Vidyodaya Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences

VJHSS (2021), Vol. 06 (01)

Nature of Prehistoric Archaeological Investigation and Research in (1992 – 2019)

D. S. A. Munasinghe*, H. A. S. N. Hanchapola2, N. A. D. M. Nissanka3 and A. H. M. J. M. Athapathtu4 *1Department of Archaeology, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 3Department of Archaeology, Sri Lanka, 1234Post Graduate Institute of Archaeology, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 4Research Centre, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka

Article Info ABSTRACT Article History: Received 30 August 2020 Sri Lankan prehistoric investigations can be divided into several Accepted 07 February phases. Identifying the nature of prehistoric archaeological 2021 investigation and between 1992 – 2018 is Issue Published Online the research problem of this paper. The main objective of the 01 January 2021 research is to collect data and information of Prehistoric Archaeological Investigation and Research (Exploration and Key Words: Excavation) in Sri Lanka between 1992 – 2018 and arrange them in chronological order. In this process data and information were Prehistoric Archaeology collected using primary and secondary sources through library Researchers survey, Field study, web survey and interviews were conducted to Chronology obtain more quantitative data The key research findings of the Multidisciplinary research are based on the identified several extraordinary features of this period compared to the early research periods such *Corresponding author as systematic excavations, chronological methods, multi- E-mail address: disciplinary approach, researches in associated with new scientific [email protected] methodologies and innovative scientific methodologies including genealogical experiments. Journal homepage: http://journals.sjp.ac.lk/i ndex.php/vjhss http://doi.org/10.31357/ fhss/vjhss.v06i01.10

VJHSS (2021), Vol. 06 (01), pp. 128-143

ISSN 1391-1937 ISSN 2651-0367 (Online) ©Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 2021 Munasinghe et al., VJHSS (2021) Vol. 06 (01) pp. 128-143

1. Introduction identifying the interest and awareness about such investigation in Sri Lanka among In the journey of the human race from the university community and Identifying the origin to a modern human, we fined different nature of prehistoric archaeological periods which have caused to sharpen human investigation and research in Sri Lanka (1992 society. Among these periods Prehistory – 2018). holds an important period in the time of the development of the Human race. In this 2. Materials and Methods journey, our ancestors left much material evidence which is hidden and undiscovered. The methodology that has been applied for These hidden treasures always become a this study is based on the processual piece of a Jigsaw puzzle of the historical archaeological perspective. In order to journey of mankind. In the same way, collect primary data from the prehistoric Prehistoric archaeological investigation and archaeologists, semi-structured interviews research help to draw a clear picture of were conducted via online interviews and prehistoric society. Sri Lanka has one of the face-to-face interviews. Library survey, Web best recorded prehistoric sequences in South sites and field studies were also used to Asia. A revived of prehistory is a vast subject. collect primary data. In the library survey, I These reasons prove that there is a great referred to field reports, excavation reports, potentiality for prehistoric archaeological exploration reports, administrative reports investigation and research in Sri Lanka. and laboratory reports. Secondary Data were Therefore, this paper explores the collected from textbooks, journal articles, importance of the “Prehistoric archaeological web sites and newspapers. For web sources, investigation and research in Sri Lanka web sites which published high standard between 1992 – 2018” and how they helped academic research papers like “Academia, the development of the Sri Lankan prehistoric Research Gate, Nature, The Science and archaeology. Google scholars" and website of international high ranked universities, main scientific Prehistoric archaeological investigation and magazines, laboratories, government and research in Sri Lanka between 1992 to non-government offices were used. present had focused on various important prehistoric archaeological facts. On the other 2.1 Prehistory & Prehistoric Archaeology hand, many scholars have conducted many prehistoric archaeological investigation and Archaeology is the study of human cultures research in Sri Lanka between 1992 to through the study of material and present. But these have not been environmental remains. (Renfrew & Bahn, systematically collected to a single database 2016, p.22-50). Archaeology can be further and not arranged in chronological order. subdivided into prehistoric archaeology and historic archaeology. Prehistoric archaeology The main objective is this research is to refers to cultures that did not develop systematically arrange data and information writing. The term prehistory, in major of “Prehistoric archaeological investigations dictionaries and encyclopedias, varies. and researches between 1992 to 2018" into a As an example, New World Encyclopedia and single database in chronological order. Other The Penguin Dictionary of Archaeology objectives of this research are identifying the explain the etymology of the term Prehistory multidisciplinary practice of such as: investigation and research, enlisting publications and research papers of “Prehistory (Greek words προ = before and prehistoric archaeological Investigation and ιστορία = history) is the period before written research in Sri Lanka. between 1992 – 2018, 129

Munasinghe et al., VJHSS (2021) Vol. 06 (01) pp. 128-143 history became available to assist our information He also has to collect together all understanding of the past. The term was the clues which are independent of writing to introduced into English by Daniel Wilson compile a valid restoration of the past and (1816–1892), President of Toronto extend the boundaries of history, for his basic University College, in 1851. The term Pré- objective in the history of the human race. Historique had been used in France Touranal, French since the 1830s to describe the time In this way, prehistoric archaeology is both a before writing. Paul Tournal originally coined physical activity out on the field, either for the term in describing the finds he had made exploration work or excavation process or in the caves of southern France.” both. It is also an intellectual pursuit, analyzing the collected materials in the The Penguin Dictionary of Archaeology laboratory and writing reports. It is an describes the term prehistory with more exciting quest that is the quest for knowledge detail: about early man who existed in the distant past. The most challenging task for a "In the strict sense, 'history' is written an prehistoric archaeologist is to know how to account of thaw past recovered from the interpret the past material culture in human written record, but such as an account can be terms. Many questions confront a prehistoric prepared from other sources, notably archaeologist or prehistorian. archaeology. The term 'prehistory' was coined to cover the sorry of man's Who were they? development before the appearance of writing. it is succeeded by Protohistory, the What did they eat? period for which we have some records but must still really largely on archaeological How did they make stone, bone? Antler and evidence to give us a coherent account. (Bray conch shell tools? & Trump, 1972, p.189). How were these tools and pots used? Prehistory differs from history in many other How were societies organized? ways. It deals with the activities of a society or culture, not of individuals; is it restricted to What did the environment look like? the material evidence, and only such of that has survived; and it is in the strictest sense What contacts did they have? anonymous since without records we cannot know the name people, people or places and What did they think? are forced to invent arbitrary labels to serve instead." How did things change?

Therefore, prehistoric archaeology is the To address all these questions, prehistoric reconstruction of mankind's most distant archaeologists study the material culture left past before the invention of writing. Instead by the forerunners in different angles using of beginning history with 'Our ancestors the or applying the methods of natural and Gauls', or dating our origins back to the physical sciences such as Zooarchaeology, Homeric age, Mahawamsha, Depawansha age Paleobotany, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology, or the Biblical fourth millennium, the Palynology, Paleontology, Biological prehistorian plunges into the bewildering Anthropology, Archaeogenetic, depths of the geological past. This is still part Ethnoarchaeology, Geoarchaeology, of history, however, and in the absence of Pedology, Speleology, Radiometric dating written evidence, the prehistorian has to methods, geology, geography, Climatology, make use of many more sources of and Archaeological chemistry etc. 130

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During the last fifty years, prehistoric in the South. These were dated to 6000 yBP. archaeology has developed with (Somadeva, 2006) According to S.U. extraordinary rapidity into a firmly , Keneth Kennedy and Diane established branch of science. A system has Hawkey the Veddahs are a race with genes been constructed, the frontiers of several coming from a diverse collection of cultural phenomena have been laid down, immigrants to . They assume that and the outlines of prehistoric chronology only 5% of the Veddah genes are from the have been formed. Hypotheses and assertions Balangoda Man. (Hawkey, 2002) Hawkey’s have been made concerning the examination of morphological characteristics ethnographical groups of prehistoric times, of teeth of the prehistoric, iron-age, early and lengthy 'prehistoric' periods have been historic, tribal and recent man in transformed into 'historic' ones. revealed that the Sri Lankan hunter-gatherer is closely related to the Sri Lankan Iron-Age 3. Results and Discussion man. These two are completely isolated in the clade. (Hawkey, 1997) Sri Lanka holds an important place in prehistoric societies that existed in the Indian The material culture and the subcontinent. It is a tropical island that lies tradition of Sri Lanka are highlighted in the approximately halfway between Africa and late Pleistocene and early Holocene. These Australia along the northern rim of the Indian can be categorized according to the type of Ocean. On the other hand, Sri Lanka has one stone (lithic) tools used. The Lower of the best recorded prehistoric sequences in has not been reliably documented South Asia. A revived of prehistory is a vast in Sri Lanka. The alluvial (gem - bearing) subject. These reasons prove that there is a gravels of the referred, to great potentiality for prehistoric as the Ratnapura beds, have yielded man- archaeological investigation and research in made chopping and cutting tools (Ratnapura Sri Lanka. The present study investigates the Industry), in association with a fossil fauna Island hunter-gatherer archaeology between (Ratnapura fauna), which could tentatively be the Late Pleistocene and the Middle Holocene assigned to the Paleolithic (Dearaniyagala, . 1958, p. 56-65) (Manamendra-Arachchi & Wikramassinghe, 2014 p. 20). Tools found Humans first inhabited Sri Lanka during the associated with high-level coastal deposits in Pleistocene period. (Deraniyagala, 1958, the north and south-east of the island p.57) The history of inhabitation of the ( formation) and recent findings human in Sri Lanka has been revealed from Jaffna can also be assigned tentatively to through the stone tool evidence from the Lower Paleolithic pending scientific excavations which date from 125,000 BP. dating of these occurrences (Manamendra- (Dharaniyagala,1992,686), (Perera, 2010, p. Arachchi & Wikramassinghe, 2014 p. 20). The 25). Chronologically, the human osteological Middle Paleolithic has been recorded in Sri remains found in Sri Lanka could be dated Lanka. A few sites in the coastal gravels of the from ca. 48000 yBP to present; Fahien cave Iranamadu formation have been dated to 48000, Batadombalena 37000, Kitulgala between 125,000 and 75,000 BP Belilena 16000, Ravana Ella 6500, Sigiri (Deraniyagala 1992, p.82 -104) Potana 6000, Mantota 3800 yBP. Some of the (Manamendra-Arachchi & Wikramassinghe, other Sri Lankan protohistoric sites too 2014 p. 20). There are numerous occurrences represent the human osteological remains on the surface of the Iranamadu formation belonging to the above sequence. and some in the Ratnapura beds, which are (Manamendra-Arachchi & Wikramassinghe, likely to have been of this phase of 2014 p. 19) Human remains were also found technology. According to tool technology, it is in shell middens at Hungama and Pallemallala difficult to clearly distinguish between the 131

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Upper Palaeolithic and phases. As (Premathilake, 2012) (Premathilake, 2006, a result, speculation exists as to the existence p.468-496) (Premathilake, 2015, p.118-156) of an upper Palaeolithic phase in Sri Lanka. (Adhikari & Thanthilage, 2007).

The Mesolithic period in Sri Lanka To understand prehistoric archaeological (Balangoda culture) has been dated from research investigations in Sri Lanka, one approximately 48,000 – 3,800 yBP. should start with the beginnings of (Manamendra-Arachchi & Wikramassinghe, archaeological survey in Sri Lanka and 2014 p. 20) The prehistoric record is much beginning of prehistoric archaeological more complete. The stone tools made of chert research investigations in India. Prehistoric and quartz displays the highest degree of archaeological research investigations workmanship, notably the geometric including anthropological and ethnological microlith and the exquisite pressure-flaked investigations also began in the late 19th Balangoda points which resemble Century. The beginning of prehistoric arrowheads. Some pitted pebbles used for archaeological research in India could be producing fire and grinding purposes have stated as having begun from 1863 after the been made from granitic rocks. (Deraniyagala discovery of a Paleolithic tool from a rock 1992, p.512) Bovine and cervix incisor teeth crater. On the 31st of May 1863, Robert Bruce have been sharpened and used as tools; these Foote, of the Geological Survey of India tools and beads made of seashells and Shark discovered and identified the first Paleolithic teeth occur from 50,000 years onwards. tools at Pallavaram in the Chingleput District Animals (perhaps ) may have been of Madras. (Penniman, Sen & Ghosh, 1967) herded and the domestication of plants could (Pappu, 91) (Perera, 2010, p.20) Influenced have reached an incipient stage. by these discoveries, various western seems to have been produced in the final scholars initiated prehistoric archaeological stages. The human of Mesolithic Sri Lanka research investigations in Sri Lanka. An was an anatomically modern Homo sapien, investigation into the prehistory of Sri Lanka popularly known as the Balangoda commenced in the 1890s and became man(Manamendra-Arachchi & established by 1908. Thereafter, it Wikramassinghe, 2014 p. 19 - 25). progressed fruitfully until the late 1930s when it became steadier. (Perera, 2010) Some Sri Lankan archaeologists envisage the beginning of animal husbandry and the According to the Former Deputy Director- incipient domestication of oats and barley to General of Department of Archaeology, Dr. as early as 17,000 yBP in Sri Lanka’s montane .Nimal Perera, the “History of Prehistoric grasslands (Premathilake, 2013, p.219-228). Archaeological Investigation and research” in These prehistorians believe these early Sri Lanka can be broadly divided into 3 experimentations evolved into a matured periods. (Perera, 2010, p.20) phase of cultivated oats and barley by 10,000 yBP. Pottery has been found in association I. Incipient research during the pre- with Mesolithic tools at cave habitation sites, independence period (1885 – 1930) and a few stone axes with grinding on their II. Research during the late pre- faces have also been discovered. It is not independence period (1930 – 1968) feasible as yet to separate the numerous III. Research during the post-pre- Mesolithic sites characterized by microliths independence period (1968- 1990) into pre-farming and farming (Neolithic) phases. Dr. Prematihilake indicates the presence of a pre-farming/pastoral culture Research during the late pre-independence from 14,000 - 10,000 yBP at Horton Plains. period, which saw the inceptions of (Premathilake, 2003, p.1525-1541) 132

Munasinghe et al., VJHSS (2021) Vol. 06 (01) pp. 128-143 systematics prehistoric archaeological University in the USA titled as "Prehistory of investigations in Sri Lanka. During this Sri Lanka: an ecological perspective". is the period, most of the archaeological first comprehensive in-depth account to have investigation was undertaken by the National been written on the subject. (Deraniyagala, Museum in Colombo under the directorship 1992) (Perera, 2010, p.23) It is the definitive of Dr.P.E.P Deraniyagala. During the Last text on the prehistoric archaeology of the Period, most of the archaeological Island. On the other hand, Dr. Siran investigations were undertaken by the Deraniyagala’s main contribution to the Sri Excavation Section of the Archaeological Lankan prehistoric archaeological department, under the directorship of Dr. investigation and research was a group of Siran Upendra Deraniyagala. (Perera, 2010, well-trained young scholars working under p.20-230 his instructions who were his students. This group of scholars did many prehistoric Although these 3 periods lasted till 1990, investigations and research which enhanced there were many other prehistoric Sri Lankan prehistoric archaeological archaeological investigation and research investigation and research of the which had been done in Sri Lanka. Therefore, contemporary period. Most of Sri Lankan it provides a gap in the research history of prehistoric archaeological investigations and prehistoric archaeological investigation and research of this contemporary period were research in Sri Lanka. According to my done by theses followers of Dr. Siran perspective, prehistoric archaeological Deraniyagala. This chapter provides an investigation and research in Sri Lanka can be account of details of prehistoric divided to one more period which can be archaeological investigations and research of dated between 1992 to present (2018). The the followers of Dr. Siran Deraniyagala. main objective of my research is to define that period (1992 – 2018) and examine the nature Another important event of this period was of the prehistoric archaeological the establishment of the Postgraduate investigation and research in Sri Lanka in this Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR) of the period. I am titling the period as "Research University of Kelaniya, specially dedicated to during the contemporary period". The reason advanced research in Prehistoric for this titling lays on publication of Dr. Siran archaeology. The PGIAR has acted as Sri Deraniyagala’s doctoral thesis at the Harvard Lanka’s convener of the Dambulla University in the USA titled as "Prehistory of region Settlement Archaeology Project, which Sri Lanka: an ecological perspective". has recovered important evidence on the "Prehistory of Sri Lanka: an ecological prehistory of "Cultural Triangle" as well as perspective memorial volume 08 of cultural developments during the . Archaeology Survey of Sri Lanka is the first Other archaeologists from the University of comprehensive in-depth account to have Kelaniya, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, been written on the subject. It is the definitive University of Rajarata, University of Ruhuna text on the prehistoric archaeology of the and University of Peradeniya are actively Island. (Deraniyagala, 1992) collaborating in the research as well as the teaching prehistory. (Perera, 2010) The most significant scholar of the post-pre- independence period of prehistoric research Chronology of research during the in the island, Dr. Siran Deraniyagala has contemporary period is also an important worked over 40 years on the study and area in the research. An excavation was investigations of prehistory and continue to conducted between 1990 and 1991 by the assist in the study of prehistory as a Post Graduate Institute of Archaeology, consultant and resource person. His major Colombo near Sigiriya Rock Fortress, Aligala work, his doctoral thesis at the Harvard cave by Prof. Gamini Adhikari (Karunarathne 133

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& Adhikari, 1994) (Bandaranayake et al, Department of Archaeology, Dr.Nimal Perera 1990) (Bandaranayake & Mogren, 1994) (Deraniyagala, 1994, p.50-51) and in 1995, an Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology, exploration in Ussangoda, by Department of University of Kelaniya. Moreover, in the year Archaeology (Deraniyagala, 1995, p.14) and a of 1991 an Excavation was done at Research project in Horton Plains, by Dhorawak-Kanda Cave by Dr.W.D Dr.T.R.Premathilake; Post Graduate Institute Wijeyapala; (Deraniyagala, 1991, p.34) of Archaeology. The latter project has Department of Archaeology and another at collaborated with D.S.Epitawatta, Pothana Cave by Prof Gamini Adhikari., Department of Geography, University of Sri Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology, Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka, Prof. Urve Miller University of Kelaniya. (Bandaranayake et al, and Ass. Prof. Jan Risbergthe, Department of 1990) (Bandaranayake & Mogren, 1994) Quaternary Research, Stockholm University (Adhikari, 1998) (Adhikari, 2007). And also and the Department of Archaeology and an emergency exploration and excavation in , Uppsala University financed and around Samanala wewa hydroelectric by the Swedish Agency for Research scheme was conducted in 1988-1992 under Cooperation (SAREC), to study the Director of Dr..S.U. Deraniyagala and Miss environmental changes on the Horton Plains Gill Julef of the Institute of Archaeology, in the central part of Sri Lanka. University of London. (Deraniyagala, 1991, (Premathilake, 2003, p.1525-1541) p.32-34) (Premathilake, 2012) (Premathilake, 2006, p.468-496) (Premathilake, 2015, p.118-156). Earth samples were obtained in 1993 from prehistoric sites in Sri Lanka for research in In 1997 a rescue excavation in Pallemalala OSL (Optically Stimulated Luminescence) was done by Prof. Raj Somadewa, dating, one of the latest methods of dating in Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology, the world. (Deraniyagala, 1993, p.61-62) This University of Kelaniya. (Somadeva & was treated as a prime research project of the Ranasinghe, 2006, p.14-24) There is an excavation section. This work was conducted extensive (over 2 sq. km) deposit of lagoon jointly by the Department of Archaeology and shells in this area, which is being quarried by the Quaternary Dating Centre of the local villagers on contract to suppliers of lime. Australian National University (ANU). In this The site occurs as an ancient midden within project, two scientists of the ANU and Mr. this 25 sq. km area. Besides, an inspection, Mohan Abeyratne of the Central Cultural exploration and documentation of Prehistoric Fund collaborated. To confirm the scientific artefact in the gem mines of Supiritmat validity of the geological and radiometric Village in the Ambalangoda Division, was chronology already obtained for the conducted by Department of Archaeology. prehistoric sites of Sri Lanka, nearly 100 soil (Dharaniyagala,1997, p.37) in the same year samples for OSL dating were obtained from the prehistoric caves at Kuruwita In the year of 1998, a Prehistoric Exploration Batadombalena, Kitulgala Belilena, Fahien near the Sigiriya, Thammanngala, Cave in Bulatsinhala and Dorawaka-Lena as Kanduwagala, Unalugala, Malasna, Ramakale well as from the open-air prehistoric sites at and North Section of Sigiriya was done by Embilipitiya, Bundala, Patirajawela, Sigiriya Project – Central Cultural Fund (CCF) Ussangoda and Minihagal-Kanda in Yala. (CCF, 1998) and an Exploration in the Caves (Dharaniyagala,1993, p61-62), (Abeyratne, in by Department of Archaeology. 1994, p585-588) (Abeyrathna et al,1997, Certain caves in the were p243-255) endangered by development activities. Some of these were surveyed in 6th – 13th January Later in 1994, a prehistoric excavation was by Nimal Perera, Archaeological Officer, done at Bandarawela Church Hill, by excavation under W.H.Wijeyapala’s 134

Munasinghe et al., VJHSS (2021) Vol. 06 (01) pp. 128-143 supervision. (Deraniyagala, 1998, p.59). The Nihal, S.P. Chandana, W.M.T. Janapriya, as caves explored were Indurana cave, well as many individuals in the Sri Lanka Ruwanwella, Caves in Asmadala, Aranayake Department of Archaeology. (Kulathilake, Division, Ada-Lena, 85/B Pitaden&a Wasama, 2014, p.1.08) (Kulathilake, 2018, p51-82). In Warakapola Division, Koti-gallena, Morley 2008, an excavation in Alavala Potgul-Lena Oya Estate, Magalla, Ruwanwalla Division. Cave was led by Prof. Gamini Adhikari, Another exploration in Meemure, Udu Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology to seek dhumbara division, was done by Department new information and create awareness about of Archaeology in 1998 and a significant prehistoric culture. Excavations were done in discovery of a prehistoric cave habitation two phases at the end and at the beginning of known as Alu Lena was found. (Deraniyagala, the years 2008 and 2009 respectively. (De 1998, p.59). Silva, 2009)

Prehistoric Exploration in Ritigala, Sigiriya The 2010–2011 fieldwork included an and Gallinda-Kanda was done by Sigiriya extensive ground reconnaissance survey Project – Central Cultural Fund program and two excavations were (CCF)(CCF,2000) in 2000 and in 2005, an conducted in the higher elevations (800– excavation in Kuruwita batadombalena and 3000 feet MSL) of the southern slope of the Bellan-bandi-pallassa, was directed by Dr. central mountains. The main focus of the Nimal Perera, Department of Archaeology. ground reconnaissance survey conducted by The excavation was assisted by L.A. de Mel, Raj Somadeva was the geographical area S.J. Sunil, Susantha Nihal, P.G. Gunadasa and extending from Opanayake to Haputale, Jude Perera, and the survey of the study area which is approximately 50km apart. Several was undertaken by A.P. Asoka, S.J. Sunil and archaeological sites were located, scattered Nissanka. The field season was from 3l on the mountain slopes (3000–5000 feet August 2005. Bellan-bandi Palossa charcoal MSL) from the Horton Plains down to the samples were dated through AMS by the Haputale Plateau on the southern gradient of University of Waikato Radiocarbon the central mountains. The number of Laboratory in New Zealand. (Perera,2010) identified sites, at first glance, does not The main phase of habitation at Bellan-bandi suggest a thick density of sites. All the caves Palassa is accordingly dated to between excavated have very shallow soil deposits. 11,000 and 12,000 years Cal BR. Climatically (, Lunugalge, Udupiyangalge, it would have been a humid phase as Alugalge). (Somadeva et al, 2018, p225-252). indicated by the presence of Acavus arboreal Another Excavation in Fa-Hien Cave was also snails in this stratum. Another Excavation done in 2010. (Perera 2010). was done in Varana Cave by Prof.Gamini Adhikari. (Department of Archaeology, In the year 2012, Dr. Nimal Perera and Mr. 2009). Oshan Wedage directed an excavation in Fa- Hien Cave. Excavation has yielded a very large An excavation in Godawaya, by Department archaeological assemblage including organic of Archaeology and an excavation in Mini remains from initiate habitation to the mid- athiliya, by Dr Nimal Perera, Department of Holocene. This assemblage was studied by Archaeology took place in 2007. (Perera Jude Perera of the Department of 2010) (Kulathilake, 2014, p.1-08}). The latter Archaeology and Dr.T.R.Premathilake of the was accompanied by Dr. Samanthi PGIAR. Bio anthropophagy studies on the Kulathilake who was its consulting biological human remain recovered from the excavation anthropologist, as well as Priyantha Costa, of in 2011 is currently being Nuwan Abeywardana, U.W. Karunasena, S.S. conducted by Prof. Jay stock of the Garusingha, Tharangi Dissanayaka, Oshan Department of Archaeology and Fernando, Anusha Kasthuri, M.M. Susantha Anthropology, University of Cambridge 135

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(Perera, 2012) (Roberts et al, 2017, p102- researchers from the PGIAR and University 118) (Roberts et al, 2015, p.1246-1249). students. (Perera, 2013)

A prehistoric exploration in Nagolla Magal- Later in 2016 an excavation in Lena division by Sigiriya Project – Central Udupiyangallena cave, conducted by Prof. Raj Cultural Fund (CCF) and an Excavation in Somadewa and an Exploration in Rathnapura by Dr Nimal Perera was carried out Verse were done by Rathnapura Project – in 2013.(CCF, 2013) Several specific Central Cultural Fund (CCF). The objectives set for the excavation at Kuragala. archaeological heritage of the Ratnapura (Perera ,2013) included follows; investigate district belonging to the wet zone of Sri Lanka prehistoric cultural sequence of the site, an represents those of the pre-historic age to examination of the functional aspect of the historic age. In research into the pre-historic site which could demonstrate the degree of age, this region has been confirmed as a diversity within dry zone and wet zone, the significant zone where evidence is available establishment of a chronological framework up to the Pleistocene age. (Somadeva et al, based radiocarbon dating and establishment 2018, p225-252) The heritage management of substance strategies and techniques. of the Ratnapura district was begun by the Central Cultural Fund in 2016 centred on Sri Adding to the aforesaid, an excavation in Lanka’s pre-historic heritage. Dr. Nimal Hunugalagala Limestone Cave was done Perera conducted a four-year, four-step headed by Prof Raj Somadewa in the year of exploration project in Rathnapura District 2013. In 2014, an excavation of D13 Cave, centred on prehistoric heritage in Sri Lanka Yapahuwa excavation were done by with the supervision of Dr. Siran Yapahuwa Project – Central Cultural Fund Deraniyagala. This Exploration project (CCF). Burnt Cranium celanicus, thel kakuna activates as follows: This project helps to was found in this excavation and it's dated by discover caves, rock shelters and open-air Radiocarbon date in 5090 Cal BP. Emergency habitation which contain a prehistoric exploration in Kuragala was carried out in context. Few examples of the places are, 2015 which is a very important exploration, Divisional Secretarial Area Kuruwita; conducted by Exploration Section, Regional Batadomaba-Lena, Dahaiya-Lena, Batathota- Archaeology Office, Seetahawaka – Lena, Sthreepura cave, Miyanadeniya cave, Awissawella region. (Department of Kalupahana cave, Lenagalu Lena cave, Yaya- Archaeology, 2015). The second season of the gallena cave, Andirigane cave, Erathna open- Hunters in Transition project was initiated air habitation area. Divisional Secretarial between 22nd July and 4th September 2016 Area Rathanapura; Divi-gallena cave, by Prof. Raj Somadeva. Two excavations have Walagamba temple. Divisional Secretarial been carried out in Illukkumbura of Area Kalawana; Nerawana-gallena cave. Balangoda. (Somadeva et al, 2018, p225-252) Divisional Secretarial Area Alapatha; Kukulu- The first cave excavated was Lena. Divisional Secretarial Area Palmadulla; Paragahamaditta Galge alias Bandukanda Nugelen cave, Divi-gallena cave, Galge in Panana which has revealed a rich Mawuddaluwaththa cave. Divisional assemblage of prehistoric stone implements. Secretarial Area Niwithigala; Shiwankara- The second cave excavated was Alu Galge. Lena cave and Divisional Secretarial Area Environmental samples were analyzed Ahaliyagoda; Ambanwela cave, Pareyigala through AMS dating method by Beta Analytic cave, Sudem Lena/Maduruwalena cave. Inc. in the USA. Excavation of the prehistoric These findings of the research will lead to the cave of Alugalge is conducted by the Field later discussion of the topic. (CCF Archaeology Unit of the Postgraduate Rathnapura, 2016) (CCF Rathnapura, 2017) Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR) led by (CCF Rathnapura, 2018) Professor Raj Somadeva and a team of 136

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Prehistoric archaeology occupied a major also the involvement of Government place in the archaeology of Sri Lanka. Thus, it institutes such as the Department of can be observed that since the beginning of Museums in prehistoric research is a notable archaeological investigations in South Asia, feature. the foundation for the Sri Lankan prehistoric archaeological investigations has been laid. In addition to that, the conducting of These researchers were able to discover expeditions throughout the entire island and evidence encompassing almost all the fields also conducting studies about geology, which describe the prehistoric man of Sri zoology, anthropology and art, and the Lanka and technology, culture, settlements, participation of new expeditors in this field cults, social information, subsistence etc. are some other significant features. Research which are interconnected with his life. Along during the post-pre-independence period with the contribution of archaeologists who (1968- 1992) is the 3rd phase of early Sri are involved in this field, it can help derive a Lankan prehistoric researches. The complete idea about the prehistory in Sri archaeological excavations and analysis Lanka, methods were revolutionized by Dr. Siran Deraniyagala in 1969 with the excavations of When we look into the incipient research the near Image house (Gedige) of the Citadel during the pre-independence period, we can area of , which could be seen as notice several significant features as follows; the inaugural step into this modern period. All research was done by foreigners, (Deraniyagala, 1972, p48-169) explorations were conducted by non- (Deraniyagala, 1992). The contributions archaeologists and professionals of different made by the scholars who came through the other fields, attention has been paid to the free education system in the country could be stone implements and anthropological seen during this period, and the most factors and most of these excavations were important resource person being Dr. Siran conducted in the central hills of the country. Upendra Deraniyagala. At the beginning of the modern period, all research on the However, when comparing world prehistoric prehistory of the country was done through archaeology, Sri Lanka has amassed a great the Department of Archaeology under the deal of data and created a firm base for the leadership of Dr. Siran Deraniyagala. Also syllabus of prehistoric archaeology. during this period could be observed the Accordingly, we could say that modern contributions of foreign scholars invited by prehistoric archaeology has a firm foundation the Department or in collaboration with and a formal point of view. The 2nd phase of them. From the 1990s, prehistoric research early prehistoric researches can be identified was being centred on the Postgraduate as the late pre-independence period. The Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR) of the most important aspect of this period is the University of Kelaniya. feature of transition in every aspect. When observing this period, one could see the 4th period can be identified as the research buildup of the theoretical features of the early during the contemporary period (1992 to period as well as the formation of a solid present). This period includes the incidents foundation for the modern period. The other which occurred with the publishing of Dr. most important aspect of this period is the Shiran Deraniyagala’s doctoral thesis. During emergence of local scholars at the forefront of this period, researches by Department of prehistoric studies of the country, unlike the Archaeology co-related with Postgraduate early period where foreign scholars Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR) of the dominated the stage. This period saw University of Kelaniya and also researches of systematic, organized expeditions taking independent expeditors can be seen. Scholars place on a much larger scale than before; and such as Dr..Nimal Perera and skilled 137

Munasinghe et al., VJHSS (2021) Vol. 06 (01) pp. 128-143 excavators including De Mel have engaged in with the interest of both local and foreign geo the researches. In addition, foreign scholars archaeologists including specialists such as and institutions have worked with local Prof. Jinadasa Katupotha. It was able to personals and institutions. Most of these identify early climate by using researches are published and more than 500 Paleobiodiversity and palynology and research papers, books included. Publishing analysis of pollen and phytolith and of innovative ideas and researches about the identification of evidence of fauna post-Mesolithic period, transitional domestication and climatic changes during prehistoric period and Neolithic period is one the period of Pleistocene to middle Holocene of the special features during this period, periods. One of the prominent researchers Other archaeologists at various local who involve this field is Prof. T.R. universities have also been active in the Premathilake and Horton plains and Fa- Hien research as well as teaching of prehistory. cave is his research fields. And also researches regarding early DNA and the New scientifically chronological methods and interest to gain data from human remains can scientific studies such as thin section have be observed. Among them, Dr. Lanka been used in prehistoric data analysis along Ranaweera, Dr..Chandimal, Dr. Samanthi with the development of early ideas about Kulathilake are prominent researchers. chronology and stratigraphy. The development of a multi-disciplinary approach The continuity of the guidance and direction compared to the early periods is also another of Dr..Shiran Deraniyagala in the field of special feature. Among them, prehistoric researches can be identified as a zooarchaeology, palynology were prominent. special feature during this period. Moreover, According to that, it can be identified that the stone tools analysis, analysis and prehistoric investigations are conducted in the topics such as recreation of food pattern various aspects within the present-day of early man were subjected to discussion. context. The expansion of early historic researches Of them, archaeozoology has reached an than prehistoric researches can be noticed advanced stage. Dr. P.E.P.Deraniyagala who during this period. The researchers have was a zoologist has laid the foundation for pointed out that the early historic period of this subject and it was further extended by Sri Lanka has begun and evolved since 2400 Mr. P.B. Karunaratne; an entomologist. BC. Among the personals who contributed in Today, it has been further improved by his these researches Dr..Shiran Deranyagala, student MR. Kelum Nalindra Manamendra Prof. Senaka Badaranayke Dr. Nimal Perera, Arachchi; a zoologist. Mr Jude Perera of Mr Priyantha Karunaratne, Prof. Raj Department of Archaeology; one of his Somadeva, Prof. Gamini Adikari, Mr. Ranjith students has been skilled in this field. This Bandara Dissanayake, Mr. Thusitha Mendis, subject is included in the syllabus of Post Dr. Mangala Katugampola, Mr Oshan Wedage Graduate Institute of Archaeology under the can be highlighted. direction of Mr. Manamendra Archchi with the guidance of Prof. Gamini Adhikari. Within As mentioned above, it can be identified that this subject scope, the study of various animal the prehistoric researches in Sri Lanka and kinds which were included in the early their nature and scope during the subsistence and cultural context of contemporary period (1992 to present). prehistoric man is done. However, there are so many problems of prehistory in the island that a lifetime's Geoarchaeology can be pointed out as research would not suffice to solve all. "The another subject which supports the history Ceylon and its Peoples, Past and upliftment of prehistoric investigations along Present, cannot be represented by a volume, 138

Munasinghe et al., VJHSS (2021) Vol. 06 (01) pp. 128-143 but only by a Library". So, it is still an Dr. Chandima Bogahawaththe, Senior unresolved mystery to the Prehistoric Lecturer, Department of Archaeology, archaeologists which could be resolved with University of Kelaniya more and more systematic and effective researches and investigations along with the Dr. Lanka Ranaveera Senior Lecturer, innovative technological advancements. Department of Anatomy, University of Kelaniya. 4. Conclusion and Recommendations Mrs. Sriyani Hathurusinghe, Senior Lecturer, According to the findings of the research, Department of Archaeology, University of prehistoric research investigation of the Kelaniya contemporary period (1992 to present) is wide and scientific. Most importantly, Mr. Kalum Nalinda Manamendra-Archchi, because of this research, information about Zoo Archaeologist, Post Graduate Institute of this period was collected from many other Archaeology, University of Kelaniya. different sources of different institutions and researches, into one source. Collecting much Ms. Sonali Rangika Premarathne, Research information of different sources into one Assistant, Post Graduate Institute of source is the main contribution of this Archaeology, University of Kelaniya. research to the field of archaeological Mrs. Piyumi Ambuldeniya, Former Research research. Assistant, Centre for Heritage, University of Acknowledgements Kelaniya. Probationary Lecturer in Department of Archaeology, University of Prof. Anura Manatunga, Senior Professor, Peradeniya. Department of Archaeology, University of Kelaniya. Director, Centre for Heritage, Mrs. A.G Dhayawathi, Project Manager, University of Kelaniya. & Director General of Ratnapura Project, Central Cultural Fund. Archaeology, Department of Archaeology, Sri Mr. Sumedha Priyantha Vithana, Senior Lanka. Archaeological Officer, Ratnapura Project, Prof. Malinga Amarasinghe, Senior Professor, Central Cultural Fund. Department of Archaeology, University of Librarian & Staff, Post Graduate Institute of Kelaniya. Archaeology, University of Kelaniya. Dr. Mangala Katugampola, Head of the 5. References Department, Department of Archaeology, University of Kelaniya. Abeyratne, M. (1994). TL dating of Sri Lankan archaeological sites. Quaternary Science Dr. Siran Upendra Deraniyagala, Former Reviews, 13(5-7), 585-588. doi: Director General Archaeology, Department of 10.1016/0277-3791(94)90081-7 Archaeology. Sri Lanka. Abeyratne, M., Spooner, N., Grun, R., & Head, J. Dr. Nimal Perera, Former Deputy Director- (1997). Multi dating studies of General of Archaeology, Department of Batadomba Cave, Sri Lanka. Quaternary Archaeology, Sri Lanka. Science Reviews, 16(3-5), 243-255. doi: Senior Prof Gamini Adhikari, Director, Post 10.1016/s0277-3791(96)00098-4 Graduate Institute of Archaeology, University of Kelaniya.

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