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Fascist Italy and the League of Nations, 1922-1935

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Fascist Italy and the League of Nations, 1922-1935 FASCIST ITALY AND THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS, 1922-1935 ELISABETTA TOLLARDO Fascist Italy and the League of Nations, 1922–1935 Elisabetta Tollardo Fascist Italy and the League of Nations, 1922–1935 Elisabetta Tollardo University of Oxford alumna London , UK ISBN 978-1-349-95027-0 ISBN 978-1-349-95028-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/978-1-349-95028-7 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016954028 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 The author(s) has/have asserted their right(s) to be identifi ed as the author(s) of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifi cally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfi lms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifi c statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub- lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Cover illustration: League of Nations Photo Archive, League of Nations Archives, UNOG Library Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Macmillan Publishers Ltd. The registered company address is: The Campus, 4 Crinan Street, London, N1 9XW, United Kingdom Ai miei nonni ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This book is based on research made possible thanks to a studentship from the British Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) and a Peter Storey Scholarship from Balliol College, University of Oxford. Archival trips were supported by grants from ‘Il Circolo’ Italian Cultural Association in London and the Royal Historical Society, and a Clara Florio Cooper Memorial Bursary from the Oxford Italian Association. While funding has been essential to the completion of this work, this book would have never seen the light without the intellectual guidance of Patricia Clavin, my doctoral supervisor, to whom I am deeply grateful. I would also like to express my gratitude to Martin Conway for his witty comments and moral support. I benefi ted greatly from discussing some of the matters examined in this book with Richard Bosworth, whom I thank for dedicating me his time. I wish to thank Amalia Ribi Forclaz, Emma Edwards and Susan Pedersen for sharing with me important information and offering good advice. Thanks also to Tom Buchanan and Glenda Sluga for their helpful suggestions. I take this occasion to acknowledge the debt I owe to the two academ- ics who inspired me to train as a historian: Kathleen Frydl and Mario Del Pero. This book is extensively based on primary sources, and I would like to thank for their help and assistance the personnel of all the archives I visited. I am especially obliged to Jacques Oberson and Lee Robertson (League of Nations Archives, Geneva), Guido Mones (Archivio Storico della Fondazione Luigi Einaudi, Turin) and Stefania Ruggeri (Archivio Storico del Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Rome). I owe special thanks to vii viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Isabel Holowaty of the Bodleian History Library for her invaluable help and effi ciency. I also thank Francesco De Fiore for accepting to talk to me about his father-in-law, Luciano De Feo. I am really thankful to all the friends who encouraged and sustained me during the time it took to write this manuscript and to those who made sure that my journeys from one archive to the other were a pleasant experience. My deepest gratitude goes to my family and Wolfgang, for their love and unconditional support. Thank you. CONTENTS 1 Introduction 1 2 The Italian State and the League of Nations 21 3 Italian Civil Servants in the League of Nations’ Secretariat 65 4 Italian Civil Servants and Fascism in Geneva 119 5 Italian Expertise and the League of Nations 159 6 The ‘Internationalization’ of the Italians in the League 215 7 Conclusion 265 Archival Sources 273 Bibliography 277 Index 307 ix ABBREVIATIONS ACS Archivio Centrale dello Stato (Italian Central State Archives, Rome) ADF Archives Diplomatiques de France (French Diplomatic Archives, La Courneuve, Paris) ASF Archivio di Stato di Forlì (State Archive of Forlì, Italy) ASMAE Archivio Storico del Ministero degli Affari Esteri (Historical Archive of the Italian Foreign Ministry, Rome) BIS Bank for International Settlements BOD Western Manuscripts Collection, Bodleian Library, Oxford CLNAI Comitato di Liberazione Nazionale Alta Italia (National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy) Costa Bona Enrica Costa Bona. L'Italia e la Società Delle Nazioni . Padua: CEDAM, 2004. DDI Documenti Diplomatici Italiani (Italian Diplomatic Documents) DDS Documents Diplomatiques Suisses (Swiss Diplomatic Documents) DGS Deputy Secretary-General of the League of Nations ECSC European Coal and Steel Community EDC European Defence Community EPU European Payments Union FCC Fondazione Camillo Caetani (Camillo Caetani Foundation, Rome) FO British Foreign Offi ce HAEU Historical Archives of the European Union, European University Institute, Italy ICE International Educational Cinematographic Institute xi xii ABBREVIATIONS ICIC International Committee on Intellectual Co-operation ICJ International Court of Justice IIA International Institute of Agriculture ILO International Labour Organization LoN League of Nations LoN Archives League of Nations Archives, Geneva, Switzerland LoN OJ League of Nations Offi cial Journal MAE Ministero degli Affari Esteri (Italian Foreign Ministry) NSDAP Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers’ Party) OEEC Organisation for European Economic Cooperation PAC Permanent Advisory Commission on Military, Naval and Air Questions (LoN) PCIJ Permanent Court of International Justice PMC Permanent Mandates Commission of the League PNF Partito Nazionale Fascista (Fascist National Party) Ranshofen Egon Ferdinand Ranshofen-Wertheimer. The International Secretariat: A Great Experiment in International Administration . Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1945. SdN Société des Nations/Società delle Nazioni (League of Nations) SG Secretary-General of the League of Nations TFE Archivio Storico della Fondazione Luigi Einaudi (Historical Archive of the Luigi Einaudi Foundation, Turin) TNA The British National Archives, Kew, London UNIDROIT International Institute for the Unifi cation of Private Law UN/UNO United Nations/United Nations Organization UNOG United Nations Organization, Geneva Offi ce USG Under Secretary-General of the League of Nations Walters Francis Paul Walters. A History of the League of Nations. London: OUP, 1952. LIST OF IMAGES Image 3.1 The Italian Under Secretaries-General 80 Image 5.1 Alberto Theodoli 182 Image 6.1 Pietro Stoppani 220 Image 6.2 Massimo Pilotti 234 xiii LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Italian civil servants in the League’s Secretariat First Division (1920–1937) 87 Table 3.2 Italians in the League of Nations Secretariat – per section (1920–1937). Overlaps of employment periods in relation to terms in offi ce of the Italian USGs 100 Table 3.3 Overview of when Italian civil servants were hired in the Secretariat in relation to who was the Italian Under Secretary-General at the League 103 xv CHAPTER 1 Introduction On 11 December 1937, a roaring crowd gathered in Piazza Venezia in Rome to welcome Benito Mussolini’s long-awaited announcement about Italy withdrawing from the League of Nations (LoN). In Geneva, the Italian employees of the organization were ordered to leave their posts and return to their country. On 20 December 1937, at the Italian Foreign Ministry which was monitoring their resignations, offi cials started to won- der why they had not yet received news from one of the most senior Italian employees in the League: the Director of the Economic Relations Section, Pietro Stoppani. 1 While all his fellow nationals who held a high-ranking position in the institution had given their notices in the days immediately following Mussolini’s announcement, nothing was heard from Stoppani until early 1938. News of Stoppani’s refusal to leave his successful career in the fi rst international bureaucracy was totally unexpected when it reached Rome. In his letter to Mussolini, communicating his intention to disobey the order, Stoppani emphasized that, since he had been ‘shaped or mis- shaped’ for 20 years by the Geneva environment, despite his unshakeable love for Italy, he could only be of some use in an international environ- ment. 2 Hence, he was going to remain at the League. Stoppani’s behaviour introduces us to the complex interaction between Fascist Italy and the League of Nations. The Italian Director was infl u- enced by the international environment in which he worked to the extent of deciding to ignore Mussolini’s orders in order to maintain his post at the League, with the risk of Fascist retaliations and of remaining a state- © The Author(s) 2016 1 E. Tollardo, Fascist Italy and the League of Nations, 1922–1935, DOI 10.1057/978-1-349-95028-7_1 2 E. TOLLARDO less person. While the reasons behind this choice are examined in detail in Chapter 6 , Stoppani’s episode offers a glimpse of the practical problems that individuals had to face when attempting to balance between nation- alism and internationalism at the League. And it is through the study of individuals, namely, the Italians working in the League, that this book seeks to refi ne our understanding of the relationship between nationalism and internationalism at the League.
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