State as well as the Central government. noted, the citizens often took an As a result of the monitoring individualistic view and did not process, KUIDFC officials felt that the contribute substantially to the quality of work has been of a better development of the larger picture. And standard. since the CDPs themselves were less than effective they were not the main 67. What is the relative importance guiding force in the choice of projects. of the four major components in the JnNURM, i.e., Urban 69. Is there a difference between the Infrastructure and Governance type of projects sanctioned by the (UIG); Urban Infrastructure Central Government (for the Development Scheme for Small Mission cities) and the State and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT); government (for the small and Integrated Housing and Slum medium towns)? Development Programme Yes. Water supply, sewerage, storm (IHSDP); and Basic Services for water drains, roads and drains, and Urban Poor (BSUP)? roads are the projects that have been With respect to Karnataka, UIG undertaken in UIDSSMT. The focus in projects have been given the maximum Bengaluru was equally on mobility, importance followed by BSUP sewerage, and storm water drain projects, UIDSSMT projects, and projects. The projects in Mysore were IHSDP projects. focused on mobility and water.

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70. What is the effect of changes in 71. What are the capacity deficits? projects made at the insistence As per officials at KUIDFC, lack of of the Government of India? trained manpower and lack of As per officials at KUIDFC, the only interaction among government suggestion was in the case of a water departments so that they can inform supply project in Mysore where the each other about their plans/projects CSMC suggested that the proposed are among the major capacity deficits. water scheme be converted to a 24/7 supply scheme. Though this 72. Does the project based system suggestion seems beneficial, a lead to greater distress in consultant suggested that before a implementation (such as roads 24/7 supply could be started there being dug up twice, first for was a need to meter all users. Thus water and later for sanitation)? the work of metering all users had to Despite the problems faced, officials at be tendered to another contractor as the implementing agencies as well a result of which the project was KUIDFC officials were in favour of a delayed. project based system.

166 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES ANNEXURE II : A NOTE ON METHODOLOGY

his study has used a combination of qualitative interviews were carried out in T methodological techniques: five cities – Bengaluru, Mysore, Mangalore, secondary data, primary data from Hubli-Dharwad and Gulbarga, to individual agencies, primary survey data, understand the process of implementation and qualitative data. Secondary data from of reforms. the Census of India and Registrar General The calculations done using these of India has been used to understand the methods require elaboration in three areas: pattern of urbanization. Primary data from the sample design; the calculation of the KSRTC and BMTC has been used to capture difference between the expected and actual the bus transport system. A large sample population when tracing the patterns of survey was used to capture the existing urbanization; and the calculation of the conditions on the ground and the outcomes, Earnings per Kilometre (EPKM) and the where possible, of the policy initiatives. And Load Factor (LF) in bus transport.

SAMPLE DESIGN OF THE NIAS-JNNURM HOUSEHOLD SURVEY 2013

The survey was designed to capture the urbanization that were higher than that of urban situation in Karnataka. The the whole of Karnataka. These districts were households were selected as part of a multi- natural selections for the survey.In each of stage stratified sequential random sample these districts the largest city was then from cities of Karnataka. Taking into chosen to be surveyed. In those of these account geographical diversity of districts where the urban centres accounted Karnataka, the first stage of stratification for less than 50 per cent of the population was to divide the state into four regions: Old and additional small town was also chosen. Mysore, Coastal Karnataka, Bombay As Bengaluru and Hubli-Dharwad Karnataka, and Hyderabad Karnataka accounted for more than 50 per cent of the (including Bellary). Against this backdrop population of their districts, they were the districts in Karnataka were first ranked only cities chosen in their respective districts. according to their levels of urbanization in In the case of Dakshina Kannada and the 2011 Census of India. As can be seen in Mysore additional towns were chosen. In Table A1.1.1 four districts had levels of Dakshina Kannada the largest town was

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Mangalore and Mulki was chosen as the Shahbad was chosen as the additional town additional town since it had an UIDSSMT as it had an UIDSSMT project. project. In Mysore district, Mysore city was chosen as the largest urban centre and Table A.1.1 – Selected districts of Karnataka Nanjangud was chosen as the additional with rates of urbanisation town as it had an UIDSSMTproject as well State / District % urban in 2011 Bengaluru 90.94 as an IHSDP project. This selection met two Dharwad 56.83 of our requirements for an evaluation of Dakshina Kannada 47.60 JnNURM. First, it included Bengaluru and Mysore 41.35 Mysore, the only two cities selected from Gulbarga 32.46 Karnataka for the UIG and BSUP KARNATAKA 38.57 components of JnNURM. And second the Source: Calculated from the Census of India - 2011, Government selection covered three of the four regions of India. that we had divided Karnataka into.In order to choose a city from the fourth region – The total size of the survey was pre-fixed Hyderabad-Karnataka – two minimum to be 4500 households. Given the criteria were fixed. The first was that the overwhelming dominance of Bengaluru in the district should have at least 30 per cent share of population of all five cities put urbanization and the second was that it together, it was felt that following a strict should have at least 65 per cent literacy rate. proportional distribution of this sample across Two cities– Gulbarga and Bellary –met these the cities on the basis of population would result criteria. Given Bellary’s relative proximity in some cities getting a sample size that was to Hubli-Dharwad that was already chosen, below a desirable critical minimum. It was it was decided to pick Gulbarga. Since the decided that 2500 households would constitute urban centres in Gulbarga district accounted a sufficient sample size for the study of for less than 50 per cent of the population, Bengaluru City. Going by the size of the cities an additional town had to be chosen. in other districts the remaining 2000

Table A.1.1.2 – Distridution of sample across Cities and Towns City /Town Distrigt Sample size Bengaluru Bengaluru 2500 Mysore Mysore 600 Nanjangud Mysore 50 Hubli-Dharwad Dharwad 650 Mangalore Dakshina Kannada 300 Mulki Dakshina Kannada 50 Gulbarga Gulbarga 300 Shahbad Gulbarga 50

168 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES ANNEXURE II

households were divided so that the sample study. The sample from slums was chosen in size was 650 households each for Mysore and a manner that the proportion of such Dharwad districts and 350 households each households in the sample was consistent with for Gulbarga and Dakshina Kannada districts. that of the proportion of households in In districts where a small town was also chosen recognised and unrecognised slums to the 50 households were allotted to the small town population of the city.In addition, 100 and the remaining given to the larger urban households were allotted from the Bengaluru centre in that district. The sample size for each sample for the city’s slum population that city or town was then as follows: had been beneficiaries of the JnNURM project At the next stage each city was for the urban poor – the BSUP.(In Mysore, geographically stratified into zones along 50 households were allotted for the same its ward boundaries. While Bengaluru was purpose.) The sample was also designed to pre-divided into 8 zones by its municipal include areas that were originally village authorities, the remaining cities were divided centres so as to factor in the rural population into two zones based on their geography and of Bengaluru. The village centres were population.The wards in a single zone are determined on the basis of building layouts then ranked according to literacy.1 The top like temples, water-bodies etc. ranked, the bottom ranked and the median The households selected as the Ultimate wards are selected for the study.2 Stage Units (USU) are based on population In the case of Bengaluru, there was a clusters as seen in geographic images. After reorganisation of wards in 2009. As a result the selection of the wards, the final number of this, the 2001 Census data for population of households to be surveyed had been and literacy could not be used for the study. allocated according to the size of the The literacy data for newly-formed wards was population in those wards. Streets were then also unavailable. However, the area and selected randomly in all population clusters population of the newly-formed wards was of the selected wards. This ensures that all available. Therefore, the proxy that was types of clusters are surveyed within wards chosen in the case of Bengaluru was that of with different characteristics. population density. The top ranked, the The survey used the recall-based bottom ranked and the median wards in terms interview method using a questionnaire for of population density were selected for the data collection. The data collection and

1 Literacy, here, is used as a proxy for gauging the relative condition of the households. An assumption here is that areas with more literate populations will also have more economically well-off populations. The 2001 Census provides population and literacy data at the ward level. The 2011 Census had not released ward- level data as of January 2013 when the survey was designed. 2 Agaram was a selected Ward (with low population density) in Bengaluru however it was excluded since it largely consisted of military areas without civilian populations

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field-work started on 18th February, 2013. It towns being surveyed in a parallel manner was conducted in the five cities and three and was completed on 17th April, 2013.

CALCULATION OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXPECTED AND ACTUAL POPULATION

All-India Rural-Urban Population data We can rewrite the above as - was collected at the district level from the Population (Year) = Population (Base Year) Census data for the years 1991, 2001 and [1 + RNI] + Migration 2011. A break-up of the total population into ie, M = P (Y) – {P (BY) [1 + RNI]} rural and urban populations is provided in where M denotes the Net Migration. the Population Census (A) Series also known as PCA.The Crude Birth Rate (CBR) and the After factoring in various unaccounted Crude Death Rate (CDR) of all states are parameters such as intra-state variations, recorded and published as a part of the changes in borders or unrecorded changes Sample Registration System (SRS) which is in the CBR and CDR, the value of M will be brought out by Registrar General of India equivalent to the net difference between the (RGI) Office. The CBR and the CDR were expected and the actual population. collected for the decade of 2001-2011. Therefore, within a study of district level populations - M denotes the net difference With the variable P denoting between the expected population and the Population, actual population at the time of Census.

P (Year) = P (BaseYear) + {[CBR – CDR] x DEFINITIONS P (Base Year)) + Migration Urban – For the Census of India 2011, the definition of urban area is as follows; Now, CBR – CDR = Rate of Natural Increase 1. All places with a municipality, (RNI) corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee, etc. The Population from each Census year 2. All other places which satisfied the has been taken as a base and the population following criteria: has been projected using theCBR and CDR i) A minimum population of 5,000; that have been provided at the State Level ii) At least 75 per cent of the male by the SRS data. main working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and

170 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES ANNEXURE II

iii) A density of population of at least physically contiguous towns together with 400 persons per sq. km. or without outgrowths of such towns. An The first category of urban units is urban agglomeration must consist of at known as Statutory Towns. These towns are least a statutory town and its total notified under law by the concerned State/ population (i.e. all the constituents put UT Government and have local bodies like together) should not be less than 20,000 as municipal corporations, municipalities, per the 2001 Census. In varying local municipal committees, etc., irrespective of conditions, there were similar other their demographic characteristics as combinations which have been treated as reckoned on 31st December, 2009. urban agglomerations satisfying the basic The second category of Towns (as in condition of contiguity.Examples: Greater item two above) is known as Census Town. Mumbai UA, Delhi UA, etc. These were identified on the basis of Census Crude Birth Rate (CBR) – (Number of 2001 data. Live Births during the year / Mid-Year Urban Agglomeration (UA) - An urban population) x 1000 agglomeration is a continuous urban spread Crude Death Rate (CDR) – (Number of constituting a town and its adjoining Deaths during the year / Mid-year outgrowths (OGs), or two or more population) x 1000

TRANSPORT List of formulae used for Bengaluru Traffic receipts constitute the data: revenue realized from transportation of The methodology to calculate Earnings passengers and incidental revenue related per kilometre (EPKM) and Load Factor (LF) to transportation of passengers. have been taken from BM Satisha’s Effective kilometres is the total study.3He had calculated the two revenue earning kilometres wherein revenue performance indicators for 344 ordinary bus received through sale tickets to passengers. routes in Bengaluru. The formula used by Effective kilometres constitute operation of him for the Earnings per Kilometre was: kilometres through ‘scheduled trips’ and ‘extra trips’. EPKM is expressed in paise. The formula used for the Load Factor was: where,

3 Satisha, B.M., “Functional Review of Bengaluru Metropolitan Transport Corporation: An operator point of view”, M.Tech thesis, Cistup, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, 2012, pp 16-21.

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= Where, route length is the distance between the starting and ending points for Where, each route. = List of formulae used for Mysore And data: The formulae used for the performance The formulae used by us to calculate indicators by the KSRTC Division at Mysore passengers per day and revenue per are: day are: × 100 Passengers LF Number of Average seating per day = XXtrips in a day capacity 100 EPKM is multiplied by 100 to convert it Since load factor is expressed as a into paise. percentage, it is divided by 100. The average seating capacity was taken as 46 for all the = × 100 routes.

172 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES ANNEXURE III : RESPONSES TO CHALLENGES IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

aste is generated by activities in have grappled with the challenge of waste W all economic sectors and is they have come up with responses that other generally regarded as an unavoidable by- cities could learn from. product of economic activity. These activities Integrated Solid Waste Management include inefficient production processes, low (ISWM) is based on the concept that all durability of goods and unsustainable aspects of a waste management system consumption patterns. The generation of (technical and non-technical) should be waste reflects a loss of materials and energy. analysed together, since they are in fact It imposes economic and environmental interrelated and developments in one area costs on society for its collection, treatment frequently affect practices or activities in and disposal. It has also formed an another area. increasing part of the total material flow ISWM is based on the principles of 3Rs, through the economy. i.e., Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and frequently Waste may be defined as any substance including the fourth R – Recovery. This (not the primary element), scrap material hierarchy of waste management is or article that is not believed to have any applicable both at source of waste generation further use. Generally waste could be in and involves the entire life-cycle process solid, liquid, or gaseous form. Waste from generation to disposal, of varied waste generated constitutes a blend of its forms. streams. Implementing the 3R approach will The different categories of waste generated need to closely review diversities in terms based on their source have been identified of waste characteristics, involved stake- as: household waste, waste from hospitals holders and the required technological know- and healthcare establishments, horticultural how. waste, construction and demolition waste, As can be seen from Chart A 3.1, the waste from street sweeping, drain silt and 3R approach places waste reduction at its waste, commercial waste, market waste, point of generation as the foremost institutional waste, slaughter house waste objective. This can be achieved by and dead animals, sludge from sewage redesigning products or changing patterns treatment plants, process waste, industrial of production and consumption. A waste and E-waste. As cities across the world reduction in waste generation has a two-

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fold benefit in terms of greenhouse gas creating waste rather than trying to recycle emission reductions. First, the emissions it once it already exists. associated with material and product Recycle technically is a form of reusing, manufacture are avoided. The second but it refers more specifically to items that benefit is eliminating the emissions are discarded and broken down into their raw associated with the avoided waste materials. Companies convert the original management activities. item and then sell the now-usable material. Reuse will mean not discarding The key advantage of recycling is reduced materials as it might be reused toward a quantities of disposed waste and the return different purpose than originally intended. of materials to the economy. The approach This leads to re-using the material and includes recycling programs such as kerb side reducing consumption of new resources. This pickup of recyclables, drop-off centers, buy- will include using jars to store liquid or back centers that pay you for valuable items leftover food, trading or selling used DVDs, and deposit-refund programs for soda and using an old shirt as a car rag or even re- plastic bottles. In China, for example, about using cutlery. Like reducing, it avoids 20 per cent of discards are recovered for

Chart A 3.1

Source: Urban Development Series Knowledge Papers, World Bank Report. March 2012.

174 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES ANNEXURE III

recycling, largely attributable to informal use of segregated waste enhances the waste picking. quality of compost and its market value Recovery is applying methods to in comparison to chemical fertilizers. The capture useful material from waste into anaerobic conditions (without oxygen) energy programs. The process includes generate methane that is either flared or composting, methane collection, used to generated heat and/or electricity. gasification, and digestion. Aerobic Landfill refers to the site used to composting (with oxygen) uses the finally dispose waste from the earlier windrows method for composting making processes. The landfill sites should be it less complex and less expensive. The scientifically managed to safeguard the

Table A3.1: Types of dumping Operation and Leachate Landfill gas engineering measures management management

Semi-controlled Few controls: some Unrestricted None dumps directed placement of contaminant release waste: informal waste picking: no engineering measures Controlled dumps Registration and Unrestricted None placement/compaction of contaminant release waste: surface water monitoring: no engineering measures Engineered Registration and Containment and some Passive landfill/ placement/compaction of level of leachate ventilation or controlled landfill waste: uses daily cover treatment: reduced flaring material: surface and leachate volume ground water monitoring: through waste cover infrastructure and liner in place Sanitary landfill Registration and Containment and Glaring with or placement/compaction of leachate treatment without energy waste: uses daily cover: (often biological and recovery measures for final top physic-chemical cover and closure: proper treatment) siting, infrastructure: liner and leachate treatment in place and post-closure plan.

Source: Urban Development Series Knowledge Papers, World Bank Report. March 2012.

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environment and public health. These The primary requirement in the 3R sites produce landfill gas (LFG) from the approach is to recognize that different types anaerobic decomposition of organic of waste need to be treated differently and matter and methane burned with or hence the first step is to segregate them. This without energy recovery to reduce GHG has proved most difficult in the case of emissions. Landfilling usually progresses household waste. Getting citizens to from open-dumping, controlled dumping, segregate waste has been a challenge across controlled landfilling, to sanitary the world. But there have been successes even landfilling. in Less Developed Countries. Nepal has Incineration is synonymous with the placed individual bins for waste, garden process of destruction of waste by converting organics and recyclable material. The the organic material to carbon dioxide and residents also recycle plastic wraps into rope water vapour by fire. These materials mats and tumbler coasters that are sold in include very high amounts of packaging nearby villages.1 materials, paper, cardboard, plastics and Incentives can be mixed with penalties horticultural waste. The resulting ash is the to encourage segregation. At Hospital Lam incombustible inorganic residue. The process Wah EE in Malaysia, wastes are segregated can reduce (with energy recovery) the volume and bagged separately at source. The specific of disposed waste by up to 90 per cent. guidelines are outlined in the hospital’s Incineration without energy recovery (or Infection Control Manual. The recycling non-autogenic combustion, the need to project committee members sort the regularly add fuel) is not a preferred option recyclable items, categorize them and weigh due to costs and pollution. them before selling. Non-compliant Combined, reduce, reuse and recycle members are charged with a fine of RM30 form a complete circle that can preserve (US$8.71). The clinical wastes are both natural resources; reduce waste, energy autoclaved and incinerated whereas general consumption and pollutants; and support wastes are collected by the local authority healthy living. Even though they sound and taken to the designated landfill. The and appear similar, they are distinct recyclable wastes are recovered and the elements in the language of resource revenue is used to help hospital staff in need conservation. or to respond to emergency situations.2

SEGREGATION

1 All Voices. http://www.allvoices.com/contributed-news/13475993-village-in-kathmandu-practices-3r-re- duce-reuse-recycle-in-waste-management. Accessed on June 14 2013. 2 Waste Management World. http://www.waste-management-world.com/articles/print/volume-8/issue-5/ recycling-special/3r-practice-in-east-and-south-east-asia.html. Accessed on June 14 2013.

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The developed world has been able to debris ends up in a composting facility where use technology in this process. Well known it is run through a set of screens that separate for its leadership in waste management, trash from sand, dirt, and grit. Paper and recycling and resource recovery, South any other materials that can be composted Australia has set up a waste separation unit, go back into the composting facility, where which follows automated segregation of the resulting compost is sold to farmers in waste (magnetic removal of metals, repulsion the agricultural-rich area.4 of aluminium, saves paper) and does manual separation of plastic. The resulting waste is MAKING WASTE LESS VISIBLE then used for composting. In order to In Dubai, the company Envac has encourage recycle of waste, consumers managed underground automated waste receive 5 cents for every applicable collection systems at the Jumeirah Beach container that they return to a retailer, or a Residences (JBR), since 2006. This system collection depot. They also have a facility is sealed, almost invisible, clean and that recycles cathode ray tube (CRT) glass odourless and workers never come into from televisions and computer monitors. direct contact with waste. There is a two- CRT glass contains lead, cadmium, phosphor level podium for collecting waste at JBR. and arsenic, and must be processed to strict Each building in JBR has one or two garbage specifications for glass to glass recycling.3 chutes and the garbage is collected at a The challenge of segregation is also vertical storage section. For the retail, food faced in the delivery of public services. Street and beverage areas, which are no more than sweeping is considered as one of the services two floors, there is a separate collection area of urban local bodies. The waste consists of for garbage. All the storage areas are litter, plastic, leaves, glass, metal and trash. connected through a pipe network. A control Keeping the streets clean enhances the room within the facility is equipped with a aesthetic beauty of the community, avoids computer system that keeps track of the pollution and waste from entering into storm waste collected and dispatched each day. drain system. The Southern California city There are huge valves along the pipe of Long Beach, USA sweeps about 170,000 network that bring in the waste to the miles of streets each year, removing about collection tanks that can each contain 10 13,000 tonnes of dirt, garbage, and grit in tonnes. The project is split over two plots the process. About 96 per cent of the sweeper and has two separate collection stations. One

3 Zero Waste SA. http://www.zerowaste.sa.gov.au/upload/resource-centre/publications/reuse-recovery-and- recycling/ZWSA_Upclose_Industry_web.pdf. Accessed on June 14 2013. 4 North American Sweeper Magazine. http://www.nasweeper.com/2010/06/main_articles/street-sweeping- the-grit-that-keeps-on-giving/. Accessed on June 14 2013.

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collection station houses three containers be used to lift the containers out of the and the other one, two containers. The refuse ground, empty and replace them. The system falls down into a compactor, which compacts provides centralised and strictly regulated the refuse in the sealed container. The waste collection facilities for approved users transport air then passes through dust and and prevents unauthorised dumping of waste. deodorant filters and a silencer. When the This underground system, with 20 cubic containers are full, normal trucks collect metre containers, will be installed at 115 them for emptying for further transportation locations across Abu Dhabi by July 2013, to incineration facilities, composting plants at sites which have been chosen on several or landfills. Envac truck finishes the job in bases such as the volume of generated waste about three minutes thereby significantly and population densities. The new system reducing carbon emissions into the air and will reduce the number of daily trips, which degradation of roads, and traffic chaos. 5 will reduce cost, fuel consumption and Abu Dhabi’s Centre of Waste reduce the carbon footprint according to Management launched the second phase of Kyoto Protocol. 6 the electro-hydraulic underground waste collection system in Al Khalidiya. This REDUCTION system replaces the existing bins, eliminating The scope for waste reduction is more odours, scavengers and litter around widespread than is commonly believed. In collection points, thus improving the 2009, the UK’s top grocery retailers, brands aesthetics and ensuring a cleaner and manufacturers committed to an environment for residents. Eight large industry-wide food waste reduction objective. containers, which are encased within a metal This was delivered under WRAP’s (Waste & frame and then sunk inside a concrete sleeve Resources Action Programme) Love Food in the ground, were built in Al Khalidiya. Hate Waste campaign, which was expected The only visible element of the system at to save UK consumers of more than £370 ground level is a steel receiver unit through million. This equates to a saving of almost

which the waste is deposited. The containers 700,000 tonnes of CO2 – the same as taking are fitted with censors sending alerts when 220,000 cars off the road for a year. 75 per cent full, enabling more efficient Signatories of the Courtauld Commitment – waste collection by reducing unnecessary a voluntary agreement led by WRAP - had traffic. Specially adapted waste trucks will agreed to work together to help reduce the

5 Clean Middle East. http://www.cleanmiddleeast.ae/articles/44/envac-environmentally-sustainable-waste- management.html. Accessed on June 14 2013. 6 Clean Middle East. http://www.cleanmiddleeast.ae/articles/150/abu-dhabi-launches-second-phase-of-un- derground-waste-collection-system.html. Accessed on June 14 2013.

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amount of food the nation’s householders their loaves of bread from 800gms to throw away by 155,000 tonnes by 2010. 600gms. This size of bread is now popular WRAP had identified fresh fruit and among customers and has helped reduce vegetables, bakery products, dairy, meat and their earlier wastage. TESCO has adopted fish products as the highest source of modified atmosphere packaging thereby household food waste. Action was focused extending shelf life of grapes and reducing on identifying solutions and how areas such need for additives. They now use a shrink as labelling, pack size range, storage advice film for chickens that enhances its product and packaging be designed to keep the food life by two days. Asquith and Dairies fresher for longer time which could help (ASDA) is another store that has modified households from wasting food. To date, a its strategy to save food waste. Their number of retailers have implemented multisave strategy now includes more initiatives on food waste reduction through variety of fruits, vegetables and salads their involvement in the Courtauld instead of restricting their choice. This is Commitment. WRAP’s Love Food Hate Waste applied to food that cannot be frozen. For campaign also worked with householders to example there are offers like: ‘any 2 help them get the best from the food they varieties across citrus’ or ‘2 for £2 across bought, save money and reduce the prepared salads, potatoes and sweet corn. 7 generation of waste and CO2. Some of the Waste reduction is possible even in critical signatories such as Marks and Spencer have areas like health care. The California introduced innovative packaging solutions. Department of Health Services (CDHS) Medical They now pack beef in skin packs instead of Waste Management Program works with plastic trays thereby reducing packaging by hospitals state wide to develop source reduction 69 per cent. The skin pack also keeps the plans, including goals for the virtual elimination meat fresher for four days i.e., it is less likely of mercury, and lessening the creation of to go waste. The store Sainsbury’s has medical waste. A simple method used to reduce implemented new fresh fruit and vegetable waste was to eliminate the use of needles or storage guidance for customers in the store sharp components wherever feasible. and their website. They also offer advice and Substantial progress has been made toward menu ideas for using leftover food under the developing innovative design improvements in “Love your Leftovers” campaign. medical devices, alternative medication Warburtons store has reduced the weight of delivery systems, and injection alternatives.8

7 WRAP. http://www.wrap.org.uk/content/uk-grocery-sector-commits-reduce-household-food-waste. Accessed on June 14 2013. 8 California Department of Public Health. http://www.cdph.ca.gov/programs/ohsep/Documents/ medicalwaste.pdf. Accessed on June 14 2013.

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By restructuring its supply cards and Petrobras facility.10 In UK, the company eliminating extra waste, the ICU at Portland GASREC will open a gas station which will Va Medical Center saved approximately US $ supply Bio LNG - a blend of liquefied 80,000 annually. The Center had realised that natural gas (LNG) and liquid biogas (LBM). many products were being taken from locked The gas is produced from food waste treated sterile supply cabinets and unintentionally at anaerobic digestion plants, as well as wasted since, once removed, they could not be landfills and other sources. When substituted put back—even the unopened, unused supplies. for diesel, Bio-LNG reduces fuel costs, cuts

This resulted in unnecessary supplies piled up CO2 by up to 35 per cent, and delivers 90 for every patient. The staff revamped the supply per cent reduction of particulate matter list and set up cart drawers resulting in easier emissions and 60 per cent reduction in stocking.9 Nitrogen Oxide.11 In Dhaka, a research-based RECOVERY organization, Waste Concern, initiated a pilot Recovery from waste is critical in project on community-based decentralized reducing its diversion to landfill or final composting projects in 1995. Waste collected disposal. In Brazil, the Gramacho Landfill from door to door was composted in a was receiving over three million metric tons decentralized manner (employing barrel, of waste per year until 2012, producing at aerator and box types of composting) and its peak 119 million Nm3 methane (normal marketing of compost and recyclables. So far,

cubic meter CH4) through decomposition these concepts have been replicated in 20 within the landfill. Through a plan to install cities and towns in Bangladesh. Waste a methane capture system throughout the Concern has installed a large-scale 700 tonnes landfill, they were able to leverage Clean per day composting plant in Dhaka city Development Mechanism financing to producing 50,000 tonnes of organic fertilizer reduce the climate change impact of the and reduced greenhouse gas emissions by Gramacho operations and to create a around one million tonnes under the Clean potential income stream in the future, Development Mechanism of the Kyoto through the sale of energy to a nearby Protocol.12

9 Healthier Hospital Initiative. http://healthierhospitals.org/get-inspired/case-studies. Accessed on June 14 2013. 10 US Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/jius/projects/rio_de_janeiro/ gramacho_landfill_gas_to_energy_system.html. Accessed on June 14 2013. 11 Waste Management World. http://www.waste-management-world.com/articles/2013/06/new-refuelling- station-to-fill-trucks-from-food-waste—landfill.html. Accessed on June 14 2013. 12 Waste Concern. http://www.wasteconcern.org/Publication/draft_national_3R_strategy.pdf. Accessed on June 14 2013.

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The community in Punta Taytay hour at a facility in New York. Results from village in the Philippines was educated and the final stack test show that the conversion provided technical assistance in the ratio for waste plastic into fuel averages 86 implementation of solid waste management per cent and approximately 1 gallon of fuel (collection, monitoring and waste is extracted from 8.3 lbs. of plastic (1 litre processing). This resulted in the build and of fuel is extracted from every kilogram of maintenance of its Material Recovery plastic).14 Facility (MRF) and a pilot scale static pile In Bangladesh, a Gazipur based composting unit. Every household has its private company has helped generate own waste bins and has learnt to segregate electricity from biomass to rural areas. Rice its waste into degradable and non husks were used for the biogas plant. Three biodegradable. The segregated recyclables bags of rice husks per hour are used for are sold to junk shops by village officers. generation of 35-40 KW of power. At present These efforts have resulted in 50 per cent about 500 households/shops are the reduction in its waste generation. There has beneficiaries of the project.15 been an increase in active participation due to benefits realised from compost and CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION segregated recyclables. This has resulted in WASTE establishing a MRF and small scale Construction and Demolition (C&D) composting unit elsewhere in the region. 13 waste often contains bulky, heavy materials The technology Plastic2Oil (P2O) including concrete, wood, asphalt, gypsum, processor has pioneered the development of metals, bricks and plastics. Reducing C & D a process that derives ultra-clean, ultra-low waste would significantly conserve landfill sulphur fuel (oil) which does not require space and impact on environment. further refining, directly from unwashed, In Japan, construction waste is unsorted waste plastics. The P2O process is converted into construction material to be permitted by the New York State Department re-used instead of using virgin raw materials. of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) Crushed chips are converted into pillars and for up to 4,000 lbs. of plastic feedstock per sills.16

13 Asian Institute of Technology. http://www.faculty.ait.ac.th/visu/NGOs/pdfs/ For%20Uploding%20Finalised%2020%20Nov%2008/SJ-BALAYAN_PHILIPPINES.pdf. Accessed on June 14 2013. 14 3R Knowledge Hub. http://www.3rkh.net/index.php? option=com_phocadownload &view=file&id=567: plastic2oil-processor&Itemid=238. Accessed on June 14 2013. 15 Waste Concern. http://www.wasteconcern.org/Publication/draft_national_3R_strategy.pdf#page=22 &zoom=auto,0,662. Accessed on June 14 2013. 16 Ministry of Environment, Government of Japan. http://www.env.go.jp/recycle/3r/en/approach/02.pdf. Accessed on June 14 2013.

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The Al Dhafra facility, UAE is designed waste sources such as mattress. They also to process between 5,000 to 7,000 tonnes of C have a state of the art commercial and & D waste on a daily basis. The incoming waste industrial materials recovery and sorting is segregated at the stock-piling area during centre, with a capacity to divert an extra which the recyclable materials are recovered, 100,000 tonnes away from landfill every such as steel and plastics. Unsuitable materials year. A specialist processor crushes and are rejected and diverted to the nearby Al recovers rubble for use in construction and Dhafra landfill. It takes approximately three road base, and grinds combustible materials to four minutes for unprocessed material to for use as an alternative feed to fossil fuel. be converted into the recycled product. The Another method of recovery from C & facility is expected to produce a range of D waste is followed by Resource Co. It is materials including road base, sub base, South Australia’s largest specialist processor structural fill, trench bedding, hardstand and of construction and demolition, and low dust asphalt products. The project enables commercial and industrial waste. This 50 per cent reduction in waste to landfill; company has received grants to conduct reduced greenhouse impact compared to trials for using recycled asphalt back into production and transportation of quarried new asphalt roads. This Bitumix can be used products, and reduced use of natural resources. as a more cost effective alternative to the This will reduce the reliance of Abu Dhabi on more expensive hot mix. The plastic obtained the quarries of other Emirates and hence, in C & D waste can also be recycled to be reduce the carbon footprint of construction used instead of new materials for projects in Abu Dhabi.17 construction. Plastics Granulating Services In South Australia, the Wingfield (PGS) is a company in South Australia that Resource Recovery and Waste Transfer uses advanced recycling services to process Station includes construction of a new post-consumer and post industrial waste Material Recovery Facility for recovery from plastics. It has received a grant to install mixed commercial and industrial, and equipment for shredding, washing and construction and demolition waste. The drying plastic films with a focus on center will provide a facility to receive polyethylene-based film. This new equipment material direct from residents or kerbside has doubled the company’s capacity to hard waste collections accepting general process mixed plastic waste into recycled waste, hazardous waste and other difficult plastic products such as posts and bollards.18

17 Clean Middle East. http://www.cleanmiddleeast.ae/articles/244/construction-and-demolition-debris-will- no-longer-be-a-waste.html. Accessed on June 14 2013. 18 Zero Waste SA. http://www.zerowaste.sa.gov.au/upload/resource-centre/publications/reuse-recovery-and- recycling/ZWSA_Upclose_Industry_web.pdf. Accessed on June 14 2013.

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REUSE utilized for the benefits of members for There is scope to leverage the fact that medical insurance, study loans and other what is considered waste by one user could personal benefits. 19 have value for another. This potential to buy The Minnesota Pollution Control waste is well established in several societies, Agency offers specific guidelines for using like the sale of old newspapers in India. There the street sweeping waste as a daily cover are examples elsewhere in the world of stores on sanitary and construction landfills, if buying more diverse waste. The Zero Baht chemically proven fit. The agency Shop in Thailand is one example. The shop recommends that the refuse should only be is a community grocery store in which used as a top cover in landfills that have recyclables are exchanged with daily groundwater monitoring mechanisms in grocery items. The store has a fixed price place. The other re-use options for screened for each type of waste. It was conceptualized street waste are suggested to be mixed with in 2001. new salt and sand mixtures to treat roads, Workshops are also conducted on parking lots, and sidewalks in the winter; to handling waste, waste sorting and other fill potholes and then cover them with business management strategies. Provision asphalt; to fill in the median strips or along has been made for the waste pickers as well. road shoulders on city-owned public right The shop provides waste pickers with identity of ways; or to use as an aggregate in concrete cards, license plates to the Saleng tricycle, or asphalt. With chemical testing, the options jacket, gloves, surgical masks, reflectors and can be increased. The debris can also be used weighing machines. The shop earns a profit as fill on industrial or commercial of 20,000 to 30,000 Baht a month. This properties, or it can help absorb hazardous initiative also provides for Garbage Banks. materials in an emergency.20 The Garbage Bank allows the members to There are other forms of reuse that call deposit their savings (by crediting the for strict adherence to safety norms. A recyclables at the Zero Baht Shop), or by company in California, Kaiser Permanente depositing two glass bottles a day or one (KP), safely re-uses single-use medical Baht a day for two continuous months to devices (SUDs). This reprocessing avoids benefit from welfare schemes. Two per cent millions of dollars in SUD purchasing costs of the income of the Zero Baht Shop is also and overall waste disposal costs. This SUD added to this welfare fund. This fund is then reprocessing is done in strict accordance with

19 3R Knowledge Hub. http://www.3rkh.net/index.php? option=com_phocadownload &view=file&id=634: integration-of-infromal-and-formal-sectors-for-3r&Itemid=238. Accessed on June 14 2013. 20 North American Sweeper Magazine. http://www.nasweeper.com/2010/06/main_articles/street-sweeping- the-grit-that-keeps-on-giving/. Accessed on June 14 2013.

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U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recycling target of 55 per cent. The first regulations to ensure the quality and monthly collection trial ran from June to performance of the reprocessed SUDs are November 2011 that diverted over 2,400 kg safe and effective for clinical use. The of textiles from landfill. The original trial company also recovers and redistributes area serviced 8,000 properties. The second surplus medical supplies and equipment to trial run for another six months covered an safety-net clinics and underserved health expanded area of 12,000 properties. TRAID care facilities around the world.21 funded the trials and received the income Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center from the sale of the clothes. The service was adopted the single use device (SUD) re- free to LB Bexley. Bags distributed to processing program to reduce medical waste residents during the first phase of the trial and its associated costs. The center completed proved expensive, accounting for up to 50 the buy-back of its first two identified per cent of the total cost of the scheme. reprocessed SUD categories, tourniquet cuffs During the second trial TRAID distributed and arthroscopic shaver blades, within the stickers to residents, to be applied to any first few months of the launch. In 2012, SUD bag put out for collection. Post collection program generated saving of US$ 375,000 of the clothing, the highest quality clothing and diverted nearly 10,000 lbs of medical was removed and resold in TRAID’s ten waste from landfills and/or incinerators.22 shops in London. Material that TRAID could An effective reuse process can also link not resell in the UK was passed on to a local waste to global markets. TRAID a UK wholesaler who sells to markets in the UK registered charity has collaborated with the and also exports to Europe, West Africa and London Borough (LB) Bexley (unitary waste Pakistan. 23 authority in South East London) to deliver a kerbside collection service. LB Bexley has RECYCLE a population of 228,000 in 95,100 The potential for recycling is quite vast households. In 2009, as per analysis the especially when there is a willingness to waste composition showed that textiles innovate. In Melbourne, Australia a comprised two per cent of the residual waste recycling program operating in Victoria and stream. This resulted in kerbside collections New South Wales (NSW) has turned 33,000 of textiles to help meet early, the Boroughs’ lbs of hospital PVC waste into industrial

21 Kaiser Permanente. http://xnet.kp.org/newscenter/aboutkp/green/docs/kp-waste-reduction-factsheet- 2013.pdf. Accessed on June 14 2013. 22 Healthier Hospital Initiative. June 14 2013. http://healthierhospitals.org/get-inspired/case-studies. Accessed on June 14 2013. 23 WRAP. http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/Textiles_Guide_CS_Bexley.pdf. Accessed on June 14 2013.

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hoses and non-slip floor mats. Australia’s (HCWH), the Center for Health Design and national PVC industry body, the Melbourne- Practice Greenhealth. The enrolment to HHI based Vinyl Council of Australia, is is voluntary. collaborating with manufacturers to recycle The programme was formally commonly used PVC medical products, launched in April 2012 and has over 700 specifically tubing, intravenous fluid bags hospitals registered. The success of HHI and oxygen masks into non-slip mats and speaks for itself as over 50 million lbs of industrial hoses, general PVC compounds, materials have been recycled and 61.5 carpet backing and vinyl floor tiles. 24 million lbs of construction and demolition Kaiser Permanente also recycles the waste was kept out of landfills through re- blue wrap, the material that is used to use and recycle.26 preserve the sterility of medical instruments. In Singapore, 42 per cent of The material feels like soft paper, but is horticultural waste was recycled. The waste actually made from heavy-duty includes tree trunks and branches, plant polypropylene plastic that can take years parts and trimmings generated during the to disintegrate in landfills. Blue wrap can maintenance and pruning of trees. This and be recycled into wash buckets, lawn wood waste is sent to recycling companies furniture, flowerpots, squirt bottles, plastic to be grinded into wood chips. These wood lumber for picnic tables and thousands of chips are then used for composting, to make other commonly used products.25 new products, mixed with binders to produce Effective recycling may also require pallets, doors and floorings. Some recycling institutions to work together. In the US, in companies use the wood chips as a fuel in an effort to have healthier and sustainable cogeneration plants to produce heat and hospitals, the Healthier Hospitals Initiative power simultaneously, whereas other (HHI) was created by eleven of the largest, companies process the wood chips and most influential U.S. health systems. This recycle them into charcoal products.27 comprised of over 490 hospitals with more In the UK, the drain silt is recycled with than US$ 20 billion in purchasing power, the use of silt bags. These strong porous bags worked with Health Care Without Harm can be sited on relatively flat, smooth

24 Plastics News. http://www.plasticsnews.com/article/20130515/NEWS/130519954/some-australian-hos pitals-recycling-pvc-medical-waste#. Accessed on June 14 2013. 25 Kaiser Permanente http://xnet.kp.org/newscenter/aboutkp/green/docs/kp-waste-reduction-factsheet- 2013.pdf. Accessed on June 14 2013. 26 Healthier Hospital Initiative. http://healthierhospitals.org/get-inspired/case-studies. Accessed on June 14 2013. 27 Zero Waste SG. http://www.zerowastesg.com/2008/12/08/wood-and-horticultural-waste-recycling/. Accessed on June 14 2013.

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ground adjacent to the pond, lake or canal. Manufacturers and distributors were The silt is pumped into the bags with the obligated to accept returned packaging Truxor Amphibious Machine and silt after use. pumping attachment. The material that the In Canada, mandatory provisions bags are made of allows the silt be retained have been made for used oil deposit/ whilst the clean water seeps out. Once the collection facilities by all vendors of water has drained out of the bags, they can lubricants. This was made to target used be opened and the silt used for any oil produced by different users and has landscaping needs on site. Silt consists of enabled the return of used oil to the point decaying flora and fauna, as well as soil of purchase for reuse or recovery. Under erosion and run off from the surrounding the Law for Promotion of Effective terrain. It is rich in nutrients and makes an Utilization of Resources, Japan reached excellent planting medium. 28 90.3 per cent of glass cullet usage rate by recycling products made of glass. ENFORCING WASTE MANAGEMENT In the United States of America, Germany followed a stringent recycling and composting activities prevented Ordinance on the Avoidance and Recovery about 64 million tonnes of material from of Packaging Waste in 1998. This led to ending up in landfills and incinerators. USA 65 per cent of packaging recovery and 45 recycles 28 per cent of its waste, a rate that per cent share of recycling by weight. As has almost doubled during the past 15 years. per the ordinance, manufacturers were 42 per cent of paper, 40 per cent of plastic encouraged to avoid packaging. Priority soft drink bottles, 55 per cent of aluminium was given to reuse of packaging, recycling beer and soft drink cans, 57 per cent of steel and other forms of recovery compared to packaging, and 52 per cent of major disposal of packaging waste. appliances are now recycled. 29

28 Aquatic Solutions, UK. http://aquatic-solutions.co.uk/silt-recycling-with-silt-bags/. Accessed on June 14 2013. 29 Global Development Research Center. http://www.gdrc.org/uem/waste/3r-minimization.html. Accessed on June 14 2013.

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