Medical Medallions* by ABRAHAM LEVINSON, M.D

Medical Medallions* By ABRAHAM LEVINSON, M.D.

MrEDICAL MEDALLIONS offer a unique approach to the study of medical history. They present important data in compact form and graphic manner. Unlike books or documents of historic value, they do not become frayed with use nor worn with age. Being made of sturdy bronze or silver, they withstand rough handling and bad weather. Medallions usually show a human or symbolic figure in bas-relief on their face (obverse), and the date of issue and other information on the back (reverse). The greatest number of medallions are circular in form and about the size of a silver dollar, but they appear in all shapes and sizes. The early Egyptian, Greek and Roman coins, which bore the likeness of emperors or figures of deities and sacred animals, may be considered the forerunners of the medallion. However, the making of medallions, not for monetary use but as a special art, dates back to the 15th century, when Pisano, a sculptor of northern Italy, made the first portrait medallion. Medical medallions were struck on various occasions. They were issued most frequently at the time of a medical or physiological congress of national or international importance. Some had as their motif Aescula- pius, the traditional god of medicine, or Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine. Others had as their subject the pathfinders in medicine, such as Harvey, Beaumont, Spallanzani, Lister. Still others bore replicas of the founders of certain societies or movements, such as Stephen Smith, the organizer of the Public Health Association, and Joseph Leidy, the first president of the American Association of Anatomists. Medallions were also issued on the occasion of a testimonial banquet tendered a physician on the attainment of a certain age or the completion of an outstanding piece of work. The achievements of Pinard, Jacobi, Billings, and Neuburger were commemorated in this manner. Great medical discoveries, centennial celebrations of important medical * Read before the History of Medicine Society of Tulane University and the An- nual Meeting of the Medical Library Association at New Orleans, Louisiana, May, 1942. 5 6 ABRAHAM LEVINSON contributions, the organization of a medical school or hospital have all furnished the inspiration for many artistic medallions. A series of medallions of scientists and literary men was struck in France about 1817 under the title of Galerie Me'tallique des Grands Hommes Franfais. A group of medical medallions were issued between 1819 and 1829 under the caption of Series Numismatica Universalis Virorum Illustrium. Among the interesting medallions issued by the government mint in Paris, there are many immortal medical figures. In addition to medallions commemorating medical achievenments we find other metal art pieces which are of great interest to medical history. These are the pestilence "thalers" and the medalettes known as jetons. They commemorate the occurrence of plagues, famines or other national catastrophes. Among the jetons are also included the thin coin-like pieces of bronze or silver, struck by the French medical schools in honor of their deans, and the "touch-pieces" given by some of the English kings and queens for the cure of scrofula known as the King's evil. The touch- pieces, little amulets of gold or silver, were very popular during the reign of Charles II and Queen Anne. Sanmuel Johnson received a touch-piece from the hand of the Queen; but even the golden touch of royalty could not cure his scrofula. There are three large collections of medical medallions in this country: one, at the Army Medical Museum in Washington; another, at Johns Hopkins University; and a third, in Boston, the collection of the renowned surgeon, Horatio Robinson Storer, who passed away at the age of 92. Dr. Storer, who was disabled for many years as the result of a severe illness, spent a great part of his enforced leisure in collecting and studying medical numismatics. His interesting collection has been catalogued by his son, Dr. Malcolm Storer, in an illustrated book that contains not only the names and dates of the medallions but some il- luminating bits of information about each one. My hobby of collecting medallions dates back almost twenty years. During one of my medical pilgrimages to Paris, I noticed, in the win- dow of a little jeweler's shop, among some vases and jewel boxes, a little bronze medallion ot Pasteur. I was attracted by the artistic little plaque that bore in sculptured miniature the likeness of the man I had always admired for his great contribution to science. After a rapid business transaction, in which my good American money made up for my poor French, the medallion of Pasteur came into my possession. It was a precious plaything to me at the time, but it intrigued me so much that I decided to look for another to keep it company, then another and another. I have picked them up one by one all over the world-in antique shops, in second-hand book stores, at bargain counters, at foreign bazaars, MEDICAL MfEDALLIONS 7 at old curiosity shops. In Paris and London, in Berlin and Wien, in Amsterdam and Antwerp, in Rome and Barcelona, in Cairo and Jeru- salem I have found medallions of men who have brought health to suffering humanity. In the hamlets of Czecho-Slovakia, in the distant villages of Hungary, on the banks of the Seine, in the little towns and big cities of this country I have come upon rare specimens of my favorite heroes who worshipped at the Shrine of Aesculapius. Good friends, too, here and abroad, have joined in the search for me, and have added many a fine memento to my constantly growing collection, which has pro- gressed far beyond my expectations and which now includes not only medical men but general scientists, poets, philosophers and artists.** In this paper, I shall discuiss only the medical medallions in my collection. As far as possible, I shall arrange them chronologically according to the date of birth of the person in whose honor they were struck. AESCULAPIUS Aesculapius, the Greek god of medicine, has become the symbol of medicine. The love of people for legendary figures has made him a popular subject for statues, like those in the National Museum of Athens, for coins of Greek provinces, for paintings and for numerous medallions. A serpent coiled around a staff (Caduceus) accompanies the Aesculapian figure on many medallions. Some consider the serpent the symbol of wisdom

Others look upon it as a symbol of immortality, of renewed life, because of the serpent's ability to cast off its skin. The use of the Caduceus as a symbol of the medical profession no doubt has its origin in the fact that many primi- tive people ascribed great healing powers to the serpent. According to CASTI- GLIONI, the medical historian, there was a popular belief among all Mediter- * * I am particularly indebted to Dr. Emanuel Libman and Dr. Victor Robinson, of New York, and Dr. Bernard B. Weinstein, of New Orleans, for several rare medallions. 8 ABRAHAM LEVINSON ranean people, that medical skill could be acquired through the eating of some part of the snake. CASTIGLIONI also throws out an interesting suggestion that the very name of Aesculapius, in Greek AcxASxtoq, may have been derived from a Greek word which means serpent. The staff of Aesculapius, which is often shown covered with leaves, apparently represents medicine as a living science. Aesculapius has been one of the most popular subjects for medical medallions. I have several medallions of Aesculapius in my collection. One, struck by the Parisian School of Pharmacy (Schola Pharmaceutica Parisiensis) shows Aesculapius on the obverse, and a cock representing pharmacy together with a serpent representing medicine on the reverse. At the bottom of the medallion is the Latin inscription: Et Vigil Et Prudens. In the other medallions of Aescu- lapius one usually finds the head of the god of medicine displayed together with the snake and staff on either the obverse or reverse. HIPPOCRATES The likeness of Hippocrates (400-370 B.C.) has also been utilized by many congresses and societies as a medallion motif. Although the Hippocratic writings may have been the work of a group of men, instead of one, the name of Hippocrates has been attached to the first description of mumps, tuberculosis and numerous other diseases. Above all, Hippocrates was the first to stress the importance of clinical observation. No wonder he is known as the Father of Medicine.

I have several medallions of Hippocrates, one of which, issued by the Administration of Public Welfare of Paris, shows the face of Hippocrates on one side and the French eagle on the other. The name of the medallionist, F. Farochon, also appears on the medallion. MAIMONIDES There is, as far as I know, no medallion or plaque of the medical men of the Arabic period, such as the Persian Rhazes (850 923) or the Arabian Avicenna (980-1037). There is, however, a plaque of Maimonides (1136- 1204), the hygienist, codifier and philosopher, who served as court physician MEDICAL MEDALLIONS 9 to Saladin. I believe I have the only one in existence. Below the traditional likeness of Maimonides is a facsimile of his signature in ancient Hebrew. FRACASTORIUS Hieronymus Fracastorius (1484-1553) of Verona, was a physician, as- tronomer, geologist and poet. His claim to fame is based on his poem on syphilis and his book on contagion. In his poem, Syphilis siz-e Morbus Gallicus, published in 1530, the term syphilis was applied for the first time to the disease which had previously been known under many names. It has since remained the classic name for the malady. Although Fracastorius did not know the real cause of contagious diseases, in his book on contagion published in 1546 he promulgated the theory of infection by contact, an enormous advance in the medical knowledge of his day.

There are very few medallions of Fracastorius in existence. The one in my possession has his likeness on the4~~~~obverse and a description of his achievements on the reverse. VESALIIUS For centuries no one dared cast any doubt on the teachings'Q'a:PE of Galen, particularly to question his antiquated ideas Aof anatomy. ArabicI~~~~~~ medicine, though progressive.3~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1'%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~iin other branches, made but few advances in anatomy as 10 ABRAHAM LEVINSON dissection was forbidden by the Koran. The Christian Church, with its insist- ence on the sanctity of the human body, discouraged the study of experimental anatomy. Anatomy as a living science had therefore made very little progress for several centuries following Galen. It was left to Andreas Vesalius (1514- 1564) the daring Belgian iconoclast, to shatter the anatomic views of Galen and to substitute for them the results of his researches on the human body. To accomplish his purpose, Vesalius had to steal bodies from the gallows and graveyards, but his brilliant results justified the means, for he discovered anatomic truths which hold good to this day. His book became known as the Bible of Anatomy and he, as the Father of Anatomy. Andreas Vesalius was immortalized by at least fourteen different medallions. I was fortunate enough to obtain the one struck by the Medical Society of Bruxelles, which was issued twelve years after the French Revolution. The medallion is of silver, and has milled edges. STORER speaks of this medallion as very rare. I was informed that there are only two more in existence, one of which is in the British Museum. HARVEY If little was known about human anatomy before the 16th century, still less was known about physiology. Strange to say, there seemed to be more ignorance about the action of the heart than about any other organ of the body. It was left to William Harvey (1578-1657), the Englishman who studied at Padua, to discover the circulation of the blood. This great discovery marked the starting point of physiology.

There are a number of medallions of Harvey. The one in my collection was struck at the International Physiological Congress held in Edinburgh in 1923. REDI Francesco Redi (1626-1697) the great Italian physician, scientist and poet, disproved the theory of spontaneous generation by a unique experiment. He covered a dish of putrefying meat with fine gauze. Attracted by the odor, MEDICAL MEDALLIONS 1 1 flies buzzed about the dish; but since the mesh was too fine to permit the eggs to fall through, no maggots were generated in the meat itself, but were hatched on the gauze on which they had been laid. There are at least four medallions of Redi in existence, all of them very artistic. Three of them were ordered struck by Cosmos III of Florence, whcm Redi served as personal physician. MALPIGHI Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) was born the year in which Harvey's classic on the circulation of the blood was published. Malpighi made many contributions both to medicine and to general biology. He is, however, best known for his work on histology and embryology. He has often been called the Father of these two branches of medicine. The medallion of Malpighi is much larger than the average size and much more artistic than the traditional paintings of him. BOERHAAVE Herman Boerhaave (1668-1738), of Leyden, Holland, was a great clinician, but he rendered his greatest service to medicine by training men who later became medical leaders in the countries from which they came. They carried his teachings to Germany, Austria, Sweden, Switzerland and Poland. Holland honored Boerhaave by erecting a statute of him in the center of the city of Leyden.

Nine medallions of him were struck at various times. The one in my possession was issued in 1819 as part of the numismatic series mentioned above. HOFFMANN One of the foremost pupils of Boerhaave, although his senior by eight years, was Friedrich Hoffmann (1660-1742) Hoffmann gained fame in medicine because of his description of German measles and his studies on scrofula. He was popular with the laity because of the Hoffmann drops (compound spirits of ether) 12 ABRAHAM LEVINSON

Al(. )l

VAN SWIETEN Another famous pupil of Boerhaave was Gerhard Van Swieten (1700- 1772) who made a place for himself in medical history, not so much for his work as a physician as for his administrative ability and as an organizer of institutions. Under the patronage of Maria Theresia, Queen of Austria, he founded the Aligemeines Krankenhaus of Wien, which became one of the greatest medical institutions of Europe. Several medallions were struck in honor of Van Swieten. The one designed by A. Wide in 1756 shows, on its back, the figure of Apollo seated under an aloe tree, holding an open book in his right hand and the caduceus in his left. Beneath is the inscription: Docet et Sanet.

RosE'N VON ROSENSTEIN A most illustrious pupil of Boerhaave was Nicholas Rose'n von Rosenstein (1706-1773), of Sweden, who is frequently referred to as the Father of Pedi- atrics. Rose'n von Rosenstein wrote a monograph on scarlet fever and one on tuberculosis. He was one of the first physicians to advise milk dolution for

*** I am grateful to the American Medical Association for permission to use this illustration and nine others, which previously appeared in my article "Medallions and plaques of interest to pediatricians," Am. J. Dis. Child. 1941, 62:159. MEDICAL MEDALLIONS 13 infants who could not get breast milk. His books, which were translated into several languages, served as standard texts on diseases of children for many years. To my knowledge, there are only two medallions of Rosen von Ro:enstein, both rare now. The medallion in my collection is similar to the one in the cathedral of Uppsala where Rosenstein was buried. HALLER Even greater than his teacher, Boerhaave, was Albrecht Haller (1708- 1777), the Swiss physiologist. Haller promulgated the idea of nerve irritability. He knew the existence of cerebrospinal fluid in human beings although he erred in considering the fluid a vapor rather than a liquid. Haller was also a great literary figure having written some very fine prose and poetry.

Nineteen medallions were struck in his honor. The one I have is dated 1821. MORGAGNI Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682-1773) was the founder of pathologic anatomy. He described cerebral gummata, mitral disease, aneurysm, acute yel- 14 ABRAHAM LEVINSON low atrophy of the liver, and tuberculosis of the kidneys. He also gave the first account of heartblock. Italy honored Morgagni after his death by erecting a statue of him in the city of his birth and another at the University of Padua where he taught. The medallion I have of him was struck on the centenary of his death, in 1873. SPALLANZANI Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) was the first to do experimental work on digestion. In order to study the gastric contents, he swallowed linen bags and perforated wooden tubes. A medallion of him was struck at the 14th Physiological Congress held in Rome in 1932. The reverse displays the Italian eagle. COTUGNO A Neapolitan beggar by birth, Domenico Cotugno (1736-1832) became one of the foremost physicians of his time. He described the intestinal lesions in typhoid fever, the pustules of smallpox, the aqueduct of the inner ear, and the symptomatology and treatment of sciatica. He was the first to test urine for albumin by boiling and above all, he was the first to observe cerebrospinal fluid in living animals. A medallion of him was issued in 1824. JENNER Several medallions were struck in honor of Edward Jenner (1749-1823) the discoverer of smallpox vaccination. Jenner not only saved tens of thousands from the scourge of smallpox through his epoch-making discovery, but he opened up a new field of research which led to the modern study of im- munology. Jenner announced his belief in the effectiveness of cowpox as an im- munizing agent after years of observation of the immunity developed in dairy- maids. In 1796, he transferred matter from a sore on the hand of a young dairymaid who had been infected with cowpox, from the cows she was attend- ing, into the arm of an eight-year old boy. Six weeks later he introduced matter from a smallpox pustule into the arm of the same boy but no smallpox developed. This was one of the most daring and crucial experiments in medicine. The medallion of Jenner shows his likeness on one side and a cow and a vaccination lancet on the other. SOEMMERRING Samuel Thomas Soemmerring (1755-1830) was extremely versatile, win- ning renown in many fields of endeavor. He made valuable contributions to medicine, especially in the field of anatomy, to paleontology, to astronomy, and to physics. He is credited with the invention of the electric telegraph, the forerunner of the modern telegraph. Though born in Poland, Soemmering studied in England under John Hunter and Munro, and practised and taught in Germany, where he did his anatomical research on the nervous system. A medallion was made of him as a testimonial of esteem on the fiftieth anniversary of his doctorate in 1828. Goethe, his friend and admirer was MEDICAL MEDALLIONS 15

among those present at the celebration. The medallion is also distinctive because of the wonderful reproduction of the base of the brain displayed on its reverse. HAHNEMANN Fourteen medallions were struck in honor of Samuel Hahnemann (1755- 1835) Father of Homeopathy. The one in my collection was designed by Emil Rogat in 1836, at the request of the homeopaths of France. The medallion is so artistically executed that even the veins on Hahnemann's forehead show up in clear relief. On the reverse appear the dates of Hahnemann's birth and death and the inscription: Similia similibus curentur. GALL Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828), though best known as the founder of phrenology, also contributed to the field of neurology by his researches on

the functions of the brain. There are five medallions of him. The one in my possession was struck in 1828. The reverse gives the dates of his birth and death and within a laurel wreath, the inscription: Au C-eateur de la Physiologie du Cerveau. 16 ABRAHAM LEVINSON

HUFELAND Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland (1762-1836) was one of the well-known clinicians of Germany at the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century. He wrote several books on general medicine and on diseases of children. He was an ardent advocate of smallpox vaccinat.on and of proper school hygiene. Several medallions were struck in his honor. The one in my

possession has the head of Hufeland and his name on the obverse. On the reverse are a monument, the staff of Aesculapius and a parchment, before which an angel is seen offering a drink to a mother with two infants, while another angel holds the staff of life.

BiCHAT Marie Fran~ois Bichat (1771-1802) not only contributed a great deal to anatomy through his research but during his brief span of life, he succeeded in founding a school of anatomical O. thought and philosophy which attracted hundreds of disciples. He rightfully deserved the numerous medallions struck in his honor. On the reverse of one of those in my collection appears the following list of his writ-

Treatise on membranes. Physiologic research on life and death. General and descriptive anatomy. Napoleon ordered a bust made of Bichat under which he put the caption: The Napoleon -of Medicine. The most popular medallion made of him was designed by L. Dufour. MEDICAL MEDALLIONS 17

MAGENDIE Francois Magendie (1783-1855) was one of the first men to study the physiology of the blood. In addition, he studied cerebrospinal fluid, and described the foramen of Magendie in j the brain. A large plaque of him was 1, handed down to posterity by no less ; a master medallionist than David d'Anger, the man who made a statue of Washington.

BILLARD David d'Anger also made a plaque of Charles Michael Billard (1800- 1832) whose service to pediatrics was monumental. Billard was the first to correlate the clinical manifestations in diseases of children with changes of

the organs found post mortem. He was also the first to write a book on the newborn, embodying many observations that have stood the test of time. We are further indebted to Billard for a descriptive atlas on pathologic anatomy in children. 18 ABRAHAM LEVINSON BERNARD Claude Bernard (1813-1878) was the founder of the French school of experimental physiology. He stressed the value of keen observation plus inter- pretation: "Put off your imagination as you take off your overcoat when you come into the laboratory . . . lest it hinder your observation." Bernard is noted for his work on the glycogenic function of the liver, his discovery of the action of the pancreatic juice, and his researches on the mechanism of the vasomotor system.

The medallion I possess was designed by Borrel in 1879. On its face is a pleasing likeness of Bernard showing his fine brow and his flowing side locks. On the back, written in French, is a notation of some of his awards and honors, among them his title as Commandeum de la Legion D'Honneur. PETTENKOFFER Max Pettenkoffer (1818-1901) was the founder of experimental hygiene. In addition to his well known test for bile, he devised a method for estimating carbon dioxide in air and water. He investigated the ventilation of homes, and studied the relative value of stove and hot air heating. He established the first "Hygiene" institute in the world. The medallion in my possession was struck in 1900 by the German Chemi- cal Society. VIRCHOW Rudolph Virchow (1821 1902) 41 ~ isreebered as the Father of cellular pathology. Virchow was a great teacher and editor, as well as a public-spirited citizen, havin'g served as a member of the Reichstag for thirteen years. The esteem in which MEDICAL MEDALLIONS 19 he was held by his fellow men is evidenced by the many medallions issued in his honor. PASTEUR It is natural that there should be many medallions of Louis Pasteur (1822- 1902) the chemist, who by his work on fermentation, anthrax, fowl cholera, prophylaxis of rabies, and pasteurization of milk opened up a new epoch in medicine. Thirty-two medallions were struck in his honor.

The medallion that started my collection bears on its face the bust of Pasteur, with the top of a Roman toga draped around his neck, set in a laurel wreath. The back of the medallion shows the figure of a young woman, no doubt representing Science, seated at a table in the laboratory. In front of her is a microscope, a set of test tubes and other chemical apparatus. She holds a vial in her uplifted hand as if she were examining its contents. Below the chair on which she sits is a scroll of parchment and beneath the table on a stool and below it are books scattered about. At the bottom of the medallion, which was struck in 1910, is the name of the medallionist, Prudhomme. CHARCOT Neurology found a great master in the person of Jean Marie Charcot (1825-1893). His description of the Charcot joints and his research on hysteria entitle him to a place in medical history Ten medallions were struck in his honor. The one in my collection was designed by F. Vernon in 1899. The reverse bears the inscription: Ses Ele'ves 20 ABRAHAM LEVINSON

et Ses Admirateurs. Below the inscription is a reproduction of the flaming torch of knowledge entwined in a wreath of foliage. LISTER Although surgery made many advances up to the middle of the 19th century, infections following IS surgical operations were of common occurrence. Most of the infections could be traced to ignorance of the .0 i " A; i.mportance..... of antiseptics. Joseph Lister was the first to ~~~~~~~~~~~~A (1827-1912) ....;....-.:.. dispel the notion of "laudable pus" and to institute antisepsis in surgery. He is therefore spoken of as the Father of antiseptic surgery.

-A- E A medallion of him was issued on the occasion of the 17th Inter- national Congress of Medicine held in London in 1913. BILLROTH Three medallions were struck in honor of Billroth (1829-1894) well- known Viennese surgeon. In addition, a centenary coin was issued in his memory by the Austrian Government in 1929. BERGMANN Three medallions were struck of Bergmann (1836-1907) to commemorate his work as a great surgeon. HAYEM Georges Hayem (1841-1933) is known mainly for his diluting solution for counting red blood cells. He has also made several clinical observations, notably the description of chronic hepatitis. The obverse of the medallion struck in his honor shows his profile. The MEDICAL MEDALLIONS 21 reverse shows him percussing a patient in an amphitheatre filled with students. It bears the inscription: Cou,;f de Clinique mnedicale de I'Hospital s'Antoine, 1893-1911. KOCH Robert Koch (1843-1910) the man who discovered the tubercle bacillus and the cholera bacillus, was the subject of many medallions. I happen to possess two of them. The larger one, made of bronze, has Koch set in a laurel wreath on the obverse. The back of the medallion shows an open book resting on a large maple leaf. On the/ book is a skull, and behind it the staff of Aesculapius encircled by two ser- pents, one of which raises its head above the skull, while the other coils downward to drink out of the bronze urn. In the border surrounding the symbols is the Latin inscription: Ut Sementem Feceris, Ita Metes. The smaller medallion, which is of silver, is about the size of a quarter. On the obverse, it carries above the likeness of Koch, the inscription: Geheim- rath, Prof. Dr. Robert Koch. On the reverse is the traditional caduceus pointing upward to the words: Deim grossez Forscher. PINARD On the completion of his twenty years as professor at the Baudelocque hospital, Adolph Pinard (1844-1934) the great French obstetrician and advocate of maternal nursing, was honored by a plaque. On the reverse of the plaque are shown a mother and a child and below them is the inscription: Le lait de la me're appartient a l'enfant. 22 ABRAHAM LEVINSON WEIGERT Through circumstances of birth beyond his control, Karl Weigert (1845- 1904) was not given the university position he deserved. The medical profession, however, remembers him for his work on vaccination against smallpox and particularly for his methods of tissue staining. Four medallions have been struck in his honor. The one I have is a rectangular plaque showing the likeness of Weigert. EHRLICH Paul Ehrlich (1845-1915) was born the same year as his renowned uncle, Karl Weigert. Ehrlich's work, in a sense, is a direct continuation of his uncle's work, particularly in re- gard to staining methods. He sur- passed his uncle, however, by his work on the therapy of syphilis and especially by his introduction of a new concept of chemotherapy. He can justly be called the Creator of chemotherapy. There are six medallions of Ehr- lich. The one in my collection shows on the obverse Ehrlich and his Japan- ese assistant, Hata. They both seem engrossed in studying the contents of a test tube, which Ehrlich holds in his hand. On the reverse is Hercules fight- ing desperately but victoriously with Hydra, the wvater serpent. In his huge claws, the monster holds the skulls he has crushed, while crouching near him in terror are those who fear they will be his next victims. No giant statue of the mighty Hercules could show, more distinctly than does this little medallion, the sinewy muscles of this strong man of the gods. ROENTGEN Many a discovery had its origin in an accidental observation properly interpreted. One of the greatest of such discoveries was that of the X-Ray by Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen (1845-1922), who was a teacher of physics. One day, Roentgen working in his laboratory, noticed that a paper which had been covered with barium platinocyanide, which lay near an exhausted vacuum tube in a black box, became fluorescent. Roentgen applied this observation toward the development of an apparatus which made possible the visualization of opaque substances in the human body, a discovery that revolutionized the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Roentgen was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1901, and a medallion was struck in his honor. SECHENOV A medallion of Ivan Sechenov (1850-1898) the great Russian physiologist and neurologist was struck on the occasion of the 15th International Congress MEDICAL MEDALLIONS 23

of Physiology held in Russia in 1935. On the reverse is the Soviet insignia, and the date of the Congress. FUCHS A plaque was struck in 1921 of Ernest Fuchs (1851-1930) the great Vien- nese ophthalmologist. CAJAL The distinguished Spanish investigator of the histology of the central nervous system, S. Raymon y Cajal (1852-1934) received the Moskva Inter- national Award in 1900 and the Nobel Prize in 1906. A large plaque of him was made in 1935. BEHRING The discovery of diphtheria antitoxin was undoubtedly one of the greatest achievements in medicine. It saved thousands of children from death, and it paved the way for other antitoxins and sera. 24 ABRAHAM LEVINSON

A large plaque of Emil von Behring (1854-1917) the discoverer of diphtheria antitoxin, was made in 1915. On the obverse there is the likeness of Behring, with the staff of Aesculapius beneath it, and around the edge the notation: Enil' von Behring: Seines Alters 61 Jahre. On the reverse there is the inscription: 25/Jahre Serumn Therapie. 4 Dez. 1890-4 Dez. 1915. Three figures on the plaque tell, more graphically than any words, the dramatic conquest of antitoxin over the dread disease of child- hood-diphtheria: a babe in the cradle, a strong man representing the Doctor, and the Angel of Death. Just as the Angel of Death, his face covered with a shroud, is about to seize in his clutches the helpless infant, the Doctor enters carrying in both hands the weapons of rescue. In his left hand he holds aloft his sword, the caduceus with which he stays the Angel of Death. In his right he carries the healing serum that is to restore the little one to health. FREUD Whether one is a disciple of Freud or is opposed to his theories, no one will deny the great service he rendered medicine in general and psychiatry in particular. Sigmund Freud (1856-1940) the Father of psychoanalysis, opened new avenues, medical, psychological and philosophic for the study of human behavior. A medallion of him was issued by his pupils and admirers. WIDAL Georges Ferdinand Widal (1862-1929) was a well-known French clinician and teacher. He is best known for his agglutination test in typhoid fever. His pupils and friends struck a medallion in his honor. SABOURAUD Raimond Sabouraud (1864-1938) the French dermatologist contributed to our knowledge of eczema, pityriasis, alopecia, and mycotic diseases of the skin, and particularly to the study of the different varieties of trichophyton. The medallion shows a likeness of Sabouraud on the obverse and a view of the St. Louis Hospital of Paris on the reverse. SICARD J. A. Sicard (1872-1929) the French clinician, in whose honor a medallion was struck, has made several contributions to medicine. The reverse of his medallion lists among others the following achievements: Studies in Cerebrospinal Fluid. Syphilis of the Central Nervous System. Serologic Tests for Typhoid Fever. PIRQUET Clemens von Pirquet (1874-1929) professor of diseases of children at the Universities of Breslau and Wien, and at one time professor of pediatrics at Johns Hopkins University, is generally known for the cutaneous tuberculin test that bears his name. However, he did much more than devise this test. Through his studies of serum sickness and of the various stages of vaccination, MEDICAL MEDALLIONS 25 he discovered the principles of allergy, thus introducing a new concept in medicine that threw light on the pathogenesis of several diseases, such as asthma and eczema. In fact, it was Pirquet who coined the term allergy. Pirquet also described a new system of feeding, known as the "NEM" system, in which

he used the sitting height, instead of the weight, as an index of food require- ment. This system was used a great deal during World War I, when children had to be fed en masse. The medallion of Pirquet was struck in 1924. MEDICAL HISTORIANS Three leading medical historians whose achievements were commemorated by medallions and plaques are: Sudhoff, Neuburger and Castiglioni. SUDHOFF A large rectangular plaque was made in 1923 of Karl Sudhoff, (1853- 1936), the medical historian of Leipzig, who did outstanding research on Paracelsus and on pediatric incunabula. In addition to his likeness, the obverse contains the inscription: Dem Forscher KARL SUDHOFF Zum 70 Geburtstage Am 26 November 1923 Von Seinen Mitarbeitern

NE UBURGER In 1928 a medallion was struck of Max Neuburger (1858- ) professor of medical history at the University of Wien, founder of the medico- historical museum known as the Josephinum, and author of a classic on medical history. It was issued in 1928, on the occasion of Neuburger's 70th birthday. 26 ABRAHAM LEVINSON CASTIGLIONI A medallion was struck in honor of Arturo Castiglioni (born 1874) cele- brating his thirty years of service as chief surgeon of the Lloyd Triestine lines. Castiglioni, who was professor of history of medicine at Padua, is now at Yale University. He is the author of a history of medicine, written in Italian and recently translated into English. On the obverse is the likeness of Castiglioni and the period of his service, 1898-1928. AMERICAN PHYSICIANS Although Americans did not issue medallions in honor of their great men as frequently as they did in France or Germany, there are some American medallions that are quite notable.

RUSH There is a medallion of Benjamin Rush (1743-1813) Philadelphia physician, who wrote on yellow fever, influenza, and cholera infantum. On the obverse of the medallion there is a likeness of Rush, and an inscription: Benjamin Rush M.D.: Of Philadelphia. On the reverse is the date MDCCCVIII.

HOSACK David Hosack (1769-1835/f-*as a well-known American practitioner, botanist and teacher. He was a great organizer, having founded the Bellevue Hospital, the New York Historical So- ciety and the Elgin Botanical Gardens. .-; He was the first American physician to use the stethoscope and the first Ameri- ...... can surgeon to tie the femoral artery for i;i aneurysm. He was a friend of Rush and of Alexander Hamilton. AN- A medallion of Hosack was struck by the United States mint. On the ob- 3/ verse is the likeness of Hosack with his name and the name of the artist, Furst. M ; On the reverse is the caption: Arts and Science, and below it a lyre, a spade, staff of Aesculapius, a globe, a bust, a mallet, a palette, brushes, a book, a square, compasses and paint tubes. MCDOWELL Ephraim McDowell (1771-1830) a country practitioner of Kentucky, MEDICAL MEDALLIONS 27 opened up a new field of surgery by performing an ovariotomy on Jane Todd Crawford. After he had diagnosed the enlargement of the abdomen as an ovarian tumor, McDowell took his patient on horse-back to his home and, while she recited the psalms, he removed her tumor without an anesthetic. The woman completely recovered. Two other patients on whom he performed an ovariotomy also recovered. A monument of McDowell was erected in Dan- ville, Kentucky, and a medallion was struck in his honor.

MOTT There is a medallion of Valentine Mott (1795-1865) a pioneer in the field of vascular surgery and bone tumors. Most of Mott's surgery was done without anesthesia. BEAUMONI In many countries, investigators were engaged in the study of the gastric contents of man and animals. It was, however, left to William Beaumont

(1785 1853) the American Army surgeon, to solve the mystery of digestion. When Alexis St. Martin, the French-Canadian, who was shot through the abdomen, developed a gastric fistula, Beaumont, stationed at Fort Mackinac, seized the opportunity to study St. Martin's stomach contents and the action of the gastric juice on different foods and under various psychological condi- tions. Without any apparatus, books, or assistance, he has given a detailed description of what goes on in the human kitchen. Beaumont has thus opened up an important branch of physiology. He is rightfully considered the first American physiologist. A medallion of Beaumont was struck during the 13th International Phy- siological Congress held in Boston in 1929. DAVIS Nathan Smith Davis (1817-1904) the great clinician and teacher and the founder of the American Medical Association, had two medallions struck 28 ABRAHAM LEVINSON in his honor. In 1903, at the 53rd annual convention of the Illinois State Medical Society, there was issued a silver fob as a souvenir, from which was suspended a medallion of Davis. The fob carries a special historic interest

because it bears both the emblems of the State of Illinois, the eagle, and that of medicine, the caduceus.

LEIDY In celebration of fifty years of achievement (1888-1938) the American Association of Anatomists issued a medallion of Joseph Leidy (1823-1891) its first president.

TO CELEBRATE <.I FTYYE.ARS: OF ....%.MEN

Leidy was one of the foremost American anatomists and his book, Ele- mentary Treatise on Human Anatomy, was the standard text in medical schools for many years. Leidy also made contributions to zoology, botany, paleontology and parasitology. He discovered the Trichinella spiralis in hogs. MEDICAL MEDALLIONS 29 SMITH Stephen Smith (1823-1922) was one of the most interesting figures in American medicine. In his long life, which fell only five months short of a full century, he left his impress upon many branches of medicine. He was a surgeon of note and wrote two very useful and popular textbooks on surgery. He was instrumental in creating the State Commission of Lunacy in the state of New York, and in doing away with cruel forms of restraint for the insane. He edited the American Medical Times and the Journal of Medicine, and published two very interesting books: The City That Was, and Who Is Insane? He contributed his services to various city and national boards of health and to the United States Sanitary Commission. Above all, he organ- ized the American Public Health Association in 1873.

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In recognition of his achievements in public health, the City of New York engraved his name on the facade of the newly erected structure of the Department of Health. During its semicentenary convention in 1922, the American Public Health Association struck a medallion in his honor. On the face of the medallion is the bust of Stephen Smith set in a laurel wreath. On the back, in addition to the statement of the semi-centennial meeting, are the words: Noteworthy because of the participation of its founder, Dr. Stephen Smith. JACOBI Abraham Jacobi (1830-1919) who held the first chair of pediatrics in the United States, is justly referred to as the Father of Pediatrics in this country. Forced to leave Germany after the revolution of 1848, Jacobi came to this country with his friend Carl Schurz, and became one of the leading spirits of American medicine. Through his writings and lectures he laid the foundation of American pediatrics. Jacobi not only made notable observations in pediatrics, but he was instrumental in effecting social reforms for the welfare of children. Two medallions were struck in his honor. The medallion in my possession 30 ABRAHAM LEVINSON was issued as a souvenir at a testimonial banquet tendered him by the staff of the hospital and dispensary on May 6, 1915, four years before his death. SENN A medallion was struck in honor of the great Chicago surgeon, Nicholas Senn (1844-1908) On the obverse is his likeness and on the reverse is the inscription: To Nicholas Senn The Master Surgeon, Memorial from his Fel- lows, November, 11, 1905. PILCHER Lewis Stephen Pilcher (1845-1934) was another well-known American surgeon. He is best known for his investigations on the treatment of wounds and for his work as editor of the Annals of Surgery. The medallion in his honor represents the esteem in which he was held by pupils and friends. OSLER William Osler (1849-1920) left his impress on American medicine through the great influence he exerted on American physicians. Many of the present-day leaders of American medicine received their training from him at McGill, Pennsylvania, Johns Hopkins and Oxford. Osler's textbook on medicine has been the bible of American students and physicians for many years. In addition to several portraits, a plaque of Osler was made by the French medallionist, F. Vernon, in 1903.

WELCH William H. Welch (1850-1934) discovered the Corynebacterium welchii. He has rendered even greater service to American medicine by the schools and institutes he helped to establish. He was one of the founders of the Johns Hopkins Medical School and of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. He established the School of Hygiene and Public Health, and the Institute for the History of Medicine at Johns Hopkins University.

BILLINGS A medallion was struck in honor of Frank Billings (1854-1932) the Chi- cago clinician and teacher who was one of the first proponents of the idea MEDICAL MEDALLIONS 31

of focal infection. On the obverse of the medallions there is a likeness of Billings. On the reverse there is the inscription: Frank Billings Sc.D. M.D. Dean of the Faculty Rush Medical College Physician Teacher Humanitarian 1924

| I S - **~I ^ /I ^ikl.IN _ V THEOBOLD SMITH

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catl an thi relaxtion todsae~~~Ifhmnbig. He is knw atiual

THEOBOLD SMITH Theobold Smith (1859-1934) was a pioneer in the study of diseases of cattle and their relation to diseases of human beings. He is known particularly for his work on Texas cattle fever. He was director of the Department of Animal Pathology of the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research at Prince- ton, New Jersey. There were two medallions struck in his honor. The most recent one was struck on the occasion of the third International Congress for Microbiology held in New York in 1939. FLEXNER Simon Flexner (born 1863) has made many fundamental contributions to medicine, among which are the discovery of the Flexner bacillus of dysen- tery, and the preparation of antimeningococcus serum. The latter was particularly significant as it sharply reduced the mortality of meningococcic meningitis. Under Flexner's direction of the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research many fundamental contributions were made to medicine. In 1935 his co-workers at the institute issued a medallion in his honor. 32 ABRAHAM LEVINSON CUSHING Harvey Cushing (1869-1939) has done more for neurosurgery than any other single person. His work on intracranial tumors, particularly of the pitui- tary, is monumental. His name has also been immortalized by the disease he described. In addition, Cushing, next to Osler whose biographer he was, has popularized medical history more than anyone else of his time. The medallion of him commemorating his twenty years of service as Pro- fessor of Surgery, shows him in his doctorate gown, with its broad shoulder bands indicative of his various honors. COMMEMORATION OF MEDICAL EVENTS As has been pointed out previously in this paper, medical medallions were struck not only of renowned men, but also of important medical events. There are medallions commemorating discoveries of a new rem- edy, a prophylactic measure, the convening of a medical congress, the founding of a school or hospital, or the introduction of a social reform. VACCINATION There are several medallions commemorating the introduction of vaccination by Jenner. The one in my collection shows, on the obverse, a cow with 4!>-.;^^ti yfull udders and above her a vaccination lancet. Beneath the cow is an inscription: Ex Insperato ~ ~ sa/us. This medallion was issued by the Municipality of Paris in 1814, sixteen years after the publication of Jenner's book, The Coupox. INFANT WELFARE I have a medallion that was issued in celebration of the organization of the Societe Protectrice de l'Enfance which had its inception in France in 1865. The medallion portrays a mother holding one child in her arms and leading another by the hand. It bears the inscription Alendis Parvulis. This medallion served to bring to the attention of the public both the needs and the achievements of the society which investigated the condition of the children of the poor, helped to improve their situation, supplied them with milk, and above all, was instrumental in passing laws for their protection. LAW OF ROUSSEL This medallion was issued by the Ministry of the Interior of the French Republic to celebrate the passing of the law introduced by Roussel for the welfare of the young. This law is held responsible for a reduction in infant mortality in France from 78 to 15 per cent. One French writer asserted that it established the principle that the welfare of the child takes precedence over all other considerations. MEDICAL MEDALLIONS 33 The Law of Roussel was primarily intended to protect the infants of peasant women, who often neglected their own babies to nurse the infants of the rich. The law made it imperative for wetnurses to obtain certificates from the local mayor to the effect that their own babies were seven months of age or older. The law also safeguarded the health of infants whose mothers worked in factories, by provisions for governmental inspection of all places in which children under two years of age were farmed out. The promulgator of this humane law was Theophile Roussel (1816-1903) a French physician, who was known as the friend of abandoned children. One of his admirers, on returning from a visit to Roussel's native village, spoke of it as a land in which there were no orphans, for those who had lost their parents had Father Roussel to take care of them. This medallion shows a mother nursing her infant from a full breast, and at the same time blowing the hot food on the spoon, making ready to feed another child at her side.

INTERNATIONAL MEDICAL CONGRESSES A medallion was struck in commemoration of the International Medical Congress held in London, in 1881. On the obverse is a likeness of Queen Vic- toria with a crown on her head and all her titles in the inscription above her. On the reverse, is a majestic figure representing a physician. He holds in his right hand the graceful staff of Aesculapius with the serpent twined about it, while he raises his left hand to offer protection against the Angel of Death who hovers in the background. Three supplicants kneel before him, looking up pleadingly to him for health and healing: a mother with her sick baby in her arms, a woman with a bandaged head, and an invalid laborer with a pick upon his shoulder. Underneath this figure on the reverse is the inscription: James Paget, president McCormic, secretary Paget is known in medical history for the description of a disease spoken of as Paget's disease. The 16th International Medical Congress held in Budapest in 1909 was commemorated by a small plaque. The obverse shows Aesculapius with the caduceus, and the reverse shows a panorama of Budapest.

UNIVERSITY OF PADUA The University of Padua, one of the most famous seats of learning of former centuries, that produced a Vesalius, a Morgagni, a Harvey, is commemorated by a medallion showing the interior and exterior of the school. JEFFERSON MEDICAL COLLEGE On the obverse is the likeness of Jefferson, and on the reverse: 1825-1925 Alumni Association Conmmemiorating the looth Anniversar-y of the founding of the College, Philadelphia. 34 ABRAHAM LEVINSON JOHNS HOPKINS HOSPITAL A medallion was struck in 1939 to celebrate the 50th year of the Johns Hopkins Hospital. On the obverse is a magnificent view of the hospital with its dome in the center. On the reverse, in the center of the medallion, is a graceful caduceus with the head of the serpent resting on the wings of the eagle. On either side of the popular symbol of medical science is spread out the inscription: TO COMMEMORATE FIFTY YEARS OF SERVICE TO HUMANITY SCIENCE AND EDUCATION 1839 1939

It is hardly possible for any one person to possess, or even to know of, all medallions in existence. I believe, however, that even the limited number of medallions I described in this paper gives a bird's-eye view of medical history, particularly of the great pioneers of medicine. BIBLIOGRAPHY BERNHARD, 0. Griechische und Romische Munzbilder. Berlin, 1926. CASTIGLIONI, A. The serpent as healing god in antiquity. Ciba Symposium, 1942. COMPARETTE, T. L. A brief study of the medal; its origin and early development; read to the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia, December 19, 1907. HILL, G. F. Portrait medals of Italian artists of the renaissance. London, 1912. LEVINSON, A. Medallions and plaques of interest to pediatricians. Am. J. Dis. Child., 1941, 62: 159. MOEHSON, F. C. B. Beschreibung einer Berlinischen Medaillon-Sammlung. Berlin, 1773. PATIN, C. Introduction a Ihistoire par la connoissance des medailles. Paris, 1665. STORER, H R. Medicina in nummis; a descriptive list of the coins, medals, jetons relating to medicine, surgery and the allied sciences. Ed. by Malcolm Storer. Bos- ton, 1931.