KURDISH REPORT Issue #3

Kurdish report

May 16, 2016

IN THIS ISSUE The Battle for Mosul: Divided Preserving the Identity: The Kurdish Kurdish minorities struggle to bring their ignored they Fall traditional to light as a credential of their existence by Evangelos Diamantopoulos Page 2

their progress has not been impressive enough to An anarchist approach on the M osul, the second largest city and former explain the optimism expressed by some Iraqi commercial hub of , was conquered by the Rojava experiment officials and the President of the USA who believe The main component of the Rojava experiment is the Islamic State (IS) in June 2014 after a quick and 1 that the area will be IS-free by the end of the year. belief in a model of direct democracy where power humiliating retreat of the Iraqi armed forces. Tens Unfortunately, the whole effort is mired by derives from the bottom up of thousands of soldiers and policemen fled within mistrust, incompetence and divisions among the Page 3 days when confronted by less than 1000 IS allied forces.2 The Peshmerga complain frequently fighters, leaving significant amounts of US-made The Significance of Memoirs in for their poor equipment in contrast to the rich US- weaponry behind and encouraging the following Legitimizing the Kurdish Struggles made weaponry of their Iraqi allies.3 Actually, the march of the terrorist group southwards. The Iraqi Personal and experiential writings are able to provide a have largely proved the most effective army with the Kurdish Peshmerga forces and a different account on the events and facts concerning the fighters on the battlefield against the IS in coalition of militias launched an offensive in March Kurdish history and plight and Iraq by using mainly old Russian rifles. The to recapture the city but bad coordination, Page 4 problem gets more complicated due to the US law suspiciousness and lack of the appropriate Diversity among the Kurdish which does not allow the government to equip equipment make their demanding effort even directly sub-state entities, such as the population more difficult. Regional Government, and the American fear of The absence of an independent Kurdish nation-state created diversity among the On March 24 the government of Iraq signaled the undermining the Iraqi government’s already beginning of the long awaited operation to crumbling authority. Thus, Washington leaves the Page 5 recapture Mosul. A large force was deployed south final word to Baghdad concerning the distribution in since of the city and set up bases at the strategic of ammunition. Meanwhile, the allies’ shared the Islamic Revolution Makhmour area of Nineveh province in Iraqi bloody past and religious as well as ethnic The intensity of Kurdish nationalism in Iran has Kurdistan for the first phase of the Fatah differences shadow their relations and cause an fluctuated since the Islamic Revolution but it has always (Conquest) Operation. The Iraqi armed forces, additional headache to their American advisors.4 been present and consistent in its demands for autonomy Kurdish fighters, the Popular Mobilization Forces Moreover, Mosul is by far the largest city Page 6 (Iranian-backed militia with a predominantly Shi’a controlled by the IS in either Iraq or Syria and it is identity) as well as Sunni tribesmen and US troops heavily populated, complicating any mission to came together there to coordinate the mission. retake it. As a top Kurdish counter-terrorism The joint forces advanced westwards and managed to recapture several villages. However, KURDISH REPORT | Issue 3 2

official put it: “For two years they have been must press harder for a fairer FOOTNOTES digging tunnels, planting IEDs, booby-traps distribution of its military aid. 1. Moore, Jack, “Barack Obama: Mosul will be (…) they are going to use the local population Finally, if and when the IS is forced Recaptured from ISIS by End of 2016,” Newsweek, as human shields.”5 Furthermore, Mosul is out, the day after may be a test of (19/4/2015) http://europe.newsweek.com/barack-

mainly Sunni, although there are also Kurdish coexistence. In order to defuse this obama-says-recapture-mosul-isis-set-end-2016- and Shi’a pockets, and the Peshmerga and ticking bomb, the questions of how 449637?rm=eu Popular Mobilization Forces may not be able the area will be governed and who 2. Salih, Mohammed A., “Why the Mosul Offensive has to extend their stay in traditionally Sunni Arab will do it should be answered soon. yet to Succeed,” Al Monitor, (19/4/2016) http://www.al- areas after the liberation of the city. However, monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/04/iraq-iraqi-forces- most Iraqis living in the towns and villages of expel-isis-nineveh-cooperation.html Nineveh do not trust the armed forces coming 3. Lake, Eli, “Victorious Kurds Ask U.S. for Promised to liberate them either, because of their past Guns,” Bloomberg, (30/1/2015) rapid desertion, and they see them as http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-01- incompetent at best and oppressive as well as 30/kurds-who-beat-islamic-state-at-kobani-ask-u-s-for- sectarian at worst. promised-guns Unless all the involved parties put aside old 4. Wright, Robin, “On the American Front Line Against arguments and find a formula to work ISIS,” The New Yorker, (29/3/2016) together against the common enemy, it is http://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/on-the- difficult to imagine significant progress american-front-line-against-isis towards retaking Mosul. The Iraqi armed forces should prove themselves on the 5. Ekurd Daily, “Iraq’s Mosul Battle will be ‘Bloodbath,’ battlefield to win the hearts and trust of the Kurdish Commander Says,” (22/3/2016) local population. In addition, all factions http://ekurd.net/iraq-mosul-battle-bloodbath-2016-03- should treat civilians with respect. The USA 22 All links accessed on 3/5/2016

and figs but also herbs and Kurdish folklor though is notably suppressed nuts.1 Meanwhile, Kurds, as nomads living in in , for the sake of a homogenous Preserving the infertile grounds and mountains, they also Turkish identity. Kurdish food is not the include in their diet lots of meat, especially exception, rather than the epitome of the lamp or chicken. From the ancient years, the suppression. Kurdish food culture has no Identity: The people of Kurdistan grew wheat and mention in Turkey. Specifically, it is often domesticated goats, sheep and pigs in the referred as the of Southeast mountains of Kurdistan that now belong to Anatolian region of the country. Within Kurdish Food Iraq. Kurdish people took advantage of their Turkey, Kurdish restaurants are a few, while in by Maria Kourpa lands and formed culinary culture rich in Istanbul’s Kadinlar Pazari, also known as and dairy products. “Little Kurdistan” there are only restaurants offering “southeastern food.” The new and food is a great chapter in Despite the differences between the Kurdish generation of Kurds tries to raise the Kurdish identity and tradition. Kurdish people culinary customs, acquired by the different minority’s voice as well as to bring its ignored offer and share their food as an indication of countries that the Kurdish people live in, culture into existence. 32 year-old Delal friendship and hospitality. Each family and lives with the Kurdish Seven promotes Kurdish cuisine through her region has its own oral recipes; Kurds eat Diaspora in the United States of America and blog, making Turkish society aware of special without cutlery and usually seated on the Europe. On the other hand, things are way ground, gathered around a low table. The different in the Middle Eastern countries biggest Kurdish celebration Newroz, New where the Kurdish minorities live. Kurdish Year’s Day, which is the celebration of Kurdish food is not recognized as such and Kurdish identity itself, involves lots of traditional restaurants are rare. dishes like the gallamew yaprakh. Although In Iraq, the only way to taste typical Kurdish Kurdish cuisine shares many dishes and food is to eat with a Kurdish family. A limited flavors with other traditional of the number of traditional Kurdish street can Middle East like the Turkish, Arab and be found in or Sulamaniyah. Things are Armenian, it claims its own existence and no different for Syrian and Israeli Kurdish recognition in the area. It is undeniable that food. The first Kurdish restaurant opened in traditional cuisine is both a very emotional Mahane Yehuda, the heart of the Kurdish identification for an ethnicity, as much as a community in Jerusalem, a couple of years credential of existence since it is bound with ago by a Jew Kurd, influenced by his everyday life and memory of oneself. grandmother’s cooking that marked his Kurdish dishes but also preserving the 2 Kurdish food is described as simple yet rich, childhood. Kurds are making 3-hour drives to traditional recipes.3 Unfortunately, that is as spicy and tasty and is heavily defined by the reach the restaurant, as food is one of the few far as the Turkish society can bear, as fears are products offered by the land. The fertile soil remaining elements in the of expressed that an openly Kurdish restaurant between Tigris and Euphrates produces a lot the country’s minority. would definitely be the target of racists, of vegetables and fruits like grapes, nationalists or the deep state.4 KURDISH REPORT | Issue 3 3

FOOTNOTES

1. Barzinji, Ala, Traditional Kurdish Food: An insight into Kurdish culinary heritage, Troubador Publishing Ltd: 2015, p. 8 2. Zion, Ilan Ben,“Shamburak is the most Beloved of the Kurdish,” VICE, (10/6/2015)

https://munchies.vice.com/en/articles/shamburak -is-the-most-beloved-comfort-food-of-the-kurdish 3. Schleifer, Yigal, “A Blog that Makes the Case for Kurdish Cuisine,” Eurasianet.org, (21/02/2012) http://www.eurasianet.org/node/65031 4. Ashdown, Nick, “Kurdish Food Takes off in Turkey,” The Media Line, (20/03/2015) http://www.themedialine.org/mideast-cafe/kurdish-food-takes-off-in-turkey-2/

All links accessed on 5/5/2016

larger confederation.1 Ocalan’s ideas were Τhe Rojava experiment has been the target of propagated through PKK to the Kurds of severe criticism. Many have commented, and An anarchist Rojava, and although there were hesitations not without reason, on the existence of a over Ocalan’s turn towards confederalism by more centralised government in the region. It approach on some, these ideas took root. Few years later, has been criticised as being in contradiction the Arab Spring, even if indirectly through the disintegration of Syria, the Rojava gave the opportunity for these ideas to be implemented in Rojava. experiment The TevgeraCivakaDemokratik (Tev-Dem) (Movement for a by Costas Faropoulos Democratic Society) with the help of the Partiya Yekitiya Demokrat (PYD) was created, and governs the They say that reading a book can transform a autonomous regions of Rojava ever person. In Rojava’s case it transformed an since. entire community. It all began when Abdullah Ocalan, the leader of the Partiya Karkeren TEV-DEM never claimed to have an Kurdistane (PKK), read the work of Murray anarchist agenda, or to be Bookchin in prison, on the island of Imrali in influenced directly from an with the libertarian nature of the Turkey. Bookchin was a political philosopher, anarchist world view. However, there are confederalist governance of Rojava since the once a Marxist-Leninist, who denounced his anarchist elements in their theory that cannot mere existence of these two parallel ideology, as he rejected its authoritarian be overlooked. The main component of the structures of governance creates doubts over tendencies. Instead he developed his own Rojava experiment is the belief in a model of the final form this type of dual representation radical ideology, which he termed “social direct democracy, where power derives from will assume.3 Moreover, there have been ecology.” He believed that hierarchical the bottom up (although the existence of a accusations of intimidation,4 harassment and relations in society are the main obstacles in centralised government, in the form of a authoritarian abuses of power against the creating an egalitarian society. He proposed parliament, indicates that PYD does not reject PYD by other Kurdish factions in Syria. While an alternative form of social organisation, the state as a power mechanism). Also, the the government of Rojava has been denying which he called “libertarian municipalism,” denial of the nation-state as the main pillar of these accusations vehemently, they could 2 where relations would be based on mutual social cohesion points to anarchist theories. throw a dark shadow over the limits of its participation in governance of all elements of The combination of these two principles has egalitarian endeavor. Notwithstanding the society, regardless of sex, race, religion or led to the creation of local organizational criticism, on March 16, TEV-DEM declared the social standing. The abolishment of structures, where everyone is free to establishment of a federal state of hierarchies was essential to the creation of a participate, regardless of which ethnic or government in Rojava, taking the next step decentralised power structure, where local religious group he/she belongs to. Moreover, towards confederalism. communities would replace the state through the participation of women is not just strongly the creation of local governing bodies. encouraged, but it is rather self-evident. Women participate as co-chair persons in all Ocalan was deeply influenced by Bookchin’s assemblies, while they are actively work. He studied it, embraced it and in 2005 contributing to every aspect of civil he published the “Declaration of Democratic administration. Gender equality along with Confederalism in Kurdistan.” In it, he urged all freedom of religion and minority rights are PKK members to read Bookchin’s book “The enshrined in the Rojava Constitution that was Ecology of Freedom” and to dedicate adopted in 2014, as essential ingredients in themselves to the creation of an the construction of an inclusive society. infrastructure of local self-governing assemblies that would subsequently form a KURDISH REPORT | Issue 3 4

FOOTNOTES and conflicts, to collect the personal records for the authors are valuable correspondents of people who have a word on the important of historical events. Due to the fact that 1. Enzinna, Wes, “A Dream of Secular events and facts, as well as to pass it down to Kurdish voices have been intentionally or Utopia in ISIS’ Backyard,” The New the next generation.2 unintentionally silenced or ignored by some York Times, (24/11/2015) However, there are advantages and scholars, authors and analysts, one should http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/29/ disadvantages on using a personal narrative in treat Kurdish stories and reflections as magazine/a-dream-of-utopia-in- order to present ones story. First off, the principal. Many authors share common hell.html?_r=1 author may advance his argument by perspectives on the oppressive past and 2. Aretaios, Evangelos, “The Rojava narrating his own experience and also, by history of the Kurdish community as well as Revolution,” Open Democracy, utilizing empathy, one can affect the reader the preservation of their identity. Moreover, (15/3/2015) emotionally. Conversely, the writer cannot be they offer testimonies about past events and https://www.opendemocracy.net/arab straightforward with his argument because they present themselves as “fighters” and not -awakening/evangelos- he will have to ease his way on narrating his as victims.. aretaios/rojava-revolution story than just stating it. 3. Ideas and Action, “Rojava: An Thus, the reader should treat Kurdish Anarcho -Syndicalist Perspective,” memoirs, which are experiential and (18/10/2014) autobiographical forms of writing, as part of a http://ideasandaction.info/2014/10/roj distinct literary genre. Personal and ava-anarcho-syndicalist-perspective/ experiential writings are able to provide a 4. Gunes, Gengiz and Lowe, Robert, different account on the events and facts “The impact of the Syrian War on concerning the Kurdish history and plight. A Kurdish Politics Across the Middle way to answer how have Kurdish people East,” Chatham House, (July 2015) endured and overcome the hardships caused https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/f by different actors depending on the area iles/chathamhouse/field/field_docume they were living in, is to explore their efforts nt/20150723SyriaKurdsGunesLowe.pdf to construct and sustain a national identity through their own personal accounts. By writing down memories and experiences All links accessed on 6/5/2016 which later become best-selling memoirs, Kurdish authors created their own political mentality and space wherein they were able to express their opinions and make their voices heard on political matters. FOOTNOTES Out of a big collection of Kurdish memoirs, two good examples of them that highlight the 1. Egerton, George, “Politics and Autobiography: Political Memoir as significant role of eyewitness actors are My The Father’s Paradise: A Son’s Search for his Polygenre,” Biography, Vol. 15, No. 3, Family’s Past by Ariel Sabar and My Father’s 1992, 233 Significance Rifle: A Childhood in Kurdistan by Hiner 2. Silverman, Sue William, “The Saleem. These memoirs could serve as a tool Courage to Write and Publish Your to examine the self-narrative and self- Story: Five Reasons Why it’s Important of Memoirs in presentation of the Kurdish plight.3 Moreover, to Write Memoir,” Numero Cinq they set an example on how an autobiography Magazine, Vol.2, No.9, September Legitimizing should be written and what information or 2011 details should be given in regard to Kurdish http://numerocinqmagazine.com/201 political history. 1/09/24/the-courage-to-write-and- the Kurdish Kurdish authors touch upon how they have publish-your-story-five-reasons-why- constructed their national identity through a its-important-to-write-memoir-by- Struggles narration of their history, efforts and sue-william-silverman/ initiatives alongside political participation. 3. Ahmadzadeh, Hashem, “In Search by Aliki Sofianou Their goal is to make their community’s of a Kurdish Novel that Tells us who voices heard and for their struggles to be the Kurds are,” World Congress of recognized and attended to at a diplomatic Kurdish Studies, (6-9/9/2016) As historian George Egerton described in his level.4 As a matter of fact, Kurdish memoirs http://www.institutkurde.org/en/conf article Political Memoirs as Polygenre, constitute a corpus of the , erences/kurdish_studies_irbil_2006/H political memoirs or diaries constitute in part whereby the authors manage to transform ashem+AHMADZADEH.html “forms of contemporary historiography: by the trauma and the hardships, experienced by 4. Allison, Christine, “Kurdish nature they each address a past which lies many within the Kurdish community, into a Autobiography, Memoir and Novel: within the personal memory of the writer.”1 radical and active political engagement and Ereb Yemo and his Successors,” Namely, Kurdish-authored memoirs describe intervention, as a way to work on and improve http://www.academia.edu/3248355/K events experienced in the past and seek to the Kurdish cause. urdish_Autobiography_Memoir_and_ provide information of historic Novel_Ereb_Shemo_and_his_Success transformations of their nation due to wars Ultimately, memoirs should be considered important writings on the Kurdish struggle, ors_ All links accessed on 21/4/2016 KURDISH REPORT | Issue 3 5

Religion FOOTNOTES Diversity among Religious distinction among the Kurds also serves as a divisive factor. However, in the the Kurdish case of religion, differences are not that 1. Van Bruinessen, Martin, “The Kurds in extreme. According to a study conducted by Turkey,” Merip Reports, No. 121, 1984, 6 the Pew Research Center back in 2011, 98% of population the Kurds identified themselves as Sunni 2. Barkey, Henri J. and Fuller, Graham E., Muslims, while the rest 2% as Shiite Muslims by Iris Pappa “Turkey’s Kurdish Question: Critical (particularly in the southernmost part of Turning points and missed opportunities,”

Kurdistan). Besides these two major varieties Middle East Journal, Vol. 51, No.1, 1997, 73 there are also various syncretistic sects “with The fact that the Kurdish population is beliefs and rituals that are clearly influenced divided mainly among four countries (Turkey, 3. Van Bruinessen, Martin, “Between by but owe more to other religions, Guerilla War and Political Murder: the Iraq, Iran and Syria), due to the absence of an notably old Iranian religion," with the most independent Kurdish nation-state, has made Worker’s Party of Kurdistan,” Merip important ones being the Alevis and the Reports, No. 153, 1988, 42 the Kurdish society diverse. This diversity that Yezidis. can be mainly found in differences regarding

religion and language, has differentiated the Religious diversity has played an outstanding 4. Jongerden, Joost and Akkaya, Ahmet Kurdish society, shaking at the same time its role in the Kurdish movement throughout Hamdi, “Born from the Left: The making of unity. time, since its rebellions were influenced by the PKK,” Nationalisms and politics in the different stance Kurds of different Turkey: political Islam, Kemalism and the The Kurdish Language religions had. More particularly, during the Kurdish issue, New York: Routledge, 2011, Historically, Kurdish belongs to the family of rebellions that broke out between the 1880s 124 the Indo-European languages and more and the 1930s, Sunnis were divided into two particularly to the Indo-Iranian branch of this mystical orders that could not cooperate 5. Van Bruinessen, Martin, “Between family. According to the Kurdish Academy of effectively, Shiite Kurds did not take part in Guerilla War and Political Murder: the Languages, Kurdish dialects are broken into the Kurdish national movement and the Alevi Workers’ Party of Kurdistan,” op. cit. three major groups: The Northern Kurdish Kurds fearing Sunni fanatism did not support dialect (), which is spoken by the the Sheikh Sa'id rebellion in 1925. Kurds living in Turkey and Syria; the Central At this point, however, it should also be Kurdish Language (), written in the mentioned that despite the various religious All links accessed on 21/4/2016 Arabic script and spoken by and groups, Kurdish society is currently moving Iran; and the language toward a more tolerant religious road. In which is also spoken by Kurds in Iraq and Iran 2012, the government of and encompasses nine sub–dialects. Within (KRG), in a broad-minded move of religious these three major groups there is significant equality, “declared that its schools will now be variation and as a result the speakers of religiously tolerant,” without giving different dialects cannot necessarily preference to a specific religion. Such a understand each other. decision could unite more the Kurdish From time to time, teaching the Kurdish population since it might lead to a reality language as well as using it publicly was where faith in different religions will not prohibited. After the establishment of the constitute a barrier to their common good. Republic of Turkey for instance, its Even if differences in language and religion government adopted a radical policy of influence the social cohesion of a society, nation–building. Ethnic diversity was Kurdish people share a common past, filled by perceived as a threat to the integrity of memories and national feelings, that is Turkey and Kurds, as the largest ethnic capable to protect their national identity and minority, constituted the biggest threat. keep them united. Besides, their mutual Turkey suppressed all the external symbols, dream and goal for independence seems to be prohibited the teaching and public use of stronger than any other factor affecting their Kurdish and changed even the Kurdish names unity. of towns and villages to Turkish ones. Similarly, in Iran and Iraq Kurdish were also prohibited from time to time in an effort to avoid the emergence of a common language, spoken by the whole population. This suppression of Kurdish in Turkey, Iran and Iraq, that had successfully prevented the emergence of a common standard language, the most important tool for social cohesion and unity to a population, resulted in a reality where Kurds living in different areas were not able to understand each other. KURDISH REPORT | Issue 3 6

In the 1980s, as the regime took control of more areas of , the Kurdish Kurdish national movement gradually weakened; apart from the recurrent splits among the

various political parties, another fatal blow Nationalism in was the successive assassinations of Iranian- FOOTNOTES Kurdish political leaders in Iraqi-controlled 1. Zubeida, Sami, “Report from Paris: territory by the Iranian regime, signifying how Kurdish Conference,” Middle East Report, Iran since the serious the Islamic republic was in silencing No. 163, 1990, 40

dissidents. A change in the Kurdish national 2. Van Bruinessen, Martin, “The Kurds Islamic movement in Iran came in the 1990s, as a between Iran and Iraq,” Middle East Report, result of the relative liberalization of the No. 141, 1986, 19 Revolution Khatami presidency, when Kurds experienced an unprecedented amount of cultural 3. Ahmadzadeh, Hashem and Stansfield, Gareth, “The Political, Cultural and Military by Charitini Petrodaskalaki activities that eventually formed a new Re-Awakening of the Kurdish Nationalist nationalist discourse.3 In addition, since 2003 Movement in Iran,” Middle East Journal, and the establishment of Iraq’s Kurdish Vol. 64, No. 1, 2010, 21 Since the Islamic Revolution of 1979, the Regional Government (KRG), the Kurds have been expressing their wishes for were motivated to push for similar rights in 4. Gresh, Geoffrey F., “Iranian Kurds in an autonomy, but the failure of negotiations Iran.4 However, with the election of Age of Globalisation,” Iran and the between the Kurdish national parties and the Ahmadinejad in 2005, the Kurdish Caucasus, No. 13, 2009, 192 Islamic regime led to a long-standing armed demonstrations that erupted were brutally 5. Al Jazeera, "Meet the Kurdish Fighters conflict. After a brief enfeeblement in the late suppressed, while banning of Kurdish Mobilising against Tehran," (12/9/2015) 1980s, the Kurdish movement in Iran newspapers was common occurrence during http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/09/m reinvigorated since the late 1990s and early his presidency. eet-kurdish-fighters-mobilising-tehran- 2000. The developments in Iranian Kurdistan As things change rapidly for , 150903093406685.html might be less heard in international news than Iraq and Turkey, Iranian Kurdistan appears the ones in neighboring Kurdish regions, oddly quiet; however, this does not mean that nevertheless, Kurdish resistance and nothing happens in this area nowadays. In All links accessed on 5/5/2016 demands for autonomy and national May 2015, the death of a 25-year old Kurdish recognition have not ceased. girl triggered waves of national and political In the end of the 1970s, Iran was facing serious protest across Iranian Kurdistan against the domestic political unrest; the memory of the government, namely one of the biggest Algiers agreement between Iran and Iraq in Kurdish uprisings in years. Moreover, seeing 1975 gave the Kurds in Iran enough incentive their own struggle stalled compared to the

to join the revolution and show their active gains of their brethren elsewhere, KDPI and opposition to the Pahlavi regime through other Kurdish extensive public demonstrations. At first, groups Kurds were generally positive towards the outlawed in new regime; however, after they presented Iran have their demands for autonomy, they were soon taken up disappointed by Khomeini’s pronouncement arms once that Kurds were no different from other again, Muslims and should be content with an returning to Islamic government.1 While Sunni sentiment the has been of minor importance in the Kurds’ mountains of attitude towards the new Islamic republic, it the Iran-Iraq should be noted that many Shi’a Kurds border.5 remained supportive of the Islamic regime.2 To sum up, The stalemate of negotiations between the the intensity Islamic Republic and the Kurdish nationalist of Kurdish nationalism in Iran has fluctuated parties (mainly KDPI) exacerbated tensions, since the Islamic Revolution, but nevertheless and a well-organized revolt erupted in March it has always been present and consistent in 1979 in major Kurdish cities; The repression its demands for autonomy. The situation was so brutal that an estimated 10,000 Kurds might seem relatively quiet now; died in the first two years. The conflict nonetheless, any regional developments in intensified sharply when the Iran-Iraq war favor of the Kurds elsewhere will affect broke out, as it was assumed that Iraqi and Iranian Kurds, the second largest Kurdish Iranian Kurds would cooperate; by 1983, the population in the Middle East, and this is why Iranian government controlled most of the the Iranian regime is against an independent Kurdish areas, driving the Kurdish guerilla Kurdistan in Iraq. headquarters to Iraqi territory.

KURDISH REPORT | Issue 3 7

Centre for Mediterranean, Middle East and Kurdish Islamic Studies Department of Political Science and International Relations, University of report Peloponnese 1 Aristotelous str & Leof. Athinon Corinth, 201 00, Greece Evangelos Diamantopoulos [email protected]

Evangelos Diamantopoulos Costas Faropoulos Maria Kourpa Iris Pappa Charitini Petrodaskalaki Aliki Sofianou

www.cemmis.gr.edu