I

Background and Organization

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t is diffi cult to pinpoint the actual to the average family, and the money to buy these beginning of concert lighting as products was also available in the boom of the post- I we think of it today. Certainly war years. There was also a change in who had pur- the Grand Tour could be seen chasing power. Before World War II, the head of the as having been the byproduct of household made the purchase decisions for the family, opera in the mid-nineteenth century. The term was but by the early 1950s manufacturers were witness- often given to a star’s travels through Europe, pre- ing the growing fi nancial power of the teen market. senting solo programs in the European cultural capi- Teenagers now had allowances, and it was estimated tals. Later, the Grand Tour came to the Americas. in a 1951 survey that they had $4.5 billion dollars Through the years it also came to include the popu- to spend annually. It was estimated that $45 million lar fi gures of show business, encompassing not only of that was spent on 45 rpm single records. In the opera but also the stars of dance halls, vaudeville, early 1960s, a large number of these war babies, who and the circus. In the late nineteenth century, despite were 16 to 19 years of age, married, and their buy- their isolated locations, even small Nevada gold rush ing power increased even more. Producers and manu- towns had opera houses to show the world how “ cul- facturers were eager to fi gure out what this emerging tured” they had become. class wanted to purchase. The swing bands of the 1920s and 1930s brought Teens ’ listening tastes were having a decided a big change to popular music and, some believe, impact on the music business. Disc jockeys could sounded the fi rst notes that would ultimately be rec- play a tremendous part in record sales, but it still was ognized as rock & roll. Led by such greats as Duke unclear what teens wanted. Stations relegated blues Ellington, Count Basie, and Paul Whiteman, these and country music to times when few adults listened. bands emphasized instrumental solos —riffi ng, or These listeners became known as the “late people.” playing a short phrase over and over, now considered To be a disc jockey, you simply needed a sponsor, no a key ingredient of rock & roll. experience required. One of these original late-night Another milestone was the entrance of the pop programs was called King Biscuit Time and aired on idol. Although Benny Goodman is widely credited KFFA in Helena, Arkansas, and a disc jockey calling for igniting the fi rst “ teen hysteria” in 1938 at a himself Howlin’ Wolf had a show on KWEM in West Carnegie Hall concert, it would later be a teenager Memphis, Arkansas. Both played blues and some coun- from Hoboken, New Jersey, Francis Albert Sinatra, try artists. Because this kind of music was not main- who would endure a legion of young teenage girls stream, the shows aired between 5 a.m. and 6 a.m. 1 screaming during his performances. Enter the baby boom of the 1940s. Postwar 1 Ed Ward, Geoffrey Stokes, and Ken Tucker, Rock of Ages: The American prosperity saw many cultural changes. An Rolling Stone History of Rock & Roll (New York: Rolling Stone avalanche of consumer products became available Press, 1986), pp. 68 – 70.

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It may have been more than luck that these He’d leave the microphone open and howl like a programs aired on what were called 50,000-watt coyote. It was demented and near anarchy, but it “ clear-channel ” stations. With that kind of power was what teens had been waiting to hear. In 1954, and the phenomenon of AM signal skip due to the the name was changed to The Rock and Roll Show. ozone, on a clear night, when the conditions in the Rolling Stone magazine wrote that the term was ionosphere were right, you could hear stations that perfect because: “ It was a way of distinguishing the had “ skipped ” thousands of miles. Teens in Arizona new rhythm and blues from just plain blues and the might hear their fi rst Mississippi Delta Blues from old corny Mills Brothers style. After all, rock & roll a station in Tennessee, or a group of teens in didn’t fi t into any of the old categories. ”2 Wisconsin could tune in to hear young country sing- The benchmark of modern concert touring was ers like Carl Perkins or Buddy Holly. set in the mid-1950s by the independent record com- Blacks owned no radio stations, white disc jock- panies in an effort to exploit the fl edgling rock & roll eys opened to what was almost a secret recording artists. The tours were not a very radical society of black music and culture. Admittedly, it was departure from what swing bands and orchestras had a forced secret because of racism and segregation, but been doing in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s— that is, it was a distinct musical style that appealed to the playing dances in every town that had a community white teens with money to spend. hall or theatre. After all, this was the way most musi- In Los Angeles, one of the most popular programs cians made their living— playing live dances. But was called Huntin ’ with Hunter on KGFJ featuring now the pop singer was not just a member of the Hunter Hancock. His style was to mix blues, jazz, and band; the singer, rather than the bandleader, came spirituals with rhythm and blues. He was good friends to front . Another change was that, rather with Johnny Otis, who owned a club called the Barrel than getting work through a booking agent separate House in a black section of Los Angeles called Watts. from their manager, pop singers were promoted by Teens began to fl ock to the club, white as well as an independent record producer, who also controlled black. Hancock’s machine-gun delivery, growling, use the record, or sometimes an independent entrepre- of hip slang, and general carrying on like a madman neur like Alan Freed. That way the record company caught on with white teens. Before long Hancock’s made money not only from ticket sales but also, program was transcribed to stations across the coun- more important, by stimulating record sales. Many try. Hancock emphasized that he was bringing listen- artists signed away their publishing rights for a small, ers the latest and greatest Negro performers. Although one-time fee or were lied to by the record companies everyone assumed he was black, Hancock kept out of concerning a record’s earnings. public view because he was white. Wolfman Jack later adopted Hancock’s style Concert Lighting and for many years broadcast from a 50,000-watt station in Mexico without being seen in public. He Begins in the United had a tremendous infl uence on teens’ taste in music States in the 1960s. In his early days, many people also thought Wolfman Jack was black. He created a mys- Lighting did not attain a prominent position until tique that was widely held until he portrayed himself after sound reinforcement made its fi rst inroads in in the classic George Lucas fi lm, American Graffi ti . about 1960. The inadequate sound system in most The melding of country music and such regional buildings could not handle the demands of the sounds as rhythm and blues had been building until recording artists, who had come to expect studio- in 1951 a disc jockey named Alan Freed started the quality sound (not to mention the new electronic Moondog Show on WJW radio in Cleveland, Ohio. The name came from a tune by Todd Rhodes called 2 Ed Ward, Geoffrey Stokes, and Ken Tucker, Rock of Ages, the “ Blues for Moondog” that contained a wailing sax- Rolling Stone History of Rock & Roll (New York: Rolling Stone ophone solo that Freed adopted as his theme song. Press, 1986), pp. 96 – 97.

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effects necessary to make their performances sound split from the Mime Troupe and started promoting like the record). After the artists got used to absorb- musical groups on his own. Graham arranged concerts ing the expense of carrying sound equipment from that featured individual bands as the main attraction city to city, lighting soon followed. without ancillary features. Films, however, were shown One of the fi rst artists to carry their own lighting during the set changes to keep audiences occupied. equipment was Harry Belafonte in the mid-1960s. When he started formally promoting concerts, He had emerged on the record scene in 1957 from continued to welcome the light shows his native Jamaica and was truly ahead of his time. and eventually started paying for in-house light Chip Monck got his start with Harry. Generally, the shows that he could control. They were a visual middle-of-the-road (MOR) and country/western art- explosion of color and design. The shows were based ists were the last to see the value of building a produc- on liquid light projections, strobe lights, blacklights, tion around their music; however, folk acts such as and effect lighting to create a visual mood into the Chad Mitchell Trio, the Kingston Trio, and Peter, which the band as well as audience was immersed. Paul, and Mary took notice of the added value that The liquid light projector was nothing fancier than special lighting gave to the show and started hiring the opaque projector your grade school teacher used companies like McManus Enterprises in Philadelphia to show photos and charts from books. For these to provide lighting for their college dates. light shows, though, the book was replaced by a pan holding oil or water into which paints were pushed, splashed, and injected. The pan was vibrated or tilted The San Francisco to add even more movement to the ever-changing Light Show patterns that this mixture created. These images could be projected onto dancers, walls, screens, the What became known as 1960s was audience, even the performers. spearheaded by such bands as Big Brother and the Graham was not interested specifi cally in Holding Company, , Warlock, advancing lighting or fi lm or anything in particu- Grace Slick and the Great Society, and Quicksilver lar, but he was a bulldog when it came to his beliefs Messenger Service. All were based in San Francisco. about how the audience should be treated. His Actually it was a nonmusical group, The Family background and training in New York theatre gave Dog, at the close of 1965, who unwittingly created Graham a belief that with music alone he could cre- the fi rst light show . Bill Graham, who was their ate an art form. He wanted the audience to have a manager, said that people would show up and ask great experience, and he felt as though he was the if they could hang sheets on the walls, and he’d ask, only person looking out for the audience. The bands “ What are you talking about? ” They would reply, often didn’t care if there even was an audience. If a “ My screens; I’m a liquid projectionist. ” Light shows good experience for the audience meant better light- were not planned, and they were not even paid for. ing and sound, he encouraged and supported it. They were just part of what came together sponta- Graham provided the opportunity for many early neously. “ Happenings ” could include fi lms, dance, lighting designers to push their limits and experi- music, mime, painting, and just about anything else ment. He was known for treating the people around people wanted to do, all going on at once. him as family. That included yelling at them when Bill Graham was brought in to produce the now he felt it was necessary. Graham would conduct reg- famous Trips Festival at the Longshoremen’s Hall ular meetings before a show for everyone involved, in January of 1966. Later that year, he rented the including the ushers. Fillmore Theatre at Fillmore and Geary from Charles Lighting was not important in those early con- Sullivan, who was black, to put on the second Mime certs because people came more to “ make the scene” Troupe benefi t, but this production was billed as a than to listen to any one band. But, as individual “ dance concert.” After that, Graham could see live band recognition grew and people came to see spe- rock & roll music as being the main attraction. He cifi c bands play, Graham encouraged expansion of

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production values as part of providing a better expe- rience for the audience. Lighting had moved beyond the mask of the liquid light show. Bob See recalls that while he was a student at New York University in the School of the Arts theatre Other Cities and Venues program, he just happened to walk through an open door with a group of friends into an abandoned movie house near campus. There were Chip Monck This is not to say that concert lighting did not exist and some of the people with Joshua Light Shoe on outside of San Francisco. There were other venues at the stage trying to put things together: about the same time that received national attention. The Electric Factory in Philadelphia, circa 1967, We just kind of got involved. Because this was a was one. A very young Bill McManus fell into the real event, a real happening. From the standpoint role of local lighting guru by accident. A reception- that they were trying things that no one had ist mistakenly sent a call meant for McManus’s boss, ever tried before. It was the era of the ’60s. So MacAvoy, who was often called Mac, to a 19-year- we started working there, Chris Langheart, Bob old working in the shop of a theatrical lighting rental Gaddard, and John Chester. And as the place company. Bill “ Mac ” McManus saw an opportunity evolved we sort of took on jobs. I became the and met with a man who said he wanted to open technical director and did lighting stuff with Chip “ one of them psychedelic things.” He had an old Monck (Bob See, personal interview, 1996). factory on 22nd and Arch and asked if Mac could East opened in 1968 in the old look at it. Commodore Theatre . It was at the last minute that Before the Electric Factory opened, the largest the venue took that name. It was to have been called live concert venue in town was the Latin Casino, the Village Theatre, but because of a legal threat the which held about 3500 persons. The Electric Factory name was changed to the Fillmore East after the was to hold 5000, an unheard of size for its day. handbills had been printed. The fi rst show was Field houses at universities held 5000 to 6000, and on March 8, 1968, featuring Big Brother and the only a handful of artists dared perform in them. The Holding Company with , Tim Buckley, Electric Factory was so successful that it was turn- and Albert King, recalls Josh White. Across the ing over the house (audience) two and three times a street at the Anderson Theatre, Gladys Knight per- night. formed using Pablo’s Lights .4 Because of its experiences at the Fillmore, the was one of the early bands to encour- age light shows and fi lm projection at its other gigs. Fledgling Lighting in A “ family ” quickly developed around the band. England “ People just started doing things, we just played and things happened. If it felt good we’d say do it While all this was happening in the United States, next time, ” said Jerry Garcia in Graham’s autobi- England was experiencing a blues explosion. Bands ography, Bill Graham Presents . Josh White noted, devoured any record they could get of Muddy “ Kip Cohen always said that the reason the light Waters, Lightning Hopkins, B.B. King, and many show worked so well was that musicians didn’t real- others. There was only a club scene, no large ven- ize that people had eyes as well as ears … Jefferson ues like those starting to appear in the United States. Airplane would do twenty minute songs in the dark- The Marque Club in London and the Red Car Jazz ness in their street clothes with their backs to the Club, which was really a rock & roll club, were the audience. ”3 places to play. The Round House, another club,

3 Bill Graham and Robert Greenfi eld, Bill Graham Presents (New 4 Bill Graham and Robert Greenfi eld, Bill Graham Presents (New York: Doubleday, 1992), p. 259. York: Doubleday, 1992), p. 232.

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catered to visiting American bands like The Doors Other early British innovators were Jonathan during the early 1960s. Ian Peacock said, “ I remem- Smeeton and Graham Flemming. Michael Tait ber it was more of a place to hang out than to hear remembered, and was echoed by Ian Peacock, that the bands” (personal interview, 1996). Because these people just showed up and someone said, “ OK, who’s clubs were more sophisticated in their equipment, doing sound, who’s doing lights tonight?” But soon, would-be designers came to see and hear what they as in America, people gravitated to what they did were doing. best. No formal training, just desire and drive. “ We Most often the British bands found themselves were taking light bulbs and putting them in coffee playing in community halls and school assembly cans,” said Tait. He mentioned getting 12 automobile rooms where there was no stage lighting. Follow fog lamps, attaching them to a piece of pipe, and con- spots were even rarer. The British bands were hear- necting them to wire-wound potentiometers to make ing and sometimes seeing what the Americans were mini-dimmers. “ They worked for a few months, but doing in a few spots like the Fillmores, but the they kept melting. But they had the desired effect, British lighting industry did not have the equip- you got a narrow beam of light across the front of ment available to meet the needs of this new media. the stage, ” he said. “ In the beginning, I didn’t real- Consequently, many early systems were designed ize you need backlight and sidelight. I had them out around American lights. It was up to people like front, and it looked fl at and horrible. Then one day Michael Tait to invent what they needed. I couldn’t fi nd a place to attach my lights out front Tait was one of the early people to build light- and hung them on the side. That’s when I realized ing systems around the specifi c needs of a band. that side and backlight was what it was all about. ” He started with YES in 1968. Tait had worked at a Tait ’s fi rst go at lighting was at the Marque nightclub and somehow ended up driving the band Club, which had a red light and a blue light above somewhere. Tait says he just fell into the job. He the stage with switches on the wall. YES’s music started by doing anything the band needed. At fi rst had a staccato effect that lent itself to the fl ashing that included setting up their small public address of these lights in time with the music. People went sound system. In those days bands used only vocal wild. But Tait still didn’t consider lighting to be his microphones. No one thought of using microphones skill: “ YES fi rst toured America as the opening act on the drums or guitars. Each band had its own for Jethro Tull. I forgot where the fi rst gig was but sound system, so the crew completely changed that somebody said, well who’s going to call the follow as well as the band gear after each set. spots? Well, we never had any, so I was the one Tait remembers that the second show he messing with lights, so it had to be me.” He went worked was on a bill with , Small Faces, on to say, “ But I found I could do it. I found that Arthur Brown and the Mind Benders, and YES at I could cue four lights and that I knew what I wanted the bottom of the bill. The show was in Newcastle, to do. It was just something that I just naturally England, in the town hall. There might have been could do.” (All quotes are from a personal interview some white light above the stage, but that was all. with Michael Tait in 1996.) Tim Murch, who was with Light and Sound Design for many years, remembers seeing Black Sabbath in a South Hampton Guild Hall with house lights Moving to Larger around 1970. Venues Things developed slowly in England because the rather small audiences for most bands did not bring Although these early converted night clubs, audi- in enough money to support the band, let alone buy toriums, and factories got concert lighting off the lighting. A few bands, such as The Who and Pink ground, their success was short lived. The Fillmore Floyd, were interested in production, but there still was open from December 10, 1965, to the end of wasn’t a lot of money to spend on such things, nor June 1968. The Fillmore East in the old Carousel had the equipment been built to spend it on. Ballroom lasted from July 1968 until September

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1971. Winterland in San Francisco became a Bill four times what they could at the Fillmore; greed had Graham venue before the Fillmore was closed so he set in. It all came down to dollars. Actually, all this could promote bands that demanded more money. didn’t just happen by accident. The Monterey Festival It held 5400 people and had been built as a skating took place in 1967 and in 1969, and pro- arena. It continued on for 7 more years. moters realized that as many as 50,000 people would Don Law, a promoter in Boston, was using the old come to hear rock & roll music. Bill Graham closed Boston Garden to put on concerts at about the same the Fillmore East and went back to San Francisco to time as the Electric Factory opened in Philadelphia. close the Fillmore. That last week in New York, Bob Both had about 5000 seats. When the Spectrum (a See remembers doing 28 shows in 27 days. The era basketball arena) opened in Philadelphia in 1969, it of the concert hall as an ongoing venue was dying. drew the big acts away from the Electric Factory. All Bill Graham went on to promote and/or act as across the country, more sports arenas were being production manager for several national tours with used to attract the artists that demanded 5000 to , George Harrison, and Crosby, 7000 seats. All this was signifi cant to concert lighting Stills, Nash, and Young, as well as and the because these new buildings were not full-time clubs Band. To all these productions he brought his sense or venues designed for music. Most of them were of theatricality, production values, and total dedica- sports arenas. They were hostile environments with tion to making the event an experience for the public. bad acoustics, no permanent stages, no theatrical Graham is quoted as follows in his autobiography: lighting, no intercoms, and no music sound systems The greatest compliment I was ever given was (only public address). Portable lighting and sound at the Fillmore. … Two guys looked straight companies became necessary. Local and regional light- ahead and one said, “ Oh, shit, man, I forgot. ing and sound companies started to appear, and the Who’s playing here tonight?” Without batting large fees they could charge meant they could invest an eyelash, the other guy said, “ I don’t know further in their equipment. Banks were not gener- man. What’s the difference? It’s the Fillmore. ”5 ally willing to approve loans for these ventures so most capital to buy equipment came directly from Bill died in a helicopter crash on October 25, cash received from the previous gig. Some of the 1991, returning from a Huey Lewis and the News early companies included McManus Enterprises in show at Concord Pavilion. His efforts to promote Philadelphia, Sundance Lighting in Los Angeles, TFA great shows and his undaunted belief that the public in Boston, and See-Factor in New York. Today, only deserved the best show possible gave encouragement one of these companies is still on the national scene, to many who worked directly with him or for his See-Factor. TFA was sold and eventually was merged shows. Graham wanted bands to give their audience into PRG, and Sundance sold their lighting equipment a total experience. He encouraged people to try new and became a design and consulting fi rm which today things and opened the door for many of those who is known as Visual Terrain, Inc. started this special form of lighting. Bands wanted bigger and more, more, more. To attract a paying audience to large venues meant you had to give them The End of Bill a show, and the shows had to now go on the road. Graham’s Fillmores

Bob See recalls Bill Graham calling all the staff Melding Forms together— it was very much a family organization. Concerts moved from light shows to embracing more Graham announced he was closing the Fillmore East traditional music hall lighting simply because certain even though every show was selling out. He said performers began to emerge from these groups and he just had too many irons in the fi re. That was in 1971. The Fillmore East held only 2700 people. Acts 5 Bill Graham and Robert Greenfi eld, Bill Graham Presents (New were playing Madison Square Garden and making York: Doubleday, 1992), p. 181.

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gain star status. With this came audience recogni- Mergers and Buyouts tion. I believe that the artist’s ego was responsible for a move toward the more conventional musical Since the creation of PRG, several companies have comedy lighting techniques. Artists wanted to be in tried to duplicate its success. The Obie Company the spotlight, the traditional symbol of being a star. in Torrance, California, merged with Westsun from As with any melding of the old with the new, Winnipeg, Canada, in 1999. 7 In 2008, Ed & Ted’s and especially in light of the youth revolt of the Excellent Lighting joined forces with Q1 Production 1960s, record artists started altering the rules. There Technologies. Ed & Ted’s is a Los Angeles-based was no comedian or animal act to separate the musi- company, while Q1 operates out of Vancouver and cal presentations as had been common in music halls Winnipeg. 8 Ed & Ted’s merge with Canadian IQ is or vaudeville. This was to be a show of solid music, now called Epic Productions. lasting several hours. Lighting began to take on a Mergers between like entities are not the only form more important role. of growth witnessed over the past 20 years. Many The greatest differences in concert lighting from of the existing lighting and sound companies added traditional theatrical lighting are the use of vivid offi ces either overseas or in optimum rental points in colors, heavy use of backlight, and absolute use of the country such as Orlando and Los Angeles. follow spots instead of balcony rail, torms, or front- Another change in business for the touring con- of-house washes. The greatest advances have been in cert industry was promoters buying or establishing portable lighting structures, the PAR-64, the moving their own lighting and sound companies. Also, pro- luminaire, and computerized lighting consoles. moters have bought out other promoters; for exam- ple, Bill Graham Presents was sold to Clear Channel Lighting Becomes Big Communications of Beverly Hills, California, in 2000. Clear Channel owned radio stations but had begun to Business operate as a promoter and provided complete equip- ment packages as part of their tour, promotion, and In the past 20 odd years, touring has turned into production services. The promotion and production the business of touring. In 1995, Jere Harris formed departments were eventually spun off in 2005 into a the Production Resource Group (PRG) from an separate company named Live Nation. It was stated expanded Broadway scenic construction company that the company wanted to concentrate on their core called Scenic Technology. PRG rapidly began acquir- business of outdoor billboards and radio station own- ing touring and rental sound, lighting, and video ership. The split seems to have worked out for both companies around the country through a global entities. In 2005, Live Nation promoted or produced strategy to provide total production services for not 28,500 events, including music concerts and theatrical only touring but also theatre tours, trade shows, shows, with total attendance exceeding 61,000,000. By themed entertainment, corporate presentations, and September of 2005 they owned or operated 117 venues television and system installation. The strategy also (75 in the United States and 42 overseas) and held the included leaving the acquired companies largely rights to book in 33 more venues. These fi gures were intact under their former names. The facilities of the total of all their enterprises, not just for concerts. these fi rms were then used to warehouse the growing Premier Global in Atlanta, Georgia, is another corpo- services of PRG while retaining the good will of their ration adopting an all-inclusive approach. These com- clientele. The company has more than 20 offi ces and panies differ in business style from the promotions in facilities in the United States, Japan, and England as the 1980s of Bill Graham and Concerts West, neither 6 of this writing. PRG was also the fi rst company in of which insisted on providing production services. the industry to venture into the sale of stock in a pri- vate offering. 7 “ Westsun Merges with the Obie Company,” Live Design , April 1, 1999, http://livedesignonline.com/mag/lighting. 8 “ Q1 and Ed & Ted’s Announce Merger,” Projection Lights & 6 PRG website, http://www.prg.com. Staging News , October 2008, pp. 1 and 8.

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What this new twist means to lighting designers of Vari*Lite, Inc., in 2002. 11 Philips subsequently and independent rental companies in particular is that acquired Strand Lighting in 2006 as part of the control has been taken away from them. A lighting Genlyte acquisition. The Strand name goes back to designer or band may have a long history with a par- 1914 when it was opened to assist London theatri- ticular supplier and their crews, but this relationship is cal productions. Years later Strand purchased the being challenged. Generally, it is part of contracts today American company Century and became known as that the promoter, not the artist or their designers, will Century-Strand, Inc. Later the name was shortened contract for the lighting, sound, and video services. to Strand Lighting, Inc. Vari*Lite was the fi rst com- Although many companies can provide excellent equip- pany to market computerized moving luminaires in ment and crews, the loyalty factor is lost. The next tour the touring fi eld (see Chapter 11). The interesting part by a band may have a different supplier and crew, and about the acquisition of Genlyte is that Vari*Lite and each tour has to start over with a new learning curve. Strand Lighting are minor components of Genlyte. To the artist’s management, such a deal seems Mike Wood has worked for several lighting fi rms like a win/win situation because the artist is paid a including a 9-year stint as VP of Engineering and Chief fee and bonus for a block of time, and the manage- Technology Offi cer for High End Systems, Inc. He ment is relieved of all responsibility of contracting also holds several lighting industry patents. Wood said for personnel or services. It is up to the promoter to their part of the sale probably fl ew below the radar book the dates, promote the show, provide the lights but that Vari*Lite will look great at the Philips’ stock- and sound, and basically ensure that everything is in holders meeting! Also signifi cant was Barco’s pur- place so the artist can simply walk in and perform. chase of High End Systems, Inc., also a moving light The tour promotion company can make block deals manufacturer, for a reported $55 million dollars. In a with larger suppliers for multiple tours and can statement released by the company: “The acquisition negotiate reduced rates for the larger number of ser- provides Barco … with an additional patent portfolio vices. These deals may prove to be detrimental to the in the digital lighting market, along with increased dis- smaller suppliers. Some have already indicated that tribution channels and products offerings worldwide.” they have shifted their focus to corporate, themed, General Electric (GE) apparently also believes in and special events and more local and regional the future of LED technology, having recently pur- accounts because they are losing the national tours. chased the remaining 49% interest in GELcore, LLC One other area of mergers should be discussed. (Cleveland, Ohio) for $100 million dollars. In a press Manufacturers of lighting equipment have also seen release, GE said their support for GELcore was their a large number of mergers and acquisitions over best way of penetrating the $12 billion dollar global the past 10 years. The largest to date was Philips lighting market. 12 This area of lighting is moving so Electronics buying ColorKinetics for a reported $791 quickly (see Chapter 16) that by the time this book is million dollars. 9 ColorKinetics was an early leader published there will no doubt be even greater innova- in light-emitting diode (LED) lighting for entertain- tions available due to these large investments in R& D. ment. Philips apparently decided it was less expensive Continued consolidation in the lighting rental to buy the company than to spend the initial R &D and touring market is inevitable due to the econom- money to ramp up. What the acquisition meant for ics of mergers and acquisitiovs. To survive, smaller ColorKinetics was the backing of a large company companies will need to continue to diversify into ($346 billion dollars in sales in 2006 10 ) with the nontraditional entertainment applications; however, deep fi nancial resources to allow them to continue to this is not necessarily a bad thing. Such expansion grow. Philips also acquired Genlyte, a company that had will provide more work for young designers who will purchased the manufacturing and sales divisions

11 “ Philips Completes Acquisition of Genlyte,” press release, Philips, Eindhoven, the Netherlands, March 2008. 9 Philips website, http://www.Philips/Colorkinetics.com. 12 “ GE Invests $100M in LED Lighting,” Projection Lights & 10 Philips website, http://www.philips.com. Staging News , October 2008, pp. 1 and 18.

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have the opportunity to be tested on smaller projects. add the date to the tour. Not all of the operations Consolidation often means that the smaller fi sh are have new entertainment complexes. Along with the forced to leave the waters of a shrinking lake to fi nd less desirable venues are some defi nitely worth a refuge in a pond. That pond was once the concert look. Mohegan Sun in Connecticut, for example, has touring business. Now is the time to fi nd a new, hid- built a 10,000-seat arena and a theatre to accommo- den pond and grow in more protected waters. date world-class talent which is attached to a luxuri- ous shopping mall. Mohegan Sun in Pocono Downs Casinos was Pennsylvania’s fi rst casino, and it recently com- pleted a $208 million dollar renovation project to Casinos have emerged as a lucrative and plentiful become the area’s leading entertainment complex. venue option for rock & roll, pop acts, and country The Hard Rock Cafe chain equips their theatres bands to perform, particularly within the burgeoning with the latest lighting and sound systems, similar to American Indian casino community. These casinos are the House of Blues chain. In contrast to Hard Rock a relatively new venue for concert tours but have expe- and Harrah’s, which are tied in with Indian gaming rienced extraordinary growth since 1988, when the license agreements, only 2 of the House of Blues ’ 24 rules for operation and regulation of Indian gaming venues comprised of traditional clubs, arenas, and were approved by the tribes and the U.S. government. amphitheatres are hotels and casinos (in Las Vegas The fi rst Indian casino had its problems. The and Atlantic City). Seminole tribe opened a high-stakes casino out- You can expect that the growth of Indian gam- side of Hollywood, Florida, in 1979. Soon after it ing hotels and casinos and entertainment com- opened, the state demanded that it be shut down. In plexes will continue. The National Indian Gaming their fi ling, the state of Florida challenged the right Commission reported growth from $200 million of the tribe to operate a gambling establishment in 1988 to $26 billion in 2007. For the most part, contrary to state law. After the case spent 3 years in the casino venues are getting it right and improving court, the casino was allowed to open again. It was as entertainment operators, but there are some that ruled that the tribes are outside state jurisdiction and should post “ enter with caution ” signs. considered sovereign entities by the United States, and the gaming operation must not be directly pro- hibited in that state. This case is what really opened Purpose Built Concert the fl oodgates for Indian casinos in the United States, Amphitheatres and tribes in Canada followed suit. Today, two Hard Rock Hotels and Casinos in Florida are licensed Amphitheatres are considered seasonal venues, with with the Seminole tribe; these facilities include state- seasons beginning in May and continuing through of-the-art arenas and theatres and host some of the September, possibly October. Just over 100 amphi- world’s biggest recording artists and performers. theatres are listed in the world, primarily in the Following the Las Vegas business model for attract- United States. The oldest amphitheatre in America ing gamblers, Indian casino operations bolster atten- is probably the Hearst Greek Theatre in Berkeley, dance at their casinos and hotels with world-class California, which offi cially opened on September entertainment. There are over 400 casinos, but only 24, 1903. It is an 8500-seat outdoor theatre that about 60 of those have expanded into resorts large still hosts rock concerts. The Greek Theatre in Los enough to be viable venues for staging and promoting Angeles was built in 1929. The majority of the touring entertainment. Nonetheless, the sovereign Indian amphitheatres that are considered mainstream con- tribes expanded what was once unique to Nevada and cert venues on the summer concert touring circuit Atlantic City into a 28-state gambling empire. were constructed from the mid-1980 to the 1990s, The casinos are paying handsomely for the bands with only a handful being built after 2000. to play, more than a concert promoter would guar- At this writing the lion’s share of all amphitheatres antee. The band’s management will, on that promise, is either owned or operated by Live Nation, with 39

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amphitheatres. The advantage for this company is that concert lighting products is available— from moving it also produces many of the artist and package tours lights to walls of LEDs that produce graphic mate- that travel exclusively under the Live Nation banner rial —and there is the expectation for many more uses and play at all of their venues. Live Nation is the larg- to arise in the years to come. It is interesting that for est producer of live concerts in the world, annually each edition of this book the author has asked indus- producing over 16,000 concerts for 1500 artists in 57 try experts what the next big advance might be, and countries. The company sells over 45 million concert it has always been suggested that a new light source tickets a year. These fi gures are exclusive of their other will be what propels the industry. Currently, LEDs enterprises such as theatrical plays and musical tours . are the newest advance, but at least two other poten- Audiences enjoy seeing performances outdoors, tial sources are being investigated. The point is that and promoters and venue owners enjoy certain lighting designers can’t look only at what tools are in fi nancial advantages due to not incurring the year- hand but must constantly keep up with the advances round expenses of utilities and high overheads. For that might be on the drawing board. these reasons the outdoor amphitheatre will con- tinue to grow and be a venue of choice. Expansion beyond the LED Revolution Concert Format

The light-emitting diode is a semiconductor diode The author observed back in the fi rst edition of this that emits light when an electrical current is applied. book in 1989 that ways in which these new tools The fi rst practical visual-spectrum LED was devel- could be used to solve and expand lighting applica- oped by a scientist, Nick Holonyak, at General tions in other entertainment fi elds were only a dream Electric in 1962. 13 His discovery was limited to uti- at the time. Yet, it did not take long before many lizing the color red. people saw the potential for adding fast, effi cient, A former graduate student of Holonyak pro- dramatic lighting to all sorts of productions: corpo- duced brighter red, orange, and yellow LEDs in 1972, rate presentations, theme parks, television, and fi lm, and a blue LED was developed by Shuji Hakamura as well as legitimate theatre. In this edition, we are at a company called Nichia Corporation in Japan. As pleased to showcase a recent Broadway show that of this writing, no other color has emerged from this has truly embraced the concert philosophy of bold technology. The so-called “white ” LED is the result color, high intensity, sophisticated computer lighting of a coating mix of yellow and blue phosphors. 14 control, luminaires, programming tools, and dim- While the early LED products were used for indi- ming innovations. cator lights because they did not have a high output of light, they had a very long life of 35,000 to 50,000 hours and were very consistent in output over that The Concert Lighting life. As their brightness improved, more and more commercial uses could be imagined. It did not take Designer/Director long for the commercial lighting industry to see the The position of a concert lighting designer or director potential of LEDs. In 1995 LED luminaires began differs from that of his or her theatrical or television to be shown at LDI, an annual trade show for con- counterpart. One of the main differences lies with cert lighting and sound equipment and designers, their responsibilities. The concert lighting designer is in the form of stage lighting. A literal explosion of often the only design artist associated with the pro- 13 Nick Holonyak, Jr., 2004 Lemelson – MIT Prize Winner. News duction; only larger concerts can afford to have a Rel ease from the ECE Department, University of Illinois, Urbana – separate scenic artist or video director, so the light- Champaigne, March 20, 2002. ing designer is usually consulted for all such visual 14 2006 Finland ’ s Millennium Technology Prize awarded to UCSB’s Shuji Nakamura. concepts. Another difference is that only rarely is

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there an extended rehearsal schedule. Often a light- If you are prepared for all conceivable prob- ing designer has one day to rig the lighting, with no lems, then you can deal logically and calmly with the thought of a stop-and-go technical rehearsal. New everyday stresses. Although many innovations have visualization software (see Chapter 21) has emerged been tried over the last 50 years of concert lighting, to help designers get a handle on managing the grow- techniques are still evolving. Just when we think that ing amount of moving lights and digital media, even the size of lighting rigs has been pushed to the limit, without rehearsal time. a new idea is tried that pushes the physical resources Concert lighting designers must have a highly of the media and particularly the physical structure developed musical sense. Although many are not of the buildings, as well as our imaginations, further. skilled musicians, they have a natural aptitude for Just when it looked like no more moving luminaires musical interpretation. Because of the ever-changing could be brought to market, digital moving luminaires venues and artist needs, most lighting designers go appeared. Just as the light sources seemed to max out, on the road with the shows they design. A few do LEDs invaded the entertainment market. This is a leave the show in the hands of an assistant or the business that never stands still, and you as a designer lighting board operator, but most designers stay with can never be complacent. The need to stay on top of the tour to personally run the console and call their what is new is a must. Artists always want the newest own cues. or the biggest or anything different, good or bad. This style of lighting design is an art of imme- I do not believe in an analytical approach— this diacy. Lighting designers are not artists who have business is one quarter art, one quarter science, the luxury of putting paint on a canvas or chipping one quarter intuition, and one quarter adaptability. away at a piece of stone and then standing back to Teaching by doing, experimenting, and learning what think about their next move for an hour, a day, or others have tried can be of the greatest value. That is a week. They must react instantly, often with no why this book is presented in four main parts. Section time to document what they did, so they must try to I is a discussion about what you need to understand remember and write it down later. about the work: the business and physical sides as Concert lighting design is an intuitive art. well as the creativity it takes to succeed. The authors Although very intricate cues can be programmed have a very strong conviction that designers need to be into highly specialized lighting consoles, there is still well versed in business to get ahead in the real world. a sense that what you are doing is of the moment . Section II investigates some of the tools currently There is no script and no cue sheets to make nota- being used. Section III takes a look at some interesting tions on. Ways of noting lighting cues have been designs done by great lighting designers working today. developed but in a much different form than the They refl ect what was done to solve both the creative standard theatrical method. Chapter 6 will detail and business needs of their specifi c touring projects. several methods. Preparation and organizing clear These needs are, in our view, inseparable. Also, for drawings and charts are key. Every day brings the fi rst time we will look at how artists perceive their new locations and a new set of problems to solve. role. Finally, Section IV, the Postscript, is the author’s Adaptability is a must. One of the most important assessment of where we are going in the future. lessons to learn is:

There is no such thing as a bad decision; the only wrong decision is to make no decision .

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