Direct evidence of surface exposed water ice in the lunar polar regions Shuai Lia,b,1, Paul G. Luceya, Ralph E. Millikenb, Paul O. Haynec, Elizabeth Fisherb, Jean-Pierre Williamsd, Dana M. Hurleye, and Richard C. Elphicf aDepartment of Geology and Geophysics, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822; bDepartment of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912; cDepartment of Astrophysical & Planetary Sciences, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309; dDepartment of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095; eApplied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, Laurel, MD 20723; and fAmes Research Center, NASA, Mountain View, CA 94035 Edited by Jonathan I. Lunine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, and approved July 20, 2018 (received for review February 8, 2018) Water ice may be allowed to accumulate in permanently shaded water ice because OH may exhibit similar characteristics at UV regions on airless bodies in the inner solar system such as Mercury, wavelengths (15). High reflectance values at 1,064-nm wave- the Moon, and Ceres [Watson K, et al. (1961) J Geophys Res length have also been observed near the lunar poles by the Lunar 66:3033–3045]. Unlike Mercury and Ceres, direct evidence for wa- Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) and may be consistent with ter ice exposed at the lunar surface has remained elusive. We water ice, but fine particles and lunar regolith with lower degrees utilize indirect lighting in regions of permanent shadow to report of space weathering may also give rise to higher reflectivity at the detection of diagnostic near-infrared absorption features of this wavelength, making this interpretation nonunique (12, 16). water ice in reflectance spectra acquired by the Moon Mineralogy An advantage of near-infrared (NIR) reflectance spectroscopy Mapper [M (3)] instrument. Several thousand M (3) pixels (∼280 × is that it provides a direct measurement of molecular vibrations 280 m) with signatures of water ice at the optical surface (depth of and can thus be used to discriminate H2O ice from OH and H2O less than a few millimeters) are identified within 20° latitude of in other forms (e.g., liquid, surface adsorbed, or bound in min- both poles, including locations where independent measurements erals). NIR reflectance data acquired by the Moon Mineralogy have suggested that water ice may be present. Most ice locations Mapper [M (3)] instrument on the Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft detected in M (3) data also exhibit lunar orbiter laser altimeter provide the highest spatial and spectral resolution NIR data reflectance values and Lyman Alpha Mapping Project instrument currently available at a global scale, including the polar regions. UV ratio values consistent with the presence of water ice and also The wavelength range of M (3) (0.46–2.98 μm) is too limited to exhibit annual maximum temperatures below 110 K. However, properly discriminate OH/H2O species using fundamental vi- only ∼3.5% of cold traps exhibit ice exposures. Spectral modeling bration modes in the 3-μm region (17, 18), and in this study we shows that some ice-bearing pixels may contain ∼30 wt % ice that focus on the detection of diagnostic overtone and combination is intimately mixed with dry regolith. The patchy distribution and mode vibrations for H2O ice that occur near 1.3, 1.5, and 2.0 μm. low abundance of lunar surface-exposed water ice might be associ- Numerical modeling results suggest NIR spectra representing as ated with the true polar wander and impact gardening. The obser- little as 5 wt % (intimate mixing) or 2 vol % (linear areal mixing) vation of spectral features of H2O confirms that water ice is trapped water ice are expected to exhibit all three of these absorptions and accumulates in permanently shadowed regions of the Moon, (Methods and SI Appendix, Fig. S1), although actual detection and in some locations, it is exposed at the modern optical surface. limits in the M (3) data are dependent on instrumental response and signal-to-noise ratios (SNR). lunar polar regions | permanently shaded regions | lunar water ice | The cooccurrence of all three absorptions would be evidence near-infrared spectroscopy | Moon mineralogy mapper for water ice, and M (3) data (optical period 2C) at high latitudes were searched for pixels in shadow whose spectra exhibited these Methods SI Appendix he small tilt of the rotation axes of Mercury, the Moon, and features ( and , Table S1). The resulting EARTH, ATMOSPHERIC, TCeres with respect to the ecliptic causes topographic de- subset of pixels (spectra) was then analyzed using the spectral AND PLANETARY SCIENCES pressions in their polar regions, such as impact craters, to be permanently shadowed from sunlight (1). As a consequence, Significance surface temperatures in these regions are extremely low (i.e., less than 110 K) (1–3) and are limited only by heat flow from the We found direct and definitive evidence for surface-exposed interior and sunlight reflected from adjacent topography (4–6). water ice in the lunar polar regions. The abundance and These areas are predicted to act as cold traps that are capable of distribution of ice on the Moon are distinct from those on accumulating volatile compounds over time, supported by ob- other airless bodies in the inner solar system such as Mercury servations of water ice at the optical surface of polar shadowed and Ceres, which may be associated with the unique forma- locations on Mercury (7–9) and Ceres (10, 11). There are a tion and evolution process of our Moon. These ice deposits number of strong indications of the presence of water ice in might be utilized as an in situ resource in future exploration similar cold traps at the lunar poles (12–14), but none are un- of the Moon. ambiguously diagnostic of surface-exposed water ice, and infer- Author contributions: S.L. designed research; S.L. performed research; S.L. contributed red locations of water ice from different methods are not always new reagents/analytic tools; S.L., P.G.L., R.E.M., P.O.H., E.F., J.-P.W., D.M.H., and R.C.E. correlated. Epithermal neutron counts, for instance, can be used analyzed data; and S.L., P.G.L., and R.E.M. wrote the paper. to estimate hydrogen in the upper tens of centimeters of the The authors declare no conflict of interest. lunar regolith, but such data cannot isolate the uppermost (e.g., This article is a PNAS Direct Submission. optical) surface and cannot discriminate between H2O, OH, or This open access article is distributed under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial- H (14). Ratios of reflected UV radiation measured by the Lyman NoDerivatives License 4.0 (CC BY-NC-ND). Alpha Mapping Project (LAMP) instrument onboard the Lunar 1To whom correspondence should be addressed. Email: [email protected]. Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) have been interpreted to in- This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10. dicate the presence of H2O near the lunar south pole (13), but 1073/pnas.1802345115/-/DCSupplemental. the observed signatures may not be uniquely attributable to Published online August 20, 2018. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1802345115 PNAS | September 4, 2018 | vol. 115 | no. 36 | 8907–8912 Downloaded by guest on October 2, 2021 angle mapping method as a metric to assess the similarity of spectral slopes and absorption features between the M (3) spectra and a laboratory spectrum of pure water frost (Methods). This step relies on the fact that reflectance spectra of water ice exhibit strong “blue” spectral continuum slopes (reflectance decreases with increasing wavelength) (SI Appendix, Fig. S1), whereas typical lunar spectra exhibit an opposite “reddening” effect due to nanophase iron produced during space weathering (19). A spectral angle less than 30° between each M (3) spectrum and the water frost spectrum was empirically determined to define the final subset of M (3) pixels most consistent with the presence of water ice (Methods). Results and Discussion Reflectance measurements in regions of permanent shadow are enabled by sunlight scattered off crater walls or other nearby topographic highs. The shaded regions studied here lie between directly illuminated areas and areas of deep permanent shadow, and the analysis was limited to pixels for which local solar in- cidence angle was greater than 90° to ensure the corresponding surface was in shadow. As expected for areas only receiving in- direct illumination, the SNR of M (3) pixels in these locations is low, and we evaluated the possibility that our process was selecting noisy spectra that mimic ice spectra by random chance. A random dataset was generated that matched the means and SDs of M (3) data in shaded regions near the lunar poles (75° N/S– 90° N/S), but with five times more pixels than M (3) data (∼65 × 106 points). The same procedures were performed on the ran- dom dataset as on the original M (3) data to detect potential ice − absorption features. Only 10 4% of those random points passed our detection criteria, which may indicate the rate of false- positive detections due to random noise. In contrast, ∼0.2% of shaded M (3) data showed positive detections (SI Appendix, Fig. S2C). The average spectrum of positive detections of the random data (SI Appendix, Fig. S3) is distinct from those observed in the M (3) data (Fig. 1), indicating that a population of random noise of a size similar to that of the M (3) data is highly unlikely to produce ice-like spectra. A null hypothesis test was conducted to show that the prediction of a third ice-like absorption based on detection of the other two is significant (SI Appendix, Tables S2 and S3).