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3 Singing from the Pulpit : Improvised Polyphony and Public Ritual In 55 3 Singing from the Pulpit : Improvised Polyphony and Public Ritual in Medieval Tuscany BENJAMIN BRAND Among the most distinctive features of late medieval churches were the screens that marked the division between the choir and the nave. Known variously as “rood screens,” “jubés ,” or “ Lettner,” they have traditionally been viewed as barriers that divided the clergy from the laity and thus accentu- ated the exclusivity of the mass and offi ce liturgies celebrated in the east end of the church. Only recently have they been recognized as facilitating com- munication between clerics and laypeople. Just as preachers delivered ser- mons in the vernacular from atop the screens, so these structures featured sculptural reliefs that depicted stories from the bible in a naturalistic style comprehensible to the laity and aptly described as a “visual vernacular.” 1 Equally important, the screens were sites of musical performances. At Notre Dame of Paris, for instance, the canons typically sang organum (i.e. polyph- ony) at High Mass from the eagle lectern situated in the middle of the choir behind (and at some distance from) the jubé . 2 On select Christological and Marian feasts, however, they fi rst processed to the crucifi x atop the screen, where as many as six of them sang a responsory verse polyphonically. 3 Th e following abbreviations denote libraries and archives: ACPist = Archivio Capitolare, Pistoia; BCIS = Biblioteca Comunale degli Intronati, Siena; BCL = Biblioteca Capitolare, Lucca; BGV = Biblioteca Guarnacci, Volterra; BRF = Biblioteca Riccardiana, Florence; BUB = Biblioteca Universitaria, Bologna. 1 J . E . J u n g , Th e Gothic Screen: Space, Sculpture, and Community in the Cathedrals of France and Germany, ca. 1200– 1400 ( Cambridge University Press , 2013 ) and J. E. Jung , “ Beyond the Barrier: Th e Unifying Role of the Choir Screen in Gothic Churches ,” Th e Art Bulletin, 82 ( 2000 ), 622 – 657 , with references to earlier literature on choir screens. See also E. Duff y , Th e Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England 1400– 1580 ( New Haven : Yale University Press , 1992 ), 109 – 116 . A. Kirkman , Th e Cultural Life of the Early Polyphonic Mass: Medieval Context to Modern Revival ( Cambridge University Press , 2010 ), 47 – 48 , likewise draws on Jung’s notion of the “visual vernacular” in his discussion of the use of secular cantus fi rmi in fi ft eenth- century masses. 2 C . W r i g h t , Music and Ceremony at Notre Dame of Paris, 500– 1550 ( Cambridge University Press ), 341 . According to Wright (p. 340, n. 104), there survive only fragments of the original, thirteenth- century choir screen, which was replaced by a second enclosure in the fourteenth century, on which see D. W. Gillerman , Th e Clôture of Notre- Dame and its Role in the Fourteenth Century Choir Program ( New York : Garland , 1977 ) . 3 R. A. Baltzer , “ How Long Was Notre- Dame Organum Performed? ,” in Beyond the Moon: Festschrift Luther Dittmer, ed. B. Gillingham and P. Merkley ( Ottawa : Institute of Medieval Music , 1990 ), 118 – 143 . 55 56 56 Benjamin Brand In such cases, the jubé was not a barrier between clergy and laity but instead a backdrop to the public performance of organum. Less familiar but equally suggestive cases in which choir screens ampli- fi ed the public character of liturgical polyphony emerge in connection with the cathedrals of medieval Tuscany. Pertinent evidence survives in six ordi- nals compiled for the wealthiest dioceses of the region ( Table 3.1 ).4 Detailed witnesses to the musical and ritual life of their mother churches, these books document a tradition distinctive of (though not unique to) Tuscany. At High Mass on solemn Christological feasts, as related below, soloists sang the Alleluia from the pulpit atop the choir screen, typically cum organo (i.e. with polyphonic elaboration) and sometimes with additional text called prosulas. Together, such ritual, musical, and literary embellishments not only amplifi ed the longstanding association of the Alleluia with heavenly, angelic song, but also mirrored the unusually elaborate scenes from the life of Christ sculpted in relief on the pulpits. Th rough the coordination of liturgy and iconography, choir screens thus became vehicles for public mu- sical performance as well as the creation of a visual vernacular. Th e six ordinals provide invaluable yet uneven evidence for the tradition of polyphonic singing from the pulpit in medieval Tuscany. As collections of liturgical prescriptions, they include no music but rather text of two kinds: incipits of chants, readings, and prayers, and rubrics that specifi ed, to varying degrees, matters of ritual context and performance practice. 5 4 Citations to the Tuscan ordinals refer to the original manuscript source. Th e following studies establish the dating of the Tuscan ordinal: M. S. Tacconi , Cathedral and Civic Ritual in Late Medieval and Renaissance Florence: Th e Service- Books of Santa Maria del Fiore ( Cambridge University Press , 2005 ), 94 – 98 (Ritus), G. Cattin , “ ‘Secundare’ e ‘Succinere’. Polifonia a Padova e Pistoia nel duecento ,” Musica e storia, 3 ( 1995 ), 63 – 86 , at 70 (OOPist); R. Argenziano , Agli inizi dell’iconografi a sacra a Siena: Culti, riti e iconografi a a Siena nel XII secolo ( Florence : Galluzzo , 2000 ), 54 – 58 (OOES); B. Brand, “Liturgical Ceremony at the Cathedral of Lucca, 1275– 1500,” Ph.D. diss., Yale University (2006), 6– 7 (OOL). A. Th ompson , Cities of God: Th e Religion of the Italian Communes, 1125– 1325 ( University Park, PA : Penn State University Press , 2005 ), 9 , dates OOP to the late twelft h century. Th at OOP makes no mention of St. Ranierius, who was buried in the cathedral in 1160, nonetheless suggests an earlier date of compilation. Moreover, its self- identifi ed author is surely the same Rolando whose name appears in several acts draft ed in the 1140s and 1150s and published in N. Caturegli , Regestum pisanum ( Rome : Istituto storico italiano per il Medio Evo , 1938 ) . An eponymous deacon and cathedral canon consecrated the church and hospital of San Marco in 1141 (no. 381, p. 256) and witnessed three public acts, two at the episcopal palace in 1147 (no. 407, p. 274) and 1154 (n. 433, p. 297), and one in Pisa in 1158 (no. 457, p. 318). 5 On ordinals in general, see T. Lohse , “ Stand und Perspektiven der Liber ordinarius- Forschung ,” in Liturgie in mittelalterlichen Frauenstift en, K. G. Beuckers ( Essen : Klartext Medienwerkstatt , 2012 ), 215 – 255 , A.- G. Martimort , Les “Ordines,” les Ordinaires et les Cérémoniaux ( Turnhout : Brepols , 1991 ), 62 – 85 , and E. Foley , “ Th e ‘Libri Ordinarii’ ,” Ephemerides liturgicae , 102 ( 1988 ), 129 – 137 . For a more detailed discussion of the Tuscan ordinals in particular, see 57 Singing from the Pulpit 57 Table 3.1. Th e Tuscan Ordinals Diocese Title/ Incipit Date Manuscript Organum Pulpit Pisa Ordo Offi ciorum (OOP) 1140– 1160 BUB 1758 X Volterra Ordo Offi ciorum Vulterrane 1161 BGV 5789 X Ecclesie (OOVE) FlorenceRitus in ecclesia servandi 1180– 1190 BRF 3005 X (Ritus) Siena Ordo Offi ciorum Ecclesie 1215 BCIS G.V.8 X X Senensis (OOES) Pistoia Ordo offi ciorum Pistoriensis late thirteenth ACPist, C 102 X X ecclesie (OOPist) century Lucca Ordo Offi ciorum (OOL) Ca. 1292 BCL, 608 X X Collectively, the books illustrate a growing desire to codify these latter two dimensions of the liturgy: the thirteenth- century ordinals feature longer, more detailed rubrics than the twelft h- century ones, and consequently include more directions to sing polyphonically (cum organo) and/ or from the pulpit ( in pulpito ). 6 Th at the Ordo Offi ciorum of Pisa fails to mention the marble pulpit of its cathedral, on which more will be said below, thus does not necessarily indicate that its clergy eschewed this public stage for musical performances. It more likely refl ects the brevity of the rubrics of the Pisan ordinal, which make little if any reference to any liturgical fur- nishing of its church. Th at the ordinals of Volterra and Florence do not pre- scribe the performance of organum is likewise attributable to the concision of their rubrics rather an indiff erence or hostility to polyphony on the part of their clergy. 7 B . B r a n d , Holy Treasure and Sacred Song: Relic Cults and their Liturgies in Medieval Tuscany ( Oxford University Press , 2014 ), 116 – 123 . 6 For instance, OOL identifi es at least seventy- two items sung with organum: B. Brand, “Liturgical Ceremony,” 178– 189, and A. Ziino , “ Polifonia nella cattedrale di Lucca durante il XIII secolo ,” Acta musicologica, 47 ( 1975 ), 16 – 30 (on OOL). OOES, by contrast, uses the expression “cum organo” more than two hundred times: G. Gonzato , “ Alcune considerazioni sull’ ‘Ordo Offi ciorum Ecclesiae Senensis’ ,” in Le polifonie primitive in Friuli e in Europa. Atti del congresso internazionale (Cividale del Friuli, 22– 24 augusto 1980), ed. C. Corsi and P. Petrobelli ( Rome : Torre d’Orfeo , 1989 ), 247 – 293 . G. Cattin, “ ‘Secundare’ e ‘Succinere’,” 63– 86, transcribes the many citations to polyphony in OOPist. 7 Indeed, the proscription of organum during periods of mourning (i.e. the Easter Triduum and a canon’s funeral) in Ritus, fols. 37v and 115r, suggests that such music was regularly sung on other occasions in Florence: M. Tacconi, Cathedral and Civic Ritual, 129– 130, and G. Cattin , “ Novità dalla cattedrale di Firenze: Polifonia, tropi, e sequenze nella seconda metà del XII secolo ,” Musica e storia, 6 ( 1998 ), 29 – 34 . 58 58 Benjamin Brand Unlike the celebrated organum of Notre Dame of Paris, polyphony in Tuscany (as throughout the Italian peninsula) remained a largely unwrit- ten, extemporized art. Alone among the six ordinals, the Ordo Offi ciorum of Lucca alludes to the way in which singers improvised an organal voice against pre- existing chant. In one instance, it directs clerics to perform a mat- ins invitatory “with organum by concordant modulation,” and in another it obliges them to sing a responsory “with organum or discant.” 8 S u c h p h r a s e s suggest that Lucchese (and perhaps other Tuscan) organum involved “con- cordant” intervals (i.e.
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