Florida Gulf Coast University AquilaThe FGCU Student Research Journal
VOLUME II / APRIL 2016 Copyright © 2016 Aquila – The FGCU Student Research Journal Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal
Table of Contents
President’s Message 3
Provost’s Message 5
Editorial Page 6
Editorial Board Message 7
Acknowledgements 8
Articles
Biases Trump Evidence in Beliefs About Animal Welfare Jessica Baker 9
Assassins Do Not Wear Battle Bikinis: The Case Against Gender Inequality and Female Specific Hypersexualization in Video Games Mary-Cecile Gayoso 17 The Function and Efficacy of Civil Disobedience Alexander Sell 23 Rise of Papal Administration: Apostolic Authority in the Context of Crusading Noah Anderson 29 Malory’s Gawain: Characterizing Fragmentation and Unification Susan Rojas 33 Dropping Acid: Global Warming’s Equally Evil Twin Ocean Acidification in Estero Bay, Florida Marshall Nathanson 41 Student Achievements 45
Short Communications
Improving an e-Bike: Riding with “Christina” Gabriella Giliberti, Ardit Dervishaj, Rishabh Rawal, Christian Bokrand, Joseph Simmons, Ph.D., Joseph Cuiffi, Ph.D. 49 Comparative Gait Rehabilitation with Virtual Reality Headset Josiah Keime, Kristin Ladia, Jay Shah, Derek Lura, Ph.D. 53
1 FGCU makes valuable discoveries daily using Southwest Florida as a lab for learning.
From marine sciences and biotechnology to sustainability, entrepreneurship and physical therapy,
FGCU faculty and students partner with local people and businesses in ways that benefit all, putting our region in a class of its own.
Inspiring those who inspire others. THAT’S THE FGCU EFFECT. Florida Gulf Coast University fgcu.edu
2 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal
A Message from the President I am pleased to introduce the first printed edition of Aquila, a journal showcasing the research, creative, and scholarly work of students at Florida Gulf Coast University (FGCU). Thanks to the efforts and encouragement of Professors Foote, Gunnels, and Demers, an online version of Aquila first appeared in November, 2014. The journal now has a student editorial board and is advised by Professors Reuter and Eichbauer. Both the online and printed versions of Aquila are designed to highlight that, in addition to being a first-class teaching institution, FGCU offers its undergraduate and graduate students opportunities to actively participate in the thriving research and creative activities of the faculty.
As an undergraduate student, I was given the opportunity to work in the laboratory of one of my professors. This experience was the beginning of me earning a Ph.D. in psychobiology and having a rich and rewarding academic and research career. As you will read in this and future editions of Aquila, FGCU students are involved in stimulating work with their professors which has the potential of shaping their futures. I trust you will read this inaugural print edition of Aquila with great interest and that you will look forward to learning more about how our students are involved with the research and creative activities of FGCU faculty. Enjoy!
Wilson G. Bradshaw, Ph.D. President
3 FGCU Honors Program The Honors Program at Florida Gulf Coast University provides student scholars the opportunity, mentoring, and resources to fully realize the potential of their university education. Through small classes filled with inquisitive students, one-on-one mentoring by outstanding professors, and innovative curricular experiences, Honors students graduate prepared for academic and professional success.
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Admission to the Honors Program: When a student applies to FGCU, they are automatically considered for admission to the Honors Program based on their weighted High School GPA and SAT/ACT scores. Current FGCU students and Transfer students with a 3.5 cumulative GPA and between 12 and 60 completed credit hours are also invited to apply each Spring and Fall semester.
Automatic Admission: Invitation to Apply: 3.9 Weighted High School GPA 3.5 Weighted High School GPA 1850 SAT OR 28 ACT 1700 SAT OR 25 ACT Invitation mailed to home address Invitation emailed to email on record
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4 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal
A Message from the Provost
Since first opening its doors in 1997, Florida Gulf Coast University (FGCU) has grown into a thriving living, learning community, focused on fostering the scholarly development of its talented students. The printed articles you will observe in Aquila demonstrate the academic excellence and diversity of our students and faculty. The first printed edition of Aquila also marks a milestone for our institution, as we are now the only university in the Florida State University System with a printed student research journal This important milestone further proves that, though we may be young, Florida Gulf Coast University is making strides in the field of student research that rival those of our fellow Florida institutions.
Aquila highlights FGCU’s success in the creation of a stimulating research community for undergraduate and graduate students, thanks in part to the outstanding faculty who go above and beyond to encourage and develop the academic growth of the university’s student body. These faculty work closely with our students, providing inspiration and cultivating their lifelong passion for research. Additionally, the Office of Research and Graduate Studies, the Office of Undergraduate Studies, the Whitaker Center for STEM Education, and the Honors Program have all played a vitally important role in the development of our students, and as a result, the first printed edition of Aquila.
The opportunity to publish, especially as an undergraduate student, is a rare and extremely satisfying experience. I still remember my very first publication that came as a graduate student. For me, it symbolized that I was, at that point in time, an active member of a larger global, scholarly community. I am thrilled that our dedicated students at FGCU whose scholarly activities are featured in this first printed edition of Aquila get to experience that same thrill and sense of accomplishment, and I look forward to seeing many more great things come from our remarkable student body.
Ronald B. Toll, Ph.D. Provost and Vice President for Academic Affairs
5 Aquila –
Editorial Board Paul Berlinsky Lori Boegershausen Leigh Brawner Taylor Burnsed William Cobb Grant Grabarczyk Diana Ramirez Olivia Sanders
Faculty Advisors Melodie H. Eichbauer, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, History, Assistant Director, Honors Program Peter Reuter, M.D., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Rehabilitation Sciences
Faculty Advisory Board Joseph Cudjoe, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Sociology Michael Fauerbach, Ph.D., Professor, Physics and Astronomy Charles (billY) Gunnels, Ph.D., Director, Office of Undergraduate Research, Associate Professor, Biology TC Yih, Ph.D., Associate Vice President for Research & Dean of Graduate Studies
Aquila – The FGCU Student Research Journal is published twice a year as online and print edition. For more information about Aquila, to check out past volumes, or to learn more about student research at FGCU visit www.fgcu.edu/aquila. You can contact us via email at [email protected].
Copyright © 2016 Aquila – The FGCU Student Research Journal
6 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal
From the Editorial Board
There are certain moments in a scholar’s life that stand out and make lasting impressions. For many seeing their first article in print is one of the most memorable moments of their careers. All those long hours of literature reviews, grappling with primary sources or texts, the experimental designs that just won’t work, the frustration of the never ending fight with grammar and spelling and statistics, the seemingly impossible task of coordinating schedules with co-authors and mentors, the subtle or not so subtle hints from mentors and reviewers that the article will need a lot more work, the moments of doubt in our own abilities– they all dissolve into an incredible feeling of accomplishment the moment we see the first article with our name published in print or online. Aquila (Latin for eagle) was born out of a desire to give FGCU students a chance to see their scholarship published and to experience the thrill and excitement of seeing their hard work recognized. It was a journey along a long and winding road and it took the efforts of many dedicated current and former students, faculty, and administrators to come to this point, where we are able to publish Volume II online and offline simultaneously. We unquestionably owe a great debt of gratitude to many people (see Acknowledgements on the next page) and we hope that each and every one of them knows that this volume is their achievement as much as it is ours. What makes this second volume of Aquila truly outstanding is the vastness of scholarly endeavors. Most student research journals limit themselves to publishing articles from the sciences and exclude the liberal arts. In contrast to that FGCU, its faculty and students are com- mitted to achieving excellence in all areas and it is part of our mission to support students and faculty in this quest by publishing exceptional student scholarship from all academic disciplines and levels of study. We are still at the beginning of this marvelous and exciting adventure, but the articles in this volume show that we are indeed on the right path. On behalf of the Aquila Editorial Board Melodie Eichbauer, Ph.D. Peter Reuter, M.D., Ph.D.
7 Acknowledgements
The Aquila Editorial Board would like to thank the following individuals and groups for their help and support in making this volume possible:
- Those responsible for an absolutely outstanding job producing Volume I. Having a foundation made it much easier for us to build upon for this volume. o Drs. Nicola Foote (History, Honors), Charles (billY) Gunnels (Biology), and Nora Demers (Biology,) for their work with the students of the editorial board.
o The student editorial board of Volume I of Aquila (December 2014): Chris Harrison, Lori Boegershausen, and Michael Rodriquez.
o Former Dean of Undergraduate Studies Dr. Jim Wohlpart and Associate Vice President and Dean of Graduate Studies Dr. T.C. Yih for their support of Volume I.
- Dr. Charles (billY) Gunnels, Director of Undergraduate Scholarship and QEP, for his ability to make the improbable, i.e., a print version of Aquila, possible and for always being optimistic and upbeat.
- The Deans of the Colleges of Arts Sciences (Dr. Robert Gregerson), Education (Dr. Ivan Banks), Health Professions & Social Work (Dr. Mitchell Cordova), Lutgert College of Business (Dr. Robert Beatty), and U.A. Whitaker College of Engineering (Dr. Richard Behr) as well as the Associate Vice President and Dean of Graduate Studies (Dr. T.C. Yih) and the Director of the Honors Program (Dr. Clay Motley) for their financial support of the print edition.
- President Dr. Wilson Bradshaw and Provost Dr. Ronald Toll have been unwavering supporters of Aquila from the time it was nothing but a dream of a few students and faculty. Without them Aquila may never have seen the light of day.
- Karen Feldman, Dave Anderson, and Sasha Minsky-Ellis for their help and advice with the layout design and production process.
- Valerie Weiss for her cover design and Lauren Reuter for providing artwork for the cover and the new website.
- Olivia Sanders for tackling InDesign and working long hours to produce the layout.
- Arlene Thompson for going above and beyond to help us create a new website for Aquila.
- Last but not least, we would like to thank all faculty and staff who support student scholarship at FGCU. Without you this journal and this university wouldn’t be what they are.
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Biases Trump Evidence in Beliefs About Animal Welfare Jessica Baker: Environmental Studies INTRODUCTION with and measured the effect of the evidence on the
individual’s beliefs about animals and animal welfare. Scientific evidence is often used to inform people’s decision-making, with varying levels of effectiveness (Karl METHODS et al., 2007, Weible et al., 2004). In cases of ethics and public policy, scientific evidence is used to provide context This study explored the role of scientific evidence about for applying philosophies to moral decisions. In the United cases of anthropomorphism and human exceptionalism in States, for example, science is used to ensure equality ethical decision-making through the use of an experimental among all humans, emphasizing the similarities among web-based survey, which was posted on Amazon’s members of our species and using these similarities to create mechanical Turk software (mTurk). mTurk provided a legislation that gives equal rights to people of different national platform for recruiting 824 participants for the genders, races, and identities (Smedley & Smedley 2005). study. Participants were asked to read a brief statement In addition, scientific evidence is often referenced in moral that summarized scientific evidence before filling out discussions about animals and animal welfare (citation). a survey about their beliefs and attitudes (Table 1). Animal welfare is a concept that has changed constantly Participants were randomly divided into treatment groups and varies among cultures, creating an environment where and each group was provided a different type of evidence. our concepts of animal health and wellness have evolved Half of the participants (N = 402) were provided with over time and place. In addition, our understanding evidence related to domestic canines, 204 participants about what affects animal welfare has been measured read evidence that demonstrated similarities between in a variety of different ways, varying from an animal’s canines and humans and the other 198 participants read ability to engage in natural behaviors to its speed and evidence that showed differences between canines and dimensions of growth. In the United States, animal humans. The other half of the participants (N = 421) welfare is regulated by legislation, such as the Animal were provided with evidence related to chimpanzees, Welfare Act, ethics review boards such as IACUC, and where 204 participants read about similarities between industry standards for animal care. Animal welfare chimpanzees and humans and the other 217 participants legislation blends scientific knowledge about animals read about differences between chimpanzees and with philosophical and ethical principles to best reflect humans. Canines and chimpanzees were chosen because the current ethical beliefs of a public body (Rollin, 2015). one species was close to humans socially (canines) Personal beliefs about animal welfare differ greatly and the other species was close to humans genetically depending on an individual’s experience, as well as the (chimpanzees). Participants then completed a survey nature of her/ his involvement, ethics, and education (Te following the evidence statement to measure the strength Velde et al., 2002). For example, people are known to of a participant’s animal welfare beliefs and pinpoint adopt anthropomorphic or human exceptionalist biases biases through questions about animals, animal welfare, (where anthropomorphic biases assume similarities and the environment (Table 2). Simple factual questions between humans and animals while human exceptionalist about the evidence were also included in the survey. biases assume that humans and animals are different), The number of variables evaluated about environmental which have been found to influence people’s beliefs perspective and animal belief biases were reduced about animals and animal welfare. Anthropomorphism with a factor analysis. Factor analyses were used to in particular has been found to increase an individual’s determine the underlying relationships between survey empathy for animals, deepening their desire to help animals questions about animal welfare and ethics (Table or increase animal welfare (Butterfield et al., 2012). 2: questions 1 – 10) and anthropomorphic/ human Despite the role of evidence in how people develop exceptionalist bias (Table 2: questions 11 – 16). Three their beliefs and associated ethics about animals, no different techniques (principal component analysis, study has focused on how anthropomorphic evidence and unweighted least square, and maximum likelihood) human exceptionalist evidence relate to a person’s beliefs produced similar results. Results were described for the about animals and animal welfare. This study is possible maximum likelihood analysis. Individual factors and because recent scientific publications have documented associated loadings were described for each case where numerous examples of ways that animals are either the initial eigenvalue exceeded one. Effects of evidence similar to (Ferdowsian et al., 2011, Starling et al., 2014) and bias relative to participants’ beliefs about animals or different from humans (Deschner et al., 2004, Range and animal ethics were then analyzed with ANOVAs. et al., 2014). To determine effects of anthropomorphic The maximum likelihood factor analysis to determine and human exceptionalist evidence on animal ethics, beliefs about animals, animal ethics, and underlying biases people were presented with scientific evidence about and ANOVA tests were completed in R base package (R animals that either illustrated similarities or differences Core Team, 2015). The g-plots package in R was used to
9 Baker
create figures for one-way permutation results (Warnes et when anthropomorphic evidence contradicted their bias. al., 2013). Significance was described for α-values < 0.05. In these cases, participants with human exceptionalism biases were more likely to answer factual questions about RESULTS the scientific evidence that they read at the beginning of the The type of evidence by itself did not appear to affect on a study incorrectly. In addition, respondents who answered person’s ethical beliefs or their views about animal welfare questions about the evidence incorrectly were less likely (Figure 1). However, people given human exceptionalist to show concern for animal and environmental issues. evidence seemed to feel more strongly about animal rights Results of this study raise questions about the role of (Figure 2). In addition, it appeared that people entered the evidence on a person’s belief system. It seems that study with biases that were not changed by the evidence. people have trouble successfully processing evidence that Most of the people who participated in this study were conflicts with their underlying biases. This work can be biased towards anthropomorphism. Those with a strong applied in many fields and scenarios far beyond canines and anthropomorphic bias were also more likely to answer chimpanzees. Understanding the role of bias and evidence questions about the scientific evidence incorrectly (Figure in ethical decision-making can better inform those who are 3). Deeper examination of the data revealed that those who working to get others interested, educated, and involved in were biased strongly toward human exceptionalism were ethical issues. Future studies may expand upon this work more likely to answer factual questions about the scientific by taking any number of directions. For example, a study evidence incorrectly, especially when the evidence could look at the way that people process evidence that contradicted their bias (Figure 4). Many of the study’s either confirms or contradicts their biases. In addition, participants also answered factual questions about evidence effort should explore whether longer exposure to evidence incorrectly, and people who responded to questions produces a stronger effect on beliefs about animal welfare. about evidence incorrectly showed less concern about Biases appear to have a strong influence on people’s’ ethical wildlife (Figure 5) and environmental issues (Figure 6). decisions, trumping evidence and maybe even inhibit a person’s ability to process information accurately. This DISCUSSION study brings attention to the power of bias to overshadow Data from this study suggest that evidence either has scientific evidence and direct people’s views about ethical no effect or the opposite of the effect expected based on issues. As concepts of animal welfare and ethics continue previous literature (Butterfield et al., 2012). Considering to shift and change in the coming years, knowledge that anthropomorphism has been found to increase about the relationship between bias and scientific people’s welfare attitudes for animals, it was expected that evidence will increase understanding of other parties anthropomorphic evidence would also increase people’s and aid in education, engagement, and decision-making. welfare attitudes (Epley et al. 2008, Root-Bernstein et al. 2013). Human exceptionalist evidence was expected to REFERENCES have the opposite effect, decreasing their welfare attitudes. In this study, the type of evidence (anthropomorphic or Butterfield, M. E., Hill, S. E., & Lord, C.G. human exceptionalist) did not affect people’s’ views about (2012). Mangy mutt or furry friend? Anthropo- animal welfare. In addition, these data also suggested that morphism promotes animal welfare. Journal of Ex- evidence had the opposite effect of what previous studies perimental Social Psychology, 48(4), 957-960. found. In the case of animal rights, for example, respondents given human exceptionalist evidence statements showed Deschner, T., Heistermann, M., Hodges, K., & Boesch, stronger support for animal rights than their counterparts C. (2004). Female sexual swelling size, timing of ovu- who read anthropomorphic scientific evidence. These lation, and male behavior in wild West African chim- patterns appear to contradict prior literature, which found panzees. Hormones and Behavior, 46(2), 204-215. that anthropomorphism increases people’s’ concern about animals and animal welfare (Butterfield et al., Epley, N., Waytz, A., Akalis, S., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2008). 2012, Epley et al. 2008, Root-Bernstein et al. 2013). When we need a human: Motivational determinants of Though the role of evidence was ultimately unclear, anthropomorphism. Social Cognition, 26(2), 143-155 these data presented some interesting patterns about bias that could explain the finding about the role of evidence on Ferdowsian, H. R., Durham, D. L., Kimwele, C., a person’s beliefs regarding animals and animal welfare. Kranendonk, G., Otali, E., Akugizibwe, T., & John- Biased people, in this study, were more likely to answer son, C. M. (2011). Signs of mood and anxiety dis- questions about the scientific evidence incorrectly, almost orders in chimpanzees. PLoS One, 6(6), e19855. as if the participants were blinded by their biases to the Karl, H. A., Susskind, L. E., & Wallace, K. H. (2007). A di- point of being unable to process the information correctly. alogue, not a diatribe: effective integration of science and This effect was seen most clearly among those who were policy through joint fact finding. Environment: Science biased strongly toward human exceptionalism, especially and Policy for Sustainable Development, 49(1), 20-34.
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R Core Team. (2015). R: A language and environment and animal on a person’s thoughts about animal rights. for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Participants given human exceptionalist evidence felt Computing. Retrieved from http://www.R-project.org/ more strongly about animal rights. (F = 6.615, df = 1, 819, p = 0.013). In addition, participants who read evi- Range, F., Jenikejew, J., Schröder, I., & Virányi, dence about chimpanzees held stronger beliefs about Z. (2014). Difference in quantity discrimination animal rights (F = 5.536, df = 1, 819, p = 0.018). in dogs and wolves. Frontiers in Psychology, 5. Figure 3: Figure illustrates the relationship between ev- Rollin, B. E. (2015). The Inseparability of Science idence type and anthropomorphic bias, with participants and Ethics in Animal Welfare. Journal of Agricul- broken into groups based on the number of mistakes they tural and Environmental Ethics, 28(4), 759-765. made. Participants with a strong anthropomorphic bias were more likely to answer questions about the scientific Root-Bernstein, M., Douglas, L., Smith, A., & Verissimo, evidence incorrectly (F = 4.332, df = 2, 817, p = 0.013). D. (2013). Anthropomorphized species as tools for conser- vation: utility beyond prosocial, intelligent and suffering Figure 4: Figure illustrates the relationship between ev- species. Biodiversity and Conservation, 22(8), 1577-1589. idence type and human exceptionalist bias, with partici- pants broken into groups based on the number of mistakes Smedley, A., & Smedley, B. D. (2005). Race as biology they made. Participants with a strong human exceptional- is fiction, racism as a social problem is real: Anthropo- ist bias were more likely to answer questions about the sci- logical and historical perspectives on the social con- entific evidence incorrectly, especially when the evidence struction of race. American Psychologist, 60(1), 16. contradicted their bias (F = 9.901, df = 2, 817, p < 0 .001).
Starling, M. J., Branson, N., Cody, D., Starling, T. Figure 5: Figure illustrates the relationship be- R., & McGreevy, P. D. (2014). Canine sense and sen- tween evidence type and concern about wildlife is- sibility: tipping points and response latency vari- sues. Participants who responded to questions about ability as an optimism index in a canine judge- evidence incorrectly showed less concern about ment bias assessment. PLoS One, 9(9), e107794. wildlife issues (F = 6.407, df= 1, 819, p = 0.01). doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0107794 Figure 6: Figure illustrates the relationship between ev- Te Velde, H., Aarts, N., & Van Woerkum, C. (2002). Deal- idence and concern for environmental issues, with par- ing with ambivalence: farmers’ and consumers’ percep- ticipants divided based upon whether they got questions tions of animal welfare in livestock breeding. Journal of right or wrong Participants who responded incorrectly to agricultural and environmental ethics, 15(2), 203-219. questions about evidence showed less concern about en- vironmental Issues. (F = 4.79, df = 1, 819, p = 0.029). Warnes, G. R., Bolker, B., Bonebakker, L., Gentle- man, R., Huber, W., Liaw, A., Lumley, T., Maechler, Figure 1 M., Magnusson, A., Moeller, S., Schwartz, M. & Ven- ables, B. (2013). gplots: Various R programming tools for plotting data. R package version 2.11.3. Retrieved from http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=gplots
Weible, C., Sabatier, P. A., & Lubell, M. (2004). A Comparison of a Collaborative and Top -Down Approach to the Use of Science in Pol- icy: Establishing Marine Protected Areas in Cal- ifornia. Policy Studies Journal, 32(2), 187-207.
FIGURE DISCRIPTION:
Figure 1: Figure illustrates the effect of evidence type and animal on a person’s thoughts about animal wel- fare. The type of evidence did not affect a person’s views about animal welfare (F = 0.997, df = 1, 819, p = 0.318).
Figure 2: Figure illustrates the effect of evidence type
11 Figure 2 Figure 5
Figure 3 Figure 6
Figure 4
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Table 1: The study consisted of an online survey conducted through Amazon’s mTurk. There are 25 iterations of the survey. In each case, survey participants will be provided a two-sentence paragraph and associated citation providing a single example of scientific evidence about chimpanzees, dogs, or humans. In total, there are 20 different examples of scientific evidence, and each survey participant will see only one example. This occurs because there are 4 treatment groups with 5 replicates each in the study. In all cases, survey questions will remain unchanged for each iteration of the study. Only the scientific evidence will change.
Anthropomorphic Examples of Chimpanzees
Similar to humans, chimpanzees are known to self-medicate to treat fevers, Obbo, C. J. D., Makanga, B., Mulholland, D. A., infections and other afflictions. In a 2013 study, researchers at Makerere Coombes, P. H., & Brun, R. (2013). Antiprotozoal University found that sick chimpanzees consumed Khaya anthotheca, a bitter activity of Khaya anthotheca, (Welv.) CDC a plant plant whose bark contains antimicrobial properties that fight disease. used by chimpanzees for self-medication. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 147(1), 220-223 Similar to humans, chimpanzees show evidence of Post Traumatic Stress Ferdowsian, H. R., Durham, D. L., Kimwele, C., Disorder (PTSD) and depression after experiencing a distressing event. In a Kranendonk, G., Otali, E., Akugizibwe, T., & 2011 study, researchers at The George Washington University found that Johnson, C. M. (2011). Signs of mood and anxiety chimpanzees displayed behaviors consistent with PTSD and depression disorders in chimpanzees. PLoS One, 6(6), e19855 following incidents, such as maternal separation, social isolation, and experimentation. Similar to the cultural variation observed humans, chimpanzees show distinct Luncz, L. V., & Boesch, C. (2015). The extent of cultural differences between populations and between neighboring communities. cultural variation between adjacent chimpanzee In a 2014 study, researchers at the Max Planck Institute found 27 unique (Pan troglodytes verus) communities; A cultural traits between three communities of chimpanzees, including differences microecological approach. American Journal of in tool use, foraging behavior, social interaction, and communication. Physical Anthropology, 156(1), 67-75. Similar to humans, chimpanzees engage in altruistic behaviors when they go out Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2006). Altruistic of their way to aid others in achieving a goal. In a 2006 study, researchers at the helping in human infants and young chimpanzees. Max Planck Institute found that young chimpanzees demonstrated skills to help Science, 311(5765), 1301-1303. other individuals solve problems, even if the chimpanzee was a stranger and there was no benefit to helping the other animal. Similar to humans, chimpanzees show episodic memories, where they can Martin-Ordas, G., Haun, D., Colmenares, F., & recall what, where, and when an event occurred. In a 2009 study, researchers at Call, J. (2010). Keeping track of time: evidence for the Max Planck Institute found that chimps could distinguish between events episodic-like memory in great apes. Animal that occurred in different locations and times. Cognition, 13(2), 331-340
Human Exceptionalist Examples of Chimpanzees
Unlike humans, chimpanzees do not possess the form of the gene FOXP2 that Enard, W., Przeworski, M., Fisher, S. E., Lai, C. S., allows complex language capabilities. In a 2002 study, researchers at the Max Wiebe, V., Kitano, T., ... & Pääbo, S. (2002). Planck Institute found that humans, but not chimpanzees, contain changes in Molecular evolution of FOXP2, a gene involved in the sequence of the DNA making up FOXP2 that is involved in the development speech and language. Nature, 418(6900), 869-872 of language. Unlike humans, female chimpanzees display when ovulating, which increases Deschner, T., Heistermann, M., Hodges, K., & their chances of becoming pregnant. In a 2004 study, researchers at the Max Boesch, C. (2004). Female sexual swelling size, Planck Institute found that female chimpanzee develop swollen, bright red timing of ovulation, and male behavior in wild West genitals when ovulating, offering a visual signal to signify that she is available for African chimpanzees. Hormones and Behavior, mating. 46(2), 204-215. Unlike humans where daughters tend to stay closer to home than sons, young Mitani, J. C., Watts, D. P., & Muller, M. N. (2002). female chimpanzees leave their birth area at puberty, while male chimpanzees Recent developments in the study of wild stay in their birth communities for their entire lives. In a 2002 study, researchers chimpanzee behavior. Evolutionary Anthropology: at the University of Michigan found that female chimpanzees emigrated from Issues, News, and Reviews, 11(1), 9-25. their birth community by the time that they first gave birth, while males remained in their birth communities into adulthood. Unlike humans, chimpanzees never sleep in the same location twice. In a 1962 Goodall, J. M. (1962). Nest building behavior in the study, researchers at Cambridge University found that chimpanzees created a free ranging chimpanzee. Annals of the New York new nest every evening and rarely slept in the same nest twice. Academy of Sciences, 102(2), 455-467 Unlike humans, who are true collaborative foragers, chimpanzees do not share Hamann, K., Warneken, F., Greenberg, J. R., & food resources equally after foraging together. In a 2011 study, researchers at Tomasello, M. (2011). Collaboration encourages the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology found that when given equal sharing in children but not in chimpanzees. the choice to divide resources resulting from collaborative efforts, chimpanzees Nature, 476(7360), 328-331. did not distribute resources equally between collaborators.
Anthropomorphic Examples of Canines
Similar to humans, dogs exposed to the scent of a familiar dog respond with Berns, G. S., Brooks, A. M., & Spivak, M. (2014). increase brain activity. In a 2014 study, researchers at Emory University found Scent of the familiar: An fMRI study of canine brain that dogs activated the caudate nucleus within the brain (an area humans responses to familiar and unfamiliar human and express when seeing images of loved ones) most strongly when they smelled dog odors. Behavioural Processes, 110, 37-46 the odor of a familiar animal.
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Similar to humans, canines can have optimistic or pessimistic tendencies. In a Starling, M. J., Branson, N., Cody, D., Starling, T. 2014 study, researchers at The University of Sydney found that some dogs were R., & McGreevy, P. D. (2014). Canine sense and more likely to respond positively to unfamiliar cues in expectation of a reward sensibility: tipping points and response latency than others, indicating optimistic and pessimistic tendencies in canine variability as an optimism index in a canine personalities. judgement bias assessment. PLoS ONE 9(9): e107794. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0107794 Similar to humans, dogs have been found to exhibit jealous behaviors. In a 2014 Harris, C. R., & Prouvost, C. (2014). Jealousy in study, researchers at the University of California San Diego found that some dogs. PLoS ONE 9(7): e94597. dogs exhibited jealous behaviors such as pushing and snapping when their doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0094597 owner displayed affectionate behaviors toward another dog. Similar to humans, dogs are able to recognize the emotions of others through Andics, A., Gácsi, M., Faragó, T., Kis, A., & Miklósi, vocalizations. In a 2014 study, researchers from the MTA-ELTE Comparative Á. (2014). Voice-sensitive regions in the dog and Ethology Research Group found that dogs possess a region of the brain similar human brain are revealed by comparative fMRI. to the anterior temporal voice areas in the human brain, which helps humans Current Biology, 24(5), 574-578 interpret emotions through vocal sounds. Similar to humans, canines are affected by the sleep disorder narcolepsy. In a Nishino, S., Ripley, B., Overeem, S., Lammers, G. 2000 study, researchers at Stanford University found that humans and dogs J., & Mignot, E. (2000). Hypocretin (orexin) diagnosed with narcolepsy both showed undetectable levels of the neuropeptide deficiency in human narcolepsy. The Lancet, hypocretin. 355(9197), 39-40
Human Exceptionalist Examples of Canines
Unlike humans, dogs urinate and defecate to scent mark areas in their Cafazzo, S., Natoli, E., & Valsecchi, P. (2012). environment. In a 2011 study, researchers at the Università degli Studi di Parma Scent marking behaviour in a pack of free ranging found that free-ranging domestic dogs used urine and fecal scent marks to domestic dogs. Ethology, 118(10), 955-966 communicate with other animals in the area. ‐ ‐ Unlike humans, dogs cannot mentally represent quantities if the objects in Range, F., Jenikejew, J., Schröder, I., & Virányi, Z. question are not visible to them. In a 2014 study, researchers at the University (2014). Difference in quantity discrimination in dogs of Vienna found that dogs have limited capabilities for mentally representing the and wolves. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1299. quantity of food items in two opaque containers. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01299 Unlike humans, dogs do not demonstrate the ability to remember events that are Lind, J., Enquist, M., & Ghirlanda, S. (2014). not associated with biological needs. In a 2014 study, researchers at Stockholm Animal memory: A review of delayed matching-to- University found that dogs were unable to remember events after two minutes sample data. Behavioural processes, 117, 52-58 unless the event involved biologically significant information, such as the location of food. Unlike humans, dogs are not able to hide information because of an inability to Bräuer, J., Keckeisen, M., Pitsch, A., Kaminski, J., perceive a human’s perspective. In a 2012 study, researchers at the Max Planck Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2013). Domestic dogs Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology found that when retrieving a forbidden conceal auditory but not visual information from food item, dogs concealed auditory but not visual information from human others. Animal Cognition, 16(3), 351-359 observers, indicating an inability to see the situation from a human perspective. Unlike humans, canines use Earth’s magnetic field to orient themselves. In a Hart, V., Nováková, P., Malkemper, E. P., Begall, 2013 study, researchers at the Czech University of Life Sciences found that S., Hanzal, V., Ježek, M., & Burda, H. (2013). Dogs dogs oriented themselves in a North-South direction using magnetic field are sensitive to small variations of the Earth’s sensitivity before defecating magnetic field. Frontiers in Zoology, 10(1), 1-12
Table 2: Survey to assess a participant’s beliefs about animal welfare and ethics. Participants completed the survey after reading scientific evidence that illustrated a similarity between the animal and humans or a case of dissimilarity.
Section 1: The following questions will ask about your beliefs about animals and animal welfare. Please indicate your level of agreement with each statement. 1. How concerned are you about the humane treatment of companion animals and pets? where a 0 means no concern and 100 means complete concern. 2. Humans should pursue choices and decisions that minimize negative impacts on animals. where 0 means absolute disagreement and 100 means full agreement. 3. How are farm animals and livestock treated? where 0 means that all farm animals are treated inhumanely and 100 means all farm animals are treated humanely. 4. How should animals be treated relative to basic human rights? where 0 means no rights and 100 means same rights. 5. How concerned are you about the humane treatment of wildlife? where 0 means no concern and 100 means absolute concern. 6. Humans are meant to rule over animals. where 0 means complete disagreement and 100 means complete agreement. 7. How are captive animals, such as zoo animals, treated? where 0 means that all captive animals are treated inhumanely and 100 means all captive animals are treated humanely 8. How concerned are you about the humane treatment of farm animals and other livestock? where 0 means no concern and 100 means absolute concern. 9. Humans abuse animals severely. where 0 means complete disagreement and 100 means complete agreement. 10. How important is animal welfare to you? where 0 means no importance and 100 means absolute importance.
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Section 2: The following lists topics have been identified as environmental concerns resulting from human activity. Please check any of the following, which do you believe are real areas of concern resulting from human activities. Select all that apply. There are no ecological issues that have a negative impact on my life. Acid rain Air pollution Animal fighting Animal research Classroom dissections Commercial pet breeding facilities, such as puppy farms Destructive removal of natural resources Disease resistance to antibiotics and other medicines Emergence of new diseases, such as HIV, H1N1, and SARS Free trade/ globalization Fur trade Genetically modified farm animals Global climate change Habitat loss, such as deforestation and desertification Human population growth Industrialized ranching Limited resources, such as oil and gasoline Loss of biological processes, such as pollination and migration Loss of ecological services, such as water purification and the removal of CO2 from the air by plants Loss of species to extinction Off-shore oil drilling Overfishing Pet overpopulation Soil erosion Spread of exotic species Toxic Waste Urban sprawl and suburban development Use of antibiotics and steroids in livestock Use of pesticides and herbicides Use of threatened or endangered species for cultural/ religious uses Waste management Water pollution Section 3: The following questions will ask your opinions about similarities and differences between animals and humans. Please indicate your level of agreement with each statement. 1. A female dog loves her pups in the same way that a mother loves her child. where a 0 means complete disagreement and a 100 means complete agreement 2. Cats can feel guilty when they do the wrong thing. where a 0 means complete disagreement and a 100 means complete agreement 3. Humans are the only self-aware animals. where a 0 means complete disagreement and a 100 means complete agreement 4. Pets are more heavily controlled by genes and instincts than humans. where a 0 means complete disagreement and a 100 means complete agreement 5. Humans are the only animals that use language. where a 0 means complete disagreement and a 100 means complete agreement 6. Cats and dogs can feel anxious and depressed when a person leaves the house. where a 0 means complete disagreement and a 100 means complete agreement
Section 4: Scientific Evidence
7. What type of animal was described in the scientific evidence at the beginning of the survey? Dog/ Canine Ape/ Chimpanzee Human 8. Did the scientific evidence at the beginning of the survey describe an example of similarity between humans and animals or dissimilarity between humans and animals? Similarity between humans and animals Dissimilarity between humans and animals
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Table 3: Results of a factor analysis evaluating questions pertaining to animal welfare, humane treatment, rights, and ethics. Bolded values show strong loadings. Factor 1- Animal Factor 2 - Animal Factor 3 - Treatment of Question Welfare Rights Animals
Animal Welfare 10 0.81 0.39 0.06
Humane Treatment of Companion 1 0.71 0.23 0 Animals Minimize Negative Impacts 2 0.68 0.04 -0.16
Humane Treatment of Wildlife 5 0.64 0.29 -0.1
Humane Treatment of Farm Animals 8 0.63 0.52 -0.08
Animal Rights 4 0.56 0.62 -0.02
Animal Abuse 9 0.29 0.55 -0.33
Rule Over Animals 6 -0.17 -0.47 0.31
Contemporary Treatment of Farm 3 -0.06 -0.06 0.8 Animals Contemporary Treatment of Zoo 7 0 -0.16 0.58 Animals Factor 1- Animal Factor 2 - Animal Factor 3 - Treatment of Welfare Rights Animals
Eigenvalues 2.88 1.5 1.22
Proportion Variance 0.29 0.15 0.12
Cumulative Variance 0.29 0.44 0.56
Three factors explained 56% of the total variation among the ten statements about anthropomorphism and human exceptionalism (Table 1). Much of the variation between these six questions represented a dichotomy between animal welfare, humane treatment, rights, and ethics. Factor 1, which was called “Animal Welfare”, explained 29% of the variation among the ten questions, receiving positive loadings for the seven animal welfare statements and negative loadings for the three statements unrelated to welfare. Factor 2, which was called “Animal Rights”, explained 15% of the variation among the ten questions, receiving positive loadings for the seven animal rights related statements and negative loadings for the three statements unrelated to animal rights. Factor 3, which was called “Treatment of Animals”, explained 12% of the variation among the ten questions, receiving positive loadings for the five treatment related statements and negative loadings for the five statements unrelated to treatment. This factor analysis made it possible to measure people’s attitudes toward animal welfare, animal rights and treatment of animals. Table 4: Results of a factor analysis used to determine a participants human exceptionalist and anthropomorphic bias. Bolded values show strong loadings.
Question Factor 1 - Human Exceptionalist Bias Factor 2 - Anthropomorphic Bias
Human Exceptionalist 3 1 0.78 -0.16
Human Exceptionalist 2 3 0.65 -0.1
Anthropomorphic 2 2 -0.44 0.26
Anthropomorphic 1 6 -0.2 0.64
Anthropomorphic 3 5 -0.08 0.59
Human Exceptionalist 1 4 0.12 -0.34
Factor 1 - Human Exceptionalist Bias Factor 2 - Anthropomorphic Bias
Eigenvalue 1.3 0.99
Proportion Variance 0.22 0.16
Cumulative Variance 0.22 0.38
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Assassins Do Not Wear Battle Bikinis: The Case Against Gender Inequality and Female Specific Hypersexualization in Video Games Mary-Cecile Gayoso: Communications INTRODUCTION find a rather obvious trend. Large breasts, disproportionate bodies, scant clothing, and, oftentimes, little to no In June, 2014, Twitter became a battleground for characterization. I would argue that female characters contemporary gaming, pitting the gamers against the are often swathed in the guise of “empowerment” as developers. Feeds were fraught with aggressive Tweets a way for male creators to impose their own sexist, aimed at the prominent gaming company, Ubisoft. The stereotypical view of femininity onto their characters. If nature of the Tweets ranged from sarcastic jabs—“‘We you were to google Cammy from Street Fighter, many flew to Paris to model every single stone in the Notre of the top image results include her looking over her Dame cathedral, but designing women is too much shoulder, her naked backside for all to see. Like Cammy, effort.’ -Ubisoft, probably” (Sawula)—to more serious Lara is often portrayed in a similar, sexual way. Helen accusations, even threats to boycott the company. One W. Kennedy quotes a fan of the Tomb Raider series in Tweet read, “If you’re disgusted by Ubisoft’s attitude her article, Lara Croft: Feminist Icon or Cyberbimbo?: towards women -- and you should be -- don’t stop at online “Lara’s phenomenal success wasn’t just about a cracking discussion. Boycott their games” (Dillon). The incident adventure, other games had that too. Lara had something that caused this eruption of Ubisoft hatred occurred earlier that hooked the gamers like nothing has before. At the that month, when a technical director attempted to explain center of Tomb Raider was a fantasy female figure. why their latest game, Assassin’s Creed Unity, had no Each of her provocative curves was as much part of the playable female characters. “The game’s technical director, game as the tombs she raided. She had a secret weapon James Therien, came under fire after telling technology in the world of gaming, well... actually two of them.” journalists that adding a playable female character would Like this fan implies, it is Lara’s sexuality that sells have “doubled the work”” (Assassin’s Creed: Unity in the original Tomb Raider. Lara’s unrealistic body and trouble over ‘excluding’ female killers - Ubisoft responds). sexually coded image is used to pander to gamers, Therien’s comments shed light onto a major problem specifically cissexual, heterosexual, male gamers. Since in the gaming industry, a lack of realistic female 40% of gamers are women, this sort of pandering seems representation. In the United States alone, women make outdated. Yet, it still occurs. Hyper-sexualized female up around 50% of the population (U.S World Population characters still exist, female characters are cut from and Clock). Among American gamers, at least 40% games, and male gamers complain about too much female are women (ESRB). So why are there so few female representation. While all of these issues are important videogame characters? Or, more specifically, why are when it comes to discussing sexism in gaming, the there so few realistic female videogame characters? hypersexualization and unrealistic body portrayal of When I mention a realistic female character, I am female characters is what I would like to focus on. Not referring to a character that accurately portrays modern only is this type of portrayal inaccurate, it also contributes women. It should also be noted that when I mention to sexism in our culture. Media helps shape our society. male gamers, I am referring specifically to the culture As Marshall McLuhan said, “the medium is the message” surrounding white, straight, cissexual men. With the (McLuhan 7), and the medium of video games is a medium advent of digital technology, it is easier than ever to that sends messages to every player, whether for good or erase a supermodel’s flaws, thus elevating her into a for ill. McLuhan explains how media can be either hot realm of unattainable perfection. The average modern or cold, passive or interactive. Film is a hot media that woman does not have oversized breasts and a pencil-thin requires little audience participation. On the other end waist. “The average American woman is 5 feet 4 inches of the spectrum, video games are a form of cool media and weighs about 140 pounds. The average clothing that requires participation (McCloud 59). “The audience size for women in the U.S. is between a 12-14” (Body becomes a part of the narrative, making decisions and Image). If you examine videogames as a whole, very few controlling actions, yet subject to the unanticipated forces female characters fall within the range of reality. Most and events of the game environment that make up the female characters are hypersexualized and unbelievable. “reality” of the gaming experience” (Grimes 2). When LITERATURE REVIEW hypersexualization of women occurs, the player is not only an observer, but also a participator in the male gaze. At first glance, videogames seem to be brimming Not only can a player view a hypersexualized woman with female leads, “strong women”, and “girl power”. and take pleasure from her, they can also manipulate her. Characters like Lara Croft of Tomb Raider come to mind, Camera angles can be changed in many games; players as do female martial artists like Cammy in Street Fighter. can discreetly try to see up a character’s skirt or use in- But if we examine characters like Lara and Cammy, we game modifications to further expose female characters.
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The fact that these things happen is not the issue. The differently for every type of woman, but still hurts. culture surrounding the sexualization of female characters is what needs to change. By passively accepting the REPRESENTATION/RECOGNITION dehumanization of female characters, you do several things: “Recognition is frequent, representative appearance and 1.) Perpetuate the idea that women are merely sexual respect in appearance in varied, not just stereotypical, objects. roles. By those definitions, depictions of women in video 2.) Send the message that this kind of representation is games meet neither standard” (Dill and Thill 853). With acceptable or even preferred. a few exceptions, the parts for female characters to play 3.) Ignore the complexities of women as characters are limited. Common tropes include the sexy sidekick, and as human beings. the damsel in distress, and the femme fatale. Female SEXUAL OBJECTIFICATION characters are often pigeonholed by their creators or by the players. In the case of Ubisoft, it is the developer Sexual objectification occurs in numerous ways. When that is refusing to provide representation. In the case of a character’s features are exaggerated, used by others as the newest edition of the Nintendo fighting game, Super a means of sexual gratification, or dehumanized because Smash Bros., it is the players themselves that are fighting of how they look, speak or act, they are objectified. against equal representation. Just reading the comments “The primary psychological consequence of sexual section of a blog post on the site, Gamnesia, shows the objectification is the development of an unnatural backlash Nintendo received by daring to make eight out perspective on the self-known as self-objectification. of thirty-six playable characters female (Is Super Smash Women who self-objectify have internalized observers’ Bros. Leaning Towards Gender Equality?) . Studies show perspectives on their bodies and chronically monitor that when a group of people is 33% female, men feel themselves in anticipation of how others will judge like the group is dominated by women (The “Feminized their appearance, and subsequently treat them” (A Test Society” Myth). It is this fear of femininity that creates the of Objectification Theory). Video game characters sexist attitudes we see in so many video games. When the cannot actively feel bad about themselves and their creators of these video games are predominantly male, the appearance, but women that see these characters can. frequency of unrealistically portrayed women increases. A notorious example of sexual objectification is the Lack of representation affects both the internal world of existence of the “battle bikini”. The battle bikini is what the videogame and the external world of society. Within many high-fantasy female characters are dressed in. It the narrative of the game, ill-represented female characters is essentially a metal bikini that acts as the character’s become two-dimensional tropes that cannot be taken armor. Logically, this type of armor would never protect seriously. In the hands of a sexist creator, a potentially a warrior in battle, but dozens of female videogame wonderful female character can be turned into a joke. I characters are dressed in this attire. World of Warcraft would like to bring up the character Harley Quinn, who, and League of Legends are two examples of videogames while originally from the DC Batman comics, has appeared that excessively use this type of armor. Oftentimes, in several Batman games. Dr. Harley Quinn is often parted the battle bikini is just the “female version” of a male from her doctoral title, stripped of her autonomy, and character’s armor. While the male character receives turned into a sexy sidekick for the Joker. In the reality of traditional and functional armor, the female receives a her world, she is actually a multi-layered character with a glorified bathing suit. A popular blog on Tumblr exists complex psychological profile. When she is reduced to a just to make fun of the battle bikini trope and point scantily clad bunch of pixels holding a giant hammer, she out its sexist leanings (Bikini Armor Battle Damage). is done a disservice. When women are turned into sexual When looking at examples of sexual objectification in objects, they also lose their credibility, or their Ethos. They gaming, you must also remember the racist tendencies and become mere body parts instead of whole human beings. other oppressive implications that sexual objectification Externally, women that are subjected to these has. “The action heroine adheres to Western beauty ideals: unrealistic images may start to internalize these Caucasian and thin, with symmetrical facial features. messages. “All women who live in a culture where She also concurs with Markula’s [10] proposal that the female body is treated as an object to be evaluated contemporary body ideals are “aerobicized”, with slight, and measured are at risk for self-objectification” (A yet toned, musculature on the arms and legs” (Grimes Test of Objectification Theory). A study referenced in 13). Most of the female characters in videogames that Dill and Thill’s paper shows that video games do have are considered sexy are white and traditionally attractive. some effect on society and how we view gender roles: Women of color are given even less representation in “(Dill 2007, manuscript in preparation) found a positive gaming and are hypersexualized much more often. In correlation between violent videogame playing and Grand Theft Auto, Latinas are often portrayed as walking endorsement of rape myths, including the myths that stereotypes. Black women are either non-existent in most women secretly want to be raped and even “deserve” games or treated as props. Sexual objectification occurs to be raped. Furthermore, those who played more
18 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal violent videogames also endorsed more traditional of females and 76% of game developers are men” (Who’s views of sex roles, such as the idea that men are more Playing What and Why?). When someone who is outside capable as leaders and professionals, while women a marginalized group tries to tell that groups’ stories, a deserve less freedom than men and are subservient lot can go wrong. “The veil of feminine empowerment, to men (Dill 2007, manuscript in preparation).” employed by iconic characters like Lara Croft, falls under While such studies cannot be deemed as a completely analysis that reveals their role as a “visual spectacle” for accurate portrayal of society, the findings are worth the masculine gaze” (Hypermasculinity & Dickwolves). noting. Games that represent women as sex objects I propose that creators seek to diversify whatever media or victims of sexual violence should be considered they are working with, but refrain from pretending that when evaluating why so many male gamers are sexist. they know what it is like to be part of another group. If I write a book, I have the responsibility to include COMPLEX CHARACTERS diversity in my story. There is nothing wrong with The de-sexualization of female characters will not making my protagonist Black, but since I do not belong only decrease the amount of sexism in a game, it will to that group, I should never write a story about what it also improve the storyline and character development. is like to be Black. I should also be culturally sensitive I argue that it is only logical that good writers create and refrain from using stereotypes, worn-out tropes, good characters. The ability to create three-dimensional or racist imagery. The same rules apply to any white, characters is the mark of a good writer and designer. heterosexual, cissexual man that wants to create a video For years, white men have been the focus of storytelling. game. When he imposes his own sexist viewpoints on They have been studied, developed, and analyzed. a female character, he creates yet another unrealistic Many female characters have been pushed aside in woman that is subject to the male gaze. The male gaze favor of generic male characters. Female characters is the driving force behind many mediums, from video are not given the chance to shine, to have their stories games to film. It is described in The Patriarchal Gaze: told. When in incapable hands, a potentially amazing In film, the camera almost always assumes the gaze female character can be easily reduced to a stereotype. of the male. Therefore it is he who moves the action There are several female characters that upset while women have little access to the camera and/ the hyper-masculinity of the gaming world. Lara or control of the narrative. The camera seems to Croft, while earlier shown to be an example of constantly watch women as it does not do with men. sexual objectification, can also be portrayed as a Almost always the camera assumes a male perspective complex action hero that subverts the traditionally and a male gaze in the narrative. It is the male that the masculine genre. Kennedy’s article demonstrates this: audience, whether male or female, relates to because “If women do appear within these masculine spaces it is a male gaze that moves and controls the camera. their role is usually that of love interest (often in This explanation of the male gaze shows that, oftentimes, need of rescuing) or victim. Lara’s presence within, women are not the main focus of these stories. They are and familiarity with, a particularly masculine space outsiders subjected to the judgments of another. When a is in and of itself transgressive. By being there she man imposes the male gaze on a character he has created, disturbs the natural symbolism of masculine culture.” he is perpetuating sexism and making little to no progress. The 2013 incarnation of Lara Croft succeeds in The idea of “female empowerment” is also used by subverting masculine culture while also avoiding sexual sexist creators to use female characters as objects of objectification. This new Tomb Raider retains all of their own fantasies. They create hypersexualized women her action hero-like qualities while also retaining her for their own pleasure. Since the character has no actual complexity as a human being. She does not need oversized autonomy, as she is fictional, she cannot protest to being breasts or nude modifications to be an interesting character. objectified. Creators will use logical appeals, or Logos, to try and explain why certain female characters are so FALSE EMPOWERMENT sexualized. They may say her personality warrants her An argument that can be made against my appeal to attire, or that her sexualization is necessary to the plot. refrain from the hypersexualization of female characters is This blind refusal to see why their actions are sexist is that I just don’t understand female empowerment. When what stunts the progress towards equality in video games. defending tropes like the battle bikini or disproportioned This kind of ignorance can be seen in the case of waistline, many gamers will state that the female character Yoshio Sakamoto and his comments on why his game, chooses to dress or look that way, so how can it be sexist? Metroid: Other M, did not sell well. He said, “I mean, Who am I to judge how another woman chooses to portray I created a strong, female character that people just herself? But here is the issue with this argument, it is not the could not accept” (Sakamoto: Metroid Other M). In an woman’s choice because the woman in question is not real. interview, he expresses that gamers felt “emasculated” She is a fictional character that is, more than likely, created by his character, Samus, and refused to accept her. He by a man. “22% of the video game workforce is made up seems to believe that the sexism of the gamers is what
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stunted his sales. In actuality, many female gamers took and sexuality as the basis of a woman’s value. issue with the portrayal of Samus. Dozens of articles and It is this gendered view that leads to stereotypical blogposts written by women can be found on the Internet, portrayals of both men and women. This view also and they all say the same thing: that Other M was sexist, explains why women are more often sexualized than and that Samus was sexualized. How is Sakamoto so men. They are seen as passive characters, while men are out of touch with audience? Perhaps it was his sexism, deemed too “manly” to be ogled by players. As stated in not the sexism of the players, that depleted his sales? the False Empowerment section of this paper, if creators When creators like Sakamoto misuse the term “strong always strived to create complex characters, the gap female character”, whether accidentally or with malicious would lessen. Video game worlds where everyone has intent, they contribute to the misrepresentation of women the opportunity to be sexualized must be created. It is in gaming. I propose that this term be replaced with not practical to suggest a total ban of sexualized imagery “complex female character”. The goal of a creator should in video games, but we could at least make it equal. be to make realistic, relatable characters that encompass what it means to be alive. Strong women do not need to THE DANGERS OF THIS ARGUMENT punch through walls, and they definitely do not need to When making the argument against hypersexualization be able to do it while wearing a bikini. Strong women can of female characters, some writers default into using cry and complain and become enraged. Female characters logical fallacies. The Slippery Slope fallacy occurs should have strengths and weaknesses, they should be when writers imply that digital hypersexualization will flawed. Three-dimensional, well-rounded characters inevitably lead to real-life consequences. There are many should never fall into tired tropes. A good writer can find studies that show how exposure to unrealistic portrayals the realism in any personality and make it believable. of women lead to harmful real-life opinions. “Research EQUALITY, NOT CENSORSHIP has also shown that exposure to media images of ideal beauty causes college men to find average-looking “real” More often than not, talk of sexism in gaming leads women less attractive (Kenrick and Gutierres 1980)” gamers to fear the worst. The effects of videogames on (Dill, Thill 852). While this is true, it is important to people, specifically children, have been debated, scoffed remember that a call to ban all unrealistic portrayals at, and even brought to court. Censorship has come up of women is impractical, if not impossible. I argue my in conversations concerning games like Grand Theft Auto point in hope that video game creators will autonomously and God of War. The rhetoric that I use throughout this choose to portray women as accurately as possible. paper is in no way meant to support censorship. Censorship Censorship proposals are illogical as well as dangerous. is a complex and dangerous issue that has questionable Another trap writers can fall into is the assumption effects on society. I am simply proposing equality and that oppressed groups are incapable of rising above the removal of double standards. My issue is not that their oppression. “Doane suggests that female viewers sexual appealing characters exist, it is the inequality identify solely with female characters and can therefore surrounding sexuality in gaming that concerns me. only assume “female” viewing positions – mainly, “In comparison to male characters, females were the object of the male gaze” (Grimes 10). In the paper, significantly more likely to be shown partially nude, featured “You Shoot Like A Girl!”: The Female Protagonist in with an unrealistic body image, and depicted wearing Action-Adventure Video Games, Doane’s controversial sexually revealing clothing and inappropriate attire as stance on spectatorial relationships is discussed: also predicted” (Keeping Abreast of Hypersexuality). Few “Doane’s suggestion that viewers identify with same-gender male characters are depicted in a hypersexualized fashion. characters suggests problematic spectatorial relationships There is little opportunity for a gamer to fantasize about for both females who enjoy predominantly male texts, or objectify male characters. If a game presents both male as well as males who adopt a ‘female’ subject position and female characters as sexual objects, the worst that can through their identification with female protagonists.” be said about such game is that it is tasteless, not sexist. Doane’s viewpoint not only implies that women cannot The gender gap concerning sexualization can be escape this kind of gendered oppression, but is also further explained by the existence of the gender binary, reinforces sexist/cissexist and heteronormative binaries. which places hyper-femininity at one end of the You must remember that feminist rhetoric should be spectrum and hyper-masculinity at the other. According intersectional; should extend beyond the archaic definition to Dill and Thill, hyper-masculinity can be defined as: of a “female”. The hypersexualization of women applies The exaggeration of “macho” characteristics, specifically not only to white, straight, cissexual women, but also hardened sexual attitudes toward romantic partners, a to women of color, lesbian and bisexual women, and desire for action and danger, and the acceptance of physical transwomen. All of these marginalized groups experience violence as a part of male nature. In contrast, hyper- hypersexualization and fetishization in different ways. femininity is the amplification of female stereotypes, Forgetting intersectional feminism and defaulting to with an emphasis on dependence, submissiveness, “white feminism” that only focuses on the issues of the
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“socially-acceptable” woman is a dangerous maneuver. Isabela is also open to all genders, she will engage in a relationship with the player no matter who they are. A HEALTHY SEXUAL EXPRESSION character like Isabela is not pigeonholed as a victim of While hypersexualization imposed upon female the male gaze. She is a true “strong female character” characters by male creators is an issue, there is nothing that does not passively sit by while others demean her. wrong with healthy sexual expression. Human beings If more characters like Isabela were created that experience sexual attraction should not be forced and celebrated, the hypersexualization of female to refrain from expressing themselves in such a way. At characters would not be such a pressing issue. Game the core of feminism is the ability for a woman to make creators should learn from Bioware and realize her own choices. If she chooses to present herself in a that a character is not defined by their gender. certain way, that is her right. There is a hazy line between CONCLUSION female characters that are expressing their sexuality and characters that are being used as sexual props. A good Once again, the words of the ill-fated technical advisor of indicator of a well-rounded character is the answer to Ubisoft: the question, “who created her”? Women need to be “A female character means that you have to redo given more opportunities to create female characters. a lot of animation, a lot of costumes. It would have The male-dominated gaming industry needs to change its doubled the work on those things. And I mean it’s language and rhetoric in order to make a space for women. something the team really wanted, but we had to In games like Grand Theft Auto, it is fairly obvious make a decision” (Assassin’s Creed: Unity in trouble that male creators are using women as props. “Female over ‘excluding’ female killers - Ubisoft responds). prostitutes, when hit by a male character, are programmed Maybe if Ubisoft treated their female characters as equal to respond, “I like it rough”” (Dill and Thill 853). In this to their male characters, they would not have found it so highly contested game, players can beat up prostitutes, difficult to add women to their roster. Ubisoft did make a steal their money, and attack other vulnerable women. decision, they made a decision to alienate an entire portion However, there are examples of current female characters of their audience because they did not have time to make that are neither oppressed nor used as sexual props. the women “feminine” enough. No, you do not need to In many games created by the company Bioware, men redo costumes and walk cycles for female characters. A and women are treated equally. In the science fiction game group of assassins that all work for the same organization Mass Effect, players can play as either a man or woman. should dress similarly, anyways, right? Assassins do Both characters are treated with respect, are given the not wear battle bikinis, so what was Ubisoft’s issue? same amount of power, and are given the same dialogue. Throughout this paper, I have made the case against gender Even their body movements and walk cycles are the same. inequality and female specific hypersexualization in video This character, referred to as Commander Shepard, is games. Over the years, video games have improved in given autonomy. Playing a female Shepard, players have terms of equal representation. What was once considered a access to aggression, diplomacy, and flirtatiousness in boys only club is now open to other genders. The Gameboy equal measures. Same goes for the male Shepard. Both is now referred to as the DS (Developer’s System or Dual versions of the character can participate in romantic and Screen), and female protagonists are becoming more sexual relationships. Female Shepard is never shamed numerous. But there is still a long way to go, and there are for her sexual activity and is never objectified by other still other marginalized groups that need to be represented. characters. In Bioware’s high-fantasy game, Dragon Age, By refraining from hypersexualizing female characters, a similar approach is taken. Men and women are treated we can progress further down the path of gender equality. equally, the only disparity exists between fictional races We can move away from dehumanizing depictions of like elves and dwarves. Transgender characters also female bodies, away from the dreaded battle bikini. appear in Dragon Age, as do characters of various races and sexualities. Sexual relationships exist in all three WORKS CITED Dragon Age games, and, once again, female characters “Bikini Armor Battle Damage.” Web log post. Bikini are not shamed or excluded from such activities. Armor Battle Damage. Tumblr, n.d. Web. 4 Oct. 2015. Isabela, a love interest in Dragon Age 2, is the perfect
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Dill, Karen E., and Kathryn P. Thill. “Video Game Characters and the Socialization of Gender Roles: “The Patriarchal Gaze.” by Nancy. Tulane Young People’s Perceptions Mirror Sexist Media University, n.d. Web. 04 Oct. 2015. Depictions.” Sex Roles 57.11-12 (2007): 851- 64. Web. Salter, Anastasia, and Bridget Blodgett. “Hypermasculinity Dillon, Matt (geekplanetmatt). “If you’re disgusted & Dickwolves: The Contentious Role of Women in by Ubisoft’s attitude towards women - and you the New Gaming Public.” Journal of Broadcasting should be - don’t stop at online discussion. Boycott & Electronic Media 56.3 (2012): 401-16. Web. their games.” 12 June. 2014, 3:11 AM. Tweet. Sawula, Christopher (csawula). ““We flew to Paris Downs, Edward, and Stacy L. Smith. “Keeping Abreast to model every single stone in the Notre Dame of Hypersexuality: A Video Game Character Content cathedral, but designing women is too much effort.” Analysis.” Sex Roles 62.11-12 (2009): 721-33. Web. -Ubisoft, probably.” 10 June. 2014, 9:40 PM. Tweet.
Doyle, Sady. “The ‘Feminized Society’ Myth.” In These “U.S. and World Population Clock.” Population Clock. Times. In These Times, 22 Jan. 2014. Web. 04 Oct. 2015. United States Census Bureau, n.d. Web. 04 Oct. 2015. Vincent, James. “Assassin’s Creed: Unity in Grimes, Sara M. ““You Shoot Like A Girl!”: The Trouble over ‘excluding’ Female Killers - Ubisoft Female Protagonist in Action Adventure Video Responds.” The Independent. Independent Digital Games.” (n.d.): n. pag. School of Communication. News and Media, 12 June 2014. Web.04 Oct. 2015. Simon Fraser University. Web. 4 Oct. 2015.
Harley Quinn.” DC Comics. DC Comics, n.d. Web. 03 Feb. 2016. The in-text citation would be (Harley Quinn).
“How Much Do You Know About Video Games? Share.” Video Game Industry Statistics. ESRB, n.d. Web. 04 Oct. 2015.
Kennedy, Helen W. “Lara Croft: Feminist Icon or Cyberbimbo? On the Limits on Textual Analysis.” The International Journal of Computer Game Research 2.2 (2002): n. pag. Web.
Lofgren, Krista. “2015 Video Game Statistics & Trends Who’s Playing What & Why? | Big Fish Blog.” Big Fish Blog 2015 Video Game Statistics Trends Whos Playing What Why Comments. Big Fish, 3 Mar. 2015. Web. 04 Oct. 2015.
McCloud, Scott. Understanding Comics. New York: HarperPerennial, 1994. Print.
McLuhan, Marshall. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. N.p.: MIT, 1994. Print.
Misswliu81. “Sakamoto: Metroid Other M Failed Because Players Were Reluctant To Accept A Female Character - Wii Forum - Page 1.”Sakamoto: Metroid Other M Failed Because Players Were Reluctant To Accept A Female Character - Wii Forum - Page 1. Nintendo Life, 13 Apr. 2013. Web. 04 Oct. 2015.
Morell, Miguel Bernardo Olmedo. “Is Smash Bros. Tending Towards Gender Equality?” RSS. Gamnesia, 25 May 2014. Web. 04 Oct. 2015.
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The Function and Efficacy of Civil Disobedience Alexander Sell: Philosophy INTRODUCTION violent way makes anyone the attacker if they respond. It implores others to see the ridiculous nature of such The American civil rights movement, spearheaded by a law; it is an appeal to their ethical sensibilities. Martin Luther King Jr., and the Indian anti-colonial Martin Luther King Jr., acting in many ways as a successor movement, championed by Gandhi, represent some of the of Gandhi, presents a forceful argument and rationale for most successful civil right movements; both utilized acts civil disobedience in his Letter from Birmingham Jail. of nonviolent civil disobedience to achieve their ends. By He says that “we had no alternative except to prepare for civil disobedience, I mean the non-violent direct breaking direct action, where we would present our very bodies of, or the refusal to obey, a law that is thought to be unjust, as a means of laying our case before the conscience of in order for its lawfulness to be addressed. This method the local and national community” (6). In the case of confronts people in a physically subtle yet ideologically oppressed populations, especially those oppressed by aggressive way, opening their eyes to the particular institutionalized and legal means, there is no real way for injustice that it is meant to illuminate. Non-violent civil them to speak out with any authority; they are forced to disobedience is effective because it emphasizes a group’s the sidelines, marginalized and ignored. Negotiations are proposed injustice within an institution, while directly not taken seriously, least of all with any expediency. This appealing to the different ethical systems of individual is why King proposes direct action, not with the ignored citizens. This paper does not intend to argue whether voice, but with their very bodies, which cannot be ignored. we have an ethical obligation to disobey unjust laws, but In order to have their cause be taken seriously, they place to demonstrate how civil disobedience is an effective their bodies in direct opposition to the law, as living means to oppose injustice. It also does not intend to testament to the injustice they face. This way, everyone, argue what justice is, nor which laws are or are not just, not just those concealed within a courtroom, can see their only how civil disobedience acts to initiate reform in case.The injustice they oppose is obviously presented to laws deemed unjust by any group. It counteracts many everyone, instead of only those working in a system that of the issues that arise in forceful oppositions, while already internalized oppression. It is made a spectacle also addressing the issue at hand in a compelling way. for all to judge, in accordance with their ethical beliefs. Simone de Beauvoir, a 20th century French existentialist There is an intricate interaction between the Oppressed and major feminist figure, makes a poignant comment and the Oppressors ; some things go unacknowledged on the nature of oppression, saying that “American and others unsaid. King identifies one, stating that, racists… wish the black man to be thieving, indolent, “lamentably, it is a historical fact that privileged groups and lying: he proves his indignity, putting the oppressors seldom give up their privileges voluntarily. Individuals in the right; if he insists on being honest and loyal, he may see the moral light and voluntarily give up their is regarded as quarrelsome” (654). Oppression is unjust posture; but… groups tend to be more immoral validated to the oppressors when those that are oppressed than individuals” (7). This astute observation seems to retaliate. The oppressors create rules. Without any be entrenched historically, but also evident in daily life; input from the oppressed, and when they are broken, it is not difficult, or at least uncommon, for those who are they claim this to be justification for their enforcement. not suffering to ignore those who are. The examples are Whether or not the laws placed had any grounding many, but take for one, the attitude of Americans toward in morality or justice, this process seems to be self- impoverished nations; some act, but many turn their fulfilling and inhibitory to escaping racial oppression. attention elsewhere, even when their group holds some Conversely, if the oppressed do not violently, responsibility for the others’ suffering. The same can be aggressively, or angrily oppose the status quo, but do so said for most any iteration of slavery, colonialism, and class in a way that is subtle, peaceful, and understated, the laws disparity. The actions of the group are easier to dismiss created are undermined; the oppressor can only say they than the individual, as blame is dispersed among the many. are ‘quarrelsome’, an adjective that is haphazardly applied Acts of civil disobedience, such as sit-ins, bring into in lieu of any real accusation. They can only say that the direct physical contact the individuals of both groups, laws were in fact opposed, not that they are justified. Civil thereby elevating the morality of the individual over disobedience is the method that undermines justification; that of the group; individuals are compelled to address it renders unjust laws absurd: how can one ethically the moral issue personally. It changes the issue from a justify beating a peaceful, passive person for silently hypothetically detached one to one that is personally sitting in a restaurant? Martin Luther King Jr., a major palpable. Even if members of each group don’t physically proponent of civil disobedience during the American interact, the individual of the oppressing party would civil rights movement, explains that “one who breaks that then have to commit to enforcing the laws the group has law must do so openly, lovingly, and with a willingness implemented, or simply be a passive observers. This to accept penalty” (8). Acting in such a peaceful, non-
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forces them take personal responsibility, as an individual, Divine law, between societal law and ethical principles, instead of the detached stance of simply being a member. she chooses her own belief in the superiority of divine, If one were to personally see the abuse that happens at ethical law. She had to be placed in a situation where sit-ins and others forms of peaceful protest, they would the two were in direct opposition to each other, in order be in the position to either act by enforcing the law or for her to make the judgment as an individual separate watch as other did, becoming either directly or indirectly from the group. When Antigone opposed the law, she put responsible in a more obvious way. Some people on display the inherent injustice she identified in it, for would still choose to react in accordance with the law, herself, Creon the King, and the rest of the city of Thebes. if their beliefs coincided, but many would be given the Her act of civil disobedience made the contradiction opportunity to see that theirs’ do not. Civil Disobedience between ethics and law a pressing issue, which required brings the moral decision directly to the individual. immediate attention from Antigone and Thebes. Civil disobedience occupies a sort of liminal space in Antigone’s actions are analogous with other acts of civil between two poles: inaction and extremism. This allows disobedience; they function in the same manner. Just as it it to utilize the positive functions of each, while negating did for Antigone, acts of civil disobedience give a voice to detrimental ones. Through inaction, no progress is made; the oppressed, which were previously ignored. They force one must accept their position, which most oppressed others to acknowledge and address ethical contradictions. people find unacceptable. Through extremism, violence Civil disobedience is a mechanism that compels individuals is used and, in turn, met with violent retaliation. King to directly confront the contradictions between ethics and claimed that if nonviolent protests had not been utilized, that law; it presents a dichotomy which the individual must Millions of Negroes will, out of frustration and despair, address and resolve for themselves. The issue is taken out seek solace and security in black-nationalist ideologies – of the theoretical group mind and posed directly for the a development that would inevitably lead to a frightening individual to judge by their ethical standards. Rather than racial nightmare… [if non-violent civil disobedience] violently opposing the law, simply ignoring its validity, had not emerged, by now many streets of the south as Antigone did, undermines its justification without would, I am convinced, be flowing with blood (9). inflicting harm or risking irrational violent retaliation. Nonviolent protests, in the form of civil disobedience For these reasons, civil disobedience proves itself to be a or others, are a manifestation of repressed frustration, powerful tool for ethical consideration and social change. resentment, and the urge to break free of a perceived Civil disobedience makes the law it challenges an injustice. Though, they are actualized peacefully immediacy, demonstrates the proposed absurdity or flaw, and with the intent to genuinely heal the community. strikes the medium between non-action and extremism, Nonviolent action provides a method of expression that and shifts the acknowledgement of moral accountability does not result in bloodshed, but still makes social change. from the group to the individual. This latter trait, the shift The concept of civil disobedience is not a new one. in accountability, in conjunction with the former three, It recently reemerged in Gandhi’s philosophy, who places the decision of morality and legal justification championed and perpetuated it prior to King, but it traces within the grasp of the individual. This shift allows the its roots back at least to ancient Greece. While King action of disobedience to appeal directly and immediately mentions, in his Letter from Birmingham Jail, biblical to the individual’s ethical belief system. The most common passages, the actions of Christians within the Roman ethical systems will, in the case of most major social Empire, Socrates’ academic incivility, and the Boston movements involving civil disobedience 2, disparage the Tea Party, I find Sophocles’ Antigone to be a clear and injustices brought to their attention. Although some may poignant example (8). When Antigone is forbidden by find the proposed injustice perfectly just3 , civil disobedience royal law from burying her brother, she chooses to do so operates on the supposition that most will find it unjust. anyway. Rather than following the laws imposed upon The focus for the remainder of this paper will primarily her by human dictum , 1she followed those of Divine law, be the racial oppression of the American civil rights the laws established by the Gods. When reprimanded and movement. It will proceed to evaluate the movement, asked why she disobeyed the cities’ laws, she declares within the limitations of this essay, through the lenses of that “Zeus did not announce those laws to me…. I did consequentialism is utilitarianism, deontology as Kantian not think anything which you proclaimed strong enough duty ethics, and virtue ethics as formulated by Aristotle. to let a mortal override the gods and their unwritten and CONSEQUENTIALISM unchanging laws. They’re not just for today or yesterday, but exist forever” (Sophocles 48). Here the gods can be Consequentialism is the ethical belief that the moral value treated as interchangeable with any ethical belief system, of an event is derived from its outcome. Utilitarianism is the transcendental or not. When Antigone is put in a position 2 I am referring to the cases where civil disobedience led to social where she must directly decide between Human and change, which are the cases where the proposed injustice was commonly accepted as such. This is barring circumstances where an 1 I use Divine law interchangeably with ethical principles, ethical oppressive power is able to quell social change. law, and simply ethics; likewise, human law is used to mean all laws 3 People who subscribe to moral relativism or nihilism, for example, proposed by a ruling force. would find no injustice or room for social ‘progresses.
24 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal championing form of consequentialism, which holds that suffering to justify such a cause. The pleasure of all people moral value is derived from the amount of pleasure produced needs to be maximized, while the pain needs to be reduced. and pain reduced, or utility. First formulated by Jeremy Through historical developments, African-Americans Bentham in the latter half of the 18th century, it was later slowly shed the social stigma of being somehow lesser. updated by John Stuart Mills in the 19th. Each conforms to This gave them equal standing in the utilitarian calculus the creed which accepts as the foundation of moral ‘utility’ 5. Given the discrimination toward African-Americans, or the ‘greatest happiness principle’ [and] holds that actions there was plenty of cause to consider the utilitarian are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; moral standing of laws that perpetuated it. This was only wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By exasperated and made more apparent by acts of violence happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain; by perpetrated by government agencies on those acting in unhappiness, pain and the privation of pleasure (Mill 365). civil disobedience toward unjust laws. Civil disobedience The primary difference between the two is quality of increased the suffering witnessed by other Americans. pleasure, a concept introduced by Mills. He says that, of all When a citizens puts this to the utilitarian calculus, the the different kinds of pleasure, “if there be one to which all amount of suffering by such a large group of people could or almost all who have experience of both give a decided not be outweighed by the minor inconvenience perceived preference, irrespective of any feeling of moral obligation by others. The quality of civil liberties is demonstrably to prefer it, that is the more desirable pleasure” (366). This preferable, which can be seen by protestors and the behavior concept gives precedence to high quality pleasure over high of people who have these liberties. The principle of utility quantities of base, sensual pleasures. An important point could not morally consent to such a treatment of people. to take into consideration is that the principle of utility is the overall amount of pleasure generated for all people, not DUTY ETHICS just the individual; in this way utilitarianism is egalitarian. Immanuel Kant formulated a system of ethics that One of the primary arguments for slavery was that was based on intentions, rather than results, as African-American were not actually people; they were consequentialists would have it. He placed the source of considered subhuman. This is poor justification, based on morality in reason, and claimed that for something to be ill-formulated pseudoscientific claims, colonial ideas of good it must be done out of goodwill; “a will is absolutely barbarism, and otherwise culturally ignorant assumptions. good if it cannot be evil – that is, if its maxim, when This thinking slowly decreased over time, helping made into a universal law, can never be in conflict with lead to rights movements, including the emancipation itself,” thus cannot have rational contradictions (Kant proclamation of 1863. In his book White Skins Black 337). For Kant, we have a duty to perform those actions Masks, Franz Fanon describes the objectifying gaze that that are intrinsically good, done from a goodwill and not reduces African-Americans to this position. He says, for the consequences. He argues that the moral worth of “I am a slave…of my own appearance…and already an action is not found in its success “but in the maxim I am being dissected under white eyes, the only real in accordance with which the action is decided upon; it eyes… I see in those white faces that it is not a new depends, therefore, not on actualizing the object of the man who has come in, but a new kind of man, a new action, but solely on the principle of volition” (Kant 319). genus,” an inferior citizen, and the excuse for the three- It depends on the rationally developed moral maxim fifths compromise4 (87). Fanon captures the physical by which the action is done with the intent of fulfilling, sensation, as well as the idea, of how he, as an African- regardless of its actual fulfillment. “Duty is the necessity American, was regarded by his white counterparts. Even of an act done out of respect for the [moral] law,” which is into the 1960’s, some people still harbored remnants of formulated through rationality and good will (Kant 320). this way of thinking; perhaps not as extreme as in the To arrive at these laws, Kant proposes what he calls heyday of American chattel slavery, but existent in some the categorical imperative, a means to determine the form or another. Civil disobedience generates empathy morality of an action that is totally derived from reason. through witnessing, in person and through media, the His formulation is as follows: “act only on that maxim by intense reaction to such minor crimes, for they were which you can at the same time will that it should become then being questioned as crimes at all. This empathy a universal law” (Kant 329). If such an action is raised could only have been heightened by the violent treatment to universal law and can continue without contradiction, of peaceful protesters, merely acting as other citizens. it is moral. Considering that humans are rational beings, This view was a major roadblock for utilitarianism to capable of setting our own ends, we have a degree of become a proponent for African-American civil liberties. dignity that earns us the recognition of being ends-in- Within the utilitarian system of ethics, if a large amount ourselves; we are never to be treated as a means to an of people are suffering, there needs to be an equal or end, as a tool to achieve a goal. Thus, Kant asserts that larger amount of people benefiting from the same cause of you should “act in such a way that you treat humanity, 4 A decision reached in late 18th century America, stating that slaves should count, for voting purposes, as three-fifths of a person. whether in your own person or in any other person, always This voting power was given to slave owner, instead of the slaves themselves. 5 The weighing of pain and pleasure that results from events.
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at the same time as an end, never merely as a means” expression by Aristotle in his Nicomachean Ethics. As (333). Finally, Kantian duty ethics hold that people are opposed to the action-based systems of the last two theories, “subject only to laws which they themselves have given virtue ethics is based on character. It is often taken as an but which are nevertheless universal, and the people are alternative to duty ethics and consequentialism for this bound only to act in conformity with a will that is their reason. Virtue ethics regained popularity in the 1950’s, own” (335). People are not given these laws which they making it a common system of ethics by the time the civil are required to adhere to, but reach them on their own. right movement emerged. It represents another significant Kantian duty ethics would not allow for the discrimination portion of the population that centers their moral action and segregation that the civil rights movement was on the development of their personal, individual character. trying to combat; there is no way that these could be Virtue ethics hold that one should act in accordance condoned within the categorical imperative. There are with what makes their character more balanced, which several maxims which can demonstrate this point. In is to say those actions that habituate moderation and terms of segregation, one possible maxim in favor could flourishing. Aristotle grounds his claim for balance when be: people should be separated according to their race. he states “it is in the nature of things to be destroyed by Right away, this violates the second maxim; separating defect and excess, as we see in the case of strength and by race is either done to promote some form of social of health; exercise either excessive or defective destroys betterment or to satisfy the discomfort of one group from the strength, and similarly drink or food which is above another. Doing so uses one group as a means for the or below a certain amount destroys the health” (135). He other, in social betterment or alleviating discomfort. This uses this rationale to explain how the good is found in a also leads to, as we can see historically and in the case balanced amount, the point between two extremes which of racially segregated America, the oppression of one preserves. This concept is directly applied to character group by the other, clearly demonstrates the negative traits; excessive fear is cowardice, while deficient fear is effect on one group for the supposed improvement of foolhardiness. Although, this requires that a person should the other. It disregards the dignity of an entire group know how to act in order to achieve balance; they must of people in order to fulfil the wishes of another. If one be intelligent enough to do so in each situation. Aristotle were to will this to become a universal law, it would encapsulates this idea, writing that “to feel [every emotion contradict itself. Separating by race for the sake of the and trait of character] at the right times, with reference to social good inherently leads to oppression, a social the right objects, toward the right people, with the right bad, for the other. It also promotes and leads to revolt, motive, and in the right way, is what is both intermediate rebellion, and other forms of disruption of the social good and best, and this is characteristic of virtue” (138). and comfort that the maxim was put in place to create. When civil disobedience is used for protest, it unveils an The inevitability of revolt, or otherwise abolition of the excess in certain facets of character and deficits in others. cause of oppression, can be seen throughout history of For example, restaurant sit-ins: violent reactions to such oppressive structures. It thereby contradicts itself, and peaceful activities indicate an imbalance, to onlookers thus cannot be implemented as a rational or universal law. and, hopefully, perpetrators. Primarily, it shows an excess Another formulation of a universal law to support racial of violence, but in terms of virtue ethics, stems from discrimination and segregation could be: all people should habituated character. These reactions are likely the result of conform to the law granted by the ruling body, even if excessive fear, anger, hate, or ignorance. At the same time, they do not have a voice in its formation. For the same these behaviors are indicative of character deficits; they reasons as the former example, this violates a maxim point to a lack of compassion, empathy, understanding, and because it treats anyone in disagreement with a law as a kindness. These actions would be difficult to justify as the means to an end. It then confronts a logical contradiction; result of a balanced, virtuous character. With the ability of it is contingent upon who is in power to make the law. civil disobedience to shift accountability to the individual, What is really meant, then, is that the oppressed, those virtue ethics is a particularly powerful tool to force those without control in law formation, should continue to involved to reconsider the nature of their actions and of allow themselves to be so treated, and should not defy those they support. Civil disobedience directly addresses the laws created to keep them oppressed. The ruling the balance of an individual’s character and places them body could, at any time, make laws that would oppress in the situation where they must evaluate themselves. those who were previously members of the oppressive In the case of the discrimination being addressed in group. This leads to a constant shift in oppressed groups, the civil rights movement, there is little to no way to and would contradict the point of the original group, argue balance of character in such inhumane treatment. who instituted the law: to oppress and not be oppressed. CONCLUSION VIRTUE ETHICS Civil disobedience is an effective means to cause social The works of Plato began to form a normative ethical change for a number of reasons. It gives a voice to theory known as virtue ethics, which was later given full the oppressed, allowing them to illuminate an issue
26 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal where they were otherwise ignored. Due to this, they actively demonstrate the absurdity of the law they oppose. Civil disobedience avoids some of the issues that arise from violent revolt, while it still attempts to resolve the issue. It acts as a mechanism that compels the individual to confront the proposed contradictions between ethics and law. Thus, it shifts the perceived accountability from group to the individual person. This shift allows for the act of disobedience to directly appeal to each person’s ethical belief system. When filtered through utilitarianism, Kantian ethics, and virtue ethics, the discrimination that was opposed in 1960’s America would not be ethical to the individual. WORKS CITED Aristotle. “Nicomachean Ethics.” Ethics:History, Theory, and Contemporary Issues. Eds. Steven M. Cahn & Peter Markie. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 2012. 134-177. Print.
De Beauvoir, Simone. The Second Sex. Trans. Constance Borde & Sheila Malovany- Chevallier. New York: Vintage Books, 2009. Print.
Fanon, Franz. Black Skins White Masks. Sidmouth: Chase Publishing Services, Ltd, 2008. Print.
Kant, Immanuel. “Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals.” Ethics: History, Theory, and Contemporary Issues. Eds. Steven M. Cahn & Peter Markie. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 2012. 313-352. Print.
King, Dr. Martin Luther Jr. “Letter from Birmingham Jail.” Classic Readings and Cases in Philosophy of Law. Ed. Susan Dimock. Toronto: York University, 2007. 5-12. Print
Mill, John Stuart. “Utilitarianism.” Ethics: History, Theory, and Contemporary Issues. Eds. Steven M. Cahn & Peter Markie. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 2012. 362-396. Print.
Sophocles. Antigone. Eds. John Harrison & Judith Affleck. Trans. David Franklin & John Harrison. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Print.
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Rise of Papal Administration: Apostolic Authority in the Context of Crusading Noah Anderson: History inherently superior to that of secular power. The first Pope Scholars generally place the rise of the Papal Monarchy to act the part in the eleventh century was the indirect within the context of a battle between Church and State planner of the First Crusade, Pope Gregory VII, who, (i.e. Investiture Controversy), and within a modernized several times, gave apostolic blessings to the Normans mode of thinking that separates religious, political and conquering Sicily (Roger I of Sicily) and England (William social spheres in Christendom throughout the Middle the Conqueror), albeit to protect his position of power Ages. This paper aims to discuss the issues with this over his contemporary, King Henry IV.1 Watt summarizes common interpretation within the context of Crusading, this theoretically when he states, “The solution neatly and also attempts to examine the relationship between summarized the three postulates of Church-State relations: feudal society and the crusade. Mostly, it will focus on the superiority of the spiritual power, manifested in the how the crusade developed from a chaotic movement privilegium fori, was emphatically maintained with the to a centrally planned one as canon law integrated principle that the lay power should have no part in the with social and political norms. It is no coincidence punishment of clerical criminals… to preserve clerical that the more institutionalized and centralized the autonomy, the cooperation of the powers came into the papacy became, especially after the conclusion of the reckoning when a cleric was incorrigible.”2 In this respect, Investiture Controversy in the early 1100s, crusading, as Watts continues, once spiritual power concluded its too, institutionalized. For convenience, I’ve chosen the proceeds, it could, in theory, hand those deemed applicable simple approach of examining the papacy’s interpretation to the secular arm. In this way, interpreting tension between of power as stated in canon law and papal decretals. John church and state as a power struggle is misleading. Instead, A. Watt’s survey on the subject will be employed. Then, I the relationship was more dualistic with spiritual power will begin with the rise of the reform papacy under Leo IX being superior to the secular arm. This interpretation and Gregory VII, focusing entirely on the latter as he was lay at the forefront of Urban II’s call for Crusade. The the instigator of Leo’s idealistic vision of reform. Then I important thing to note is that apostolic power, coming will discuss how Urban attempted to reconcile the militant directly from Christ, was superior to secular power. nature of the knightly aristocracy with Christian pacifist Pope Gregory VII was the first pope to put this theory aims. Then, once again, I will continue to focus on the into action when he appointed Papal Legates to travel papacy by following the changing vision of the crusading throughout Christendom demanding fidelity from all movement throughout the twelfth century, coming to a secular lords. They resisted, however, as the reform culmination with Innocent III’s reign as Vicar of Christ. movement progressed. The reform movement continued His papacy is one of great importance for the crusading on par with his vigorous attempts to gain political movement as it became an organized institution under control, which he saw as rightfully his, of Christendom. papal authority. Nonetheless, I will also attempt to address The ideal of Christendom thus expanded to all parts of a shift in crusade policy as belief in a crusade to rival the Europe whether they were new converts, like in the case success of the First Crusade slowly waned in Christendom of the Scandinavian countries, or old Christian centers toward the end of Christian occupation in the Holy like Spain, at this point in a constant military battle with Land, namely exploring Gregory IX crusade planning. the Muslims of Al Andalus. The main advancement During the eleventh century, the church was seen made during Gregory’s papacy was the formation and as a corrupt organization in respect to their inherent consolidation of the College of Cardinals, which as it moralizing nature. In turn, a reform movement, eventually still stands today, elects the Pope. By expanding clerical named the Gregorian Reform by historians, took hold of bureaucracy, the Reform movement, in their continued the clergy, protesting against simony, a lack of celibacy battle with what they saw as the sinful enterprise of and other issues concerning the power of the Pope. A simony and lechery, had an iron grip on papal offices, and, debate between secular rulers and the Pope erupted over in turn, propagated a policy of moralization to all parts of these issues, especially over simony and lay investiture. Christendom. Then, after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, Many historians have examined this debate in the vein and the following call from the Byzantine Empire for of calling it a power struggle between Church and State, assistance, Gregory decided to make a general call to assist seeing it in modern terms; the investiture controversy the Eastern Church led by the Pope himself. According to being ‘fought’ by Gregory VII and Henry IV of the Holy Bisson, this was an active attempt at proving the political Roman Empire. The problem with this interpretation is authority of the Papacy. Bisson refers to Gregory’s that many historians believe it was not religious, seeing claim of leading the crusade and the continual width it only in a similar way as Enlightenment thinkers. But, 1 Thomas N. Bisson, The Crisis of the Twelfth Century: Power, as John A. Watt’s demonstrated, apostolic authority, in the Lordship, and the Origins of European Government (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2009), 206. eyes of early canonists such as Gratian (the compiler of 2 John A. Watt, The Theory of Papal Monarchy in the Thirteenth the Decretum), saw spiritual power, that is the Pope’s, as Century: The Contribution of Canonists (New York: Fordham University Press, 1965), see Chapters 1, 30-33.
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of this policy as, “Procedures of synod and consistory by the time it reached Antioch.7 Although feudal tensions continued to project the pope in exalted or sanctified proliferated, the First Crusade ultimately achieved what power often, as before, incompletely differentiated his it set out to do by taking Jerusalem. Hence, the First claims to fidelitarian terrestrial lordship.”3 He also refers Crusade’s success underpinned these organizational issues. to Gregory’s “procedures” to show his spiritual and Urban II’s successors proved fruitful in continuing his temporal authority as quasi-feudal lordship. Many kings, policy as many saw the spiritual as well as the material however, from Robert of Guiscard and his descendants benefits of crusading -- spices and gold coinage were and Henry IV and even William the Conqueror showed more readily imported into coastal cities in the northern lack of respect for the pope’s temporal powers to comply. Mediterranean. A good example of the growing power Thus, there was a struggle between active power and real of the Church in line with the institutionalization of the power in line with the political mode of the day, but the Papacy can be found in the foundation of the Order of real concern here is that Gregory had set a precedent for the Temple. In 1118-1120, the Order of the Temple was his successors in which they could claim that apostolic founded by a group of layman under the direction of power was of greater importance than the Secular sphere. Hugh of Paynes. By the mid-1120s, the order, under the One of the issues concerning Pope Urban II, then, championship of Bernard of Clairvaux, was accepted consisted of defining apostolic power as well as the under the direction of the papacy. Thus, this new Order, generalized moralization of the church and Christendom as embraced the ideals of monasticism and the Holy War, a whole. Joseph Lynch, in his brief outline of the medieval effectively expanded the mission of the Papal Monarchy church, sees this in direct line with a growing sense of despite being a wholly autonomous cooperation (in respect Christendom, an ideal that touched on the very fabric of to other clerical offices and secular lords), acting in theory the Medieval mind. 4 Much as the modern man looks to for the Papacy to protect pilgrims travelling to the Holy humanity as an ideal to keep the peace, so too did many Sepulchre. According Karl Borchardt, the high degree of Christians in Europe5. Projecting this view, Pope Urban II centralized administration found within the Order of the appealed to the masses by holding the Council of Clermont Temple spread to other monastic orders and influenced in November of 1095, where he pleaded for peace in all Papal Administration. 8 The Church recognized, to Christian lands among the milite classes to defend the some degree, in the beneficial network, commercial or safety of Western, as well as Eastern, Christendom. In otherwise, established by the Temple, that exemption response, Urban hoped to create a lasting bond with the proved fruitful for spiritual institutions. The Templars Eastern Church to reconcile the Schism.6 He promised proved less ascetic as time went by, contributing to the Crusaders protection of property and the remission of all political and military failures of the feudal states in the existing confessed sins in line with typical pilgrims and Holy Land. However this may have caused the downfall individuals undergoing severe penance. In turn, soon-to- of the order, as Borchadt mentions, their methods of be crusaders, in fervent jubilee, sewed red crosses on their organization led to some of the administrative reforms garments. Crusaders saw this as spiritual effort to regain agreed upon at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. the lands lost over the past centuries, and as a potent This brings me to the interesting case of Pope Innocent weapon to defend the abstract concept of Christianity. The III. While his predecessors continued Urban II’s offer of response was one of fervent religious desire in the sake of remission of sins and property protection, they did very a Christian kingdom demarcated into smaller kingdoms. little to expand this policy except in the case of Quantum The movement proved to be unorganized and tensions Praedecessores, which bargained the remission of all sins among the feudal lords complicated matters. Mass forced in return for the service of Knights. Under Innocent III, conversions, (as Albert of Aachen and other leading however, as he expanded the operation of the papacy by clergyman saw it), of Jews occurred, rabbles of laymen sending more letters than any prior pope -- a total of over flocked to the Holy Land only to be murdered because of 100 letters in his register -- having to do with either the overzealous pillaging and attacks on local Muslim towns, crusade or concerning his heirocratic power. In his Post and finally, under the direction of the Feudal lords, debates Miserabile and Multe Noblis Attulit, Innocent III outlined of plunder and land divided the crusaders into two factions his direct stewardship of the Crusade by demanding a supporting two self-proclaimed ‘Generals’ of the Crusade tenth tithe from every church in Christendom. On top of this, Innocent reverts remission of sins to all existing 3 Thomas N. Bisson, The Crisis of the Twelfth Century: Power, Lordship, and the Origins of European Government (New Jersey: penance under a similar vein as Urban II, but the most Princeton University Press, 2009), 93. drastic shift for the institutionalization process occurs when he mentions that all those unable to fight can 4 John H. Lynch, The Medieval Church: A Brief History (Essex, England: Pearson Education Limited, 1992), 158-164. claim remission of sin through the payment of coinage 5 Thomas N. Bisson, The Crisis of the Twelfth Century: Power, 7 Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A History (London, England: Lordship, and the Origins of European Government (New Jersey: Bloomsbury Group, 2014), 47-63. Princeton University Press, 2009), 14-16 8 Karl Borchadt, The Military-Religious Orders: A Medieval ‘School 6Fulcher of Chartres, The Chronicle of Fulcher of Chartres, Book I, for Administrators’?, in ‘The Military Orders, Volume 5: Politic and in ‘The First Crusade: The Chronicle of Fulcher of Chartres and Other Power’, eds. Petery Edburdy, Malcolm Barber, Helen J. Nicholson, Source Materials, eds. Edward Peters (Pennsylvania: University of Jonathan Phillips, Denys Pringle, and William Purkis (Vermont: Pennsylvania Press, 1998), 49-55. Ashgate Publishing Company, 2012), 11-15.
30 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal to support the Crusade9. Furthermore, under his Papacy, who aimed, for pious reasons, to take Egypt and then written letters concerning the practice of taking the Cross eventually take back the Holy Land. Being planned and became standardized; each potential Crusader would organized by the king himself, with the help of Pope undergo a ritual not unlike baptism and the Immixtio Innocent IV, having demanded the Crusade tax of one- Manuum and the swearing of an oath under the Scrip and tenth, Louis IX spent a 1.5 million Livres on his first Staff not unlike an Oath of Fealty before the sewing of crusade to the East13. Although his Crusades failed, both the cross on their shoulder. In this way, the taker of the showed the standardization of the planning of crusades Cross, swore an oath directly to Christ through the deputy as kings and lords took hold of the movement, and how of Christ (in this case through the direction of the Church they made more secularized decisions without the consent and therefore through the wielder of apostolic authority), of a spiritual authority. But once Frederick II’s conflict and ultimately synthesized feudal and chivalric ideals with the Church ended upon his death, crusade planning with spiritual ideals and the papacy’s political aims10. and organization reverted back to the stewardship of the The papacy, clearly, began to use the Crusade as a tool Pope. This is best found in the papacy of Pope Gregory to not only moralize Christendom but also to promote its X, who used apostolic authority to unite Christendom in own active authority. This is seen directly when reading a last stitch effort to take back the Holy Land. During his sources in relation to the Albigensian Crusade, the first papacy, the conflict between Church and State became crusade to be fought in Western Christendom. For instance, arbitrary. Having placed paid contingents of soldiers in Bernard of Gui’s Manual For Inquisitors, an active to Garrison Acre, Louis IX started a trend of stationing participant in the Inquisition against the Cathars, laid out paid Crusaders for long periods of time, but under Pope the proper procedures for finding heretics. In the source, Gregory X, the use of paid Crusaders standardized as he he emphasizes a Heretic will never come out and say he sent small contingents of them to the Holy land for short is one, therefore an Inquisitor must blend the meaning of periods of time in separate waves known as passagium belief in God and Christ with that of Apostolic authority particulare. Phillip B. Baldwin argues in his Pope Gregory in line with Canon Law.11 Moreover, Innocent III actively X and The Crusades that this use of sending small standardized Crusade preaching during this time, a topic contingents of paid crusaders to the Holy Land, in the discussed to great extent in the Fourth Lateran Council. wake of planning a passagium generale, became standard 12 The important point here is that historians see a shift in for his successors up to and for some time after the Fall crusading from an unorganized movement to one that is of Acre in 1291. Furthermore, his Crusade was heralded strictly organized under the direct authority of the Pope. as the most centralized and largest campaign to the East His precedent continued under his successors as in the Crusade’s long history, though never occurred planning a Crusade became exceedingly more difficult as due to his untimely death14. He was able to mitigate the time and again the Crusade to the East failed to deliver differences of Lay rulers to create a unified front, who all positive results. Honorius III, his successor, for example, took the cross at his call. An able politician, he did this in found his power increasingly threatened by Emperor the wake of a declining belief that taking back Jerusalem Frederick II during and after the Fifth Crusade. Multiple was a very real goal, drifting further into the realm of times Honorius III excommunicated the de facto King of ideal. Nonetheless, due to the importance of the holy Jerusalem. And one of his successors, Gregory IX, went city, the Crusade continued to be planned by the papacy, as far as to declare a pseudo-crusade against Frederick. preached by the church and heralded by the aristocratic This brought the conflict between Church and State families with long histories of Crusading. Under this very across the Mediterranean and to the doorstep of Rome, real belief, the power of the Papacy as mediator, according and would put more active power in the hands of the to Baldwin, centralized even further under Pope Gregory, secular lords of Christendom when on crusade, papal citing that the erstwhile Pope demanded one-twentieth legates took a secondary role in political decisions from crusade tax and ordered lay ruler’s to demand in taxation here on out. This is evident in the crusades of Louis IX, one silver penny each year in preparation for the Holy War. To conclude, the Papacy centralized and became more 9 Innocent III, Post Miserabile and Multe Noblis Attulit, in ‘Crusade and Christendom: Annotated Documents in Translation from Innocent powerful from the Eleventh Century onward. This is seen III to the Fall of Acre, 1187 - 1291’, eds, Jessalynn Bird, Edward Peters in contingent with the Crusades and demonstrates that the and James M. Powell (Pennsylvania: University of Penssylvania, 2013), 28-42. conflict between Church and State is misleading as many 10 The Rites for Recieving the Sign of the Holy Cross for Those rulers, (Frederick II aside), found the ideal to protect Setting Out For Jerusalem, in ‘Crusade and Christendom: Annotated Documents in Translation from Innocent III to the Fall of Acre, 1187 Christendom a very rewarding enterprise. The direct - 1291’, eds, Jessalynn Bird, Edward Peters and James M. Powell control of the Papacy, then, further institutionalized the (Pennsylvania: University of Penssylvania, 2013), 43-49. 11 Bernard of Gui, Manual For Inquisitors, in ‘The Crusades: A movement as spiritual and temporal benefits increased, Reader’, eds. S. J. Allen and Emilie Amt (Toronto, Ontario: University especially under the papacy of Innocent III, which no of Toronto Press, 2014), 234-239 12 The Fourth Lateran Council, Canon 71, Ad Liberandam , in 13 Louis IX, Financial Accounts, in ‘The Crusades: A Reader’, eds. S.J. ‘Crusade and Christendom: Annotated Documents in Translation Allen and Emilie Amt (Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, from Innocent III to the Fall of Acre, 1187-1291’, eds, Jessalynn Bird, 2014), 194-197. Edward Peters and James M. Powell (Pennsylvania: University of 14 Philip B. Baldwin, Pope Gregory X and the Crusades (Suffolk, UK: Pensylvania, 2013), 124-129. The Boydell Press, 2014), 3-12.
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doubt found enthusiasm among the lay community. Thus, the theory of Papal Monarchy, founded in Canon Law developed by Gratian and later clergyman, with the belief that papal power had primacy over secular power, acted as mediators in the wake of a disjointed, often chaotic, violent Christendom. Starting with Urban II, the crusading movement helped empower the Church in ways that caused problems in later centuries.
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Malory’s Gawain: Characterizing Fragmentation and Unification Susan Rojas: English In Geoffrey of Monmouth’s The History of the Kings that “Britains were better at boasting and making threats” of Britain, Gawain1 is portrayed as a respected warrior than fighting, and cuts off his head, igniting the clash and brave and valiant knight. His leadership in battle is between the Romans and Britains (241). This incident without question, and his troops are successful under his is also found in the Alliterative Morte (1263-76, 1352- command. The Quest of the Holy Grail, however, paints a 1354), and in both texts, after the beheading Gawain leads very different picture. This Gawain is much less noble, a his men skillfully, holding their own until reinforcements “bad and faithless” knight (77) so concerned with earthly arrive (Alliterative 1368-1405, Geoffrey 242). adventure and glory he cannot realize this spiritual lack In both The History and the Alliterative Morte, Gawain’s will cause him to fail in his quest. In what might be abilities as knight and leader are common knowledge described as a blend of the two, Sir Thomas Malory’s among his opponents, who savor the opportunity to Le Morte Darthur limns a very different Gawain, taking engage with him. Geoffrey does not stint in his praise of threads from The Quest, the Alliterative Morte Arthure, Gawain, stating “No better knights than Hoel and Gawain and the French The Death of King Arthur and intertwining have ever been born down the ages” (254), and calling them. When this Gawain dies, he has arguably become him “fearless” and “the bravest of all the knights,” as he a more honorable, noble, and introspective character “decimated the enemy” (254). These superlatives not only than the one found in either Geoffrey or The Quest. A define Gawain’s abilities, but also place him as a knight comparison of these sources with Le Morte Darthur of the highest order.2 Additionally, Geoffrey takes care to suggests that Malory employs aspects of several versions recount how easily Gawain orders his troops, as well as of the Gawain character available in the fifteenth century how successfully they fight under his command, observing to skillfully renew and resituate the knight. Although re- “[Gawain’s troops] agreed to what he proposed. They all establishing Gawain as honorable and noble at the end of turned back and each of them killed his man” (242). He Malory’s book reflects a hope for resolution of conflict notes that Lucius, commander of the Roman troops, is and forgiveness in the face of the disintegration of the “keen” to fight hand-to-hand with Gawain, and “rejoiced Round Table, the process also shows loyalty and valor that his opponent was so famous a man” (254). Although as attributes able to cut both ways: they may heal, but in Geoffrey’s history Lucius “fell dead, pierced through they may also harm, revealing through the fellowship by an unknown hand” (256), his pleasure in battling with of the knights the essence of Malory’s Arthurian world. Gawain makes clear that Gawain’s status as warrior knight was solid and his reputation for fighting well-known by his GAWAIN IN GEOFFREY AND THE foes. This fame is echoed in the Alliterative Morte, where ALLITERATIVE MORTE – VALIANT KNIGHT the knight is deemed “Sir Gawain the Good” (1368) and AND STRONG, EFFECTIVE LEADER “Sir Gawain the Gracious” (1468); it also chronicles the Critics disagree about evaluating Gawain in a positive ease with which Gawain dispatches the enemy and how or negative light, but clearly, labelling him as either/ well he conducts himself on the field (1368-73, 1386-90, or does not reflect all aspects of his character. “Villany” 1368-75). The poet recounts Lucius taunting Gawain to and “troublemaker” are words sometimes associated with fight him: “What will thou, Wawain? Work for thy wepen?” Gawain, yet so are descriptions such as “complex” and (2223); it does not appear they exchange blows, as Lionel “a valiant knight of great achievement, who can be both dispatches the commander (2226-29), but the fact that magnanimous and diplomatic” (McCarthy 12-13). To Lucius would be “keen” and desirous of fighting with understand Malory’s Gawain, it is necessary to look at his Gawain is another indication of his respect and renown. direct source, the Alliterative Morte Arthure, as well as To battle a knight with no fame would bring no accolades, the book from which the Alliterative ultimately derives its but engaging one known for bravery and military prowess positive account of the knight, Geoffrey of Monmouth’s brings the possibility of greater glory and knightly status. The History of the Kings of Britain. Geoffrey’s Gawain is THE GAWAIN OF “THE QUEST” AND THE brave, commanding, and heroic; Thomas Hahn speaks of FRENCH DEATH OF ARTHUR - LOYAL, BUT his importance, noting the knight’s “stirring exploits” and “UNLUCKY” “preeminent role” (“Chivalric” 218-219). In The History, Gawain is one of Arthur’s high-ranking emissaries sending The Quest of the Holy Grail differs from Geoffrey and an ultimatum to Lucius Hiberius and his Roman troops: the Alliterative Morte in that the author implies Gawain leave Gaul or fight for possession of the land. Gawain, is not a knight to be emulated, despite his loyalty to however, takes offense when Lucius’s nephew mutters the king and desire for chivalric adventure3. Gawain’s 1 Throughout, I will use the spelling “Gawain” as it is found in 2 The “scale of merit” in Geoffroi de Charny’s Book of Chivalry the cited editions of Geoffrey, The Quest, and the French Death. (Kaeuper 100) describes success and valor in actual conflict as the apex The spelling of the knight’s name is highly inconsistent in both the of knightly attainment. Geoffrey’s and the Alliterative poet’s accounts Alliterative Morte and Malory, so for the ease of both author and of Gawain in battle show he earns this level of recognition. reader, I have selected a commonly used form. 3 In endnotes to his translation of The Quest, P.M.Matarasso also
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military prowess and leadership are not described, but when Gawain and Hector encounter a hermit who tells his allegiance to Arthur is displayed early on through his them they are “most heinous sinners” and since they are obeying the command to attempt to draw the sword in in “mortal sin” should leave the quest (174). Gawain in the stone. Although Gawain originally will not make an particular is told he is an “old tree” who has done “little attempt, after Arthur says “You shall try all the same… enough for [his] Maker” since he was knighted (175). His not to win the sword, but because I ask it” (Quest 35), response, that he would “gladly” talk with the hermit, the knight immediately does, and fails. Lancelot tells but has to catch up with his companion (175), once more him he will regret the action, but Gawain replies he was shows his lack of concern for the condition of his soul and only following Arthur’s command, regardless of the spiritual life; his priorities are catching up with Hector and outcome (36), displaying the attributes of a good knight seeking adventure. The exchange not only foregrounds who obeys his king’s wishes despite the threat of personal Gawain “as the outstanding instance of relentless harm.4 It is perhaps this loyalty to Arthur and his court, devotion to physical exertion and knightly honor,” but as well as his desire for “adventure…the raison d’être of also “pays tribute to his unique stature and broad celebrity the kingdom at peace” (McCarthy 11), which prompts as the knight of adventure” (Hahn, “Chivalric” 220). Gawain to be the first to volunteer for the Quest (Quest Clearly, Gawain’s status and “celebrity” are not good 44). He certainly recognizes this adventure as primarily enough for the author of The Quest. Its Gawain episodes an opportunity for gaining personal glory and honor, surround the knight with settings and situations that yet participating will also bring prestige to the name of underscore his poor spiritual condition, as well as the Arthur and the Round Table (Hahn, “Romances” 2). idea that he is unworthy of and unable to understand the Arthur, however, sees the situation in a different light, sacred. In an “ancient chapel, set on an upland in between lamenting and accusing Gawain of “a mortal blow, for two crags, and seemingly abandoned and deserted” (163), you have deprived me of the best and truest companions Gawain and Hector unarm, kneel before the altar, and a man could find” (Quest 45). Gawain would then have pray “as good Christians should,” then sit and “chat…of reneged on his promise, but “the occasion had been too this and that” (164). Their actions imply the poverty of public to permit it” (45), the implication being that his their faith, as it is clear that they go through the motions pride would not let him -- although Arthur’s unexpected only; rather than taking prayers to heart with reflection retort may also have caused him some guilt and shame. and meditation, they pray “as [they] should,” then fall Gawain’s decision not to go back on his vow helps into idle conversation. Gawain and Hector also choose to reveal the complexity of the character: a man of his shelter with a forester, rather than with a hermit (175), word, but somewhat “proud and frivolous” (Lacy & Ashe one of the only times in the text that questing knights do 136), foreshadowing both his failure in the Quest and not lodge in a castle, hermitage, or chapel. Per the OED, (by extension) his failure to be a solid and noble knight. a forester is “an officer having charge of a forest; also, The Quest shows Gawain to be willfully ignorant of one who looks after the growing timber on an estate…. spiritual matters, resulting in his utter failure to complete In poetical and romantic use sometimes a huntsman.”5 the Quest. As he starts out, he cannot understand why This is certainly a different sort of host than a holy man he encounters no marvels or adventures, unable to grasp or gentlewoman, and very apparently a commentary this as a reflection of his spiritual poverty and finally on the earthly, non-spiritual life of the two knights. deciding he is just “unlucky” (Quest 76). The author of To the chivalric mind, however, “honour is not finally The Quest uses this conclusion to point out Gawain’s the same thing as moral goodness,” but the mark of a less-than-acceptable life, and that even worse, he feels successful knight (Benson, “Defence” 270). This idea no remorse for his spiritual lack. Called “henchman to aligns well with the character of Gawain as a whole: he the enemy” as he has “abused his knighthood” by doing is what he is, and content to remain that way. The knight deeds for earthly fame rather than God’s glory (79), the adamantly refuses to do penance, as he feels there is implication is that Gawain is unworthy of experiencing nothing wrong with his manner of life and sees no need the marvelous adventures that more worthy knights for it. This denunciation of Gawain as too concerned with such as Perceval, Bors, and even Lancelot, encounter. A earthly pride and adventure is driven home in The Quest monk who overhears Gawain comment that he hopes to through his wounding by Galahad (208) -- the overly accompany Galahad reproves him, calling him “a bad worldly knight’s participation brought to a close by the and faithless servant” (77); whether in assent, sarcasm, or holiest and most perfect. Gawain, however, merely muses ironic resistance, Gawain replies “I deduce you know me that his injury by Galahad’s sword was prophesied after well” (77), giving the impression that he is aware of his his attempt at the sword in the stone (208); he shows no failings, but does not care. This theme comes up again recognition that his Quest is actually ended by his sinful state and refusal to repent. Gawain’s involvement with the makes mention of Gawain’s “generosity of mind” and quickness to commend others, stating the knight’s “human qualities” are brought tale is over, and the last reference to him is an inscription on forth in the tale to stress the “inadequacy of the courtly ideal” (294, n. Baudemagus’s tomb that states he was “slain by Gawain” 45). 4 Hahn likens Gawain’s obedience to a “good ‘son’” “unwilling to challenge the fatherly authority of the king” (“Chivalric” 223). 5 Entry shows 1297 as date of first usage
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(268). Gawain’s last mention in The Quest is therefore sins. This concept is reflected in Jill Mann’s observation related to a reckless death, bringing full circle the text’s that a knight’s body is symbolic of the Grail, as well as her conception of him as a knight “in mortal sin” (Quest 174). statement that a “knight’s bodily exploits are the vehicle Although not as concerned with the spiritual aspect through which his spiritual worth is realized” (208). In of the knight, in similar fashion the French Death paints light of her argument, Malory’s Gawain is not a “bad, a picture of Gawain as sinful and shameful. In the faithless” knight, but rather one who repeatedly proves his opening pages, the tale uses his own words to accuse him, worth through bodily trial and privation. Fiona Tolhurst immediately labelling the knight as a source of dishonor suggests that since neither the hermit nor Nacien, two holy to the Round Table. From the start, Arthur shows his men who admonish Gawain for his spiritual lack, refutes scorn of Gawain’s recklessness, admonishing him for his Gawain’s rejection of penance and excuse of knightly killing of other Round Table knights during the Quest. peril, it can be posited his words gain their “blessing” The knight numbers these deaths at eighteen, citing it and agreement. In this way, the character of Gawain is as a “misfortune” “through his sin,” and stating “You somewhat redeemed and improved (141), and as part of the have made me reveal my shame” (23-4). This portrayal character’s arc, also creates tension regarding what exactly continues, presenting Gawain as a would-be seducer of defines a good knight: piety, or chivalric honor and loyalty. a damsel who turns out to be in love with Lancelot (“He Questions regarding the relationship of honor and drew back embarrassed and regretful for what he had said loyalty to familial ties and the chivalric code are at the to the girl, because he was frightened that Lancelot might core of Malory’s “The Deth of Arthur,” which shows find out” [43]), and although his motives for keeping not only how these responsibilities overlap and interact, his knowledge of Lancelot and Guinevere from the king but how they may clash. Gawain is at the center of the are good (109), Arthur’s rejoinder appears to reflect the maelstrom, his knightly oath of chivalry brought sharply author’s own ideas concerning Gawain: “Gawain…depart up against loyalty to blood and kin. At first Gawain from here, because you are a man I shall never trust again. defends Lancelot’s actions in rescuing Gwenyver, saying You have behaved badly towards me” (112). As in The “for oftyntymys we do many thyngs that we wene for Quest, the French Death seems intent to present Gawain the beste be, and yet peradventure hit turnyth to the as a frivolous knight living in shame and dishonor, warste” (655.22-24): a declaration which can arguably concerned only with worldly adventure and glory. be called Gawain’s defining statement. His later refusal to allow Arthur to make peace with Lancelot, however, GAWAIN IN MALORY’S “THE SANKGREAL” can be viewed as either a stance of great loyalty to kin AND “THE DETH OF ARTHUR” or a stubborn, willful move, lacking in the forgiveness Much like The Quest and the French Death, Malory and mercy a knight is bound to display6. Either way, portrays Gawain as a man of adventure and knightly this debate effaces the original advice Gawain gives courage. He is essentially the same knight, but not Arthur: “to nat be over hasty, but that ye wolde put hit in portrayed as overly sinful, since Malory presents the respite, thys jougemente of my lady the Quene, for many chivalric life as penance unto itself. His Gawain also causis” (Malory 655.10-11), and it has been suggested seeks “’worshyp’ or honour,” gains inextricably linked to that the king’s failure to consider the “wise counsel of “appearance and stance,” through his “public expression of delay and deliberation” Gawain first provides assigns personal obligation” (Benson, “Defence” 270), but rather him a “significant measure of blame” for the devastation than being shown as willfully ignorant of the state of his to come (Kelly 131). Despite this, Gawain is effectively soul, this Gawain appears to achieve penitential cleansing caught between his responsibilities to family blood and through his perilous life of adventure and his station as Arthur’s brotherhood. Originally, Gawain states Lancelot loyal, respected knight. In “The Sankgreal,” Gawain’s would not kill his brother Gareth (658.32-38), as there loyalty to Arthur is once more displayed through his was deep respect and love between them; Lancelot made attempting the sword in the stone (499.1-3), and again, his Gareth a knight (624.3), so they act as mentor and novice. being first to vow his Quest causes Arthur to lament and In Gawain’s own words, “I dare say my brother loved hym charge Gawain with “betraying” him (505.3). Gawain is bettir than me and all hys brethirn and the Kynge bothe” still called “wycked and synfull” by a hermit and advised (658.33-34), and “no man shall make hym be ayenste Sir to do penance (515.13-14), but where the Gawain of The Lancelot, bycause he made hym kniyght” (623.14-15). Quest replies “the hardships of penance would be more Aware of the strong bond between Lancelot and Gareth, than he could brook” (80), in Malory, he declares “Nay…I Gawain cannot accept the possibility that Lancelot did not may do no penaunce, for we knyghtes adventures many recognize Gareth and accidentally killed him. Gawain is tymes suffir grete woo and payne” (516.19-20). In his unable to fathom this as anything but an act of heinous tale, Malory paints a picture of a knight who needs not be murder, an intentional killing of apprentice by master, concerned with spiritual development, as his life is filled and therefore feels obligated as both chivalric knight with sacrifice and penance, and who believes in a God that 6 Benson points out that “because his brothers were noncombatants recognizes these sufferings as recompense for knightly and unarmed, Gawain is honour bound to revenge them, regardless of mitigating factors” (“Defence” 271).
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and Gareth’s blood kin to respond accordingly. It has its associated spiral of destruction. Desiring forgiveness, been argued that “it is in pursuit of the knightly worship Lancelot comes to court and states he would rather have he praises in Lancelot that Gawain becomes the other’s killed his nephew Bors than Gareth (661.28-29), recounts mortal enemy” and “[Gawain] must now oppose Lancelot his previous rescue of Gawain (667.32-38), and returns to retain his own honour” (Benson, “End”232). It must the Queen to Arthur (670.10-24). During these encounters, be noted, however, that Arthur’s stated code of chivalry Gawain calls him a “false and recrayde knight” (661.12), requires a knight “to gyff mercy unto hym that askith threatens to leave Arthur if he reconciles with Lancelot mercy” (77.28-29), something Gawain is not prepared to (668.43-44), and is the only dry eye in court when Lancelot do in the case of Lancelot (despite repeated pleas), so it is says his final goodbyes (670.23-24). Rather than making difficult to rule out the idea of vengeance for the spilling a courtly challenge, Malory’s Gawain taunts Lancelot of familial blood7. Benson also points out that Gawain’s into hand-to-hand conflict, insulting him with slurs such “extreme sorrow may be caused as much by the revenge as “false traytour,” and “cowarde,” to the point Lancelot he must take against his old comrade as by his brothers’ must answer or “be shamed forever” (675.10-15). deaths” (“Defence” 272). This implies that overwhelming The fact that Arthur shifts responsibility for the confusion and frustration in making the correct response conflict with Lancelot onto Gawain is interesting, as he may well contribute to Gawain’s intransigence and had foreseen the knight’s role in the disintegration of the stubbornness; due to the complexity of the situation, once Round Table. After Gawain’s vow begins the quest for the he has decided, he has no other option but to stay the course. Grail, Arthur exclaims “Ye have sette me in grete sorrow Gawain’s insistence on revenge is also seen in the for I have grete doute that my trew felyshyp shall never French Death, although Gawain holds a lesser role in mete here more agayne” (504.3-5) and “Ye have betrayed requiring Arthur’s participation and vengeance, and does me! For never shall my courte be amended by you. But ye not goad Lancelot quite as heavily as in Malory’s text. will never be so sory for me as I am for you” (505.3-5). This creates a subtle difference between the knight in the In these prophetic words, Arthur implies Gawain’s honor French and Malory’s character, perhaps revealing a desire and strong leadership will draw the others into the Quest, in Malory to preserve the relationship between Arthur while at the same time expressing his great love and respect and Lancelot. There are only two mentions of Gawain’s for the knight. Arthur seems to recognize with trepidation influence on Arthur in the French (136-7, 150), a detail the strength in Gawain, a fortitude that ultimately leads to endowing the knight with an understated, yet powerful, the recalcitrance that drives Lancelot from court; but his nobility and strength. At one point, Arthur allows Gawain allowing the knight such influence also suggests the king to tell Lancelot to leave the country, stating “Because that sees nobility in his reasoning. Despite this, Arthur appears is what Gawain desires…it is what I want too” (150). to understand the unity of the Fellowship will be irreparably This deferral, even as an indication of indecisiveness or broken, and wants Gawain through his love and loyalty to unwillingness to act on the part of the king, indicates the feel accountable. He attempts to shift responsibility for the respect Arthur has for Gawain’s leadership and status. In situation onto Gawain, although the disintegration of the fact, it seems Gawain is given free rein of the situation, Round Table is set in motion by the very ideals the king as the French text notes the knight’s “incitement” and has put at its core, such as his own attempt to uphold the that “the king would never have become involved if Sir integrity of his name and court against the adultery of his Gawain had not compelled him” (155); this could describe queen, Lancelot’s perceived obligations to Gwenyvere, either a king handing off a situation that has no good and Gawain’s struggle to appropriately answer the resolution, or a monarch letting a fierce and headstrong death of his brothers (Benson, “Defence” 270-271). knight have control because he knows no other way to handle him. Regardless of the reasons for his involvement “THE DETH OF GAWAIN” – ORCHESTRATING HIS LEGACY and attitude, when Gawain comes to blows with Lancelot in the French, it is in polite, courtly fashion. The knight The death of Gawain is treated differently in the four texts. offers his gage to the king, and Lancelot responds in Although neither Geoffrey nor The Quest give Gawain a kind (176), giving the appearance of a less emotional, death scene, the French Death, Alliterative Morte, and and more measured Gawain: still commanding and Malory all allow the knight the opportunity to craft himself decisive, yet noble in his action and unyielding stance. a legend of honorable and chivalrous demise. It is unusual, At this point in Malory’s narrative a more brash and in light of Gawain’s importance and prowess in battle, childish Gawain appears, still decisive and unyielding that Geoffrey gives the knight’s death so little space in his but showing none of the measured nobility found in the narrative, stating only “Auguselus, the King of Albany, French tale. This Gawain seems a prime mover in the and Gawain, the King’s nephew, died that day, together fragmentation of Arthur’s brotherhood of knights and with many others too numerous to describe” (258). It is 7 Though Lancelot does not specifically call for “mercy,” he repeatedly notable, however, that his name is listed alongside that asks for understanding and forgiveness (Malory 660-668). He reiterates that the killing of Gawain’s brothers was an accident, offers to do of the King of Albany, rather than consigned to the list penance, and restores Gwenyvere to Arthur. All is rejected by Gawain, of “many others too numerous to describe,” indicating even when Arthur seems open to resolution.
36 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal that despite the omission of a death scene, Geoffrey finds both Arthur and Mordred, who is clearly named as his Gawain to be a knight of note and honor whose passing killer (3840-63). Gawain’s encountering the traitor in merits mention. Hahn claims that Geoffrey’s Gawain close combat underscores his bravery, loyalty to Arthur, “leads [Arthur’s] forces against his brother Mordred, by and willingness to die defending the king and his realm; whom he is killed” (“Chivalric” 219), but as the passage his death at the hands of the traitorous villain is portrayed on page 258 demonstrates, the text does not assign anyone as valiant and honorable, and the lines surrounding and credit for Gawain’s decease. From earlier descriptions of following the event are elegiac and laudatory. The level his importance as a capable knight known for hardiness of Mordred’s grief is further indication of Gawain’s and valor, the lack of details surrounding Gawain’s high standing in the Alliterative, as it is unique to the demise may reflect Geoffrey’s focus on the succession of text (Hahn, “Chivalric” 221). Mordred weeps (3886), kings who ruled Britain; recounting the death of even a calls Gawain “makless in molde” (3875), “hardiest in highly respected knight may not have seemed necessary. hand” (3878), and even seems to repent his own treason: In the French Death, however, Gawain’s demise is When he thought on this thing it thirled his given lengthy treatment, allowing him to craft a legend herte; For sake of his sib-blood sighand he rides of his own noble death at the hands of Lancelot, rather When that renayed renk remembered himselve than the Romans or Mordred. When they finally meet Of reverence and riotes of the Round Table, on the field, Lancelot bests and grievously wounds the He romed and repent him of all his rewth workes, knight but refuses to kill him (183-5); Gawain then lingers Rode away with his rout, restes he no lenger, after this wound is aggravated in battle with the Romans For rade of our rich king, rive that he sholde. (3390-96) (191). Unable to fight against Mordred, he counsels the Arthur’s grief is expressed in tears (3950) and swoons King to call for Lancelot’s aid against the traitor (194). (3969) as he embraces the corpse; he exclaims Gawain was Although his inability to fight robs Gawain of some of his “…the hope of my hele, my happing in armes” (3958) and prestige as heroic knight, it allows for his transition into cries “I am utterly undone in mine owen landes!” (3966). the role of mediator, as well as his movement toward the Although Mordred may emphasize Gawain’s honor in final salvation that transforms him from earthly, chivalric order to elevate his own accomplishment in killing him, knight to forgiven soul. In his final moments Gawain acts Arthur’s reaction reveals the respect and love he felt for this according to chivalric oath, urging mercy for Lancelot knight, a man he loved as a relative and counted on in battle. and calling on the Christian concept of forgiveness and Malory’s death of Gawain helps to resituate the knight, loving one’s enemy. He names Lancelot “the noblest man as he is again provided the opportunity to explain and I have ever seen” (193), reiterates Lancelot’s love for elaborate on the sequence of events leading to his mortal Arthur (193, 194), and blames his own death on his own wound. The narrative states afresh that Lancelot wounds “foolishness” (200). As Gawain dies, he repeats that the Gawain twice in the same spot, but both times refuses original wound he received from Lancelot, aggravated by to kill a fallen knight (676.43, 678.32-35). This again the Romans, caused his demise (200), giving the prestige sets up Gawain’s ability to claim he indirectly caused of killing a beloved knight to Lancelot. This insistence his own death, for after the battle against Mordred and that his death resulted from his own actions and blows to his men, Malory’s Gawain is “founde in a greate boote, the site of his old wound attempts to bring honor and valor liynge more than half dede” and he explains to Arthur to his death, taking the glory from the hated Romans and he was “hurte and smitten upon myne olde wounde that treasonous Mordred. This way, it cannot be said Gawain Sir Lancelot gaff me” (681.12-13, 27-28). He insists he was slain by a traitor or miscreant, which would be a caused his own death through his own stubbornness, and dishonorable death; instead, he packages the narrative if Lancelot had been with Arthur, the war with Mordred of his death to create a legend of warlike glory. Gawain would probably have been prevented (681.29-32). In a then purges his soul through his final words: “Jesus Christ, detail unique to Malory, Gawain calls for pen, ink, and Father, do not judge me by my sins” (200), through these paper, and writes to Lancelot apologizing for his actions, acts becoming a knight who dies a good death. The tale asking him to return to Arthur’s defense, and requests states that upon Gawain’s loss Arthur felt a “grief that his prayers at his tomb (681.43-682.29). In the letter, touched his heart more than any other; that was the grief Gawain repeatedly refers to “nobility,” attributing it to that did not allow him to rest day or night; that was the the knights attending both Arthur and Lancelot, to the grief that did not allow him to eat or drink” (194). This king, and to Lancelot himself; not only does this show not only underscores the importance of the knight as brave him to be good-hearted and gracious, it also reinforces fighter, but also the respect the king held for him overall. his status as he notes his valued and respected peers. The Alliterative Morte also makes clear through long Gawain again makes mention that he “sought [his] dethe, speeches and passages mourning his death that Gawain and nat thorow thy deservynge, but myne owne sekynge” was loved and respected even by his foes, and that those (682.6-7). He points out that the letter was written within who knew his loyalty felt his loss keenly. The knight’s two and a half hours of his death, and signs it using his death is met in the epic with horrible, tangible grief by “harte blood” (682.25-27), symbolizing the sincerity
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and truth of his words of forgiveness, culpability for his Lancelot and Arthur still apparent, allowing Gawain to own death, and plea for Lancelot to come to the aid of take the first tentative steps to reconciliation brings the Arthur.8 In this scene, Malory takes characterizations of tale full circle, as his vow to begin the Quest, as well as nobility, love, and self-destructive acts from the French his recalcitrance toward Lancelot, largely contribute to the and builds on them, making them key to the redemption dissolution of the Fellowship. Rather than leave the reader and resituating of Gawain’s legacy as Christian knight with a sense of despair and total loss in the breaking up of and beloved member of the Round Table fellowship. such a strong and chivalric ideal, Malory evokes unity in the penultimate line before his final prayer, saying with a RENEWAL AND REDEMPTION IN MALORY sense of wonder and appreciation “when they were holé After his passing in the French Death, Gawain appears togyders there was ever an hondred and [fifty]” (697.36- in a vision to Arthur, a scene of great importance to the 37). It may be argued that Malory ushers responsibility idea of his being forgiven and exalted. The knight appears and forgiveness into the tale through his redemption of “more handsome than [Arthur] had ever seen him” with Gawain, making it not only a romance of chivalry and “a crowd of poor people” who tell Arthur they “secured adventure, but also instruction and edification. To quote the admission of…Gawain to the house of God because Caxton’s preface to his edition of Le Morte Darthur: “Do of his great generosity and charity” to them, telling after the good and leave the evil, and it shall bring you Arthur “if you follow his example you will be acting very to good fame and renommee” (3). If the reader, as well wisely” (204). Before the vision ends, Gawain counsels as kings and nobles, will practice Christian virtues and Arthur against fighting Mordred. Sent in a vision from morality, much animosity and bloodshed may be avoided. God, surrounded by the poor and offering sage advice to CONCLUSION the king, it is irrefutable that Gawain has been redeemed and forgiven. The sinful and shameful knight found in the It is easy to see how Caxton’s interpretation of Le Morte opening chapter of the Death is cleansed and accepted Darthur might pertain to Malory’s life and any commentary by God – and apparently through his life of chivalry. he may have intended in compiling his book. Malory’s The salvation and redemption of Gawain also appears life was one bookended by war; born between 1415-1418 of great importance to Malory, along with the idea of during the Hundred Years’ War, and dying in 1471 during knightly chivalry as a form of penance: as in the French, the War of the Roses, he would have experienced only it is made clear the knight is both forgiven his sins and three years (1453-1455) without war or civil conflict. It is accepted into the everlasting. The dying Gawain is interesting that the Alliterative Morte sets Arthur’s battle “founde in a greate boote” (681.13), a notable detail, since with Lancelot in England; Malory’s shifting the scene to boats “often figure in medieval literature as symbols of France may reflect his living through the Hundred Years’ the salvific protection afforded by the Church…they also War, mirroring England’s animosity with that country, figure (often concurrently) as symbols of abandonment to much as the rift in the fellowship of the Round Table (or trust in) the vicissitudes of fate and fortune” (616, n. may reflect the strife of the War of the Roses. Just as the 1). Although Gawain’s trust in fate is implied in both The Lancaster and York factions based their struggle for the Quest and the early pages of Le Morte Darthur, Malory’s crown on arguments of lineage and birth, it is suggested placing him in a boat at the time of his death underscores by Malory’s text that Gawain’s family loyalty plays a large that during his last moments he sought to be a Christian part in the rupture of the brotherhood of Arthur’s knights. knight, asking God’s forgiveness for his sins (Benson On the other hand, it is also notable that his Gawain takes 269). This reading is supported once more by Gawain on the role of mediator as he dies. In his letter to Lancelot, appearing in a vision to Arthur, surrounded by ladies; he by asking forgiveness and urging him to come to Arthur’s explains he did battle for the ladies accompanying him, aid (681.43-682.29), not only does Gawain embody the and by God’s grace and the ladies’ prayers, was sent to desire to mend the fellowship of the Round Table, but as the king (Malory 683.38-684.2). This final mention Lancelot has returned to his lands in France, shades of of Gawain as steadfast defender of ladies and God’s reconciliation related to both the War of the Roses and the messenger redeems the knight, and even more importantly, memory of the Hundred Years’ War may be seen. Kaeuper validates his earlier claim that his life of knightly suggests that Gawain is voicing Malory’s own desire for “woo and payne” is penance unto itself (516.19-20). freedom from conflict -- for mercy, rather than internecine This redemption of Gawain, as well as his desire to strife and disagreement between powerful rulers: contact Lancelot and gain his forgiveness, works in both “‘stabylite’ in the political order no less than in love” (108). Malory and the French Death to ease the hopelessness Meagan Leitch remarks that “romances such as the felt after the destruction of the Round Table. Although Morte Darthur place their didactic energy in the wish for many knights have been killed and the schism between everything to work out, for everyone to get their just des[s] erts” (187). The fact that Gawain is a key figure in Malory’s 8 The mere fact that Gawain knows he is within hours of death elevates him to holy status, likening him to a saint. In the Medieval genre, the attempt to do just this, have “everything to work out,” ability to know one’s hour of death is given only to those who have certainly accounts for his admittance as angelic messenger achieved holiness.
38 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal to Arthur. Rather than the earthly, sinful Gawain who fails in The Quest or the brash, easily angered knight found Krueger, Roberta L., Ed. The Cambridge Companion to earlier in Malory’s tale, this final scene brings Gawain Medieval Romance. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2000. closer to the knight found in Geoffrey and the Alliterative Print. Morte: bravely facing death and remaining valiant in the face of a new, unknown adventure, yet loved and respected Lacy, Norris J. “The Evolution and Legacy of French enough in position to counsel both mercy and forgiveness. Prose Romance.” Krueger 167-182. This Gawain, brave negotiator of peace, becomes more than a character -- he appears to embody the hopes of a man Lacy, Norris J. and Geoffrey Ashe. The Arthurian Handbook. who lived through too many years of war and civil strife. New York and London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1988. Print.
WORKS CITED Leitch, Megan G. Romancing Treason: The Literature of Archibald, Elizabeth and A.S.G. Edwards, Ed. A the Wars of the Roses. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2015. Print. Companion to Malory. Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 1996. Print. Malory, Sir Thomas. Le Morte Darthur. Ed. H. A. Shepherd. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2003. Print. The Alliterative Morte Arthure. Ed. Larry D. Benson, Rev. Edward E. Foster. Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Mann, Jill. “Malory and the Grail Legend.” Archibald and Publications, 1994. TEAMS Middle English Texts. Web. Edwards 203-220. 7 November 2015. McCarthy, Terence. An Introduction to Malory. Benson, C. David. “Gawain’s Defence of Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 1988, reprint 1994.Print. Lancelot in Malory’s ‘Death of Arthur.’” Modern Language Review Vol. 78, Issue 2 (Apr The Quest of the Holy Grail. Trans. P. M. Matarasso. 1983): 267-272. Web. 9 Oct 2015. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969, reprint 2005. Print.
“The Ending of the Morte Darthur.” Archibald and Tohurst, Fiona. “Slouching Towards Bethlehem: Edwards 221-238. Secularized Salvation in Le Morte Darthur.” Malory and Christianity: Essays on Sir Thomas Caxton, William. “Preface to Morte Darthur.” Malory’s Morte Darthur. Ed. D. Thomas wwnorton.com. W.W. Norton & Company, Hanks, Jr, and Janet Jesmok. Kalamazoo: Inc., n.d. Web. 9 Dec 2015. Medieval Institute Publications, 2013. Print.
The Death of King Arthur. Trans. James Cable. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971. Print.
“Forester.” The Oxford English Dictionary, 2015. OED Online. Web. 21 Nov 2015.
Geoffrey of Monmouth. The History of the Kings of Britain. Trans. Lewis Thorpe. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966. Print.
Hahn, Thomas. “Gawain and Popular Chivalric Romance in Britain.” Krueger 218-233. “Sir Gawain, Eleven Romances and Tales: General Introduction.” Sir Gawain: Eleven Romances and Tales. Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Publications, 1995.
TEAMS Middle English Texts. Web. 11 Oct 2015. Kaeuper, Richard. “The Societal Role of Chivalry in Romance: Northwestern Europe.” Krueger 97-114.
Kelly, Robert L. “Malory and the Common Law: Hasty jougement in the ‘Tale of the Death of King Arthur.’” Medievalia et Humanistica n.s. 22 (1995): 111-140. Print.
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Dropping Acid: Global Warming’s Equally Evil Twin Ocean Acidification in Estero Bay, Florida Marshall Nathanson: Environmental Studies
INTRODUCTION clarified. Moreover, settlement of some native marine invertebrates may be reduced, and organic and nutrient- Ocean Acidification rich particulates may be transferred to the basin floor In the face of anthropogenically induced geochemical [Dame, 1996; Newell, 2004; Dumbauld et al., 2009]. shifts, our oceans are increasingly at risk from an Additionally, the wide range of environmental conditions exponentially increasing atmospheric partial pressure of that these filter feeders occupy renders their turbidity carbon dioxide. For billions of years, Earth’s oceans and reduction and organic material disposition as a very atmosphere have exchanged gases between one another important task, especially when they exist as reefs in order to stay at equilibrium [Doney, 2010]. Since or densely concentrated entities. Possibly millions the Industrial Revolution about 200 years ago, humans of species have developed a dependency to benthic have been adding carbon dioxide into the atmosphere; calcifiers around the world, whether their dependency is Earth’s oceans have absorbed about 50% of all emissions food, protection, or overall ecosystem health. Therefore, that originated with the burning of fossil fuels and this research is being conducted to gain knowledge production of cement [Raven, J. et al. June 2005]. In 2013, about the effects that a 0.4 decrease in pH would have approximately 36 gigatons of carbon dioxide were released on Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea virginica) populations. into the atmosphere; decades of consistent emissions have resulted in a surplus of atmospheric carbon dioxide. When METHODS there is a surplus of CO2 in the atmosphere, it dissolves into the ocean and forms carbonic acid (H2CO3). This Eastern Oysters are benthic bivalves that play a vital absorption by the ocean helps curb atmospheric emissions, role in improving water quality in estuaries by filtering but also alters ocean chemistry and causes a reduction in nutrients, fine sediments (microscopic sand particles), seawater pH [Doney et al., 2009]. Bodies of water around phytoplankton, and pollutants. The resulting increase the planet are at risk of low pH; scientists have found in water clarity that these organisms provide allows that this alteration poses a direct threat to organisms that increased sunlight to penetrate into the water column, accumulate calcium carbonate to form their protective promoting seagrass growth. The environmental value of shells or exoskeletons. Ocean acidification has been found this species increases further when both the reefs they to disable or decrease the rate of carbonate accumulation create and the seagrass they steward provide feeding among many species of marine calcifiers. For example: grounds for many species of predatory fish and grazing reef-building corals decline while jellyfish production wildlife. These reef structures provide refuge for mobile increases; the ability of marine algae and free-swimming benthic organisms that utilize the reef’s interstitial spaces zooplankton to maintain protective shells is reduced; and for protection, feeding, and reproductive activities. These the survival of larval marine species, including commercial organisms are an important food source for higher trophic fish and shellfish, is reduced [Kroeker et al. 2010]. level organisms, such as recreationally and commercially We are beginning to witness biota face detrimental imported fishes, that use reefs as feeding stations. consequences from environments with lower-than-normal One hundred forty-four juvenile Eastern Oysters pH. However, no research has been conducted to determine (Crassostrea virginica) were collected from three sites the risk that calcium carbonate accumulators face in Estero in the Caloosahatchee River. Each oyster was then Bay. Atmospheric carbon dioxide is expected to surpass 500 individually tagged using super glue and oyster tags. The parts per million, and global temperatures are anticipated oysters were divided and dispersed between six five-gallon to rise by at least 2 degrees Celsius between 2050 and 2100. tanks; each tank contained 24 oysters. All tanks were filled These values significantly exceed the dominant values of with four gallons of water (instant ocean solution), or 15.5 at least the past 420,000 years, during which most extant liters. Water was swapped every other day (except for marine organisms evolved [Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007]. weekends) in order to promote healthy living conditions The Importance of Oysters within tanks [salinity varied from 23-28 ppt throughout Under predicted conditions, Estero Bay’s benthic the 33-day experiment]. Each tank was equipped with organisms--juvenile commercial fish species and a one-inch air stone to promote water circulation and bivalves--may be at risk of functional collapse if maintain healthy levels of dissolved oxygen (DO). acidity levels decrease past a certain tipping point. All Oysters were fed 0.5 mL of shellfish diet, 1800 per oyster suspension-feeding bivalves filter particles from the every other day after the water was exchanged in the tank. water column and discharge biodeposits. Throughout this In order to alter the pH within the three treatment tanks, process, phytoplankton, biotic, and abiotic particulates 0.6 mL of 2.25 molar sulfuric acid was applied to tanks are removed from suspension, and the water column is 4-6 during water swaps. Oysters were measured with dial calipers and weighed on a scale on weekly intervals.
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accumulated weight at a rapid pace between days 7 and 24, surpassing the average change in weight of the control tanks. Since the subjects of this experiment were required to remain alive throughout it, we could only track external deviations in growth behavior and weight accumulation. It is suspected that our results proved the thinning of shells under the acidification treatment. A longer shell suggests that more fragile soft tissue developed within the treatment group, and that more energy was allotted to shell lengthening than to development of muscle tissue. The implications of this phenomena can only be determined with a longer test that would evaluate the effects that internal tissue health have on reproduction rates and Figure 1: Easter Oyster collection sites viability of oyster spawn. All in all, treated oysters grew in size more rapidly, which originally deceived us. However, after further examination, this proved our hypothesis since the fragile soft tissue that developed in Figure 4 will deteriorate more easily under acidified conditions.
Figure 2: Easter Oyster Life Cycle
RESULTS
Our beginning hypothesis proposed that juvenile Eastern Oysters exposed to a -0.4 pH drop would expect to lose shell and muscle mass, as well as shrink in size (Hall-Spencer et al. 2008). Repeated measurements of oyster length and weight revealed variations between the oysters exposed to Figure 3: Average Change in Length in Easter Oysters the sulfuric acid treatment and those that were not. ANOVA depicts that there was a significant difference in average growth rates of length and weight between experiment days 7, 24, 33, and in the day*treatment interaction (shells did not grow the same in pH versus control). We utilized overall average growth rates from day 1 to day 7, 7 to 24, and 24 to 33 (these are represented by Day 1, 2, and 3 in both graphs, respectively). Treated Eastern Oysters that were exposed to a -0.4 pH drop maintained a stable average length growth rate, while control oysters experienced a sharp decline in their length growth over the course of 24 days, matching the rate of average length growth as the treated Eastern Oysters. Between the 24th and 33rd days, Eastern Oysters submerged in the control tanks experienced an excelled growth in length on average and surpassed the rate of average length growth within
the treatment tanks. Additionally, Eastern Oysters in the control tanks experienced a steady decline in average Figure 4: Average Change in Weight in Easter Oysters weight accumulation over the course of the experiment. DISCUSSION Rates of average weight growth in control tanks began quickly and eventually matched, then declined below the Taking into consideration these results, Eastern Oysters average rate of weight accumulation that Eastern Oysters that endured an environment with a -0.4 pH difference in the exposed tanks experienced. Treated Eastern Oysters from ambient conditions maintained a steady average
42 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal rate of length growth (from hinge to fringe) over the 33- R. A. (2009). Ocean acidification: A critical day experiment. Treated Eastern Oysters maintained this emerging problem for the ocean sciences. stable rate while the control Eastern Oysters experienced a Oceanography (Wash. D.C.) 22, 16–25. significant decline in average length growth over a period doi:10.5670/oceanog.2009.93 of 24 days, when they declined to the same rate of length growth as the treated Eastern Oysters. This suggests, Dumbauld, B.R., J.L. Ruesink, and S.S. Rumrill. assuming measurements were recorded accurately, that 2009. The ecological role of bivalve shellfish more acidic environments will not alter the growth of aquaculture in the estuarine environment: A Eastern Oysters’ shells. Longer experiments might have review with application to oyster and clam revealed trends in Eastern Oyster reproduction rates, but culture in west coast (USA) estuaries. a conclusion about reproductive health cannot be made Aquaculture 290(3-4):96-223. with this data. In addition, Eastern Oysters that were treated with sulfuric acid did not experience any descent in Grabowski, J.H. and C.H. Peterson. 2007. Restoring average weight accumulation rates, but in fact accumulated oyster reefs to recover ecosystem services. weight at a faster rate than the Eastern Oysters that In Ecosystem Engineers: Plants to Protists, were living in ambient conditions. The average change Cuddington, K., J.E. Byers, W. Wilson, and in weight between the treated and control tanks was A. Hastings (eds.). Academic Press, New York. equivalent between days 24 and 33. Control replicates underwent a decline in average accumulation of weight Hall-Spencer, Jason M., Riccardo Rodolfo-Metalpa, over the entire experiment. Eastern Oysters exposed to Sophie Martin, Emma Ransome, Maoz Fine, the sulfuric acid treatment seem to have developed thinner Suzanne M. Turner, Sonia J. Rowley, Dario shells, while accumulating weight at a faster average Tedesco, and Maria-Cristina Buia. “Volcanic pace than the controls. As the control juveniles grew carbon dioxide vents show ecosystem effects over the 33-day experiment, rates descended and became of ocean acidification.” Nature 454, no. more and more stable over time. This may have been a 7200 (2008): 96-99. normal reaction as they mature to become larger adults. Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove, P. J. Mumby, A. J. Hooten, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS R. S. Steneck, P. Greenfield, E. Gomez, C. D. Special thanks to Dr. Rob Erdman and Lesli Haynes who Harvell et al. “Coral reefs under rapid climate allowed us to use their wet laboratory in the Whitaker change and ocean acidification.” science STEM Center as well as the Coastal Watershed Institute 318, no. 5857 (2007): 1737-1742. and the Vester Marine and Environmental Science Field Station. Also thanks to Michael Parsons and the Honors Kroeker, Kristy J., Rebecca L. Kordas, Ryan Program for providing us with the supplies that were N. Crim, and Gerald G. Singh. “Meta-analysis necessary to carry out this experiment. The College of Arts reveals negative yet variable effects of and Sciences has enabled us to engage in undergraduate ocean acidification on marine organisms.” research during our freshman years, an experience Ecology letters 13, no. 11 (2010): 1419-1434. that we are humbled and immensely grateful for. Miller, A. Whitman, Amanda C. Reynolds, Cristina REFERENCES Sobrino, and Gerhardt F. Riedel. “Shellfish face uncertain future in high CO2 world: Coen, L. and R.E. Grizzle. 2007. The importance influence of acidification on oyster larvae of habitat created by molluscan shellfish to calcification and growth in estuaries.” managed species along the Atlantic coast of the United PLoS One 4, no. 5 (2009): e5661. States. In Habitat Management Series, Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission, Washington, DC. Newell, R.I.E. and E.W. Koch. 2004. Modeling seagrass density and distribution in response to Dame, R.F. 1996. Ecology of Marine Bivalves: changes to turbidity stemming from bivalve filtration and An Ecosystem Approach. CRC Press, Boca seagrass sediment stabilization. Estuaries 27(5):793-806. Raton, Florida. Raven, J., Caldeira, K., Elderfield, H., Hoegh- Doney S. C.(2010). The growing human footprint Guldberg, O., Liss, P., Riebesell, Ulf, Shepherd, J., on coastal and open-ocean biogeochemistry. Turley, C., and Watson, A. Ocean acidification due Science 328, 1512–1516. doi:10.1126/science.1185198 to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Policy document 12/05. June 2005. ISBN 0 85403 617 2. Doney S. C., Balch W. M., Fabry V. J., Feely
43 Congratulations to all of our authors for their fine work!
From: A.C.E., C.A.A., The Honors Program, The Lucas Center, The General Education Program, The Office of Internships and Cooperative Programs, The Office of Service-Learning and Civic Engagement, The Office of Undergraduate Scholarship, The Student-Athlete Learning Center, Undergraduate Studies Advising, The Writing Center, & all of the faculty and staff of UGS!
44 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal
Student Achievements
Aquila would like to congratulate the following students who presented at state or national conferences during academic year 2015/2016. We know that this list, despite its impressive length, is incomplete. Please send us information about student achievements, such as presentations and awards, for publication on our website and the next volume of Aquila.
Jorge Badillo, Meghan Kelley, Quality techniques for Virtual Teaching, Elizabeth Elliott, Ph.D., Professor of Early Childhood Education, Program Coordinator Child and Youth Studies (CYS) program, College of Education, Kappa Delta Pi - Biennal Convocation
Alex Britton, Stacy Gering, Bailey Murray Bundy, Are male & female students with a masculine 2D:4D ratio more likely to be involved in athletic activities that require above average hand grip strength?, Peter Reuter, M.D., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health Professions & Social Work, 2016 Annual Conference of the Human Anatomy & Physiology (HAPS)
Sheridan Castor, Low Back Pain in a Female Collegiate Athlete, Jason Craddock, Ed.D., Assistant Professor & Director Athletic Training Program, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health Professions & Social Work, National Athletic Trainers Association Conference
Kervens Cherenfant, In-sourcing and outsourcing information technology supports, Fan Zhao, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Information Systems & Operations Management, Lutgert College of Business, Florida Undergraduate Research Conference
Jenna Cote, Leora Hilbert, Identification of six unknown “mystery” substances using presumptive and confirmatory tests in a forensic science laboratory, Sulekha Coticone, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry & Physics, College of Arts & Sciences, Florida Undergraduate Research Conference
Lauren Daley, Selective Mono-substitution of Di-alcohol Compounds: creation of new organic catalysts, Daniel Paull, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry & Physics, College of Arts & Sciences, National Conference on Undergraduate Research
Emilio Feijoo, Theorhetoric of Catachresis and Postcolonial Thought, Carolyn Culbertson, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Dept. of Communication & Philosophy, College of Arts & Sciences, “What is Postcolonial Thought?” at the University of theAntilles Schoelcher Campus in Fort-de-France, Martinique
Kaylee Fichthorn, Christian Dalton Clark, Are people with a Beighton score of greater than 6 more likely to suffer from joint or muscles injuries than people with a Beighton score of less than 5?, Peter Reuter, M.D., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health Professions & Social Work, 2016 Annual Conference of the Human Anatomy & Physiology (HAPS)
45 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal
Robert Garcia, The Influence of Diversity in State Supreme Court Decision-Making, Joseph Ross, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science & Public Administration, College of Arts & Sciences, Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association
Stephen George, Revolutionizing Catalysis of Organic Reactions; Unique Properties of Long- Tethers to Solid Support, Daniel Paull, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry & Physics, College of Arts & Sciences, National Conference on Undergraduate Research
Christopher Gonzalez, Nils-Otto Jaasko, Correlation of 2D:4D ratio, vital lung capacity and athletic activity in male and female students, Peter Reuter, M.D., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health Professions & Social Work, 2016 Annual Conference of the Human Anatomy & Physiology (HAPS)
Grant Grabarzyk, Alecia Sabourin, Is there a correlation between Beighton score, handgrip strength in males and females and 2D:4D ratio?, Peter Reuter, M.D., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health Professions & Social Work, 2016 Annual Conference of the Human Anatomy & Physiology (HAPS)
Nils-Otto Jaasko, Low Back Pain with Hip Weakness in a Masters Golf Athlete, Jason Craddock, Ed.D., Assistant Professor & Director Athletic Training Program, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health Professions & Social Work, National Athletic Trainers Association Conference
Nils-Otto Jaasko, Christopher Gonzalez, Correlation of 2D:4D ratio, vital lung capacity and self-reported athletic ability in women, Peter Reuter, M.D., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health Professions & Social Work, National Conference on Undergraduate Research
Nora Johnson, Assessing Theory X and Theory Y Assumptions in the Classroom: Are Student Objectives Aligned with Instructors’ Expectations?, Bryan Schaffer, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Management, Lutgert College of Business, National Conference on Undergraduate Research
Samuel Lemes, Transition to Neverland: Exploring Trans* Boyhood through J.M. Barrie’s Peter Pan, Billy Huff, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Dept. of Communication & Philosophy, College of Arts & Sciences, Southern Comfort Transgender Conference
Brett Linamen, Christine Whitehead, Characterization of fosfomycin resistance mediated by Enterococcus Fos B, Zanna Beharry, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry & Physics, College of Arts & Sciences, National Conference on Undergraduate Research
Alejandra Londono, Exploring the effects of resveratrol and stilbene derivatives in estrogen receptor positive cancers, Lyndsay Rhodes Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Biological Sciences, College of Arts & Sciences, Annual American Association for Cancer Research
46 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal
Jessica Martin, Metal-organic Materials possessing Azide functional groups, Gregory McManus, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry & Physics, College of Arts & Sciences, National Conference on Undergraduate Research
Julian Montalvo, The Irrelevance of Reality: Constructing a Queer New World with Radical Oppositionality, Billy Huff, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Communication & Philosophy, College of Arts & Sciences, Southern Comfort Transgender Conference
Eric Moogerfeld, Lower Leg Pain in College Softball Athlete, Jason Craddock, Ed.D., Assistant Professor & Director Athletic Training Program, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health Professions & Social Work, National Athletic Trainers Association Conference
Christopher Mosteiro, Theodore Tramonte, A Case Study on Inter-organizational Collaboration with UCP of South Florida & The Computer Guyz Miami, Fan Zhao, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Information Systems & Operations Management, Lutgert College of Business, Florida Undergraduate Research Conference
Keelan Mullins-Zugelder, Kile Skrobacki, Tobacco Cessation Counseling by Athletic Trainers: An Evidence-Based Approach to Health Promotion and Wellness, Jason Craddock, Ed.D., Assistant Professor & Director Athletic Training Program, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health Professions & Social Work, National Athletic Trainers Association Conference
Laura Ospina, Malayna Renberg, Are ERP systems the best option for streamlining in manufacturing firms?, Fan Zhao, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Information Systems & Operations Management, Lutgert College of Business, Florida Undergraduate Research Conference
Kaitlin Posey, Collegiate Volleyball Player Experiencing Unilateral Blindness with Strenuous Activity, Jason Craddock, Ed.D., Assistant Professor & Director Athletic Training Program, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health Professions & Social Work, National Athletic Trainers Association Conference
Evan Roberts, Comparison of resveratrol derivatives for anti-cancer activity in estrogen receptor-positive versus estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer cells, Lyndsay Rhodes Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Biological Sciences, College of Arts & Sciences, Annual American Association for Cancer Research
Erika Rodriguez, Olecranon Epiphyseal Fracture and UCL Tear in College Baseball Athlete, Jason Craddock, Ed.D.,Assistant Professor & DirectorAthletic Training Program, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health Professions & Social Work, NationalAthletic TrainersAssociation Conference
Elizabeth Snyder, Staying in the Face of Danger, Paul Bartrop, Ph.D., Professor of History & Director of The Center for Judaic, Holocaust, & Genocide Studies, College of Arts & Sciences, Phi Alpha Theta National Conference 2016
47 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal
Ellen Vann, Anti-cancer effects of stilbene analogues in triple-negative breast cancer cell lines, Lyndsay Rhodes Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Biological Sciences, College of Arts & Sciences, Annual American Association for Cancer Research
Jessica Yazarians, The Synthesis of Ginkgotoxin and Related Ether Analogs and Determination of their Medicinal Properties, Gregory Boyce, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry & Physics, College of Arts & Sciences, Gamma Sigma Epsilon Chemistry Honor Society
48 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal
Improving an e-Bike: Riding with “Christina” Gabriella Giliberti, Ardit Dervishaj, Rishabh Rawal, Christian Bokrand, Joseph Simmons, Ph.D., Joseph Cuiffi, Ph.D. ABSTRACT
Electric vehicles are an important emerging technology Figure 4: Hub Motor for sustainability and renewable energy. Batteries are currently a limiting factor, and research focuses on improving driving range, recharge time, and battery lifetime. We instrumented an electric bike to collect data under various driving conditions, and conducted an analysis of the electrical components. The purpose of our study is to see if a supercapacitor would improve battery lifetime or driving performance. We present electrical design options for improving the electric bike. Figure 1: LabJack Wiring
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Electric vehicles are an important emerging technology for sustainability and renewable energy. The technology continues to develop in order to create and improve upon Figure 2: LabView Program the mobility for those in the near future. “To succeed, any policy approach must adhere to three principles: It must inspire the industry to pursue innovation aggressively; it must be flexible and performance-based so that the industry, not the government, picks the winners; and it should take into account all GHG [greenhouse gas] emissions associated with the production, distribution, and use of the fuel, from the source to the vehicle” (Sperling and Yeh). In the renewable energy and sustainability field, it is crucial to have these three principles as the framework for innovative and emergent ideas in order to be able to implement them successfully. The purpose of our research was focused on improving the battery system of our e-bike, named “Christina,” to improve performance of the e-bike or to improve battery life, potentially integrating supercapacitors into the Figure 3: Ardit the Rider circuit. Examples of uses of supercapacitors in similar situations like our research can be found in “A Simple Series Battery/Ultracapacitor Drive System for Light Vehicles and Educational Demonstration” (Colton, S.) and “Hybrid battery-supercapacitor storage for an electric forklift: a life-cycle cost assessment”(M. Conte, et all). The first article is centered on an electric go-kart. They tried to improve the acceleration of the vehicle for racing purposes. To summarize their results, the supercapacitor ultimately reduced periods of high current demand on the battery during acceleration and breaking, therefore reducing strain and damage
49 Giliberti et al.
to the battery. However, the circuit configuration on a laptop that the rider, shown in Figure 3, carried in a limited the available power transfer paths, causing backpack during riding tests. Data was taken on several excess circuit complexity and weight, and was costly. test runs, including a lap around the FGCU loop under The second article is focused on the use of ultracapcitors normal driving conditions, as shown in Figures 5 and 6. in a forklift. “Supercapacitors have a great potential in The Lithium-ion battery is another important part on constituting the premium power reserve in a variety of the e-bike. Our particular battery (AllCell Inc.) contains energy-and power-intensive applications in transport 48 volts and roughly 625 Watt-Hours of energy, with a and in electricity grids” (M. Conte, et all). Here, the continuous current rating of 20A (peak 40A). Despite the research focused on improving battery life, not power fact that the batteries are currently a limiting factor, there performance. The testing performed confirms the is room for growth and further development in which our functional relationship between battery lifetime and peak research focuses on improving driving range, recharge current where the relationship demonstrates the potential time, and battery lifetime. We instrumented an electric use of a hybrid system, which is seen directly in the bike to collect data under various driving conditions, increased efficiency and the prolonged battery life (nearly and conducted an analysis of the electrical components. double-without supercapacitors), due to the reduced The purpose of our study is to see if a supercapacitor stress, saving about 30% economically. This, in return would improve battery lifetime or driving performance. makes it easy to compensate initial extra-costs for vehicle modification and battery replacement (M. Conte, et. al.). DATA SUMMARY The above articles served as help to design our experiment The graphs below in Figures 5 and 6 show selected to see how far the e-bike was being pushed to its limit, data for riding the e-bike around the FGCU loop. The which ultimately would wind up decreasing its battery current vs. time graph, Figure 5, shows three acceleration lifetime. Our goal was to benchmark its current driving and deceleration cycles, the spikes indicating the performance to assess where we could make improvements. acceleration phase. The current and energy delivered in With the sole improvement of adding a supercapacitor, the each spike was calculated and is shown in the table. In e-bike will be able to harness its available energy and store these spikes, the power is roughly double the capacity it and use it as it needs it, which would in return increase of the motor, but only for those few short seconds.
the lifetime of the battery and the e-bike. E-bikes are a part of new millennials’ lifetime. It is a highly emergent Figure 5 technology, and with the help and added boost of the supercapacitor, they will continue to live on even longer. Methods- The research conducted was, and continues to be, on an electric bike, consisting of a hub motor, a data acquisition system, the electrical wires and components that connect to the throttle, etc., and a lithium-ion battery and motor controller. The hub motor is an important part of the e-bike, which it propels the system from the rear wheel directly. Hub motors tend to be peaky vs. torquey meaning they operate best at medium and high speeds. The model of our motor is a nine continental, shown in Figure 4. This motor has a 20A
continuous rating at 48V (total of ~1000W of power). Figure 6 The data acquisition system is another key aspect of the e-bike because it recorded our data while in operation. Early issues, related to the floating ground conditions of the system, lead us to quick fixes in order to collect the data even more accurately. In order to acquire and record data, two data acquisition boards (LabJack Co.) were placed on the sides of the bike, as shown in Figure 1. The LabJacks record the time, wheel rpm, battery voltage, battery current, and the throttle voltage (position). The reason two LabJacks were placed on the eBike instead of just one is because the ground circuit on the high power lines interfered with the data on the low voltage signal lines. A program shown in Figure 2 was created using the LabVIEW (National Instruments) programming The graph above in Figure 6 shows that the rpm is software to record the data. LabVIEW was then installed maxing out at a cruising speed of 10.97 m/s (24.5mph). The current and power delivered at this steady speed
50 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal phase was approximately at the limits of the hub motor, for electric vehicles, and we were able to find at least ~20A, 1kW). Table 1 below shows measured parameters one that would suit are needs (3kW, from Hella Inc.). from the three acceleration/deceleration cycles. Using the supercapacitor, DC-DC converter system, we would greatly reduce the current draw during DISCUSSION acceleration periods, increasing the life of the battery. In order to verify our measured energy delivery during FUTURE WORK acceleration, we calculated the kinetic energy required to accelerate to cruising speed. We approximated the The supercapacitors and DC-DC converters required add combined weight of the bike and the weight of an to the expense of the e-bike. Our next step is to perform average male to be approximately 210 pounds. Using the cost benefit analysis of increasing the battery lifetime by formula for Kinetic Energy (1/2mv2), with an averaged adding these additional components. maxed out speed in our trial of roughly 12 m/s, the KE Table 2. Options and prices for a 48V supercapacitor supply. = 6858 Joules (1.9Wh), which agrees very well with the values measured in the table. This tells us about how much energy the supercapacitor is required to store for providing power during the acceleration phase
Table 1. Summary measurements from accelerations cycle testing. REFERENCES: M. Conte, A. Genovese, F. Ortenzi, F. Vellucci. (2014). Hybrid battery-supercapacitor storage for an electric forklift: A life-cycle cost assessment. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry, 44(4), After research was conducted, we had come to numerous 523-532. doi:10.1007/s10800-014-0669-z conclusions, all that was left was to model it and perform cost analysis. The maxing out of the motor power, seen Cao, J., & Emadi, A. (2012). A new Battery/ in the test conditions, eliminates the ability to improve UltraCapacitor hybrid energy storage system the motor performance (by increasing the current) for electric, hybrid, and plug-in hybrid electric any further. We can however, reduce the high current vehicles. Power Electronics, IEEE Transactions on, draws during acceleration, which can degrade battery 27(1), 122-132. doi:10.1109/TPEL.2011.2151206 lifetime. We then explored the option of implementing supercapacitors into the system to solve this problem. Colton, S. (2009). A simple series Battery/ The two circuits below in Figure 7 show options for Ultracapacitor drive system for light vehicles using a supercapacitor to complement the battery. and educational demonstration. Proc. EVER’09,
Figure 7: Hybrid supercapacitor circut Sperling, Daniel, and Yeh, Sonia. “Low carbon fuel standards: the most direct and effective policy for transitioning to low-carbon alternative transportation fuels is to spur innovation with a comprehensive performance standard for upstream fuel producers.” Issues in Science and Technology 25.2 (2009): 57+. Opposing Viewpoints in Context. Web. 30 Oct. 2014.
Commercial availability of supercapacitors is, however, limited. We did a survey of supercapacitors available from Maxwell Inc. to see if we could design a simple supercapacitor only system. As shown in Table 2 below, the combination of supercapacitors necessary to reach 48V becomes a cost and weight issue. This lead to the proposed use of the DC-DC converter circuit. Here one of the 16V packs shown in the table would be able to power the circuit through a bi-directional DC-DC converter. DC-DC converters are under development
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Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal
Comparative Gait Rehabilitation with Virtual Reality Headset Josiah Keime, Kristin Ladia, Jay Shah, Derek Lura, PhD INTRODUCTION through an unfamiliar environment. The TCP/IP protocol was used to send the position and orientation data, which Virtual reality (VR) systems refers to the immersion was gathered from the Qualisys system, to Unity. Unity of an environment without actual, physical exposure consistently updates the Oculus to show the new location using sensory stimulations, such as sound and within the virtual environment. This gives the subject sight. Currently, virtual reality is most commonly the feeling that he or she is moving around the virtual accomplished using a headset with a visual display mount. environment with their own movements. To work the With advancements made in the gaming industry leading Oculus headset, it must first be plugged into a computer to improved audiovisual displays and graphics, VR that supports USB and HDMI ports. Also, the computer systems have become more affordable [1]. This has led to must install Oculus Software Development Kit (SDK), a more extensive use of VR as a tool, leading to various Oculus Utilities for Unity, and runtime software [3]. The types of therapies and experimentations. For example, cables have a significant amount of weight; this can hinder as a therapy solution, VR has been used to treat combat- a person’s gait as well as detract from the immersion of the related post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and social virtual environment. To prevent these problems, the cables phobias [1, 2]. However, these examples barely scratch were run from the computer and extended to the center of the surface of the many uses of VR in rehabilitation. the room, into the ceiling. From there, the cables attached The majority of virtual reality applications rely on to a running cable, which runs the length of the room. the use of controllers to move the subject in the virtual This allows for the weight of the cables to be carried, and environment. To create a more realistic and immersive thus the subject is able to freely move around the room. experience, the purpose of this project aimed to develop a VR tool by successfully integrating three different systems: the Qualysis Track Manager (QTM), a motion capture system; Unity, a game development application; and the Oculus Rift, a VR headset. The overarching goal was to allow a subject using the Oculus Rift headset to physically move around a virtual environment without the use of a controller. METHODS To complete the study and obtain results that could be held as conclusive to either end of the hypothesis, the research team planned to develop an apparatus that could be used to test various experimentations. To develop the apparatus, the research team needed a motion tracking Figure 1: Qualysis System Camera Setup device to work together with a virtual reality headset that a potential subject could wear. In order to accomplish this, the research team used the Qualysis motion tracking system with the Oculus headset. Two other systems were used to integrate the Qualysis with the Oculus: Unity software and a TCP/IP protocol used in real-time. The Qualysis system has eight motion tracking cameras placed around the room (see Figure 1). This camera tracks reflective markers that are placed in the Oculus headset. There were a total of six markers placed on the Oculus (Figure 2), which allowed for at least two markers that will be visible by the motion tracking cameras. These Figure 2: Oculus Rift Headset with Markers markers were used to define the subject’s position and movement in the virtual environment. Rotational head Using this apparatus, we plan to take 10 subjects and tracking is important for the immersion of properties, as it compare their gait parameters when using virtual reality allows the subject to look around the virtual environment. under normal conditions. Subject recruitment will be The virtual copy of the lab, which contains the Qualisys done through fliers placed in public places, mainly system for this study, was created in Unity. This was around the university. The subjects must be: 18 years done to remove any errors in the data that would arise or older; in good health; able to understand and follow from a change in the subject’s gait due to having to move verbal instructions; and capable of walking 30 meters
53 Keime et al.
comfortably. Subject selection will be done on a first cable was used for cable length and better resolution. come first serve basis in order to eliminate any potential bias the research may have during the selection process. CONCLUSIONS The subject will have markers placed on the toe, heel, Gait rehabilitation--or gait training--is a type of and front of the pelvis that will feed position data to the rehabilitation focused both on improving gait performance Qualysis system. The subject will be instructed to walk and restoring walking functions [6]. Victims of strokes normally a set distance in the lab, then stop, turn around, often suffer from neurological disorders, which in turn and walk back. They will do this 5 consecutive times can cause impairment of their motor functions. Injuries without the VR headset. Immediately following this, the to the legs, knees, or hips--which may lead to difficulties subject will be asked to place the VR headset on their in walking or standing--often require gait rehabilitation to head. They will again walk the predetermined distance restore normal gait. To assist in gait recovery, physicians and 5 consecutive times. Once it is determined that subject physical therapists assess the patient’s gait performance, data has been gathered without error, it will be placed in and then determine the methods and techniques to perform a Matlab script that will identify desired gait parameters. on the patient [7]. Physicians and physical therapists RESULTS most commonly use their naked eye or video images to obtain parameters of the gait analysis, which can Data gathered from this experiment will be fed into an include the patient’s gait speed, stride length, step length, algorithm designed in Matlab to determine the subject’s and cadence [7]. Gait techniques for improving motor gait parameters. The algorithm will be based on the function include a variety of methods, such as preparatory published article of “Automatic detection of gait events exercises from a physical therapist, treadmill walking, using kinematic data” [4]. To identify a subject’s gait, and assisted overground walking. Successful outcomes two events must be identified: Heel-strike (HS), and of gait rehabilitation can be attributed to the patient’s Toe-off (TO). The start of the gait cycle begins with motivation, exercise engagement, goals and aims, and, the Heel-strike. This point will be found using the finally, attention. Attention is considered one of the major algorithm stated above; however, before implementing factors in rehabilitation, as poor attention is associated this algorithm, we must first determine the point with with having negative impact on normal functions [6]. the lowest vertical velocity, which corresponds to the Some problems are inherent in this study. The length of lowest vertical height. To identify the time of TO, which the cable does not allow for the subject to move around is the end of the gait cycle, the algorithm will find the the entire room. This limits the range of test and stimulus point of maximum vertical velocity, which is associated we can expose the subject to. Much of the work that has with minimal virtual height [4]. The difference in the been done to integrate the separate systems has been with time of these two events will be the gait parameter and coding. Errors in the code are inherent and must go through gait speed, respectively, to find the gait parameter of many revisions to remove any bugs. The software is stride length, the point of maximum horizontal distance functional; however, future improvements are in planning. between the subject’s heel markers that is accompanied By implementing the gait parameters from the subject by the minimal vertical height [4]. Using the algorithm when they are not using the VR and then comparing them to find the average speed of the marker placed onthe to the gait parameters when they are using the VR, we subject’s pelvis will give the subject’s walking speed. The hope to show that there is no sufficient change in their parameters will be gathered from every time the subject gait. It may not seem important to prove that the gaits of walks the predetermined distance, or one pace. All values subjects will not change when using VR, but by showing will be averaged as a whole. The mean values of the the gaits are the same, it will prove supporting evidence parameters for gait with VR and gait without VR will be that VR gait rehabilitation is a valid option for a physical compared to each other using a t-test and a p-value of 0.05. therapist to consider when choosing a recovery program The development of the apparatus in this study will for their patients. Significant threats to the adoption of be a useful tool in later research studies. The success of VR rehabilitation methods are limited awareness and the apparatus’ ability to immerse subjects in the virtual unrealistic expectations [5]. Many physicians and physical environment depends on several factors. Weight or therapists are unaware of the applications that VR has in hindrance from the cables or displays will negatively the medical field. Some that do may not fully understand affect the subject’s immersion [5]. Researchers may what the limitations are, or be knowledgeable of the have to rely on more expensive means of gathering advantages of using VR in the clinical setting. This means data by investing in a wireless VR headset. The use of an increase in published work is needed to clearly identify a running cable to support the weight of the oculus what the benefits, side effects, and drawbacks are. This cables has been found to be successful in allowing the study is designed to clarify some of the misconceptions subject to move freely around the majority of the room. about VR. There are still many which this study does not The quality of the display on the virtual reality headset touch on; these should be examined in later experiments. will also affect the immersion. A high quality HDMI
54 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal
REFERENCES [1] A. Rizzo, A. Hartholt, M. Grimani, A. Leeds, and M. Liewer, “Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Combat-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” Computer, vol. 47, no. 7, pp. 31–37, 2014.
[2] M. Slater, D.-P. Pertaub, and A. Steed, “Public speaking in virtual reality: facing an audience of avatars,” IEEE Comput. Grap. Appl. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 6–9, 1999.
[3] William. “Get Started.” Oculus Support. N.p., 23 July 2015. Web. 15 Feb. 2016.
[4] C. M. O’Connor, S. K. Thorpe, M. J. O’Malley, and C. L. Vaughan, “Automatic detection of gait events using kinematic data,” Gait & Posture, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 469–474, 2007.
[5] Rehabilitation and Therapy.” Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 14.2 (2005): n. pag. ResearchGate. Web. 4 Sept. 2015.
[6] Farina, M. Iosa, M. Molinari, F. Tamburella, A. Ramos, A. Caria, T. Solis-Escalante, C. Brunner, and M. Rea, “Rehabilitation of gait after stroke: a review towards a top-down approach,” Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation J NeuroEngineering Rehabil, vol. 8, no. 1, p. 66, 2011.
[7] S. Nadeau, M. Betschart, and F. Bethoux, “Gait Analysis for Poststroke Rehabilitation,” Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 265–276, 2013.
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