CANADA'S PERIODICAL ON REFUGE Vol. 12, No. 1 June 1992 SPECIAL ISSUE ENVIRONMENTAL REFUGEES

This is the first Refuge issue devoted to "~nvironmental~~~fu~ees."We are pleased to present a collection of articles that deal with environmental problems in a wide range of countries across four continents, particularly Asia. In these articles, the approaches to the topic as well as the styles of writing vary a great deal. This editorial introduces some of the important issues raised by the contributors, as well as adding to the debate. From Natural Disasters To

We have tried to present these articles in a logical progression, going from a discussion of refugees fleeing natural disasters to those displaced by human- made causes, i.e. dams and other development schemes, and finally to those who are the victims of intentional environmental degradation or "eco- cide." In discussing the people of Bangladesh fleeing their homelands after they have been devastated by PHOTO: V. LASSAILLYJACOB cyclones and tidal surges, Muinul Islam Herdsmen in Mali moving to the South employs the term "ecological refugees." This suggests that such a term could be displacement" in Malaysia. Industriali- used to refer to people fleeing natural zation, development schemes and disasters such as earthquakes, subsequent land speculation have hurricanes, floods, volcanic eruptions resulted in a plethora of environmental and the like. catastrophes for rural and indigenous Ogenga Otunnu takes a theoretical peoples, often resulting not only in approach to the question of environ- displacement, but repeated displace- mental refugees in Africa. Africa holds ment. The authors of this piece work only about ten percent of the world's closely with the affected communities population, but nearly twenty five and so they try to integrate those views percent of its refugees. He discusses the into their critique. wide variety of environmentalproblems A similar approach is employed by in Africa and various attempts to Dave Hubbel and Noel Rajesh, who alleviate the recurrent suffering. He cites review the plans for eucalyptus tree the Food and Agricultural Organization plantations by the government of (FAO) and various well-known scholars neighbouring Thailand, "which is who view the problem as basically one of forcibly evicting over ten million people overpopulation and misuse of land, from the country's National Forest arguing against such an explanation Reserves." This figure is nearly a fifth of "which reduces the causes and that countrfs population. The authors persistence of the crisis to individuals write: "The eviction programme has and fails to understand the conditions been shoddily formulated and callously under which the crisis occurs [and implemented without regard for the which] is a false comfort since it cannot welfare of village people." lead to appropriate actions." Joseph Whitney examines the In presenting a broad overview of proposal to build the Three Gorges Dam pollution, hazardous waste and the on the Yangtse River in China. The dam devastation of Chernobyl in the will be the largest single hydro project Commonwealth of Independent States ever and will displace between 539,000 (CIS), Renate Rybizki talks of regions and 1.2 million people (depending on under "critical ecological situations." the water level that is set). He concludes She raises the issue of finding that a large number of costs have not "ecologically clean" regions for the been perceived or evaluated in the re- resettlement of persons currently living settlement proposal and suggests that in "unclean" regions, which now "the symbolic benefits of large dams comprise twenty percent of the former have a nonmonetary value that is USSR. Hence, this enormous problem perceived to exceed all other costs." appears to be insoluble. While rapid Hence the real costs in human, en- industrialization and poor management vironmental and even monetary terms have often been cited as the causes of may be disregarded. pollution and environmental deg- We turn now from cases where radation in the former Soviet Union and dislocation is the residual or prearranged Eastern Europe, it is instructive to consequence of development projects to contrast such problems with the cases of war. Jim Glassman writes of environmental problems brought on by Vietnam and Cambodia, where massive so-called development schemes in bombing was employed, forcing various "developing countries." The peasants to flee to the . Glassman three pieces that follow Rybizki look at asserts that "ecological destruction has the effects of development, including the become integrated into counter- case of communist China. The term that insurgency as a method of producingthe is sometimes heard in labelling the refugees necessary for effective control people ousted by such projects is of the countryside by imperial powers "developmental refugees." and their allies." He employs the term The from "ecocide" to describe the intentional Malaysia give us a broad overview of destruction of the enemy's environment, many different types of "environmental citing the massive use of herbicides by

2 Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992)

------p------the US. military in Vietnam (as much as They proceed to make a distinction which these persons belong suffer any 41 percent of South Vietnam's between environmental refugees and forms of discrimination or marginaliza- forests were denuded) and the environmental migrants. The latter is tion in the society? Without adequately destruction of Salvadoran forests by someone who "makes a voluntary, addressing the socio-political, economic napalm and other defoliants. rational decision to leave a region as the and histoiical dimensions for each Destroyingthe environment is also a situation gradually worsens there," a specific regional problem, there is a way of preventingrefugeesfrom coming decision that may be only partly based danger that we will begin to invent new back to their homeland. According to on environmental factors. She/ he categories simply by divorcing them John Rogge, the Iraqi army sowed mines "moves by choice from an area." from other categories and create along roads, in orchards and in Juxtaposed against this is the definition hierarchies of terms by which people are vineyards, around springsand wells and of environmental refugees: "people or somewhat arbitrarily classified. along mule tracks in order to terrorize social groups displaced as a result of Suhrke and Visentin's distinction the Kurdish population and discourage sudden, drastic environmental change between environmental migrant and them from returning to their villages. that cannot be reversed." They are environmental is thus an Moreover, it can easily be compelled to flee. attempt to place particular emphasis on overlooked that environmental deg- The distinction appears to be merely the most desperate of the populationand radationcan be a secondaryconsequence one of time. But the authors elaborate to promote them to the status of of either a development project or that the difference is between the truly "refugee." Yet such attempts to employ strategic destruction. Such residual desperate (and vulnerable) who cannot the term "refugees," as well as attempts effects may produce migrants or expect support from their own to designate people ousted by refugees. For example, the construction governmentsand are therefore refugees, development projects as "development- of a dam in a densely populated river al refugees," or persons forced to valley may have a devastatingimpact on abandon their lands due to war as "war millions of downstreamresidents if their ". ..[T]here is a danger that refugees," are counter-productive and production systems are dependent in we will begin to invent new simply run up against the blinkered UN large part on annual flood recession. categories simply by definition of refugee, which requires the Glassman notes that in Vietnam the crossing of international borders. "flooding of rice lands continues to be a divorcing them porn other Writing of people in Bangladesh major problem because so many categories and create fleeing their homelands devastated by hillsides are denuded of foliage that hierarchies of ternby natural disasters, Muinul Islam rainfall is not absorbed adequately and which people are somewhat mentions that "ecological refugees" in rushes down onto the plains." Bangladesh lose sympathetic public arbitrarily classified." attention after the initial media attention Environmental Refugees: subsides and the official relief camps are The Value of a Category and those with more resources, contacts closed down. "Conceptually, these An environmental refugee is often and the time to plan for their migration. refugees are variously termed as defined as someone fleeing from Suhrke and Visentin admit that "the ''economic migrants," "distress environmental decline. However, a separation is not absolute between the migrants," or "compelledmigrants,"but recent article by Astri Suhrke and categories ... there may be a shading the compulsive push of circumstances Annamaria Visentin* criticizes this between the two." These authors are becomes so much a matter of life and definition in that: "It is so wide as to concerned primarily with distributing death for the refugees fleeing the ravages render the concept virtually relief aid and hence the problem arises of of natural disasters that normally they meaningless." And rather than shy away how to categorize the various types of have no choice but to migrate. Therefore, at this juncture, the authors decide to beneficiaries according to their needs. the term refugee should be more forge ahead and define the term. However, such a distinction is vague. It appropriate than the term migrant." "Uncritical definitions and inflated does not help us to understand the Islam would like the victims of natural numbers lead to inappropriate solutions relationship the two groups have to each disasters in Bangladesh to receive the and compassion fatigue. We should not, other and to the rest of the social groups same sorts of comprehensive assistance however, reject outright the concept of in the society. It also does not confront that many cross-border refugees receive. environmental refugees. Instead we political questions directly. It needs to be He argues that the concept of a refugee should formulate a definition that is asked: Were the people involved coerced has been stereotyped as someone fleeing more narrow but [sic]more precise." or not coerced to move? Did they have the ravages of war, civil strifeI political any say in the political process that may repression, famine or disease. The debate *Astri Suhrke and Annamaria Visentin, "The have resulted in the decision that they on famine aside, none of these causes Environmental Refugee: A New Approach," would be evictedlresettled? Does the necessarily involve an ecological Ecodecision (September 1991): 73-74. religious, ethnic, gender or age group to dimension.

xeF(ge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) 3 In discussing the complex problems resettlement often involve corruption Concluslon of environment, poverty, war and the and leave people in a much worse like in Africa, Ogenga Otunnu points out condition than before their The situation of people fleeing en- that environmentaldegradation is both a displacement. Thus in Thailand, 250,000 vironmental or other kinds of cause and an eff ect of poverty. He argues families evicted from their land will be devastation demands solutions. "the nature of the neo-colonial states and resettled on "an area of land one-quarter Solutions will only be as good as their the international economic system must the size of that from which they once analysis, planning and implementation. be overhauled." Poverty cannot be left as sustained themselves. Of this area, land Formulating definitions that can be a problem for individualgovernments in suitable for agriculture is often already useful as conceptual tools is clearly Africa to deal with because many larger owned and farmed by other villages" necessary, but there is a risk of issues are involved. Therefore he urges (Hubbel & Rajesh). And in Malaysia, the developing hierarchies that may be used that the UN should begin to recognize resettlement of 3,000 Iban natives who, for political manipulation and bring environmentalrefugees as refugees and instead of the 11 acres of cleared land that about nightmarish difficulties for people act accordingly. they had been promised per family, trying to find refuge. Moreover, the academic tradition today demands Problems of Relief and specialization which precipitates a Assistance for "Refugees" search for new fields of research and new categories. However, the promulgation The United Nations definition of a "Formulating definitions of definitions and categories must not refugee requires that the person cross that can be usefil as overtake the search for real, viable international borders and be able to conceptual tools is clearly solutions. The misery of others must not prove that she! he suffers from religious, be used as simply the domain for carving ethnic or political discrimination in order necessary, but there is a risk out a career niche. to be recognized as such. Migrants, or of developing hierarchies Economic refugees, environmental "internally displaced persons" are that may be used for political refugees, migrants, internally displaced therefore people who migrate within manipulation and bring persons, whatever we call them, all are their own country. This distinction is one in that they are all destitute and problematic in many ways. In particular about nightmarish oppressed people. Certainly there are it is a problem with the concept of nation diflculties for people trying degrees of poverty, degrees of states, in that other nations may be asked tofind refige. " oppression and even degrees of to step in and assist people who have environmental degradation, but the crossed borders, thus sparing the host solution can only lie in building sound nation some of the cost of assisting such economies, legal structures that people. safeguard human rights and that Environmental refugees are often received only one acre. Furthermore, minimize environmental degradation, people who migrate within their own Sahabat Alam reports that "they had to nay more, those that practice country. They are "internally displaced pay for their new longhouses when they regeneration of the environment. persons" who, except in particular cases were informed earlier that it would be The pieces presented in this issue of acute distress, are left to the mercy of free." clearly demonstrate the wide variety of their own governments -governments Finally, it can hardly be expected environmental problems that produce that maybe oppressive, or even the cause that the same western governments who "refugees," the hitherto poor attention of their migration. But relief given to are contributing to the increasing given to them and the need to more persons affected by disasters and who numbers of refugees - (a) by funding closely examine the environmental remain within their own countries development projects that displace factors that lead to their flight in search of normally involves only short-lived people, or (b) by waging war against refuge. Those factors should not be projects. rural insurgencies - to donate examined in a closet, however. Rather, People displaced by development tremendous funds to those same environmental factors urgently need to are often promised adequate com- refugees. In the case of (a), assistance be more clearly incorporated into the pensation (thoughthey may have had no may be given as part of the resettlement agenda - alongside socio-political and say in the decision to move). and compensation part of the project, but economic concerns - of all serious Compensation and plans for often such funds are inadequate, or are research and analysis in the social squandered through corruption; and in sciences and in the "development" field the case of (b), we need only consider the as well. Vironique Lassailly-Jacob is a visiting Research case of Vietnam, still suffering the effect Fellow and Michael Zrnolek is a Research Vkronique Lussailly-Jacob Assistant at the Centre for Refugee Studies, of an embargo imposed by the United Michael Zrnolek Yovk University. States. Guest Editors

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1(June 1992)

- NATURAL CALAMITIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL REFUGEES IN BANGLADESH Muinul Islam

Ecological Catastrophes in From theBangladeshBureau of Statistics Besides floods and cyclonic storm Bangladesh publication, from which we compiled surges, ecological phenomena like river Table 1, we find that the decades of the and sea erosi~n,~droughtsI3 water- Bangladesh is one of the most disaster- sixties and the seventies of this century logging,' increasing salinityI5siltation prone countries of the world. Whenever are the most turbulent in terms of and drying-up of river beds: change of the country hits the headlines of the cyclones with sixteen and fourteen killer river course,' spread of ? world press and the other media, some cyclones recorded in these two decades the receding of the ground water table, natural or man-made calamities occupy respectively (BBS: 25-29). etc., have become part and parcel of the the centre of attention, playing havoc Cyclones and tidal surges are, no life of the people of Bangladesh. These with human lives, crops, cattle raising, doubt, the most devastating of the phenomena do not make sensational poultry, fishery, houses, roads, forests natural disasters to hit the entire coastal news headlines, but the sum total of the and many other types of property and belt and offshore islands of Bangladesh, economic losses incurred by them in economic infrastructure. but other types of disasters also hit different areas may in some years reach The loss of about half a million different areas of Bangladesh quite catastrophic proportions as well. people during the 1970 cyclone and tidal frequently. Tornados and "norwesters"l Therefore, it is not surprisingthat natural surge stunned the world into disbelief are regular visitors in the two yearly calamities are inevitably mentioned as a about the killing potential of such a storm seasons of April-May and crucial factor behind the impov- natural phenomenon. After the colossal October-November. So are floods and erishment of the vast multitudes of losses of humanlife during the two major flash floods, which inundate the people in Bangladesh. man-made disasters of the liberationwar lowlands and delta regions in different Though it may provide a ready- of 1971 and the famine of 1974, natural parts of the country several times each made excuse for apologists, whereby the calamities have again emerged as the year during the rains. In some major share of the blame for the major killers in this region during the last areas, nonoesters are accompanied by inexcusable poverty and deprivation of decade, the most recent devastation incessant rains, which cause flash floods. the masses can be laid on the vagaries of being the cyclone and tidal surge of 29 In a country situated at one of the nature, it is, no doubt, true that almost all April 1991. great river deltas of the world, the economic activities in such an eco- Already recognized as the most Ganges-Jamuna-Meghna delta, it is system are virtual gambles with nature. severe cyclone of the century to hit the natural that floods are a regular It is quite natural that the poorer region, it has killed more than 140,000 phenomena in Bangladesh. The segments of the population should be people, which does not surpass the economic life of the people is organized the first to lose out in the gamble of life. number of casualties during the 1970 with this in mind, and the people have If we analyze the social differentiation cyclone, but this cyclone caused more adjusted their lives to an ecosystem and the marginalization process in the widespread havoc in terms of crops, where floods are expected, and rural areas of Bangladesh, we find that property and infrastructure than any sometimes welcome visitors. But the the changes in production relations in other natural disaster in the country's severity and the timing of floods quite peasant societies are significantly history. Killer cyclones capture world often surprise people. Some of the recent intertwined with ecological factors as attention because of the catastrophic toll floods affected more than two-thirds of well as with institutional, social and they take on human life and resources, the total area of Bangladesh, and the political realities in Bangladesh. but they are only a few in a long series of devastation caused to crops, houses, Impoverishment of the peasant natural calamities that frequently afflict roads, embankments, cattle, poultry, cultivators and sharecroppers, Bangladesh, even several times a year. fishery and all other types of economic increasing landlessness, gradual infrastructure was enormous. Floods marginalization of the small landowners Muinul lslam is Associate Professor in the take a smaller toll in terms of human life, and peasant families, increasingly Department of Economics, University of but the magnitude of loss they cause in Chittagong, Bangladesh. skewed land ownership distribution, term of resources, such as in the floods of This article is an abridged version ofa paper presented agricultural indebtedness and by the author at the Conference on "Worldwide 1974, 1987 and 1988, may reach pauperization of the small peasantry - Refugee Movements, Development Politics and catastrophic proportions. whatever the issue considered - the Human Rigftts. "(NewYork, November 8-9,Iggl).

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) 5 analysis cannot but consider the long time thereafter. Under these family has no option but to move to an deleterious effects of adverse changes in conditions, the decision to become a urban slum. the natural phenomena mentioned squatter in an urban area is not a matter The term "distress migrant," or earlier and the sudden devastations of choice. A family whose entire "economic migrant" cannot bring out the caused by them. property, both homestead and cultivable real plight of these groups of displaced land, is lost to river erosion, may be people. Even the term "economic refugee" Refugees in Bangladesh fortunate enough to move to a safer place seems to evoke connotations that tend to In this paper, we focus our attention on in the same locality, but more often that minimize the utter desperation and the refugees of Bangladesh, who are uprooted from their rural homes by an amalgam of economic, social, Table 1: Major Cyclonic Storms and Tidal Surges In Bangladesh institutional and political factors, as well as by consecutive onslaughts of natural Date Region Phenomena Death toll disasters like floods, cyclones, river erosions, etc. Conceptually, these 1960, Eastern Meghna Severe cyclonic storm, 3,000 refugees are variously termed as Oct. 9-10 Estuary wave 10 ft "economic migrants," "distress migrants" or "compelled migrants," but the 1960, Chittagong Severe cyclonic storm, 8,149 compulsive push of circumstances Oct. 30-31 surge height 20 A becomes so much a matter of life and death for the refugees fleeing the ravages of natural disasters that normally they 1961, West Megna Severe cyclonic storm, 11,468 have no choice but to migrate. Therefore, May 9 Estuary wave 8-10 ft the term refugee is more appropriate than the term migrant. 1963, Chittagong, Severe cyclonic storm, 11,520 For example, a marginal farmer or May 28-29 COX'SBazar wave 8-12 ft sharecropper loses two consecutive crops, one by flood during theearlyrainy 1965, Barisal Hurricane, 19,270 season, the other by storm surges driven May 11-12 wave 12 ft from the sea by the storm wind that inundates the field with saline water in the next storm season of October/ 1965, Coxfs Bazar Severe cyclonic storm, 873 November. Such consecutive blows will Dec. 15-16 and Teknaf wave 8-10 A leave no option for such a farmer but to rush to the for survival. The farmer 1966, Sandwip Severe cyclonic storm, 850 may or may not sell the last parcel of Oct. 10 wave 20-22 ft cultivable or homestead land, but the decision to migrate is not a matter of 1970, Meghna Estuary Hurricane, storm 300,000- choice; it is brought forth by the sheer NOV.12-13 surge 10-33 A 500,000 need for survival. When a 20- to 30-foot high tidal Severe cyclonic storm, 11,069 surge driven by a hurricane storm raging 1985, Chittagong, at more than 250 kilometers per hour May 24-25 Noakhali Coast surge height 14 A demolishes everything in its way, in- cluding houses, trees, properties and 1988, Khulna Severe cyclonic storm, 5,708 crops, people, cattle, poultry and Nov. 29 surge height 14.5 ft fisheries are washed away to their death. If the survivors of sucha catastrophe find 1991, Chittagong, Hurricane, storm 140,000 shelter in a relief camp, they cannot April 29* Cox's Bazar surge 20-30 ft simply decide to go back to their ravaged homes, because such a singularly powerful strike of nature completely Source: Compiledfrom Table 1.16, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 1990 Statistical Yearbook destroys the economic base of people in ofBangladesh (BBS. Dhaka, 1990: 25-29) the affected areas, and therefore their *The data of the 1991 hurricane are incorporated from offiecia1 data published in various potential for earning a livelihood for a newspapers.

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992)

------helplessness of such people. The word disaster subsides, the long and arduous members. They are the floating "refugee,,"long associated with war, civil problem of rehabilitation arises. It is population of the cities and towns of the strife, turmoil, political repression, generally admitted that the loss incurred Third World. It is estimated that about famine and epidemics, seems to have by the poorer families among the victims 3,000 people sleep in the platforms of stereotyped the concept. Khasiani, is proportionately greater compared to Dhaka railway station, and 1,500 in the writing about refugee research in Africa, their capacity to sustain such losses. Sadarghat river terminal every night. complains about this conceptual Repair of dwellings, replacement of lost These types of public places are the initial inadequacy (Khasiani 371). He writes, assets, cattle, poultry, furniture and shelters for the newly arrivingdestitutes. In defining refugees some studies restrict fixtures, etc., add up to a stupefying They proceed to the slums and themselves to the narrower United Nations burden, however meagre the value and squatter colonies spread all over the definition while others apply the slightly volume of those properties and assets a cities or towns and their suburbs. The broader Organization of African Unity poor family had before the disaster in an larger a city is, the greater is the number definition.h4any otherstudiesarenot clear absolute sense. Therefore, a great many of its slums. A survey in 1983 estimated concerning the -hjpe of &finition adopted. of them decide to eke out an existence in that eighteen percent of the migrant This renders the area of refugee studies population in Dhaka city live in slums vague, confusing, and of limited the urban areas. comparability. [He further laments,] ... They arrive in throngs, crowd the accounting for more than eight percent refugee populations which settle footpaths, railway stations, river of the squatter poor (Centre for Urban spontaneously are exclu&dfiom estimates terminals, all sorts of public buildings Studies; Majumdar, 1989: 3). It is further of refugee populations since they usually where they can get entry, parks, vacant estimated that about one and a half fall outside organised assistance. (ibid.: plots, narrow strips of land by the sides million people of Dhaka live in slums 373) of railway tracks, etc. As beggars, coolies, and squatter colonies, which comes to vendors, domestic servants, rickshaw- about twenty-five percent of the total This conceptual confusion is pullers, pushcart drivers, they try to earn population, estimated at around six particularly pertinent for "ecological a living for themselves and their family million in 1991 (Majumdar, 1992). A refugees" who lose the sympathetic public attention after the initial media attention subsides, and the official relief camps are closed down. Rehabilitation of such refugees is almost always abandoned halfway; official quarters u and relief organisations do not normally 0 50 1OOkn-i follow up on the camp-leaversto oversee the rehabilitation of their economic life. *\.-. .rg-.-*\ We are concerned, then, to describe pa INDIA the process whereby ecological BANGLADESH phenomena tend to accelerate the process of marginalization and pauperization of the lower rungs of the people of Bangladesh, and have been creating a distinct group of "environ- mental refugees" in the continuum of "economic refugees" in Bangladesh. Ecological Phenomena and Refugees in Bangladesh

Among the poorer victims of ecological disasters like cyclones, tidal surges and floods, the worst affected of the immediate survivors normally seek of tho Qanga shelter in relief camps for immediate succour provided by the government, BAY OF BENGAL various aid agencies, voluntary organizations and the general public. As the severity of the crisis caused by such a Fig: 1 : Bangladesh

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 oune 1992) 7 significant proportion of these slum- move, because these refugees are used as directive a resettlement scheme was dwellers and almost all of the floating pawns and as the first line of defense launched whereby30,OOO Bengali families population can justifiably be counted as against armed insurgents, who were to settle in the CHT in 1979; 25,000 refugees rather than economic migrants frequently attack, kill and plunder these families in 1980, and about 250,000people or distress migrants, due to the hapless people in the settlements. In fact, in 1982. A settlement programme today continues unabated. " (Rizvi: 42) absolutely minimal standard of living, these settlementscould be considered as health and sanitation they endure. The refugee colonies, the only difference It is important to note that about 30,000 bare floor of the railway platforms is their being that these were established in the tribal refugees have fled to the refugee bed; roadside drains are the latrines; they danger zones of Chittagong Hill Tract, camps of India to escape from the buy food from the footpath vendors; counter-insurgency operations they carry their belongings around launched by the Bangladesh Armed during daytime; street water taps and Forces against the tribal insurgents. It is derelict ponds are their sources of water. 'N massive resettlement an ironic fate that ecological refugees are Surely these arrangements are meagre program encouraged by the being lured to fill in the vacuum. Most of even by the standards of refugee camps. government to counter the these refugees hail from the coastal areas The Economic and Social insurgency activities of Chittagong, Noakhali, Patuakhali, Commission for Asia and the Pacific Barisal, and the offshore islands of (ESCAP, UNO Agency) defines distress launched by th~tribal Sandwip, Hatiya and Bhola. They are migration as that which is caused by nationalities of these areas displaced and driven out of their homes periodic famines, , floods and has succeeded in attracting by cyclones, tidal surges, sea-erosion, other natural calamities (ESCAP: 12).But about halfa million destitute change of course of rivers, etc. A the conditions of the environmental noticeable percentage of the settlers refugees of Bangladesh call for a and displaced people from hailing from Comilla, Noakhali, redefinition of these people as refugees the disaster-prone coastal Faridpur and Barisal lost their homes proper rather than migrants. Khasiani areas and off-shore islands and cultivablelands in river erosionsand rightly comments: into these hostile floods. The life risk posed by the This population is forced to migrate insurgents called the Shanti Bahini was because of economic hardships which may settlements." considered by these people to be an be caused by environmental calamities or acceptable danger in the face of hunger wars. This migration is in search of and economic ruin caused by natural livelihood and their destination may be far away from the disaster-hit areas, to phenomena. different areas within thesamecountriesor neutralize the numerical strength of In support of our contention that across borders into neighbouring countries. These individuals are displaced different tribal nationalities in the environmental catastrophes like and live in refugee-like conditions. disturbed areas. cyclones, tidal surges, serious floods, (Khasiani: 371) The following excerpt from an river erosions, sea erosions, etc., drive article on this problem of insurgency will mainly the poor from their roots and The fact that these refugees fall outside be instructive: turn them into economic refugees, we organised assistance should not restrict The abolition of its special status in 1964 note some of the empirical findings of a them from being categorised as refugees. opened up the CHT to largescale migration recent survey conducted by G.S. Sahota For the last two decades, these and to economic penetration by outsiders (and others) on the victims of the 1988 environmental refugees have also been with a callous disregardfor the traditions flood of Bangladesh: moved to the relatively inaccessible and and interests of the indigenous population. a) The loss of human life in the country sparsely populated hilly areas of From Dhaka thegovernment has launched was 5,000, cattle 135,000, and poultry Chittagong Hill Tract, or CHT. A a systematic scheme to dilute the tribal birds 1.25 million. Over 2.2 million or population of the CHTby means of massive massive resettlement program migration from the plains. In 1951 more one-seventh of all types of buildings encouraged by the government to than nine-tenths of the population of the and 19 743 kilometres of roads and counter the insurgency activities CHT were tribal, but after the abolition of embankments were fully destroyed. launched by the tribal nationalities of the excluded area status the demographic The damage is a colossus ...The losses these areas has succeeded in attracting balance has altered dramatically: in 1974 of poultry, goats, cattle, dwellings, about half a million destitute and theoutsiders constituted twelve percent of and household effects among these displaced people from the disaster- the total population; in 1980 it was about destitutes are assessed at 67 percent, prone coastal areas and off-shore islands 35 per cent and, even though the current 77 percent, 66 percent, 73 percent, and into these hostile settlements.The wrong figures are not available, it is variously 56 percent, respectively, of the total estimated that the tribal people by now political designs of the rulers have been outnumbered in their own home. value of the respective asset. The notwithstanding, this program is a cruel Under the late President Zia-ur Rahman's average respondent household lost assets worth about Bangladesh taka

8 Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) 10,000 or approximately 70 percent of Concluslon In this paper, we focused on the all assets (Sahota: 25); ecological phenomena, and their effects b) Almost half of those interviewed (44.6 In aperipheral, neo-colonialstate such as in the acceleration of the marginalization percent) had also sought refuge in a Bangladesh, the laws of motion of process of the poorer classes of the relief camp during the flood of 1987. peripheral capitalism breed squatters society. From this viewpoint, our study Recurrence of similar floods most and slum dwellers. The more aid that is may seem cursory. Admitting this likely will force a certain segment of accepted, the more aid-dependent the limitation of our approach, however, we the population to become dependent country becomes. While industry is submit that ecological phenomena have on outside help, at least for a certain virtually stagnant, agricultural a substantial impact on the changes in period, each time (26); production can hardly keep pace with production relations in an ecosystem c) The findings of the relief camp survey the rapid population increase. where nature may become a formidable suggest that the 1988flood damage to While the country can afford to pay adversary.But what is more important is this typically poor segment of the less than half its import bill, the greater that these ecological adversities can be population has been colossal. They part of the government budget is spent effectively tackled through appropriate have lost more than half of their on the military and the civil bureaucracy. human efforts. assets, paltry though they were to A meagre 1.5 percent of the GDP goes to Cyclones and tidal surges are begin with (28); education, so not surprisingly the vagaries of nature, but the damages from d) The poor do suffer significantly more literacy rate has increased from 20 them can be minimized with proper than the nonpoor in the sense that the percent to only 25 percent in the last 40 remedial measures like permanent losses of overall income of the poor are higher than those of the other -- - - strata of the society (29); "Cyclones and tidal surges are vagaries of nature, but the e) As many as 8.1 percent of sample damages fiom them can be minimized with proper remedial households resorted to distress sales measures like permanent embankments, planned coastal (29); f) Natural disasters in disaster-prone afforestation, cyclone shelters, concrete fort$?cations, modem Bangladesh hit the poor harder than warning systems, adequate rescue facilities, well-planned the nonpoor. ... both the intensity and preparedness programs, effective relief programs, etc. " the extent of damages are higher among the poor (39); g) The extent of distress sales is years. Only 0.65 percent of the GDP is embankments, planned coastal approximately 2.5 times higher on spent on health. The alliance of the afforestation, cyclone shelters, concrete the poor than the nonpoor (39); militarybureaucracy and the comprador fortifications, modern warning systems, h) The losses of overall income of the merchant capitalistscontinue to plunder adequate rescue facilities, well-planned lower rungs of socioeconomicclasses the country under the semblance of preparedness programs, effective relief are at least ten per cent higher than popular democracy with active, and programs, etc. those of the rest of society (39); quite often overbearing guidance of the Floods are controllable; river- i) While the nonpoor may withstand a donor countries and aid organisations. dredging, river-training, embankments, dissipation of a good part of their The country is a smugglers' paradise sluice gates, dams, barrages, etc., are assets without bankrupting with active connivance of the law techniques within the command of themselves, the poor are on thin ice. enforcing agencies and policy makers. existing knowledge. Without further Once that ice breaks under their feet, The meagre domestic savings are not elaboration, what we emphasize is that it will take much longer for them to invested for any productive purpose; people and their ecology have to be recover their balance again (39-40); institutional credit is siphoned off by harmonized with sincere efforts by j) Both the intensity and the extent of merchants and diverted to the "black society.Thepriorityhas tobe determined unemployment caused by floods empire" of smuggling and black by the society itself, whether it needs were consistently higher among marketing. Capital flight is rampant; flood control programs more urgently, spouses of lower socio-economic poverty alleviation only gets lip-service or it needs to expand and modernize its classes in comparison to spouses in this scenario; the system rests on armed forces and its bureaucracy on a from upper socio-economic classes exploitation of the poor, and increasing priority basis. (40); concentration and centralisation of The society has to decide whether it k) The poor are more vulnerable to the ownership in rural areas result in rapid will beg from the whole world for relief ravages of natural disasters than the rural to urban migration and swelling materials for the refugees, or whether it average household in Bangladesh urban slums. will ask for help and assistance from the (41). other nations of the world for building

%gel Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) up an effective cyclone-protection Notes daily by high tides carrying saline water system. In a class-oriented society like upstream. Bangladesh, the ruling groups will never "Norwesters" are summer storms that 6. Siltinghas increased alarmingly in all of surrender their vested interests. But hit localized targets in different areas of Bangladesh's rivers because of vastly people's power must speak up in a the country from March to June. They do increased amounts of silt carriedbyriver participatory democracy to compel not kill many people but cause water from upper-riparian countries, as public representatives to determine the enormous damage to houses, crops well as from catchment areas within (especially rice), fruit trees, rivercraft Bangladesh. Added to this now is the real people-oriented priorities of the and other economic infrastructure. problem of the drying up of river beds society. We agree with Sahota when he Bangladesh has a network of more than during six or seven months of the year says that: 700 rivers, about 3,000 tributaries and because of construction of dams, The county herself being a disaster-prone canals. The zigzag courses and the barrages and imgation projects in many delta land and its poorer strata even more, alluvial nature of the soil of the delta major rivers flowing from India. any program to mitigate natural disasters regions combine to create serious 7. This is a natural problem of a country or their impacts is a pro-poor program. problems of erosion of river banks comprising deltaic regions, especially if Additionally, any program that isfocused during the summer and rainy seasons the rivers are shallow and zigzag, and on alleviating poverty is a step toward when the river currents are particularly the soil is mainly alluvial. Some districts minimizing the damages from natural strong. The offshore islands of theBay of routinely lose human habitations and disasters because the poorer a group of Bengal and in the Meghna Estuary also crop lands due to this problem. people the more vulnerable it is to incur routinely experience erosion of the 8. Surprising though it may seem, the heavy damages from such disasters. coastal belt during the windy and northwestern districts of Bangladeshare (Sahota: 41) violent months. increasingly experiencing symptoms of The northwestern part of the country desertification. Drying up of rivers, suffersfromoccasionaldroughts during large-scale , excessive the months of November-May. Crop pumping up of sub-soil water, the failures result from such droughts. withdrawal of water by the Farakka and "The society has to decide Sometimes floods followed by droughts Teesta dams in India are some factors in a year or vice-versa cause consecutive responsible. The Barindh tract of whether it will beg from the crop failures, which accentuate Rajshahi appears tobe the major affected whole world for relief marginalization and pauperization of area. materials for the refugees, or peasants. References whether it will ask for help The very low and low categories of land are waterlogged for most parts of the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 1990 and assistance from the year. Even the medium-low category of Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh (BBS, other nations of the world land suffers from waterlogging after the Dhaka, 1990). for building up an eflective rainy season, especially after the floods Centre for Urban Studies, Slums in Dhaka City and tidal surges. The unplanned -A Socio-economicSurvey for Feasibility of cyclone-protection system." construction of roads and silting up of Slum Clearance and Urban Renewal river beds have led to a deterioration in Programme in Dhaka City (CUS, Dhaka this regard. A new dimension is added University, Dhaka, 1983). by the alarming magnitude of ESCAP, Report of the Expert Group Meeting on Sahota has marvelled at the waterlogging problems in the urban MigrationandHuman Settlements,ESCAP indomitable spirit, fortitude and centres of the country, including Dhaka (United Nations, Bangkok, 1977). and Chittagong. Unplanned expansion resilience of the people of Bangladesh of houses, roads, urban sprawl and the Khasiani, S.A., "Refugee Research in Africa: who have restarted human activities deterioration and closure of drains, Problemsand Possibilities," International after the 1988 flood to such a degree that ditches and canals increase the water- Migration XXVIII, 3 (1990): 369-377. it now seems as if nothing happened. logging problem. Majumdar, P.P. et al., Squatter Life in the We believe that the poor of The problem of salinity took a serious Argargaon Area, Draft Report (Mimeo) (BIDS, Dhaka, 1989). Bangladesh can brave the torments of turn in the southern delta region of ecological devastation if they effectively Bangladesh after the erection by India of Majumdar, P.P., "Basti Jibaner Gatishilata 0 combine their indomitable spirit, the Farakha Dam in the upstream of the Sthabirata (in Bengali)," Bangladesh river Ganges near the Indo-Bangladesh Unnayan Samih, (BIDS, Dhaka, 1992): fortitude and resilience in a democratic 71-92. struggle to break the shackles of the border. The dam reduces the dry-season flow of the river system of southern Rizvi, G., "Bangladesh: Insurgency in the ruling cliques of Bangladesh and their Hills," The Round Table305, (1988):39-44. foreign mentors who have been Bangladesh, fed by water from the Ganges-Padma.The lower parts of those Sahota, G.S. et al., TheextentandtheDistribution ruthlessly keeping them helpless victims rivers which become lean or dried up in of the 1988 Flood Damages in Bangladesh, of nature for time immemorial. The poor the winter months because of diversion ESEPP Working Paper 10, (HIID/ of Bangladesh have to decide of water by the Farakha, are affected ESEPP, Planning Commission, Govt. of themselves. Bangladesh, Dhaka, 1988).

10 Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) REFUGEES IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA Causes and Effects Ogenga Otunnu

Environmental degradation, over- This paper is devoted to a general focused attention on the underlying population, droughts, famines, debt description of environmental d&rada- weaknesses in the economic and crisis, political and social instability, and tion in sub-Saharan Africa and to a agricultural systems of the subSaharan economic marginalization have become review of the factors that play a region. Compounded by the economic popular catchwords in any major debate significant role in causing environment- vulnerability of the sub-continent, the on Africa. One of the most tragic al refugees. It is hoped that the following droughts led to devastating famines - indicators of the continent's chronic state points will be highlighted: that the displacing millions and sending many of demise is the extremelyhigh incidence concept of an environmental refugee is a more fleeing their lands. Scholars, of refugees. Although sub-saharan multi-dimensional phenomenon. It has including S.E. Nicholson (1985), Africa only has about ten percent of the exogenous and endogenous aspects, Nicholson and D. Entekhabi (1986), C.A. world's population, it accounts for causes and effects. While climatic change Wood (1977))D.J. Shove (1977), Eugene nearly twenty-fivepercent of the world's has compounded the crisis, the nature of M. Rasmusson (1987) and Workineh refugees (Lofchie: 89). A substantial the state, the political economy of sub- Degufu (1987), point out that there is a percentage of these were environmental Saharan Africa, and the international major ecological change affecting the refugees, "people fleeing land that could economic system are largely responsible region. In his work on Ethiopia, Degefu no longer support them" (Timberlake: indicates that due to the 1980s , 162). Others have fled civil wars and thousands of domestic and wild animals human rights violations. There are "In retrospect, debate about perished, forest fires caused incalculable millions more internally displaced the complex and damage to the forest-based economy, people who are not legally recognized controversial concept of an and large population migrations took under international law as refugees. place from the arid north to the west and Unless there is a major reversal of current environmental refugee in southwest direction. Dessalegn trends, there is very little basis for sub-SaharanAfrica must be Rahmato (1991) adds: optimism about the famine or the located in and informed by As of December 1987, over two million economic, environmental and refugee the larger discussion on peasants in Tigrai and Wollo were said to crises in Africa. In retrospect, debate be in distress and in need of emergency about the complex and controversial the crisis facing assistance. In theearly part of theyear, the concept of an environmental refugee in the entire region." northeast and Eritrea were threatened by a sub-saharan Africa must be located in serious locust invasion, said to be the worst outbreak since 1958 .... The outlook for and informed by the larger discussion on 1988, according to Relief and Re- the crisis facingtheentire region. Various for generating environmental refugees. habilitation commission, was quite factors that directly or indirectly lead to Environmental catastrophes have far gloomy: more than 5.2 million peasants in environmental deterioration or degra- more devastating impacts on the poor, the county were expected to stamifrelief dation include: desertification, de- the young, and therefore the most supplies did not reach them in time. The forestation, drought, vulnerable groups in their societies. Put worst affcted areas were Eritrea, Tigrai and depletion, locusts, wars, succinctly, impacts differ depending on and northern Wollo, but peasants in North deterioration of the ozone layer, gender, age, class and region. Finally, Shoa, northeastern Gondar, and parts of overpopulation and flooding. It should environmental degradation exacerbates Harrarghe provinces were also suffering be indicated straightaway that there are the crisis of underdevelopment, political from drought and food shortages. In many areas in the northern provinces the 19871 no impenetrable walls between instability and refugee problems in the 88 harvest failed completely, and peasants environmental, political and economic region. were faced with starvation on a large scale. factors - they are, at one and the same (14-15) time, causes and effects of Natural Causes environmental crisis. The severe droughts of the 1970s and As Hailu Lemma (1985),Peter Lawrence, 1980s not only initiated new Francis Snyder and Moris Szefte (1985) Ogenga Otunnu is a Doctoral Candidate in the environmental and land quality correctly point out, the situation was Department of History at York University and a problems as well as exposing and compounded by the wars in Eritrea and Researcher in the Centre for Refugee Studies. accelerated existing ones, they also Tigray.

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) Wars Overpopulation and Other neglect of food-production systems. He Human Activities asserts that environmental degradation Wars are rampant in Africa. In and overpopulation largely reflect the Mozambique, Frente de Libertaqiio de Environmental degradation is not only failures of national decision-making in Mozambique (FRELIMO) has been caused by climatic change in the region. the region. In keeping with the general engaged in a long and costly war with In retrospect, MichaelH. Glantz explains thrust of his argument, Glantz maintains the Mozambique National Resistance this phenomenon in terms of population that drought leads to famine in Africa and its ally, the government of South explosion and other human activities: because of the vulnerability of the Africa. In Angola, war continues In the 1960s, when the West African Sahel society. Put succinctly, "the real problem between the Movirnento pela libertaqlo was enjoyinga moist , a number of in Africa is poverty." Like Robert J. de Angola (MPLA)a government and communities were established in areas Cummings (1987), he concludes that the dissident Uniiio Nacional para a previously regarded as inadequate to there is a close link between Independencia Total de Angola sustain agriculture. Everincreasing environmental degradation, drought, (UNITA).In the Sudan, the government human and animal populations have famine, national policies, the Inter- in Khartoum has been fighting against threatened traditional agricultural and national economic system and economic 1 ives tock-raising practices. Over- cultivation and over-grazing have reduced the productivity of land. The widespread Glantz and his colleagues are not destruction of tree cover for fuelwood alone in their assertions. As a matter of 'Wars make sustainable (encouraged by high prices of petroleum- land use and agricultural fact, whenever a major environmental based fuel) and construction has catastrophe occurs in sub-Saharan development impossible. accelerated the degradation. Poor water management and the salinization of Africa, discussions centre around Furthermore, a regime that irrigation systems havealso left their mark. overpopulation, deforestation, soil is militarily engaged in The net result is that each year 1.5 million erosion, crop failures and misuse of land. battlesfor its survival places hectares are overwhelmed by a of In arid and semi-arid areas, discussions sand. (xv) on environmental degradation focus on no priority on sustainable desertification, a catch-all term that environmental practices." This and other related factors, which encompasses soil erosion due to wind have led to nearly two decades of the harshest drought in recent history have had a devastating effect upon the the Sudan People's Liberation peopleand theeconomicand social systems Movement. In Chad, wars, and of a score of African countries. It has '%.aneconomies are annexation of the extremenorth by Libya wrenched theecologyand theenvironment highly dependent on market- led to a temporary semi-partitioning of of most of thecontinent.Successivefailures economies and keyed to the the country. Uganda has witnessed have led to food scarcity, resulting in export of commodities, which several wars: 1978-79 between Uganda malnutrition, unchecked disease, the decimation of livestock herds and has precipitated the neglect and Tanzania, 1980-85 in the Luwero ultimately famine, with staggering loss of of food-production systems." Triangle and West Nile, and since 1985in human life. There has been enormous the Northern and Eastern regions. There migration - within and between is a close connection between wars and countries - and human suffering ... In environmental degradation, refugees, addition, the drought has aggravated the and water, soil compaction due to famine and economic crisis. Wars make economic crisis that almost all sub- Saharan countrieshavebeenexpriencing. trampling. firewood gathering, reduced sustainable land use and agricultural follow time salinization and development impossible. Furthermore, It has further depleted government revenues and foreign exchange, intensified waterlogging(Glantz: 49; A. Warren and a regime that is militarily 'engaged in unemployment and brought growth in J.K.Maizels, 1977: 1). But why does battles for its survival places no priority major productive centres to a halt. overpopulation persist? And to use on sustainable environmental practices. (xvi-xvii) Mahmood Mamdani's words (1985), Wars rule out care for the environment. why do people cut down forests? Why Also, desertification may be caused by Glantz traces the root causes of the do they overgraze? Why do they work "activities of shells, bombs and tracked crisis to what he calls "colonialbaggage" the same tired land without resting it? Is vehicles." Timberlake is convincing and the subsequent integration of the it out of sheer ignorance? when he concludes that: "War damages region into the international capitalist There is no single uncontested the environment; but environmental economy.In his view, Africaneconomies answer to each question raised. degradation can also add to the pressure are highly dependent on market- Nonetheless, most literature on from which conflict emerges" (165). economies and keyed to the export of developmentin Africa suggeststhat high commodities, which has precipitated the

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 aune 1992) ------

population growth is a result of and fails to understand the conditions hand soil erosion, on the other, 'over- inadequate education on the relevant under which the aisis occurs, is a false population. 'Thesharpest expression of this issue. In retrospect, by indicating that the comfort since it cannot lead to is Karamoja ,,. The Karamojafarnine can't young and most vulnerablecomprise the appropriate actions. In his contribution be fully understood without an historical analysis. Its starting point must be majority of the population, national to the debate, Mamdani like Timothy understood that the Karamojong people governments are urged to put in place Shaw (1987) is convinced that the genesis lost roughly 20 per cent of their grazing coherent andinformed policies to control of the disaster is to be found in the land, in phases, through either the high population growth. Education is colonial political economy which led to redrawingofadministrati&boundaries in often emphasized as central to the peripheralization and marginaliza- the 1920s or creation ofNationa1 Park like overcoming the problem. Similarly, tion of the peasants. Like Walter Rodney Kidepo later. It is this fact which called deforestation and land degradation are (1972), Martin Klein (1980), Shula Marks forth a change in pastoral practices. No often linked to overpopulation, longer could grasslands be rested up to the ignorance and poor agricultural and annual burning. Not only was all grazing land used throughout the years without land-use policies. Governments, donors any annual burning, forests were and intellectuals have blamed "For these changes to be is progressively cut down to increase the nomadism for problems arising due to explored, there an urgent grazing area. (95) overgrazing (E.H. Palmer, 1974: 297-300; need to develop viable civil M.J. Herskovits: 1926; G.P. Murdock, institutions that can In a similar vein, P.D. Little (1984), D.A. 1959; A. Lomax and C.M. Arensberg, Low (l963), Colins Leys (1975), E.A. Brett 1977: 659-701). H.F. Lamprey asserts that eflectively articulate and (1974), David Throup (1988) and J.G. overwhelming evidence indicates that meet the socio-economic and Galaty (1980) indicate that in , overgrazing is the cause of "widespread polih'cal demands of the encroachment on Masai pastoral lands damage to semi-arid and arid zone people." dates to an early White-settler economy grasslands" (1983: 643-66). The FA0 has -when large tracts of grazing land were attacked the very character of handed to the settlers. In neo-colonial pastoralists: " ... caring for nothing, Kenya, the land problem has remained disdaining manual labor, balking at (l985),Jane I. Guyer (1980), Robin Cohen unresolved. As a matter of fact, Michael paying taxes, and being unwilling to sell (1976), Jane L. Parpart (1983), and R.H. M. Horowitz and Peter D. Little (1987) their animals...; they do not make the Bates (1989), he asserts that colonial land, note that the loss of Masai grazing land to economic contribution to their countries labour and taxation policies led to both state development schemes (including that is rightfully expectedof them" (1973: exploitation and pronounced dis- tourist parks), private farmers and 14). In its later work the Food and parities. This system, he goes on, which ranchers, has made life increasingly hard Agriculture Organization (FAO) finds favours cash crops at the expense of food for herders during drought. the cause of environmental degradation crops, big traders (including the state) at With independence and the ensuing in the attitudes and customs of the expense of small peasants and political dominance of agriculturalists, pastoralists, not the conditions under pastoralists in rural areas, has remained such as the Kikuyu, cultivators were which pastoralism operates. "It is essentially unchanged in neo-colonial permitted to settle in the higher rainfall, basically a problem of the misuse of sub-Saharan Africa. It is in response to dry season pastoral areas. Further loss of land ... particularly in pastoral areas, the aisis that a peasant or a pastoralist pastoral lands in Kenya is attributed to the uses whatever control he or she has over expansion of the tourist industry and much of the problem results from the national parks. Most of Kenya's tourist customs, value systems and attitudes of land and labour. With land scarcity, the sector, its second largest earner offoreign the people concerninggrazing lands and peasant is forced to work the tired land exchange, focuses on wildlife resources, livestock, together with the lack of over and over. In keeping with the focus which are -concentrated in the country's government mechanisms for effective of his work on Uganda, Mandani writes: rang areas. Indeed, two of the most control" (1980: 56; for a comprehensive At the same time, the peasant has as many important wild game areas in Kenya review of the literature, see Michael M. children as possible to maximise the labour (Amboseli and Maasai Mara) are in Horowitz and Peter D. Little (1987)). at his disposal. Fora middle-classfamily,a Maasai regions. Both of these, particularly Such a view, which favours child may be just a mouth to feed for 20 the swampgrazingarea of Amboseli, were years, but for a peasant family after four significant grazing areas for Maasai. sedentarization, does not only lead to Recent legislation in Kenya, however, greater impoverishment of the years the child is also two hands to work! My point is that peoplearenot poor because transformed Amboselifrom agameresm pastoralists, it has negative en- they have large families; really they haw (whichallows pastoraluse of the area) into vironmental and productive impacts. large families because they are poor! ... Of a national park that excludes pastoralists An explanation for environmental course, each of the solutions arrived at by altogether, (75) degradation and environmental the peasant is contradictory. It solves the refugees which reduces the causes and problem in theshort run, only to reproduce Therefore, deprived of swamp-grazing persistence of the crisis to individuals it much worse in the long run: on the one areas and traditional highland,

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) 13 pastoralists like the Masai of Kenya and population growth and land misuse poverty and underdevelopment that the Tanzania are compelled to concentrate created new challenges. nature of neo-colonial states and the their animals on already depleted Environmental crises that are international economic system must be lowland range areas. apparent in Africa are essentially the overhauled. The current politics of Among the Dasanetch along the result of retrogressive political and Structural Adjustment in sub-Saharan border of Kenya and Ethiopia, C.J. Carr economic decisions. The creation of Africa, for example, have led only to (1977) indicates what the loss of grazing game parks in societies where so many more political, social, economic and lands has meant: "In sum, the input of landless people exist, is a clear environmental crises for the majority of territorial restriction to the system has illustration of the nature of the state and the people. The way out is not more resulted in a self-perpetuating (or the lopsided land policies in the region. doses of the same politics of economic runaway) deterioration within the Under the notion of comparative reform. The need for collective system, especially along the lines [of]: (1) economic advantage, fertile lands are international actions is illustrated by the environmental breakdown in the plains designated for production of export emergence of the global commons: the in the form of reduction of total plant crops. The result is that peasants are , the deterioration of cover, ... disruption of natural faunal forced to expand and overwork the land. the ozone layer, the international assemblages, soil erosion, and (2) Large-scale irrigation schemes, either for movements of hazardous wastes and economic breakdown within the major export production or hydroelectric tropical deforestation. An under- production activity, ... increase in disease power, not only lead to mass displace- standing of climatic behavior that allows and death, and reduced milk yields ..." ment and exodus of people, but also force for early warning systems to operate (226). peasants to claim and overwork delicate adequately is urgently required for the F.N. Ibrahim (1984) describes tracts of land. All these point to the nature region; and finally, the very word environmental degradation in terms of of both the regional and global political 'refugee,' given its meaning under increasing marginalization of the economy. international law, is too inadequate to peasants and pastoralists and high accommodate environmental refugees. population growth in western Sudan: The Need for Change Therefore, there is urgent need to legally The first step should be a substantial, recognize environmental refugees so ... the sound, traditional system ofshifting indeed, radical change in land-use cultivation turned into land misuse, and a that they may be accorded necessary chain of processes of deterioration of land policies in the region. Land distribution assistance through the UNHCR and productivity was begun: population and tenure should address the other programs. a increase led toexcessiw cultivation, which, fundamental needs of the subSaharan in turn, led to enhanced soil erosion and dwellers. Economic policies that favour Selected Bibliography soil impoverishment. This resulted in the export crops and agriculture at the Adedeji, A. Dependency, Disequilibrium, Debt, decrease of millet yields per hectare in the expense of food crops and pastoralism and Destabilization (Addis Ababa: ECA, Sudan by halfin the last 15years. To make need to be re-examined. For these 1985). amends for this, the population, which is changes tobe explored, there is an urgent Bates, R.H.Beyond the Miracle of the Market: The constantly increasing at an annual rate of need to develop viable civil institutions Political Economy of Agrarian Development 2.5 percent, had to increase the area in Kenya (Cambridge: Cambridge cultivated with millet, from 392 000 that can effectively articulate and meet University Press, 1989). hectares in 1960 to 1 055 000 hectares in the socio-economic and political demands of the people. This will also Charney, J.G."Dynamics of deserts and 1975. This expansion of cultivation meant drought in the Sahel," Quarterly]ournal of a fresh wave of desertification .... The require putting in place accountable the Royal Meteorological Society, 101 (1975): increasingpersistenceoftheinhabitants in democratic governments that respect 193-202. tilling the land despite lack of suficient human rights. Involuntary resettlement Glantz, M.H., (ed.),Drought andHungerinAfrica rainfall prows that they are notable tokeep and the production of environmental pace with the natural fluctuations any (London: Cambridge University Press, refugees, who are often the victims of 1987). more, Instead of shifting southwards 1i.e. dam constructions and major projects awayfrom pastoral zone] the peasants try Griffiths, J.F. ofAfrica: World Surwy of to enlarge the area cultivated to be able to funded by the World Bank and other Climatology (Amsterdam: Elsevier 10, exist. This explanation of cultivation to financial institutions, must be avoided. 1972). Since environmental degradation is a counteract the decrease of rainfall works as Lodchie, M.F."Political and economic origins a catalyst for the process of desertifcation. significant threat to economic and social of African hunger," lournal of Modern (110-18) development, environmental concerns African Studies XIII, 4 (1975): 551-67. must become an important and integral Mamdani, M. "Disaster Prevention: Defining In pre-colonial Africa, people reacted to part of economic and social policies on a the Problems," Review of African Political land and political pressure by migrating national, regional and global scale. As far Economy 33 (August 1985):926. to open spaces. The creation and as Africa is concerned, environmental Timberlake, L. African Crisis: The Causes, the maintenance of colonial-national degradation is both a cause and an effect Cures of Environmental Bankruptcy boundaries and its political institutions, of poverty. It is around this issue of (London: Earthscan Publications, 1988).

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) ENVIRONMENTAL DISPLACEMENT IN MALAYSIA The Effects of the Development Process on Rural and Native Communities Sahabat Alam Malaysia

Malaysia is a land endowed with rejuvenation, a sustainable cycle that that were previously reserved for exquisite natural beauty and plentiful allows them to reap from it but yet agriculture and plantations. natural resources. With an annual requires their constant nurturing. Land As the country concentrates more rainfall of around eighty inches and the began to be regarded as a commodity.Its on manufacturing and production perpetual greenery of the rainforest, value in monetary terms began to be ventures, the need for expansion is Malaysia is also spared the extremities of coveted. With the increasing so- inevitable and more and more conditions andnatural disasters phistication of the economy, the business agricultural land is slowly being such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions of making money became the order of converted for housing and industrial or hurricanes. The most debilitating the day. Land was increasingly viewed projects. Reports in local papers confirm natural phenomenon is flooding that as a good investment and something to such trends: occurs during the in the east be used for development. Plantation companies will benefit coast of peninsular Malaysia and in some In cities and towns, land began to be from expected increases in the value parts of East Malaysia. more and more utilised for housing, of agricultural land following the In Malaysia, the Malays make up the commercial and industrial uses. With increased demand for industrial land majority of the population (sixtypercent) this centralisation of facilities, business in the Klang Valley. and have mainly been agriculturalists investments -both local and foreign - Plantation owners have converted who till the soil to grow fruit trees, rice increased, while services and other their agricultural lands for residential and other crops. Chinese and Indians, facilities were upgraded. Increased purposes. brought in during the colonial period, sophistication and material success of All industrial land sold out in originally laboured in the tin mines and the residents resulted in demand for Selangor. Tan Sri Muhammad Taib in plantations. better housing, shopping centres, would not allow factories to be built recreational and entertainment on former agricultural lands. Respect for Land amenities, etc. All this required land Industrial land to cost more in Klang Human beings through the ages space and land became not only a Valley in 1990. regarded the land as a source of their commodity for development but also for Malacca, running short of land, will be sustenance, a renewable resource to be speculation. The price of houses, offered to foreign companies flocking cultivated, reaped and nurtured. Land factories and commercial buildings to invest there. has been regarded as a source of began to escalate and those with money Syndicates acquire property for livelihood as well as a traditional to spare found investments to be made in speculation in Gelang Patah, Johore, heritage to be passed down from real estate, a profitable enterprise. The near the site of the second link to generation to generation. Those that fed price of property in Malaysia was still Singapore. from the land learned to respect and relatively low compared to other Reclamation project of the Perlis coast worship it. People learned to return to countries in East Asia, but then there was for a free trade zone will start soon. the earth what had been taken from it. a speculative trend and rush by Pahang will open more land for We can recognize this reverence in foreigners, especially from Singapore, industrial sites. cultures of the indigenous people and Hong Kong, Taiwan and Japan, to buy Thus, we can see how land is no longer natives of all the continents. up available land in Malaysia. This led to viewed as a resource to be nurtured and In recent times, land began to escalating property values, making respected, but as a commodity for acquire a new worth. No more did housingless affordable for thelocals.The exploitation and rape. Agrarian policies humanity accord it the reverence and government's policy of encouraging are regarded as a retardation to growth mysticism as did their predecessors, or industrialization and achieving the unless done on a large scale, while to regard the earth as a source of status of a "developed country" by the industrialisation is favoured. In year 2020 has also meant pressure for decisions about land use, first priority is further land development and increased mainly given to economic profitability; Sahabat Alam Malaysia (Friends of the Earth) the demand for land in outlying areas i.e., profit maximization is the basis for is a Malaysian Environmental NGO decision-making. l?@ge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) 15 Erosion of Values floods in rural as well as urban areas. Development, Displacement, This human-made disaster has caused Degradation With the erosion of values that we have damage in the millions of dollars to for theland, land used for small holdings, crops, houses and property; As plantations in outlying city centres small-scale agriculture, land left fallow Development of large-scale are converted to housing and industrial for regeneration, forests left untouched projects, such as highways, dams, estates, we find groups of estate workers in their pristine state and undeveloped buildings and tourist projects, have being displaced. Even though estate lands are now regarded as being brought about evictions and dis- conditions are terrible, workers are at underutilised. placement of those living in the vicinity; least given a house on the estate premises The eagerness to profit from the State acquisition or landowners' and a typical estate will provide other environment takes many forms: repossession of rich farmlands create a facilities, such as a school, a recreation * Mining the land for natural resources loss of livelihood and displace farmers. hall, a playing field, a temple, a grocery such as tin, oil and coal; The recent proposal to amend the Land co-operative or shop and dispensary for * Stripping forests of valuable timber; Acquisition Act 1960 makes it easier for * Draining and cutting mangrove areas the government to acquire land for for aquaculture; development without having to be * Megaproject development of challenged in a court of law, and may "No more did humanity beautiful unspoiled beaches; islands further aggravate the issue of internally accord it the reverence and and hill resorts to bring in tourist displaced persons. dollars; and Pollution of rivers and seas, mysticism as did their * Large-scale plantations and industrial destructive methods of fishing, trawlers predecessors, or to regard the estate development. and depleted fishery resources reduced earth as a source of Choice lands are being developed fish catches and the incomes of fish- rejuvenation, a sustainable by big corporations and large sections of ermen. Fishermen have been watching real estate are being bought up by rich their daily catches gradually decrease as cycle that allows them to reap foreign speculators. This has resulted in rivers and seas become more and more from it but yet requires their the shift of land ownership from the bulk polluted. constant nurturing. Land of the population to export orientated The encroachment upon their began to be regarded as a foreigners and the local elite. The bulk of fishing waters by large trawlers, with the population, especially the poor and their destructive methods of fishing, commodity." indigenous people, suffer the conse- further reduces the fishery resources. quences of such "progress." The livelihood of 3,000 fishermen in The rapid modernisation and ne- Kuala Muda, Kedah, is threatened by the basic medicines. Whole communities glect of ecological principles during the influx of aquaculture projects into the exist in the estates; when plantation past two decades has led to the creation area. Thousands of acres of rich displacement occurs, the lives of these of poverty and new under- privileged mangrove forests have been cleared for communities are disrupted. groups. The poor communities like fish and shrimp cultivation. This In 1969, the Bukit Jelutong farmers, fishermen, natives living in the destruction has resulted in river Plantations had to make way for the new forests and estate workers, suffer the loss pollution and a disturbance to the township of Shah Alam. The workers or deterioration of their resources (soil, delicate mangrove ecosystem leading to were removed and some went their land, water and forests) on which their a drastic drop in river resources such as separate ways. However, a majority of livelihood and well-being depend. fish, prawns, crabs and shellfish. Kuala them built squatter settlements near the Major causes of poverty and Muda is not the only place to be affected railway tracks and found work as environmental displacement of persons by the negative impacts of aquaculture contract or factory labourers. They were can be traced to these factors: projects; other states -Selangor, Perak, promised low-cost housing and other Logging of forests that affect Johore, etc. - have also experienced retrenchment benefits, which many of farmlands and forest resources of such adverse results. them did not receive. Finally, after 20 villagers living near forest areas The fishermen have found their years of waiting and living in squalid including the indigenous people of daily income decrease from US.$30.00 conditions, some families were allocated Sabah and Sarawak, and rural to $5.00 a day. They are finding it low-cost homes or empty land on which communities in Peninsular Malaysia; extremely hard to support their families to build. Silting of rivers due to on such a meagre income. They say that Recently, the government an- deforestation, hill cutting, housing or their problems arose with the advent of nounced that estate lands in the Klang construction projects, resulting in the the aquaculture projects. Valley will be converted for industrial increased incidence and severity of and other development projects. This will result in the displacement and loss of

16 Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) jobs for more than 35,000 estate workers. world, is in the process of being when they were informed that the state Many of the young and strong labourers developed for tourism. Golf courses, government had given the area to a may be able to work in the factories, but five-star hotels and condominiums are French company to be developed. for the older ones who have lived and presently being constructed. The Unsound agricultural projects have worked for most of their lives in estates, fishermen's village at the edge of the also brought hardships to farmers adjusting to life outside the estates island, which houses around 300 involved in government padi-growing without a job, home or future prospects families, is to be relocated further inland schemes. In Sungai Manik and Kerian, will be extremely difficult and dismal. to make way for the development the Integrated Agriculture Development Not only are plantations affected by project. Limited water resources on the Project failed because of irrigation urban renewal programs, but farmlands Island will be further strained when problems. Serious flaws in the irrigation in and around cities are also not spared water is channelled to green the golf schemes implemented made farmers by progress. In Penang, 73 acres of rich course and to fill the needs of the hotels doubt the effectiveness of the project. In fruit-farming land in Kampong Pondok and condominiums. Hill clearings have Kampong Bagan Hulu, the digging of Upeh was acquired by the state disrupted small streams, accelerated soil two nearby rivers by the Malaysian government in 1973, despite fervent Fisheries Development Board to breed protests from farmers, to make way for prawns and fish has disrupted the water the Balk Pulau-Relau road. The Thean flow and led to the flooding of padi fields TeikEstate disputebetweenalandowner '2arge-scale tourism is with salty water, especially during a and 12,000 residents, who faced eviction anotherfactor that brings storm or high tide. This calamity from their rich farmlands, culminated in about w'or changes in the destroyed their crops and jeopardised the death of an innocent woman. The their main source of income. Lamented residents, who had been farming on this lives of the natives and rural one Lebai Talib Ali, a wizened hundred- fertile, agricultural land for generations, Malaysians. Redang Island, year old man, face dislocationbecausethe owner wants site of one of the most I personally cleared and cultivated the to turn the land into a township. beautiful marine ecosystems land during the pre-Merdeka period Squatters in settlements in the [pre-independence period]. It took Sungai Buloh forests, who had pre- in the world, is in the process four years of toil to turn this barren viously been displaced from Kampong of being developed for earthinto sustainableland for farming. Sungai Damansara, face the daunting Our padi, sugar-cane, corn and tourism." coconut trees which we depend on for prospect of being relocated once again. a living, are all gone now. Though their present longhouses are dismal and without basic amenities, they do not enjoy being moved around with erosion and caused silting in the river. Disruption of indigenous no promise of permanent homes. They These infractionswill definitelyaff ect the Communities feel that their rights are being well-being of the villagers. disregarded. They tell of an instance On Langkawi Island, physical Finally, we come to the true en- where the developer had dumped sand development to cater to the tourism vironmental refugees of our region - residues into a pond that the residents industry, has destroyed catchment areas the natives or indigenous people. The had dug themselves for rearing fish. The and small streams, drastically reducing Orang Asli, endemic to peninsular government, they say, has plans for golf the waterresourcesof theisland. This has Malaysia, have traditionally lived in or courses and parks but no alternative resulted in crop failure and flooding near forests and have gathered all their housing for them. during the rainy seasons. Destruction of nutritional requirements and basic Squatters in Kampong Bukit Sungai Gunung Raya, a major catchment area, needs from the forests. They hunted as Putih inselangor hadbuilt decent homes has caused farmers in the lowlands to well as collected rattan, bamboo and around the hilly region, blending in suffer the effects of massive soil erosion, bertam palms to build their houses and perfectly with nature. Their idyllic sedimentation and slope failure. Vested relied on a nearby river, which was often existence was destroyed one day in interests in developing Langkawi as a clean and clear, for drinking and February this year when the demolition major tourist destination have put washing purposes. They also earned squad from the district office came and pressure on landowners to dispose of some money by selling jungle products tore down their homes because they their lands. Due to persuasion or and fruits collected from the forests. were squatters. intimidation, many locals have However, the Orang Asli have been Large-scaletourism is another factor reluctantly sold their lands, their unable to preserve this lifestyle free from that brings about major changes in the heritage. At Pantai Kok in Langkawi, external pressures. lives of the natives and rural Malaysians. enterprising islanders had built quaint The construction of the Simpang Redang Island, site of one of the most chalets and rented them out to tourists. Pulai Pos Slim Highway to take tourists beautiful marine ecosystems in the Their thriving business received a blow to the proposed mega-tourist project on

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1(June 1992) 17 the Kinta Highland in Perak has affected the environment and brought great hardship to the Orang Asli living in the vicinity. The communities have been dwelling there for many generations.Six Orang Asli villages along the Sungai Raia rely on the river for their water and fish supply. They also cultivate padi, tapioca, keledek, corn, medicinal plants, fruit trees, chili and pepper. From the forests, they collect rattan, bamboo, mengkuang leaves and tree bark resins. Commercial logging and highway construction have depleted the forests' natural resources and destroyed large tracts of land cultivated with cash crops. Their crystal-clear river has been muddied and silted. Now, the natives of some of the villages have to walk a mile to collect drinking water. There was blatant disregard for the possible impact the road construction would have on the Orang Asli living in the area. Such encroachments on their environment have brought poverty, hunger and ill- health to these people. The love and respect for their land is expressed by an elder of one of the villages: PH0TO:SAHABAT AUM When we lose our land we are forced to Fig. 1: Home to the Orang Asli Tribe, this Malaysian forest mow up into the hills. Weknow that those is being cleared for a highway uplandsare thevitalsourceofwater besides being burial grounds of our ancestors. Do you want us to drink the blood of our Asli in the Ulu Sungai Linggiu, The Batang Ai power project in ancestors? Our newborn babies are raised Kampong Pasir Assam, Kampong Sarawak was constructed in the on the water originatingfrom the hills and, ifpolluted, they will get sick and die. Ifthe Semengor and Kampong SayongPinang heartland of the Iban tradition and air gets contaminated, it will affect the areas. Construction of the dam will culture. The project covered some 40,000 water and we will all get sick! destroy valuable forests, and many acres of land, of which 21,000 acres were animals and bids will perish from loss eventually flooded, destroying large The government's decision to build of habitat. When the dam is completed, areas of forests and lands held under a second international airport at Sepang 5 000 hectares will be submerged customary tenure, which include in Selangor is causing the Orang Asli in underwater and another 14 614 hectares swidden farms, crops and ancestral that region much anxiety over their will be set aside as water catchment lands. The project involved the future. The Orang Asli are quite happy areas. The natives' fruit orchards, resettlement of about 3,000 people. The with their present living conditions in hunting grounds and forest resources resettled Iban natives face many the district and have no wish to move. will all be submerged or, if located in problems and say that they had been They had been forced to move from their catchment areas, they willnot be allowed treated unfairly. Instead of the eleven original settlement during the Second free access. The remaining forest lands acres of cleared land that they said they World War and yet again during the will be taken up by government land had been promised, each family only Communist insurgency. They object to development schemes, leaving nothing received one acre. It also turned out that being moved around like excess for the Orang Asli. "Everything needs to they had to pay for their new longhouses baggage, indignantly declaring, "We are live, be it the elephant or ants or trees or when they were informed earlier that not nomads!" tigers or the fish in the rivers and us too, they would be free. While some families In Johore, the Linggiu dam project to the Orang Asli," said an Orang Asli received cash compensation, they did supply water to neighbouring Singapore medicine man, Abdul Rahman. not know how to deal with their new- will affect the livelihood of 300 Orang found wealth and squandered it away.

- - - - 18 Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) Most families were in shockover thenew The most well-known Sarawak tribe One final comment must be directed system and new way of living; many today must be the Penans, who gained at the First World nations with their could not cope. internationalrecognition for their widely strong network of world banking At Bukit Peninjau, Sarawak natives publicised barricades against loggers in systems, multinational corporations and were encouraged to move from their an attempt to protect the destruction of large scale agricultural policies; they are lands which were converted into their traditional lands, the rainforests, the initial purveyors of policies that plantations. Relocated in nearby where they have lived, hunted and encourage environmental destruction. settlements, these Ibans were recruited survived since time immemorial. Peace- Aggressive promotion of grandiose to work on the plantations. They were loving, gentle people, it has been said schemes and moneymaking ideas attracted by promises of being given free that a Penan would rather shoot his enthusiastically embraced by Third land and housing after ten years of blowpipe at a tree than aim it at his Worldelites, eagerfor asharein the spoils, aggressor. With the advent of logging, sets the process of environmental the Penans began to suffer its degradation in motion. As long as "Unrestricted development consequences:polluted rivers, decreased economic growth remains the main in a country anxious to wildlife, game and fish and depleted indicator of gauging a country's progress progress and achieve the forest resources. The community or growth, the environment, and those status of a newly developed experienced a drop in the quality of that depend on it for their livelihood, will living and health. They brought their always be affected. nation has caused complaints to the government The suffering and misery brought environmental degrahtion, authorities but nothing was done. about by environmental degradation is which has brought on Finally, when they had exhausted all here expressed in the words of a young poverty, displacement and avenues in trying to protect the Sarawak native: destruction of the forests and their very For ages, our people have been collecting the uprooting of survival, they decided to blockade the gaharu and rattan to be exchanged for communitiesfaced with an logging roads that went through their money. Now the timber companies haw entered and logged the forest. We don't uncertain future." customary lands. The subsequent arrests haw any money as our source of income is evoked worldwide public sympathy for gone. Our food comes jrom the forest; the these forest people. diferent types of sago are our staple diet are service as well as schools and medical A recent proposal for a Penan now gone too. We the Penan do not haw services, etc. The Ibans found that they Biosphere Reserve at Malana Protected farms. If the forest is gone, we don't haw were settled in small, single-family Forestsin Ulu Baram was opposedbythe food. How are we to suroiw? When we homesteads dispersed within the estate, Penansbecause the area had been logged travel through the forests, we don't carry very much different from life in the and the land was barren and depleted of hea y loads, as whatever food and utensils longhouses. To their dismay, they also resources such as wildlife, fish and jungle [we need] are found in the forest. But not now. Gone. Ewrything is gone. found that they had to pay rent for their produce so vital to the survival of the "free" housing. They experienced tribe. Some Penans feel that they should Nevertheless, native communities are problems with their water supply and be given land in an untouched, virgin looking ahead and working to shape a medical facilities. They had to spend a lot forest as a biosphere reserve, if the better future for the coming generations. on travelling expenses to distant government really cared about their During the largest ever native gathering hospitals. Workers who became ill, were welfare. in Sarawak in 1989, a resolution was injured during work, or who retired, These are the harsh realities of life for drafted which declares: "We are not were not compensated or paid wages. the poor, rural and indigenous against development when we refuse to Schools were provided but no church, communities who try hard to eke out a move out of our land and forests, but we despite the fact that most bans are living directly from the land and waters. are against theft of our land, our rights Christians. Ten years of waiting passed Unrestricted development in a country and cultural identity. It is our right to and they were not given any free land to anxious to progress and achieve the decide what kind of development we cultivate crops. After a trail of broken status of a newly developed nation has want and to develop at our own pace." ra promises, when Sime Darby took over caused environmental degradation, References the plantations and wanted to make which has brought on poverty, Much ofthe material for this article was drawn massive cuts in their pay, the natives displacement and the uprooting of from: Pernloigah: Orang Asli News (Centre went onstrike. When police intimidation communities faced with an uncertain for Orang Asli Concerns); Evelyne Hong, failed, the management sought to evict future. Farmers, fishermen and Nativesof Sarawak; Utusan Konsumer (1990- the workers and brought in labourers indigenous people are losing access to 1991); New Straits Times, Kuala Lumpur; Thestar,Kuala Lumpur;Malay Mai1,Kuala from Kalimantan. the natural resources of Malaysia which Lumpur. are slowly, but surely, coming under the The Penans of Sarawak control of a few.

- Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) 19 NOT SEEING THE PEOPLE FOR THE FOREST Thailand's Program of by Forced Eviction Dave Hubbel and Noel Rajesh

Thailand's Royal Forestry Department The push for eucalyptus plantations "forest." In fact, a monoculture aop of (RFD) and the Royal Thai Army are and the Khor Jor Kor eviction eucalyptus is completely different from a planning to evict or redistribute the land programme are in one and the same natural forest ecosystem; the plantation holdings of over ten million people from package. The evictions are the destroys biological diversity and culmination of the conflict [between the country's NationalForest Reserves to villagers and the RFD].The authorities villagers' means of livelihood. Since enable Thai and foreign corporations to resorted to forceinorder to get the land 1985, approximately 1 100 square lease land for fast-growing tree plant- they need for their profit-making kilometres of eucalyptus plantation has ations, mostly of Eucalyptus camal- commercial plantation scheme. ' replaced or damaged farmland, fruit dulensis. These plantationswillbe leased orchards, communal grazing areas and and planted under the auspices of the The villagers' contend that Khor Jor Kor community-managed natural forests. National Forest Policy as commercial will only provide financialbenefit for the Villagers say that eucalyptus exhausts reforestation and harvested to provide RFD and the pulp and paper industry - the soil, disrupts local water regimes and raw material for the country's pulp and a claim supported by the vast areas of is useless as livestock fodder or paper industry. The main obstacle to the land to be cleared of villages. In fuelwood. Native tree species, fruit trees, RFD's plans for 30 000 square kilometres mushrooms and food crops do not grow of eucalyptus plantations is opposition in eucalyptus plantations. As for from over one million farming families animals, villagers point out that even red living in village communities located ants do not inhabit eucalyptus inside the reserves.' "The destruction of village plantations. Khor Jor KorI2 as the eviction people's means of livelihood The Forestry Department also program is known in Thailand, is a by agencies of the Thai state claims that villages in the reserves are "response to the national forest policy ... reveak its position that responsible for deforestationthroughout [whereby] forests in the country will be Thailand. But some of the village saved and expanded," according to villagers are expendable in communities the RFD labels as Major General Vim01 Wattanavanit, the the interest of the county 's 'encroachers' were established decades Army's Deputy Supreme Commandera3 present direction of before the RFD delineated the The 1985 National Forest Policy economic development." boundaries of the Reserves in the late mandates the conservation of natural 1960s. These villages and other forest covering twenty-five percent of communities that settled in the Reserves Thailand's land area and commercial after delineation, have traditions or reforestation by the private sector and community rules that conserve their state agencies to establish economic Thailand's northeastern region, the RFD community forests. Several of the village forests of fast-growing tree crops and the Army have targeted 250,000 communities are known throughout covering fifteen percent of the country. families living in 2,500 village Thailand for their efforts to conserve Village leaders from all regions of communities that the Forestry Depart- natural forest and protect it from illegal Thailand are opposing the Forestry ment contends are encroaching on 22 530 loggers. The forests and woodlots of Department's plans for eucalyptus square kilometres of protected forest these communities provide natural plantations and Khor Jor Kor. According land in 352 forest reserves. The RFD and forest products, including mushrooms, to Buddhist monk Pra Paisa1 Wisalo, an the Army have begun resettling these firewood, building materials and advocate of forest conservation: families on 5 920 square kilometres of livestock fodder. The forests' native tree land. Another 1 760 square kilometres species and flora are habitat for birds, are being cleared of villages to make way insects and small mammals. This for infrastructure projects. The re- forested land may also serve as an abode Dave Hubbel is affiliated with the Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, maining 14 720 square kilometres are to for spirits of place. The natural forest Toronto, and is working with a Thai be commerciallyreforested, mostly with products and the cultural significance of environmental NGO. eucalyptus. the forest are essential for the survival of Noel Rajesh works with a Thai Environmental The Forestry Department claims people living on the margins of NGO that eucalyptus plantations constitute Thailand'smarketeconomy. In effect, the

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) Forestry Department could destroy References village models of ecologically sustainable human-forest coexistence. Not sur- 1. The Royal Forestry Department's Office prisingly, villagers stridentlyoppose the for Promotion of Private Forestry ForestryDepartmentls efforts to exerase Plantations predicts eucalyptus control over the . plantations will eventually cover 30 000 Village people's opposition to Khor square kilometres of Thailand, Banthuek Thurakit (15-18May 1989), as quoted in Jor Kor is also due to their knowledge of Lohmann, L. "Commercial Tree the program's most obvious short- Plantations in Thailand: Deforestation comings. Villagers know from personal by Any Other Name," The Ecologist 20, experience that "land suitable for ag- 1 (January1February 1990). ricultural use has now almost completely 2. The official name of the eviction been ~tilized."~In Northeast Thailand, programme is Land Distribution the RFD expectstoresettle or redistribute Program for the Poor Living in 250,000 families on an area of land one- Degraded Forest Reserves. quarter the size of that from which they 3. Malee Traisawasdichai, "An Unsettling once sustained themselves. Of this area, Resettlement," The Nation (17 land suitable for agriculture is often September 1991). already owned and farmed by other village^.^ In fact, a recent study of 4. Sanitsuda Ekachai, "Tom from the Land: villagers displaced by a private How Tree-Planting Uproots Whole Villages," in Bangkok Post (23 February company's eucalyptus plantation found 1992). that a few people became plantation workers while the rest were forced to 5. Thai Development Research Institute, clear forest for farmland or migrate to the Thailand Natural Resources Profile slums of Bangkok? Villagers are also (Bangkok, 1987): 19. aware of the hardship encountered by 6. Villagers have been resettled to land people evicted by the Army - crops exhausted by banana and sugarcane Cultural issues (in asylum, have been ploughed under only weeks plantations (see Mangkorn Teng- settlement, resettlement, before har~est;~soldiershave threatened prawat and Anutra na Thalang, "Poor repatriation, reintegration) Farm Community Evicted as Year and beaten villagers resisting eviction? Dawns," Bangkok Post (13 January, Environment; ethnicity1 race; Delays in distribution of new land has 1992)). Villagers have also been work; political persecution; made some evicted villagers dependent resettled on land being used by other human rights; the state on a monetary compensation equivalent farmers (see Atiya Achakulwisut, Family reconstitution; health; toU.S.$80 and a package of one anda half "Homesteading on Neighbours' sexuality; violence sacks of rice and canned fish produced in Land," Bangkok Post [I October 19911). North/South feminism 1982.1° 7. Sayamon Kaiyurawong, unpublished The Khor Jor Kor program reflects manuscript, Union for Civil Liberties ;ome travel funding will be available fo the Royal Forestry Department's policy (Bangkok, 1990). The study examined perp presenter sand discuss ants from Africa resolution that the interests of Thailand's the effects of the Suan Kitti eucalyptus Isia, theMiddle East, LatinAmmmca,andth pulp and paper industry are more plantation on Laem Khao Chan village, 3aribbean. important than conservation of the Phanom Sarakham district, Chach- Jeadline for receipt of the abstracts i, oengsao Province. lecember 1,1992, and should be fomrdec environment and the means of 0: livelihood for ten million Thai citizens. 8. "Unprecedented Level of Violence in The destruction of village people's Pakham," The Nation (18 September Farhana Mather 1991). Conference Coordinator means of livelihood by agenaes of the Centre for Refugee Studies Thai state reveals its position that 9. "Unprecedented level of Violence in Suite 322, York Lanes villagers are expendable in the interest of Pakham," The Nation (18 September York University the country's present direction of 1991). 4700 Keele Street, North York economic development. The Forestry 10. Achaculwisut, Atiya, "Homesteading on Ontario, Canada M3J 1P3 Department's program of eviction and Neighbour's Land," Bangkok Post land redistribution is evidence of the (1 October 1991): 7. 'or registration information, and fo growingintensity of the conflict between nclusion in a subsequent bibliograph3 state agencies and village people over ?leasesubmit your name, address, researc~ Refuge is now published nterests, precis of publishedlunpublishe~ control of Thailand's environment and ten times a year, Pounded in 1980. its dwindling natural resources. ra .esearch, andor research in progress.

Rejhge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS IN THE WESTERN REPUBLICS OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES Renate Rybizki

In the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), there are about 300 regions where at the moment there are acute dangers to human life due to environmental pollution. These areas comprise about four million square kilometers, whichcorresponds to twenty percent of the former U.S.S.R. Boris Kochurov, a researcher at the Geographical Institute of the Academy of Sciences in Moscow, estimates that alreadyeverythird citizenof the CIS lives in an "ecologically critical region." In the overcrowded regions, where heavy industry is concentrated, people inhale industrial exhaust gases and drink polluted water. The health of the millions of inhabitants of such big cities as Moscow and St. Petersburg, as well as the cities of the Donets Basin, the Urals, Azerbaijan and Krivoy Rog in Ukraine is directly threatened. But the catastrophe not only concerns the industrial areas. The fifth edition of the document, "The Most Critical Ecological Situations in the CIS," shows forty-seven sites of underground nuclear testing and twenty underground atomic waste disposal sites. The Russian atomic scientist, Andrei Solotkov, maintained that for years the U.S.S.R. PHOTO: ODAVlD BLUMENFELD probably sank the atomic waste from the reactors of scrapped Soviet atomic Fig. 1: A Chemobyl victim; girl from Soligors being treated for a brain tumor. submarines and ice-breakers in the Kara Sea, west of Murmansk. According to KGB documents, from 1964 to 1986, containers that were used consist of Until now, two areas were listed 17,000 containers were thrown into the corrodable metal, so one day radiation under the rubric "Regions of sea. The disposal, however, was not will leak out. A large portion of the Catastrophe:" the surroundings of undertaken according to international atomic waste consists of worn out Chemobyl and the area around the Aral rules for putting radioactive materials combustible rods. If they were to come Sea (chemicalcontaminationmixed with into a 'coffin' or a coat of concrete, by into contact with sea water, a further faulty irrigation). A resettlement of the bitumenizing, or by vitrification. The contamination of areas of north inhabitants from these areas of European seas will have to be reckoned catastrophe to "ecologically clean" Renate Rybizki is a research fellow at the Berlin with. Since the Soviet Union used the regions, however, is something Institute for Comparative Social Research. west coast of Novaya Zernlya as a testing Kochurov considers plainly not possible because of the number of people Translation from German by Sheila Embleton, ground for fissionable material, this Department of Languages, Literatures 6 region is potentially one of the most involved. Due to the Chernobyl Linguistics, York University, Toronto. dangerous in the world.' catastrophe on 26 April 1986, an area of

22 Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) over 10 000 square kilometers was installations on Russian soil represents a soiling of the fresh water" must be faced. contaminated with radioactive potential danger, Each year about 700 Most rivers are heavily to very heavily materials. Here lie 640 towns with explosions take place in gas and oil polluted; a few bodies of water, for 230,000 inhabitants. According to pipelines, which results in the waste of example Lake Ladoga near St. Peters- publications of the Kiev Health Ministry, many millions of tons of fuel, often up to burg, have already lost their meaning as of the roughly 120,000 people living in twenty percent of the whole gas and resources. Ukraine who directly took part in the petroleum production of the country. The ecosystem of the White Sea has clean-upwork at Chernobyl alone, more This is above all because of the been destroyed. Huge ice-breakers cut than one thousand have died from emigration of highly qualified through the lairs of seals. This happens effects suffered from that work. It is said researchers and the dearth of spare parts. exactly when the animals have brought that fatalities actually number from Appraisals from Bonn estimate the forth their young onto the ice. Thousands of seals have been annihilated. There is the danger that under the conditions of economic independence the Republics will conclude agreements "The whole shore region of the Black Sea is classiJied as an with foreign firms, that at first sight appear advantageous, but from ecological chis region: efluent waterfrom ecological points of view are intolerable. stations, oil sludge fhm refineries, the heavy metal cargo of the Thus the resolution of the European Danube and nuclear waste buried by the military have brought Community Cabinet Council, that the whole ecosystem here to the brink of collapse." includes a prohibition on ecological dumpings and the export of unclean technologies, is welcomed. It also appears necessary to translateinto action two especially important measures: the introduction of fines for the pollution of seven to ten thousand. According to technical repair needs of all nuclear natural resources as well as fees for their municipal officials in Murmansk, 120 power plants of Soviet design to be at use. It is hoped that such measures raise cases of leukemia in children were least twelve to fourteen billion environmental consciousness. ascertained and attributed to the effects Deutschmarks. If not, in the CIS, as a result of the of atomic radiation. Nevertheless the Today eighteen further regions of ecological issue, a social bomb ticks, director of the agency for atomic the CIS are classified as "very critical;" which will make the large refugee protection in Murmansk, Alexander here international limits for air, water movements produced by interethnic ri- Mikhailov, disputed such a connection. and soil pollution are far exceeded.In the valries seem miniscule in comparison. Alexei Yablokov, adviser to the zones where intensive agriculture is President of Russia, says the following camed out, for example in the North Notes about the problem of the North: the Caucasus, around Lake Baikal (annually The London Convention of 1972 fixes peculiarity of this region is that the the destruction of Lake Baikal strides the categories of radioactive materials majority of the population lives there forward, with more than 100 million that are allowed to be sunk in the ocean. only temporarily and should not be cubic meters of polluted run-off water) The Soviet Union subscribed to that agreement four years later. In 1983 the troubled by the environmental situation. and in the Moldavian region in the decision was taken to suspend the There, completely monstrous Southwest of the CIS, the ground- and sinking of radioactive material for two installations have come into being, for drinking-water are ruined by the years. In 1985 this moratorium was example the Norilsk enterprise and the massive application of pesticides and prolonged for an indefinite time. The Nordnickel enterprise on the Kola fertilizers, the humus largely destroyed stipulations of the convention did not Peninsula. And recently diamond and the forests diminished. hold for ships, that according to deposits have been discovered in the The whole shore region of the Black common law enjoy immunity. Those Archangelsk area. This area must be Sea is classified as an are, according to the Foreign Ministry, saved, as long as it is still not too late, region: effluent water from nuclear the ships of the navy. otherwise the profit exploited from the power stations, oil sludge from diamonds will be minimal in com- refineries, the heavy metal cargo of the References parison to the ecological damage caused. Danube and nuclear waste buried by the This article isbased onmaterial in Die Welt,21 According to the words of the military have brought the whole February 1992, 27 February 1992, 26 Russian Minister for Civil Defence, ecosystem here to the brink of collapse. March 1992; Moscou News, December Sergei Shoigu, each of the about 400 In an area of about 370 000 square 1991; and Berliner Zeitung, 30 January 1992,27 February 1992,25 March 1992. atomic plants and atomic research kilometers, "an impoverishment and

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) 23 THE THREE GORGES PROJECT IN CHINA Joseph Whitney

Introduction commissioned by the World Bank and reservoirs constructed in China at the Canadian International Devel- Sanmenxia, Danjiangkou, Wujiangdu, In China, the idea of constructinga major opment Agency (CIDA) to conduct a etc. Given the numerous problems, dam on the mighty Yangtze fifteen-million-dollarfeasibility study of many still unresolved in these other (Changjiang)River (Figure 1) dates back the Three Gorges Project (TGP).The final projects, it is questionable whether the to the early part of this century when Dr. reports, prepared by both the Chinese fate of the displaced population will be Sun Yat-sen, the founding father of the and the Canadian team, were submitted any better this time. Moreover, not only Chinese Republic, first suggested the to the Chinese government in 1988. The is the life and livelihood of thousands of feasibility of this project. Resent plans Chinese government announced plans resettled families involved, there are also under consideration in the People's for commencing work on the dam in hardships imposed on the host Republic of China call for the 1992. population already living in the area construction of a mega dam 1924 metres targeted for resettlement; a situation of long, the installation of twenty-six 500- Resettlement extreme stress and potential conflict megawatt turbines and the creation of a Depending on the dam height selected, between the two groups is always gorge-type reservoir that will extend the area inundated by the TGP varies present. some 600 kilometres upstream from the from 335 square kilometres for a 150- It is disturbing that of the studies dam. When completed, the Three metre dam to 737 square kilometres for a and proposals focusing on the project, GorgesDamwith a proposed generating 180-metre structure. The population to Chinese or foreign, none present any capacity of 13,000 megawatts (about be resettled ranges from 539,000 for the evidence that the people affected by the equal to all the generating capacity of former to 1.2 million for the latter. In scheme, as opposed to local authorities, Phase I of Canada's James Bay Project) addition, ten to thirteen county seats and have been or ought to have been will be the largest single hydro project in 400 to 600 industries will be displaced. consulted in any way about the impact the world. Apart from the generation of While this type of resettlement isnot new the move will have on their lives. In fact, electricity, the purpose of the dam is to in modern Chinese history, the scale perhaps with a few exceptions, virtually controlflooding downstreamin the most involved surpasses that of major none of the authors opposed to the TGP densely populated region of the middle Yangtze and to improve navigation in the gorge area upstream of the dam site. The proposal to construct a dam of such magnitude in one of the most scenic and historically important reaches of the Yangtze, with so many unknown environmental and social costs and at the huge expense of some U.S.$12billion, has generated a great deal of controversy both within China and internationally. To allay the suspicions of many that the feasibility studies conducted by the Chinese authorities may have been biased in favour of the project, the Chinese government invited international agencies to conduct their own independent feasibility studies. In 1986, a Canadian consortium, CIPM Yangtze Joint Venture (CIPM), was Prof. Joseph Whitney is the Director of the Department of Geography at the University of PHOTO: JOSEPH WHITNEY Toronto, Canada. Fig. 1: The Three Gorges Project site on the Yangtze River in China

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992)

-- cited population displacement as a major in conflict with the establishment of resettlement costs come second at 34 argument to support their opposition to certain types of industriesthat will cause percent of the entire project if the dam is the project. serious pollution problems. built to a height of 160 metres - the In the TGP proposal it was One important aspect of reset- alternative favoured by the CIPM suggested that the displaced population tlement is the impact on land consortium. High as these values are, it is canmigrateupslope, so that even though degradation in the resettled areas not apparent that they cover the full costs they have to abandon their hometowns (Wang, 1988). Detailed research on this of relocation. This is revealed in the or villages, they can remain in the same topic has been conducted by Professor following considerations: county (Tian and Lin, 1989). On paper, Shi and his colleagues at the Nanjing (1) According to the CIPM report this may seem feasible, but when the Institute of Pedolop (Shi, et al. 1987). It (CIPM, 1988 9: 7-10), one half of the conditions in the upland areas are was suggested that to replace the 400,000 claimable land is situated at examined, it becomes obvious that this mu (1 hectare = 15 mu) of prime elevations above 800 metres where scheme is not likely to be successful. agricultural land inundated, new land development is potentially more Fundamentally, the problem is that the up to 2,000,000 mu had to be provided. expensive due to the cost of access best land in the reservoir area is located This is because of the lower productivity and the fact that cultivation is limited in the valleys which will largely be of the upslope areas. The clearing of new to a smaller range of crops than at inundated; the remaining land upslope land and demand for firewood fuel will lower elevations. It is not clear that is of much inferior quality. Apart from lead to an additional sediment these additional costs have been the steeper slopes, the soils in these production of four to seven million included in the estimates. upland areas are infertile and tonnes per annum. In addition, other (2) As many as 30 percent of the productivity is many times lower under activities, including mining and urban population residing in the natural conditions. Currently, this extraction of building materials, will inundated area belong to the so-called upland area has a per capita cultivated yield at least another five million tonnes. "floating" population, that is, illegal land of 0.07 hectares and per capita grain This total erosion of ten to twelve million residents who have come to the cities production of 340.5 kilograms. Relative tonnes, assuming a sediment delivery from the countryside in defiance of to the national average of grain ratio of 0.5, will add some six million government regulations restricting production, Chen (1987) suggested that tonnes of sediment per annum to be such moves. The government does this area is already fifteen percent deposited in the reservoir, an increase of not want to "reward these illegal overpopulated. Thus, increasing the fifteen percent over current rates. The residents by bearing the costs of their population density is not viable. actual increase may be much higher. resettlement (Fearnside, 1988),which Moreover, although the CIPM report According to the CIPM report, after indicates that the amount of "claimable" the construction costs of the dam, land far exceeds that inundated (CIPM, 1988-9: 11-19), the aerial survey upon which this assessment was made was confined to only 43 "typical" xiang (rural districts) out of a total of 600. As the CIPMreport admits (CIPM, 1988-9: 7- 7), there are discrepancies in the definition of "claimable" in the Chinese reports; it is by no means clear how the "typical" counties were selected. A proper method would have chosen the xiangina random fashion, since there is always the chance that unconscious biases may be present when "typical" examples are selected. The project proposal emphasized integrating resettlement with resource exploitation (Tian and Lin, 1989), but the availability of capital for development and suitable resources for exploitation are questionable (Chen 1987). For instance, the development of salt mines may have to face stiff competition from well established facilitiesin Sichuan. The development of tourist industries willbe Fig. 2: The Three Gorges Project

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) 25 have not been included in the cost Despite these objections thereis, asis estimates. often the case with large projectsin other (3) The additional costs of erosion parts of the world, the symbolic benefits control, brought about by the condit- of a large dam which has a nonmonetary ions described above, have not been value perceived to exceed all other costs. included. Such may be the case in China and the (4) The cost of relocating cities and dam willbe constructed regardless of the towns has almost certainly been monetary, environmental and human underestimated. The CIPM report costs involved. estimates (CIPM, 1988 1: 17-19) that the cost of relocating urban areas is References about 3.1 billion yuan per square Chen Guojie. "Sanxia renkou yichaozai, ziu di kilometer, or approximately the same yimin shi zainan" (The TGP area is per unit area cost as the rebuilding of overpopulated and local resettlement will be a disaster), Shuitu baochi tongbao Tangshan, a northeastern city totally (Soil and Water ConservationBulletin)7, devastated by an earthquake in 1976. 5 (1987): 42-46. However, as Fang and Wang point CIPM Yangtze Joint Venture, Three Gorges out (1989: 85), the latter city was built Project Feasibility Study, Volumes 1-11 on level terrain compared to the (1988). rugged terrain in which nearly a Fang Zongdai and Wang Shouzhong, dozen county seats and scores of "Resettlement Problem of the Three towns will have to be relocated Gorges Project,"Chinese Geography and together with their infrastructure of Environment, 1,4 (1989): 81-89. roads, water supply, etc. Luk, Shiu-hung and Joseph Whitney. "Editors' introduction to the Three Conclusion Gorges Project," Chinese Geography and Despite themajorinvestment of timeand Environment, 1,4 (1988): 3-25. effort by Chinese and foreign experts in Shi Deming, Yang Yansheng and Lu Xi. determining the feasibility of the TGP, "Sanxia kuzhou diqu turang qinshi dui serious conceptual, informational and kuqunisha laiyuan de yingxiang ji qi moral shortcomings remain, duice" (The impact of soil erosion on sediment sources in the TGP reservoir particularly with respect to the problem area and countermeasures), Changjiang of resettlement. From the cursory cost- sanxia gongcheng dui shengtai yu huanjing benefit study that was made (Luk and yingxiang ji qi duice yanjiu lunwenji Whitney, 1988), it is by no means clear (Collected Papers on Ecological and that the benefits of the TGP outweigh the Environmental Impact of the Three costs. The large number of potential costs Gorges Project and Countermeasures) (Kexue chubanshe, Beijing, 1987): 498- that have not been acknowledged or 521. This publication was under the evaluated in the resettlement proposal direction of Zhongguo kexueyuan. must be included in any adequate Sanxia gongcheng shengtai yu huanjing evaluation of the TGP. These will keyan xiangmu lingdao xiaozu (Chinese undoubtedly make the scheme even less Academy of Sciences, Leading Group of economically attractive than its the TGP Ecology and Environment proponents maintain. Research Project). There is also the human rights Tian Pang and Lin Fatang. "Population question. Should hundreds of thousands Resettlement and Economic Devel- opment in the Three Gorges Reservoir of people be moved against their will Area," Chinese Geography and and with inadequate compensation to Environment, 1,4 (1989): 90-100. less attractive and economically inferior Wang Chaojun. "Comprehensive Assessment upland areas? Specifically, should they of the Ecological and Environmental be moved when most of the benefits Impact of the Three Gorges Project," derived from the flooding of their Chinese Geography and Environment, 1,3 ancestral lands and towns will be (1988): 45-83. allocated to people in distant provinces downstream?

Wge,Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992)

-- -- COUNTER-INSURGENCY, ECOCIDE AND THE PRODUCTION OF REFUGEES Warfare As A Tool of Modernization Jim Glassman

In a much-quoted article written during [Hlistory - drastically and brutally I want to go further than this, the height of the U.S. war in Vietnam, speeded up by theAmerican impact -may however, and point out that contrary to Harvard professor Samuel Huntington pass the Viet Cong by. Societies are what Huntington coyly suggests, made the following observations: susceptible to revolution only at particular counter-insurgency "gimmicks" have stages in their development. At the The most dramatic and far-reaching moment the rates of urbanization and themselves become part of the arsenal impact of the war in South Viet Nam has modernization in the secure rural areas that helps produce urbanization. And I been the tremendous shift in population exceed the rate of increase in Viet Cong will show that ecological destruction is )?om the countryside to the cities. In the strength. At a time when the South one substantive means by which US. early 1960s it was still accurate to speak of ~ietnameseArmy is beginning to show planners have furthered their counter- South Viet Nam as 80 to 85 percent rural. signs of being able to operate on its own, insurgency goals. Thus, ecological Today no one knowsfor certain the size of The Viet Cong are becoming increasingly destruction has become integrated into theurbanpopulation, but it is undoubtedly dependent on North Vietnam for more than double and perhaps triple what counter-insurgency as a method of manpoweras wellassupp1ies.A movement producing the refugees necessary for it was a few years ago. which oncehad the potential for developing into a truly comprehensive revolutionary effective control of the countryside by He went on to note that "The forcewithanappeal to both ruraland urban imperial powers and their local allies. principle reason for this massive influx groups could now degenerate into the The process, as I will show, is not one that of population into the urban areas is, of protest of a declining rural minority either began or ended with the US. wars course, the intensification of the war increasingly dependent upon outside in Southeast Asia; but it is precisely following the commitment of American support. because of this that Huntington's combat troops in 1965." Deducing the perspective is instructive, for counter- implicationsof this for wars against rural Inanabsent-mindedway the Unitedstates insurgency, rather than being seen as an revolutionary forces, Huntington in Viet Nam may well havestumbled upon esotericbag of gimmicks, should be seen suggested the need to qualify Sir Robert theanswer to 'wars of national liberation.' as a conscious application of force to the Thompson's claim that People's The effective response lies neither in the project of furthering the Eurocentric questfor conventional military victory nor Revolutionary War is immune to the in the esoteric doctrines and gimmicks of project of modernization. And in this direct application of military force. "If counter-insurgency warfare. It is instead sense, I will argue, the ecological the 'direct application of mechanical and forced-draft urbanization and destruction and social dislocation conventionalpower' takes place on such modernization which rapidly brings the caused by counter-insurgency is a massive scale as to produce a massive country in question out of the phase in contiguous with the much larger from countryside to city," whicha rural revolutionary movement can patterns of ecological destruction and Huntington argued, "the basic hopetogeneratesufficientstrengthtocome social dislocation caused by the rise of assumptions underlying the Maoist to power. ' capitalism from the sixteenth century doctrine of revolutionary war no longer Huntington's remarks were rightly onwards. operate. The Maoist-inspired rural reviled by many critics who found his One of the most spectacularforms of revolution is undercut by the American- callousness to Vietnamese suffering and environmental destruction visited on sponsored urban revolution." social dislocation appalling. But I want Vietnam by the U.S. military was the use Buoyed by the fact that the National to suggest that his argument is quite of herbicides as part of the defoliation Liberation Front's 1968 Tet Offensive important - both because it correctly campaign. Use of defoliants was nothing had not galvanized support for the identifies the demographic shiis which new: the U.S. had used napalm revolution among Vietnamese urban have undermined rural revolutionary extensively in Korea, for example." In dwellers, Huntington went on to movements in the past few decades and Vietnam, however, the use of new and summarize the implications of because it exemplifies the conscious experimental chemical defoliants was urbanization for the future of Vietnam: appropriation of "forced-draft intensified. During August 1961, in the urbanization and modernization" as context of the counter-insurgency war weapons in the arsenal of imperial and the project for rural "Pacification," Dr,]irnGlassman isassociatedwith thecommunity Faculty of Metropolitan State University, St. warfare. the U.S. began using herbicides on an Paul, Minesota, USA. experimental basis. Both forests and

- - -- Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) food crops were targeted, with the Union for the Conservation of Nature million created by 1973 cannot be seen purpose being to deny the rural says of the environmental situation that narrowly as the result of one or another population cover and subsistence so that "much of the damage can probably form of warfare.13 But the proportional they could be forced either to urban never be repaired."8 responsibility does not matter. What centers or to the concentration camps The success of US warfare in matters is that all tactics were either euphemistically dubbed "strategic swelling urban centers with refugees explicitly or implicitly environmentally hamlets." As the official U.S. Air Force also had social costs: a whole generation destructive, all either explicitly or history puts it in describing the Joint of Vietnamese youth grew up without implicitly aimed to create refugees from Chiefs of Staff (JCS) position at the end of learning farming skills or developing rural areas and all were consciously 1967, "[alfter crops had died in target other abilities that were essential to adopted precisely because they either areas, groups of civilians had moved to traditional Vietnamese society. actually did or were thought to areas under government control, further Meanwhile a culture of prostitution, successfully undermine rural support aggravating the guerrilla's manpower drug addiction, racketeering and petty for revolution. problems."J Furthermore, as the JCS' commerce blossomed, leaving The success of environmentally counter-insurgency head observed in revolutionary Vietnam a social destructivecounter-insurgency tactics in December 1967, " [allthough the policy reconstruction project every bit as creating refugees -if not necessarily in to create refugees for military purposes daunting as its task of environmental creating allies in the counter-insurgency does not, in so many words, appear in restoration? But the dislocatioits were struggle - helps account for its any MACV [Military Assistance not seen by US. planners as a reason to continuing role in US. warfare. US. Command, Vietnam] document, the reconsider either strategy or tactics; policies in Central America during the necessity is openly recognized as a rather, the dislocation of the rural 1980s have often been compared to realistic requirement ...."' population become a central ingredient earlier policies in Southeast Asia and The herbicide program, Operation in fighting counter-insurgency wars. justifiably so.14 In El Salvador, for Ranch Hand, operated with the catchy The herbicide program was by no example, the US.-backed regime used motto "Only We Can Prevent Forests," means the only (or even the major) napalm and other defoliants extensively and it did much to live up to this motto: component of this approach. In fact, throughout the 1980~~leading to the between the beginning of 1962 and the RAND corporation studies conducted destruction of large amounts of forest. beginning of 1970, the U.S. dropped one during the 1960s suggested abolishing Fragmentation and incendiary bombs hundred million pounds of herbicides the herbicide program in Vietnam, also caused severe environmental on over four million acres of South arguing that it was often damage. According to a Salvadoran Vietnam.5 The combined effects of counterproductive because it alienated priest, "these bombs leave craters fifteen napalm, white phosphorous and Agent peasants from the South Vietnamese feet deep and sever trees too thick to Orange (comprised of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T) government and the US. military. The encircle with one's arms." In some were environmentally devastating and US. military rejected these arguments regions, bombing created a food crisis, led to the coining of the term "ecocide." and continued using herbicides until the causing shortages of corn, beans and Between one-fourth and one-half of Nixon administration finally ended the rice.15 Vietnam suffered defoliation at some program because it left insufficient The destruction of Salvadoran forest point during the war. As much as 41 supplies for US. domestic users.1° But as counter-insurgency policy exac- percent of South Vietnam's mangrove whatever the actual impact of herbicides erbated the already severe deforestation forests were denuded. Other scorched on peasant attitudes and behavior, that has occurred over the years as a earth tactics included direct attacks on "forced-draft urbanization and consequence of US. and Salvadoran animals and the use of giant bulldozers, modernization" was also produced "development" policies, which have "Rome Ploughs," to clear forests. simply by massive bombing, which left emphasized export crops like cotton and The environmental destruction enormous environmental damage in its coffee.16Over 95 percent of El Salvadois caused by this policy of "drying up the own right." In Cambodia, to cite another original tropical deciduous forests are sea to catch the fish is a legacy with case for purposes of comparison, gone and only 7 percent of the country which Vietnam continues to live. bombing by itself led to much of the has forest cover today." Meanwhile, loss One expert in agricultural urbanization that occurred during the of foliage on hillsides has led to severe economics who had lived in Vietnam for early to mid-1970s, when Phnom Penh's erosion, which affects more than 77 many years told me that the flooding of population grew from about half a percent of the country. Topsoil loss rice lands continues to be a major million to over two milli~n?~ reaches rates of 20 percent ann~ally?~ problem in Vietnam because so many In Vietnam, the effects of bombing The war between indigenous hillsides are denuded of foliage that cannot be disentangledfrom allthe other guerrillas and the US.-backed Sal- rainfall is not absorbed adequately and tactics used to create new demographic vadoran government produced a tidal rushes down onto the plains.7 A report realities, so the three million refugees wave of refugees along with (and on Vietnam issued by the International created by the end of 1967 and the ten because of) this environmental

afige, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) destruction, but most of these refugees Guatemala with glycophosphate more agrarian alternatives to it which have not gone to San Salvador. Rather, herbicides such as Round-Up- despite had been posited in much of the "Third they have migrated within the country the fact that Guatemala does not appear World," or left entirely: displaced persons within on the UN's list of drug-growing A starting point for this line of the country have been estimated at natiomu The real target of the spraying, analysis is to acknowledge that all 200,000 to 500,000; as many as 750,000 the Guatemalan government later transitions from one form of society to Salvadorans fled to the United States, admitted, was not marijuana or poppy another involve at least ecological with another 250,000 fleeing to Mexico but rather the insurgent^.^^ In the transformation and most likely, given and 50,000 to 100,000 going elsewhere in meantime, the sprayings produced hu- the trends of history over many millenia, Central America.19This means that up to man deaths, deformed children, environmental destruction. The a fifth or more of the Salvadoran ulcerations of the mouth and throat from enclosure of the commons during the population has been displaced by war drinking sprayed water sources, an long centuries of capitalism's rise in and environmental destruction, a higher increase in infant mortality, deaths of England transformed much farmland proportion than the Vietnamese whole herds of livestock as well as honey into pasture for shee~.~aThe"Columbian displaced at the height of the Vietnam bees and scores of endangered quetzals, exchange," which occurred in 1492 and war.20 Counter-insurgency has not destruction of an entire season of corn subsequently, brought new crops, contributed as much to urbanization and and tomato crops and widespread animals and diseases to the Americas modernization in El Salvador as it did in defoliationS26Whether this use of toxic and others back to Europe, Asia and Vietnam; but it has helped "dry up the chemicals against a largely contrived Africa, set off a quite traumatic trans- sea" in which the Salvadoran rural pharmacological threat will also result in formation of American ecology and insurgencyhoped to swim, thus denying more human displacement, more societies.2gThe Europeans who killed the rebels the possibility of a military urbanization, or more "modernization" American Indians and displaced them victory. remains to be seen; but the production of from their homelands simultaneously In Guatemala, to cite one more case, refugees through a herbicidal "War on transformed the natural environment, in an effort to quell the country's Drugs" would certainly not be in- often tearing down forest and insurgency, US.-backed armed forces consistent with the modusoperandi of US. transforming wooded areas and destroyed forests, fields and livestock, counter-insurgency as it has been grasslands into farm1and.M displacing one million Guatemalans. practiced in Central America and Furthermore, crop destruction has Fire is used to destroy the environment elsewhere." always been an integral part of the and displace people. Most of the refugees On a moral level, the appropriate warfare by which subjugation and are of Mayan Indian ancestry and the response to the social and environmental displacement of indigenous peoples is army intentionally targets their corn destruction caused by counter- promoted. Seventeenth-century North cropsfor destruction because, alongwith insurgency tactics is repugnance and American colonists destroyed Indian destroying a vital food source, this political opposition. But on a more corn and other crops as a routine part of practice undermines the Indians' analytic level I would argue that it is warfare.31Destruction of a basic food psychological resistance by breaking an important to frame opposition to the source for the Plains Indians, the bison, age-old and symbolically loaded bond production of refugees through ecocide was accomplished later through both - based on the production and with an understanding of the ways in conscious and unconscious means.J2Kit reproduction of life - between their which counter-insurgency fits into the Carson destroyed the food supplies of communities and the earth. Crop context of development as it has been the Dineh (Navajo) people as he waged destruction also leads to serious erosion carried out by U.S. and other Western war against them during the 1860~~ problems and renders agricultural land forces. For far from being an anomolous earning their ultimate enmity by ~seless.2~ feature of development, ecocide and destroyingtheir peach orchards -more The army relocates the refugees into "forced-draft urbanization" represent than five thousand trees.33 In such "model villages" reminiscent of simply the acceleration of tendencies developments, ecological transforma- Vietnam's "strategic hamlets."Y Others that are already present in the broad tion and the uprooting of an indigenous leave the country entirely, many heading process of modernization as they have population resistant to modernization to Mexico, the United States or Canada evolved over the centuries. Thus, the were always implicitly intertwined. and some 40,000 inhabiting UN- suggestions of Samuel Huntington and In the twentieth century, the sponsored camps.= other U.S. planners, far from interconnections between environ- Not satisfied with the "success" of demonstrating mere moral depravity, mental destruction and population its counter-insurgency campaign, the demonstrate a sharpened consciousness transfer simply became more plain -in US. developed a new program in 1987 of the developments that have propelled large part because more advanced and 1988, invoking the "War on Drugs" capitalism and simultaneously undercut technologies of destruction (both to justify spraying vegetated areas in - particularly in recent decades - the military and nonmilitary) made the

Refige, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) 29 possibility for massive environmental ecocide are only an intensification of the See e.g., Bill Weinberg, War on the Land: destruction and population dislocation old battle using newer weapons. Ecology and Politics in Central America more obvious. Counter-insurgency (London: Zed Books, 1991): 58-64. Also References see the 1985 Congressionalreport by US. planning, which incorporates ecocide as Representatives Hatfield, Leach and a tactic, merely acknowledges this Samuel Huntington, "The Basses of Miller, "US. Military Assistance to El obvious connection and attempts to spur Accommodation," Foreign Affairs 46 Salvador." (1968): 648-652 on the generation of refugees. EPOCA, op. cit.: 4 In a sense, then, one could say that See, e.g., Bruce Cumings, Origins of the Korean War. Volume II. The Rmring of the See Weinberg, op. cit.: chap.9; EPOCA, El the reflections of Samuel Huntington Cataract, 1947-1950 (Princeton: Princeton Sa1vador:Ecology of Conflict. and those like him show an awareness of University Press, 1990): 706-7. EPOCA, El Salvador: 2. trends that facilitate the capitalist GabrielKolko,Anatomy of a War:Vietnam, Ibid.; Tom Barry, Central America Inside development project: uprooting of the United States and theModern Historical Out (New York: Grove Weindenfield, resistance to modernization by warfare Experience (New York: Pantheon, 1985): 1991): 196. and concomitant environmental 144,239 Barry, op. cit.: 194 transformation has been a trend of Ibid.: 239. EPOCA, Militarization: 4. history for centuries; urbanization and Marilyn B. Young,The Vietnam Wars, Ibid.: 5 modernization have been trends within 1945-1990 (New York: Harper CnUins, hid. the capitalist world economy for at least 1991): 82. Also see Wiiiiam Appleman the past one hundred years. The Williams, Thomas McCormick, Lloyd Barry, op. cit.: 264. application of military power to the Gardner and Walter LaFeber, eds., Ibid.: 266; EPOCA, Guatemela: A Political America in Vietnam : A Documentary furthering of these trends, then, is very Ecology, p.13; Weinberg, op. cit.: 53. History (Garden City, New York: Anchor Weinberg, op. cit.: 53 much like swimming downstream. For Press/Doubleday, 1985): 302. EPOCA, Guatemela: 13 those who have attempted to stem the Militarization: The Environmental Impact, tide of this sort of rural social dislocation The Environmental Project on Central Use of defoliants in the "War on Drugs" and environmental destruction, on the America (EPOCA): 3. is now expanding in Andean countries such as Colombia and Peru where other hand, the situation has been much Don Luce, in a talk given to Iowa City, insurgencies still threaten the stability of more vexed. Maoist revolutionaries, Iowa, during 1988. U.S.-backed regimes. See, e.g., Latin who saw wars of national liberation EPOCA, op. cit. For a description of American Weekly Report (20 February succeeding because of the strength of efforts to reconstruct Vietnam 1992). peasant resistance rather than merely environmentally since the war, see A classic and still useful discussion of Elisabeth Kemf, Month of Pure Light: The this issue is R.H. Tawney's The Agrarian because of the strength of the industrial Regreening of Vietnam (London: The proletariat, have proven to be right -in Problem in the Sixteenth Century (New Women's Press, 1990). York : Harper & Row, 1967). their time. But Huntington may well See Judy Chu, "The Trauma of have been correct when he argued in See Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Transition: Southeast Asian Refugees in Exchange: Biological and Cultural 1968 that their time is short and passes America," in G.M. Nishinaka, ed., Consequences of 1492 (Westport, with the demographic transformations Bridging Cultures: Southeast Asian Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1972). Refugees in America: Social Work with that turn formerly rural societies into For a useful overview of this process, see urban ones." Southeast Asian Refugees (Los Angeles: Special Service for Groups: Asian Joseph M. Petulla, American From this perspective, the American Community Mental Health Environmental History (Columbus: production of environmental refugees Training Center, 1983). Merrill Publishing, 1988): parts I & 11. through ecocide is not something that Kolko, op. cit.: 145; Young, op. cit.:190-91 See, e.g., Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism and the Cant can be fought merely by opposition to On the destruction from bombing, see militarism. Rather, the roots of social and of Conquest (New York: W.W. Norton, EPOCA, op, cit, and Kemf, passim. Also 1976): 153,210,211,321. environmental transformation in the see Joel Charney, Obstacles to development of capitalism must be Development in Vietnam and Kampuchea: A standard account of thisisDeeBrown's US Embargoon Humanitarian Aid (Boston: Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee (Toronto: addressed. The story of counter- Bantam Books, 1972). insurgency as a tool for producing Oxfam America, 1964). Ibid.: 27 environmental refugees is only the On Cambodia, see Michael Vickery, history of capitalism "drastically and Cambodia, 1975-1982 (Boston: South End One author, who also seems to feel that Press, 1984); Kampuchea: Politics, revolutionary struggles such as the one brutally speeded up." Eurocentric Economics and Society (London: Frances in Vietnam have passed their historical modernization has produced Pinter, 1986); Ben Kieman and Chantou moment, is Melanie Beresford who environmental destruction and refugees Boua, Peasants and Politics in Kampuchea, would disagree both in analysis and in for the past 500 years; counter- 1942-1981 (London:Verso, 1985). spirit with virtually everything else that insurgency and its unique forms of Refugee figures are from Kolko, op. cit ,: Huntington has to say). See her Vietnam: 239; Chu, op. cit. Politics, Economics and Society (London: Pinter Publishers, 1988).

30 Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) COPING WITH MINES A Critical Risk For Repatriating Kurds John R. Rogge

The risk to civilians from mines and agency. Likewise, the Iraqi military return to their original villages. The unexploded munitions is a problem maintains that while maps were made, extent of such minefields remains a common to most areas subject to these were kept locally and were matter of conjecture; their incidence is prolonged warfare and insurgencies. destroyed during the recent Kurdish perhaps somewhat less than that Afghanistanhas been attempting to deal uprising (the same position is proposed by Kurdish militants but with the problem for some time, while maintained by Iraqi government nevertheless, the frequent accidents they countries like Angola, Cambodia, authorities with regard to the other two produce suggests that they are anything Ethiopia and Mozambique will certainly groups of minefields described below). but uncommon and must, therefore, be need to address the issue in the near Areas falling into this category include dealt with if people are to safely return to future. So must Iraq. Not only are the the region around Choman and the their villages and farms. immediate border areas with Iran, Syria upper reaches of the Hamilton Road Aside from the widespread and Turkey heavily mined, but mines leading to the Haj Omerborder point, the distribution of mines, the problem is have been sown throughout much of areas around Panjwin and especially further complicated by the deployment Iraqi Kurdistan over the past two throughout the pedicle that extends into of a great diversity of mines. One reliable decades. Many of these mines are in Iran and the areas from Halabsha to the source suggested that at least fourteen areas currently being repopulated and border. different types of mines have been the death toll and maiming of civilians Second, are areas surrounding deployed. They fall into two basic caused by mines and other unexploded military installations, especially in groups, namely, anti-personnel mines ordinance is a critical problem remote regions and including the many which deliver only an explosion and throughout much of the region. While strategic mountain-top observation more often maim than kill and shrapnel- some limited mine clearance was positions. The density of Iraqi military loaded mines which are much more undertaken by the US. military in the installations is one of the features of Iraqi deadly. The latter are often wired immediate vicinity of Dohukand Zakho, Kurdistan that astounds most first-time together to explode in clusters.While not mine-clearance activities by the allies visitors; there can be few areas in the the most deadly, the small plastic coated was suspended with their withdrawal world so heavily militarized as this mines (mostly of Italian origin) are of from Iraq in late summer of 1991 and region. These mines were laid for special concern because they are there are no other agencies currently defensive reasons and the locations of impossible to detect with standard mine- addressing the issue. such fields are usually known to local clearing devices and their small size There are basically three groups of people. No clearing, however, has been makes them difficult to spot. Moreover, areas where mines are widespread. The begun in any of these areas. Since many some mines are set to detonate only at first is along the border and especially in are on steep mountain sides, there is the pressures exerted by humans; thus sheep those regions along the Iran-Iraq border attendant risk of mines being washed and goats grazing an area without where extensive fighting took place down the mountain sides by either incident does not necessarily mean that during the eight year war and where snow-melt or soil-creep. mines are absent. The longevity of most territorial advantage shifted frequently. A third group of mine fields are the mines, especially the plastic type, is more Both sides laid extensive mine fields, most problematic; these may be referred or less indefinite and thus this is not a often well into Iraqi territory. It is to as opportunistic mine-fields. They were problem that will diminish in severity doubtful whether the Iranians made sown specifically to terrorize the over time. maps of the fields they sowed, or, if they Kurdish population. Their locations The incidence of mine deaths and did, whether such maps would ever be vary,but are widespread throughout the injuries is very high, particularly in areas released to a prospective mine-clearing former so-called free-fire zones where all falling into the first group above. For civilian movements were prohibited. example, it was suggested by one John Rogge is the Coordinator of the Disaster Sites of such mines include the verges otherwise reliable informant that in the Research Unit at the University of Manitoba and along roads, in orchards and in fifteen-kilometer stretch along Hamilton recently undertook an assessment of vineyards, around springs and wells and Road between Choman and the Iranian reconstruction and rehabilitation needs for along mule tracks. The purpose of such border, at least 500 mine-related deaths returning Kurdish refugees and other displaced mines was to discourage people from had occurred in April and May this year persons in ZraqiKurdistanfor the UnitedNations Development Program. inhabiting the regions or attempting to and a much larger number had been

Refuge,Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) 31 maimed. Such a figuremaybe somewhat that people must venture further into the program should possibly be modelled inflated; doctors with a small German hills to find supplies; persons getting on the program recently implemented in NGO in Choman were unable to confirm clean water from mountain springs; Afghanistan and the one designed and the statistic. However, they were able to people scavengingfor buildingmaterials ready for implementation in Cambodia. confirm that in the month following their or other items of value among Indeed, a Kurdish program has the arrival in Choman, there had been abandoned Iraqi army outposts; and advantage of drawing on the between three to five mine injuries per shepherds. It is clear that children experiences garnered in Afghanistan. day, of which about half were fatal. At perform many of these tasks and are, Moreover, while there appears tobe little the time of my visit to their hospital there therefore, especially at risk from mines. expertise or equipment in Iraqi were five cases in their surgical ward, all Aside from human casualties, there is Kurdistan to undertake a major mine- of which had required amputations and also a high loss of livestock; shepherds clearance program and hence technical three of which were children. Some fifty will only walk behind their herds assistance for such a task will need to be mine amputees were known to be because of a fear of mines. provided by outside agencies, the residing in Choman in late June. If, therefore, there is to be any capacity in terms of human resources to At the hospital at Diyana (Saddam extensive resettlement and a resumption provide a comprehensive mine- Hospital), to which most cases in the of traditional agricultural pursuits by awareness program in high-risk areas Kurds in the valleys from which they can readily be put in place by the Kurdish have been systematically displaced over Front, providing some basic training and the past decade, then there is an urgent the appropriate literature is made "Consequently,it is need to develop both a mine-awareness available. Moreover, with adequate incumbent upon the UN campaign and a comprehensive mine- technical assistance, small village-based system to initiate, as soon as clearance operation. Whether the latter mine-clearance teams could also be possible and in conjunction can or will ever be undertaken by the trained and equipped. ai Iraqi military within the framework of a with other appropriate negotiated autonomy agreement agencies, a major mine- between the government and the awareness and mine- Kurdish Front clearly remains a matter clearance program of conjecture. Even if the will were there at some time in the future, there is some throughout Iraqi question about whether the Iraqi Kurdis&n." military has the necessary skills or capacity to mount an extensive campaign. High-level U.S. military region were referred, mine injuries were respondents suggested that the Iraqi the major cause of surgical procedures. military's experience is limited to mine- About a dozen cases, again half of which sowing and it would be ineffectivein any were children, were resident at the clearingoperation. As for the Peshrnerga hospital at the time of my visit. While no (Kurdish Front guerrillas), their skills specific statistics on mine injuries had and experience with mine clearing is been kept by the hospital, the senior essentially limited to a few deserters surgeon suggested that there had been from the Iraqi army. between 800 to 1,000 mine and ordinance The risks to returning Kurds from injuries in the Diyana basin during May mines and other unexploded ordinance and June, of which about twenty percent will, therefore, remain high throughout had been fatal. Records of mine injuries much of the region for many years unless were kept at the Panjwin hospital - a concerted effort is made to generate another high risk area -where, during more awareness of the hazard and, in the period 1 April to 6 June 1991, a total areas close to current habitation, to of 262 ordinance-related injuries and 160 undertake a systematic mine-clearance mine-related injuries had occurred, of program. Consequently, it is incumbent which seventy were fatal. upon the UN system to initiate, as soon Persons most at risk from mines and as possible and in conjunction with other other unexploded ordinance are those appropriate agencies, a major mine- collecting firewood - which, as awareness and mine-clearance program spontaneous settlements grow, means throughout Iraqi Kurdistan. Such a

32 Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) REVIEW ESSAY DAMMING THE NARMADA AND THE THREE GORGES Michael Zmolek

I. Damming the Narmada - 11. Studies In Ecology and 111. Damming the Three India's Greatest Planned Sustainable Development 3: Gorges - What Dam-Builders Environmental Disaster High Dams on the Narmada - Don't Want You to Know by Claude Alvares A Holistic Analysis of the Edited by GrAinne Ryder, & Ramesh Billorey, River Valley Projects Q December 1990 Probe International, 0 1988 Third World Network, by Vijay Paranjpye, Q June 1990, Toronto, 124 pp. plus index. Malaysia, 196 pp. Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH), New Delhi, 320 pp.

Introductlon: Recent Events have the clout to get the whole thing chapters the background of the project, called off. Publication of Berger's report the projected numbers of persons to be On April 3 this year, China's National is expected at the end of May. resettled, the impact on forests, farms People's Congress approved the and wildlife to be submerged, and the building of what could be the largest The Narmada Project cost-benefit analysis used to push the dam ever built, the Three Gorges Dam Resistance to the Narmada Project has project through parliament are all on the Yangtze River in China. While this centered around the issue of assessed; alternatives are suggested, and decision was no surprise, since the resettlement and rehabilitation (R & R). the authors conclude that if carried out, People's Congressis normally little more While work on the dam has begun (with the damming of the Narmada will result than a rubber-stamp parliament, what is delays due to demonstrations by oustees in "the world's largest planned, surprisingis the fact that about one-third and also strikes by workers who have environmental and human tragedy" of the committee members abstained or been protesting the slave-like conditions (:59). voted against the project. Also notable of their jobs), plans for R & R are barely in The holy Narmada River in India was that no time was set for completion existence. World Bank installations stretches from the Plateau of of the project, something normally earmarked for R & R have been used to Amarkantak in what is actually the expected from such a vote. Opposition to pour more concrete and raise the Sardar Eastern half of India, in the state of the vote has been both domestic and Sarovar Dam in Gujarat (now said to be Madhya Pradesh, flowing 1 300 foreign, both lay and scientific. seven percent completed), necessitating kilometers across Madhya Pradesh and At the same time as the world's more money earmarked for R& R, which Gujarat, emptying into the Arabian Sea. largest dam is being approved for China, the Bank is all too willing to send. In the Over 20,000,000 persons inhabit the all sides anxiously await the World low-lying town of Manibeli, meanwhile, Narmada Valley. The proposed project Bank-funded report by Thomas Berger, villagers have made "drowning pacts," involves a series of about 3,200 major who in the late 1970sand early180sled an vowing to stay in their homes even as the and minor dams, submerging a total of investigation of the proposed Mac- waters rise to flood the town. In 1990 the about 350 000 hectares of forest lands Kenzie Valley Pipeline Project in waters did not rise and flood the town as and 200 000 hectares of cultivated land, Canada's Northwest Territories, which expected. During the next monsoons, and eventually displacing over a million was subsequently halted. He has been these villages will likely be flooded, persons. The number of dams is travelling independently in India with adding to the numbers of those who died astronomical, the authors claim, because interpreters tointerviewlocalsinallthree as a consequence of World Bank-funded the Narmada Water Dispute Tribunal, states involved in the Narmada project. development schemes. Police have set up in 1969, provided a forum for the As resistance to the project hasbeen high, reportedly been using force and violence Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh his report is expected to be a "damning" to drag people out of the village. governments to compete in convincing one; yet it is tragic and telling that while Damming theNarmada begins with a the Tribunal that each "had the best, and the protests of thousands who are going straightforward argument in Part One, the most extensive plans for using the to be ousted are ignored or downplayed, entitled "The Narmada Project and Why river's waters in their states, and the report of one western expert might It Should Be Cancelled." In six succinct therefore should be given a greater share

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) 33 Table I: Some World Bank-Funded Dams Involving Displacement

Country River Dam Area Flooded Persons Height Power (MW) Construction %I'm Displaced (meters) predictedlactual Dates / Sudan Nile Aswan Ghana Volta Akosombo Ivory Coast Bandama Kossou Zambia/ Zimbabwe Zambeze Kariba Brazil Uruguai Itaparica Nigeria Niger Kainji Indonesia Serang Kedung Ombo Brazil Tocantins Tucurhi Brazil Uruguai Balbina

Afterfunding 75 percent ofthe project, the World Bank dropped it in 1985, while25,OUU people waitedfor proper resettlement and rehabilitation. In 1989 1,500 families refused to leave the submergence area, prompting the World Bank to investigate. +Thisproject forced one-third of the Waimiri Atroari lndiansfrom their land, producing such social and economic disruption that more than half the population died within a few years. in the river's resources" (91). Such a of the people will be "tribals," the landless families constituted 30 percent project would take a century to complete, indigenous peoples who are the most and 43 percent respectively. If or in other words, many of the proposed marginalized segment of Indian society, landowners will not be compensated dams are merely projects designed to not incorporated into the Hindu main- with even modestly adequate land, impress the Tribunal. stream.' The evacuees have been landless families are in a worse position. The most striking presentation in categorized into groups and are to be Varma pontificates that the landless will this book is an interview with S.C. given three years' annual income, and have to be absorbed into non- Varma, who was at that time (1987) new land to replace lost lands. The land agricultural activities, whilst ac- chairman of the Narmada Valley was not yet located as of 1988, though knowledging that they have no skills Development Authority (NVDA) - he construction had begun. A proposal to beyond cultivation. The authors has since resigned. From the interview give villagers money so that they would conclude Varma could only have we learn that even though the project have to buy land on the market was perennial unemployment in mind for had begun, no botanical survey had been opposed by researchers in Delhi, who these landless persons. carried out, that no study for claim that while the government would Further, Varma is cited as writing compensatory afforestation had been tend to undervalue land to be that: "'the whole gamut of resettlement carried out, that the study to examine the submerged in villages where people needs very careful planning and possibility of wildlife extinction had not were forced to migrate, land prices execution'" because "'human beings surveyed the entire catchment area, and would be inflated in areas where oustees have feelings; they cry and laugh, they that no serious problems regarding would be seeking to buy. Studies cited can organize and also show their anger. seismicity are foreseen for the project, in show "an abysmal lack of information If not handled properly, these human spite of a report that mentions the among the Sardar Sarovar oustees about beings could even impede the progress possibility of earthquakes up to a their impending displacement and of project building. They could magnitude of 6.5 occuring in the valley. relocation" (: 22). At the Narmada Sagar constitute pockets of protest, unrest, and Varma responds to this point by saying: site in Madhya Pradesh the situation is dissatisfacton ..."' These human beings "I know that what you are saying is quite far worse due to the large number of have been doing just that, and the police clear. But, you see, the earthquake that people to be ousted and an absolute response to numerous protests to the was last seen was several kilometres scarcity of land. The authors quote S.C. project has involved violen~e.~The away from the place where we are going Varma's own study that concedes that World Bank has apparently ignored the to build the damW(:71). after their highly fertile plots along the protests, while it and the Indian Indian authorities and the World river have been flooded, the land that government are cooperating in full Bank recognize that this project will be will be provided for the oustees will not violation of international law, which the largest river basin population even be suitable for aop production! protects the rights of tribal peoples to resettlement to date (Three Gorges Furthermore, in the catchment areas of maintain ownership of the land they aside). The authors claim that 47 percent the two major dams, the numbers of have traditionally occupied, andboth are

34 Refige, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) Table 11: Some World Bank-Funded Dams Scheduled to be Built

Country River Dam Area to be Persons to be Cost Height Power (MW) Flooded Displaced (US$) (meters) Predicted China Yangtze Three Gorges 44 000 ha.+ $12 bil. India Narmada Narmada Sagar 91 348 ha. $13.7 bil. China Yellow River Xiao Langdi $2.3 bil. India Narmada Sardar Sarovar 39 134 ha. $8.8 bil. China Shuikou $250 mil. India Subernarekha Icha/ Chandil 30 000 ha.+ $127 mil.' Argentina /Paraguay Paran.4 Yacyret.4 1 700 sq.km. $12 bil. China Ertan $1.885 bil. China Daguangba $255 mil. Thailand Mun Pak Mun Lesotho Orange Katse High Dam $1.828 bil. +withanother $480 million in loans pending. tt50,000have already been relocated. *Now estimated at only 2,500 also in violation of the International animal species to be affected, a report on by new industries. Vasu suggests a six- Labour Organization's Convention 107, the loss of archaeological monuments, point plan to reverse this devastation, relating to Tribal and Indigenous an analysis of irrigation, newspaper which includes halting the destruction Pop~lations.~The World Bank has itself clippings, and most notably an article by of animals, digging the streams deeper, admitted: "'The odds are high that the the late Venishankar M. Vasu entitled planting trees and grass on the banks, majority of oustees will be worse off "Alternatives to Major Dams." Vasu building series of small bunds to collect following the removal."' (22) Amen. declared that: monsoon waters, clearing sediment So why, you may ask, and how do The need for dams was created by from ponds and lakes to increase their such plans get ratified? The answer is systematically eliminatingorcrippling the storing capacity, and putting local simple. It lies in that holy of holies of very basic systems of nature which village committees in charge of this modern economics, the cost-benefit contribute to availability of water. [India] operation. This procedure would be far analysis. Alvares and Billorey carefully never needed the modern type of dams simpler and cheaper, he writes, than critique each point in the benifit-cost (B/ which we have been building. A void was building the high Narmada dams. C) analysis done by the Indian created to make roomfor dams and plans to Another book about the Narmada construct them were pushed into that void. government, and rather than showing a (:145) project, High Dams on the Narmada ,is an B / C ratio of 1.%:I, they incorporate such extensive study of the project prepared considerations as environmental Vasu examines the history of the by a research team under the guidance of destruction and loss of wildlife into their Saurashtraregion of Gujarat, telling of its Vijay Paranj~ye.~This work sets a new own B / C analysis, and calculate a 0.11:l abundance of forests and streams, and standard for critique of development ratio for the four major dams. The Indian high water tables which were virtually projects. It begins with a history of officials estimated the human suffering dried up in just one century. He asks how development projects in India, and a as three years' annual income of each this could happen, and gives a history of the evolution of the Narmada family, a total of Rs.20 crore (aboutU.S.$8 straightforward answer: "The British project. Ina section entitled "The Backlog million).' Reading this book gives the started animal slaughter in this country Mountain," we are informed that in India reader a clear indication of how the on a mass scale in 1859. As a result, the as of 1989-90, there were 168 major and variables on the cost side were played free source of dung fuel available to the 330 medium dams yet to be completed, down to an extreme, and the benefits rural population was curtailed. Hence, of which 73 major and 138medium dams were exaggerated, sometimes simply by people had to turn to the forests for are being constructed without approval changing the n~mbers!~ firewood." The result was deforestation, from the Planning Commission of India, The Alvares and Billorey book also flooding, soil erosion, siltation of rivers, some of these being three-quarters provides numerous appendices on a shallower rivers, shorter banks, lack of completed. Meanwhile thousands of variety of topics, including a list of shade, which caused rapid evaporation minor imgationschemes throughout the suppressed facts, a discussion of the of soil moisture, and dwindling water country are stranded without funds. The environmental impacts of the major tables made all the more rapid by spillover cost of completing the major dams, extensive data on plant and consumption of huge quantities of water dams alone will be a staggering Rs.l6,482

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) 35 Table Ill: Some CIDA-Funded Dams and Problems:

CIDA Country River Dam Contribution Problems

Sri Lanka Mahaweli Madura Oya $71.5 million Poor Resettlement and Rehabilitation programt India (in Kerala) Idukki $51.0 million Earth tremors, environmental problems Colombia Guario $29.0 million Cost overruns' Pakistan Indus Tarbela $29.0 million Will last only 50 years Honduras Humuya El Cajon Dam $27.8 million Built on a fault, cracks in the dam Ghana Volta Akasombo $17.2 million Erosion Brazil Parana Itaipu $ 3.0 million Inadequate land compensation.**

'Funded, in '79, by1984 60% of the 200,000 oustees still had inadequate waterfor their crops though they were supposed to be the beneficiaries of the dam's irrigation water. It flooded 263 000 hectares of land, including part of a wildlife sanctuary. 7'he dam cost more than halfof Colmbia's budgetfor all social programs. *The Guarani lndians lost 1 500 ha, of land and were given 210 ha. "withpoison and malaria" as they described it in a letter to the World Bank.

more (about U.S.$6.6billion), over a third Japanese investors are considering in light of the concerns cited with the of which are in Gujarat and Madhya financing the project. Narmada project. Pradesh, the two states hosting the Paranjpye's study also concludes The CYJV study claims that the Narmada Project. The authors conclude with a discussion of alternatives. One intent of building the dam is to protect that the approval of theNarmada project, forgotten alternative in this study noted 20 000 square kilometers of downstream including the B / C analysis was political, that the use of tanks to store surplus floodplain inhabited by roughly ten and was "reduced to an entirely farcical water, a tradition goingback2,OOO years. million people from the disastrous exercise" (17). The use of tanks during British rule was flooding that has occurred throughout The authors' portrayal of the R & R neglected in some states, expanded in China's history. In chapter 8 Phillip aspect of the project concurs with the others. Since independence the use of Williams6 criticizes this claim. Only Alvares and Billorey study: it is abysmal. tanks has been largely neglected as a fifteen percent of the projectedbenefitsof Although much of the legislation around water resource. the dam are to be realisedin flood control. the project was an improvement over He finds the need for such a large dam to other projects, actual implementation of The Three Gorges Project (TGP) be based on subjective analysis;' costs of R & R has been a "dismal reality." It is ironic, in fact, that both books just R & R, upstream flood damages, Research clearly shows that villagers are reviewed praise the low-tech, holding downstream dyke erosion or failure, ill-informed, misinformed, and that pond and small dam construction in coastal erosion, and the possibility of none had been apprised of the full extent China as highly successful and cost catastrophic failure? were all ignored in of their rights. For example, not one effective, for we now turn to a potentially the study. Flood reduction strategies, villager had seen a posting of the greater calamity: the construction of the such as ring dykes and refuge centers, mandatory Land Acquisition Act of world's largest dam ... in China. provide reasonable alternatives that 1894. The chapter on resettlement Damming the Three Gorges, edited by were not considered.The report also fails includes an eight-page assessment of the Grtiinne Ryder, is a well-rounded to consider the possibility of catastrophic project by a World Bank appraisal team collection of articles covering the major failure. as well as other World Bankmemos. The aspects of the Three Gorges Project. It is Regarding seismic activity, team concludes that the Bank has only made up of articles that focus on Williams finds the CYJV's conclusion to two options concerning the critiquing the Canadian International favour the more optimistic view of the unsatisfactory nature of R & R at the Project Managers' (CIPM), CIPM risks. Recognizing the weight of the Sardar Sarovar site, to withdraw Yangtze Joint Venture (CYJV)feasibility water in a large reservoir can induce altogether or to stop disbursementsuntil study, commissioned by CIDA and the earthquakes, CYJV stresses the need for the state governments are in compliance World Bank in 1989. Joseph Whitney, careful assessment of this problem, with the standards set by the World one of the contributors to the Ryder book which apparently has not been Bank. Though construction continues, (and to this issue of Refuge), has already undertaken. Only faults near the dam World Bank funding is on hold, given us an overview of some of the site proven to be active are identified in apparently pending the Berger report. problems with the study. My purpose is their study, and "the length of faults Yet there are reports to suggest that to recount some of the problems foreseen passing under the dam itself and the

36 ~ef~p,Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) displacement that would occur if these damaging the stocks of fish for its will be equallyfertile as the riverine lands were activated are not identified. commercial fisheries, and of salt water flooded by the dam. A major concern to Therefore, it appears that the dam design intrusion into the river from the sea. Fearnside is that the Chinese is based on the optimistic assumption The last chapter is by none other government has already attempted that no movement would occur on these thanvijay Paranjpye who points out that resettlement in Tibet, or along the Thai faults..." Williams also questions the no systematic analysis of the entire river and Burmese borders, areas populated study's estimation of the dam's basin, consideringthe interrelationships by minority groups, to populate the area structural stability, the risks caused by between the various dams and with China's majority Han people. If catastrophic landslides, and the risk of hydrological systems has ever been plans to resettle the oustees of the TGP on spillway fail~re.~Incredibly, the CYJV done. This is surprising since more than higher regions and to intensify study recognizes the probability of a 700 tributaries with development agricultural production in other areas cofferdam failure during the 20-year potential for hydropower, irrigation and prove less successful or more expensive construction period, which could result flood management flow into the than expected, the temptation would be in the deaths of hundreds of thousands Yangtze. But rather than explore the to look for alternative location sites, of people, as about one in twenty. possibly areas now dominated by Needless to say, Williams finds this an minority groups, such as in Sichuan. unacceptably high risk. "Minorities have little Another problem with R & R is that The environmental impacts of the political or economic power, 10 to 30 percent of urban dwellers are project are discussed in chapters4 and 5, and they ojlen have no illegal immigrants who are considered whereit is concluded that the TGP would as "nonpersons" to the Chinese deter fish migration, would silt up cerfijicates of land government. This "floating population" quickly, accelerating water evaporation ownership, minority areas is included in the CYJV study, though it and rising temperatures, eroding the are perfect for making an keeps its numbers to the lower, 10 banks, and altering the river's chemical percent end of the range. The Chinese and organic composition.10 The issue of argument that a chosen few government has disputed with the sedimentation releasing harmful will have to do without for World Bank that to provide R & R to chemicals into the water is discussed in the benefl of the majority. these persons would reward illegal detail." The editor discusses China's Such is the logic of Canada's behaviour, but it has agreed to provide environmental crisis in the introduction, some assistance to those who have a crisis precipitated by massive James Bay Project, a project resided in county seats and towns for deforestation and conversion of all that threatens the habitat of more than a year. Yet no housing is available lands to agriculture under the Cree people." planned for them, and clearly many, Mao's "grain-first" policy. Many perhaps most, are still excluded from the Chinese scientists began to speak out for plans. the first time in opposition to the alternatives first, the CYJV financial government on the proposed TGP. But analysisbeginswith the statement:"'The Concluslon: "...so that others after the crackdown on the Beijing Three Gorges Project will be the only may live in happiness" uprising of 1989 the postponement of the economical way to significantlyincrease dam was scrapped, and the TGP was put flood protection in the middle reaches of I have chosen to review works on these back in motion.12 Nevertheless several the Yangtze.'" (p. 113) Paranjpye notes two projects for obvious reasons. The organs within the Chinese government that "no analysis was given to support scale of both projects sets new levels for itself remain opposed to the project. The this assumption." development projects, the numbers of Ministry of Communication argues that Much like the Indian Officials at "developmental/ environmental the dam will disrupt traffic on the Narmada, the CYJV study lauds China's refugees" to be ousted by the projects is Yangtze during construction, and will new "resettlement with development" enormous, the environmental costs will increase the cost of shipping after the policy as "among the best in the world." be enormous, and finally, both China dam is built. The Chinese People's But PhillipFearnsideargues that China's and India are large, heavily populated Political Consultative Conference resettlement record is not good, citing countries with numerous minority and (CPPCC), the group of noncommunist the case of the Danjiangkjou Dam, where underprivileged groups. opposition parties with 410,000 it took ten years to get "adequate" funds Organizing opposition to central members is opposed on financial and to the oustees, which may still not have government projects such as these is not technical grounds. The Municipality of been adequate for building decent only difficult, but highly dangerous. Shanghai meanwhile remains infrastructure, including ho~sing.'~ Tables I - I11 show some of the major undecided, as it weighs the benefits of Fearnside criticizes the CYJV study for dams funded bay the World Bank and more electricity with the risks of assuming that land found for relocation CIDA, comparing the Narmada Project

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) 37 andtheTGPwith other dams. The World Every dam and every mega 7. The CYJV study claims a need to protect Bank recently earmarked $1.3 billion for development project is different, but the the flood plains from 1,000-year floods its "environmental defense" fund. This attitude of the officials and planners (the highest level of flooding expected "green fund is supposed to go toward towards the people whom they have to in the course of 1,000 years), over the present protection against 250-year pilot projects that are in the "global evict has been consistently callous. The floods. interest" (biodiversity, , following quote by S.C. Varma etc.). Critics say that most of this money summarizes very well, I think, that 8. (which is easily as likely as a 1,000-year flood); 75 million people live down- is in fact going towards already existing attitude. One caneasily imagine the same stream from the Three Gorges, projects, and is tacked on as an expense words coming from the lips of an official including those in the cities of Wuhan for "greening up" the projects. This fund rationalizing the need for the TGP or the and Shanghai. In the event of war, would never have been created but for James Bay Project: China's enemies could bomb the dam the pressure and criticism of No trauma could be more painful for a and cause untold destruction of life. environmental groups and local NGOs. family than to get uprooted from a place 9. The dam will have the largest spillways It is quite transparent as an attempt at where it has lived for generations and to ever, twenty-seven of them, each with placation, to ease criticism of the World mow to a place where it may be a total the capaaty of the average flow of the Bank's funding of environmental stranger... Yet the uprootinghas to be done. Missouri River in the United States. disasters. These three books provide a Because the land occupied by the family is 10. Wegner points out the lack of sufficient solidbasis for the critique of projects (one required for a dewlopment project which research on the impact the dam will holds promise of progress and prosperity have on water and terrestrial wildlife. ongoing, one proposed) funded by the for the county and the people in general. Bank and other major lending What I was unable to find in the bookas 7'hefamilygetting displaced thus makes a a whole, however, was mention of the institutions. Readers will find not just a sacrifice for the sake of the community. It status of any botanical survey to resource of statistical data, but well- undergws hardship and distress and faces examine danger to various plant formulated, logical arguments that need an uncertainfuture so that others may live species, or any mention of to be developed further, and in happiness and be economically better compensatory afforestation.Perhaps popularized in order to halt the projects. ofi (Alvares and Billorey: 18) unlike the Narmada, there are no These arguments make it clear that the forests, or very few, to be compensated. benefits of such projects go largely to Notes 11. This is discussedby Alan Penn, an advisor western banks, local elites, or nearby 1. In Appendix 4 of the book, Medha Patkar to the Cree Regional Authority, who urban populations, at the expense of claims that 99 percent of the oustees at discusses how the inhabitants of the indigenous and minority inhabitants of Sardar Sarovar will be tribals, 25-50 region face the same danger as Cree the land to be flooded. percent of them being landless. Indians in Quebec who were found to Minorities have little political or have large traces of the poison methyl 2. In the Paranjpye book to be reviewed mercuryin their hair afterthefirst phase economic power, and as they often have below, pages 27-30 review the protest of Hydro-Quebec's James Bay project. no certificates of land ownership, by oustees and their representatives. In 1984 a full two-thirds of the Cree in minority areas are perfect for making an One mass rally on 28 September, 1989 Chisasibi, Northern Quebec were argument that a chosen few will have to drew over 30,000 oustees and found to be poisoned by the fish that do without for the benefit of the majority. concerned citizens at Harsud. Other they depend on. Some elders Such is the logic of Canada's James Bay protests have involved up to 60,000. developed numbness of the limbs, These pockets of resistance would Project, a project that threatens the shaking, neurological damage and loss perhaps be even larger if the oustees of peripheral vision. habitat of the Cree people. When the had the means and the wealth to take project began, the Cree were given no more time off from their vital activities. 12. Opposition to the TGP is said to have warning that their lands were to be added fuel to the student protests of 3. In the Paranjpye study, relevant articles 1989. flooded. Phases I & II of the project will from IL0 Convention 169 of 1989 (nos. cost Quebecois $11 and $52.5 billion 1,2,7, and 15), are given on pp. ix-x. 13. Fearnside is a research professor at respectively. Such huge debt from Brazil's National Institute for Research 4. One crore = 10 million; 1lakh = 100,000; I in the Amazon. foreign financing with huge am estimating 25 rupees to U.S.$l, environmental costs and impact on which was the rate when I left India last 14. Webster, P. "Quebec Inc. Unplugged," indigenous populations is familiar to August, the rupee had devalued from 7'he Nation ,April 27,1992, p. 548. Third World countries, but now we are 19:l to 25:l during the six weeks I was 15. Quebec's independence movement was seeing it in Canada." Cree opposition to there. It has likely devaluated even recently dealt a blow when New York more since. state pulled out of its $12.5 billion the project has been stiff, and as the contract for electricity from James Bay, project figuresintothebudget of Quebec, 5. An official document in 1984 gave a BIC ratio of 1.74:1, thoughits own numbers possibly bringing about an end to the the project, which was recently dealt a project, and relief for the Cree. major setback, is an important factor in actually worked out to 1.521(cf. p. 46). Quebecs bid for independence.15 6. Paranjpye is professor of economics at Ness Wadia College of Commerce in India.

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) BOOK REVIEW dans la tourmente un nombre croissant de de ressources de plus en plus reduites. deracines," croissance demographique Une situation, deplore l'auteur, qui n'est MIGRANTS ET galopante, accentuation des inegalites que le reflet de la faiblesse aoissante du REFUGIES 4conomiques, developpement pro- prinape de solidante internationale. digieux des mass-media et des moyens de Revenons sur les termes utilises dans Par Jean-Luc Mathieu transport, "ce qui pousse des populations cet ouvrage pour qualifier les refugies et Presses Universitaires de France, B se deplacer vers d'autres points du les diffbrentes formes d'assistance qu'ils Paris, Collection "Que sais-je?," 1991. globe, reponse souvent mythique 2i leur re~oivent.Si l'auteur explique la misere." Autres specificit6s du XXeme difference qu'il introduit entre refugies Compte-rendu de siecle, celle des terres d'asile representees (toute personne s'etant enfuie sous la VCronique Lassailly-Jacob enmajorit6 par les paysles plus pauvres et contrainte de sa zone de residence), celle de la complexit6 et de l'imbrication personnes deplacees (celles qui ont fui mais qui sont restees dans leur propre Ce petit he,riche, clair et conas, traite des causes de l'exil : La cohorte grandit des fugitifs, rifugiis, pays), Refugies (ceux qui ont quitte leur d'une question brillante de l'actualite, pays pour cause de persecution et celle des refugies B travers le monde. personnes &lades, migrants iconomi- ques et demandeurs d'asile, toujours plus auxquels on a offiaellement reconnu la L'auteur, conseiller maitre B la Cour des qualite de Refuge), il ne donne pas de comptes, apporte ici un eclairage dificiles d distinguer les uns des autres, tant les causes iconomiques, sociales, precisions sur les autres termes utilises. historique, geographique, juridique et militaires, riligieuses, politiques et Quels sont les criteres qui transforment un politique B ce douloureux probleme tkologiques slentrem&lentdefacon de plus fugitif, un deracine, un demandeur evoqud presque quotidiennement par les en plus inextricables pour jeter sur les d'asile, un immigre en un refugie? mass-media. grands chemins les victimes d'un monde Peu de details egalement sur les Le titre choisi pour cet ouvrage, en distructuration, qui court rt sa perte. politiques d'assistance menees dans les Migrants et Re(fugies, pourrait laisser aoire pays de premier accueil. On aurait aim6 qu'il traite des migrants en general en y Eclairages historique et contemporain qui savoir plus prCcis6ment ce que recouvrent incluant les r6fugies. Jean Luc Mathieu ne revelent les racines, la complexit6 et les termes de "camps deditention," "centres parle pas de l'ensemble des migrants l'ampleur actuelle du probleme, sont ouverts," "camps provisoires," "centres de volontaires, ceux qui decident de s'eder ensuite compl6tes par un apercu transit," "villages de rifugiks" ou "zones pour connaitre unevie meilleure et dont le geographique des grands groupes de d'installations rurales." Comment comportement et le statut dans les pays refugies 2i travers le monde :leur nombre, fonctionne chacune de ces formes d'accueil sont totalement differents de les causes de leur fuite et leur prise en d'assistance, quelle est leur logique et leur ceux des autres migrants. I1 se penche sur charge. L'auteur evoque tour B tour les impact sur la situation des refugies? Il la situation d'un certain type de migrants, drames vecus par les Indochinois, les aurait kt6 interessant aussi d'avoir un les migrants forces, ceux qui quittent leur Afghans, les Palestiniens, les habitants de regard critique sur cette assistance lieu de residence sous la contrainte. Ce la Corne de l'Afrique et de l'Afrique (gaspillage, dissensions entre les titre, qui ne reflete pas precisement le australe, ceux de l'Amkrique centrale et diffkrents organismes d'intervention, contenu de l'ouvrage, est toutefois de la Caraibe, enfin, ceux de l'Europe de manque d'implication des refugies dans revelateur de la complexite de cette l'Est. 2i la gestion des lieux de regroupement etc), question. En effet, partir de quel niveau Puis sont longuement decrits les intkressant kgalement d'evoquer la de contrainte, une migration "volontaire" droits des r6fugies, droits des Nations- situation d'un grand nombre de refugi&, ?" devient-elle une migration "forcee Unies, droits conventionnels, droit les "non enregistrks," les "illegaux." Par une evocation historique des international humanitaire, toutes ces Deux millions et demi de refugies en mouvements de fugitifs, J. L. Mathieu legislations et leur application constituant 1970,8,2 millions en 1980,17 millions en nous rappelle que le phenomene de "unv6ritable puzzle compose d'autant de 1990 et en 1990, le HCR qui dispose de refugie n'est pas n6 avec le XXeme siecle ... morceaux qu'il y a de pays au monde." deux fois moins de ressources par refugik mais qu'il fait partie de l'histoire de Une large place est accordee au principal qu'il n'en avait en 1980. Ces chiffres l'humanite :intolerance, ostracisme,haine organisme internationalde protection des parlent d'eux-mCme pour denoncer la de ce qui est "autre," guerres, misere ont droits des refugiks, le Haut Commissariat gravitk croissante d'une crise mondiale exist6 de tout temps, de mCme que des Nations Unies pour les Refugiks ou 6voquee avec justesse par 1' auteur en ces tolerance, pacifisme, dialogue, com- HCR, la nature de l'institution, ses termes : prehension, partage, ont depuis toujours fonctions, ses mandants, son or- fait naitre des terres d'asile. La situation internationale des rL'fu@s est ganisation, ses moyens d'action .... un miroir de la santi politique du monde, Le XXeme siecle a toutefois une L'auteur denonce l'actuelle situation specificit6, celle de l'ampleur croissante comme la capaciti de la Communauti paradoxale de cet organisme qui d'un internationalede traitercomme il convient des exodes de populations. L'auteur en cM, voit ses fondions s'etendre sous la les probltmes de rtifugiis est un miroirdesa evoque brievement les principales raisons pression des evenements (pouvoir santi morale. El : achevement du cloisonnement du exkcutif accru, nouvelle prise en charge monde en Etats aux frontieres etanches, des rapatriements) et de l'autre, dispose aggravation des conflits qui "entrainent

Refuge, Vol. 12, No. 1 (June 1992) 39 Refuge Vol. 12, No. 1 June1992 CANADA'S PERIODICAL ON REFUGEES REFUGE ReFzge Yo* Lanes Press Centre for Refugee Studies Suite 351, York Lanes, York University 4700 Keele Street, North York Ontario, Canada M3J 1P3 Phone: (416) 7365843 Fax: (416) 7365837 Electronic Mail via Bitnet Address: REFUGE @YORKVMl Postage Paid in Toronto, Canada Second Class Mail Registration No. 5512 Return Postage Guaranteed

ENVIRONMENTAL REFUGEES

CONTENTS Editorial Essay Vkronique Lassailly-Jacob and Michael Zmolek ...... 1 Natural Calamities and Environmental Refugees in Bangladesh Muinul Islam ...... 5 Environmental Refugees in Sub-Saharan Africa: Causes and Effects Ogenga Otunnu ...... 11 Environmental Displacement in Malaysia: The Effects of the Development Process on Rural and Native Communities Sahabat Alum Malaysia ...... 15 Not Seeing the People for the Forest: Thailand's Program of Reforestation by Forced Eviction Dave Hubbel and Noel Rajesh ...... 20 Environmental Disasters in the Western Republics of the Commonwealth of Independent States Renate Rybizki ...... 22 The Three Gorges Project in China Joseph Whitney ...... 24 Counter-Insurgency, Ecocide and the Production of Refugees: Warfare As a Tool of Modernization Jim Glassman ...... 27 Coping with Mines: A Critical Risk for Repatriating Kurds John R. Rogge ...... 31 Review Essay: Damming the Narmada and the Three Gorges Michael Zmolek ...... 33 Book ReviewICompte-rendu: Migrants et RCfugi4s Ve'ronique Lassailly-Jacob ...... 39