THE -DEVELOPMENT OF INTEGRATED SCHOOLING
FOR
BRITISH COLUMBIA INDIAN CHILDREN
by
ALFRED VYE PARMINTER
B. A., The University of British Columbia, 19^3
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS
in the Department
of
Education
We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
October, 1964 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of
British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study* I further agree that per• mission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by his representatives. It is understood that, copying or publi• cation of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission*
Department of Education
The University of British Columbia, Vancouver 8. Canada
Date October, 1964 ii
ABSTRACT
In the era preceding European contact there were many
cultural.and linguistic sub-groups within the Indian population
of the North West Coast area of North America. Intercommuni•
cation among the several sub-groups appears to have been limited.
Although these people had varying attitudes to their young and although their training devices were informal, they educated their children systematically and with objectives which encompassed more than mere race survival. They taught the children practical and social skills and inculcated moral values by techniques common in modern times.
The first non-Indians to arrive In the area widened the horizons of the inhabitants somewhat, and had the Indians not been subsequently overwhelmed by waves of settlers, their adoption of a new and broader culture might have progressed more rapidly. They were, however, isolated by a system of reserves and relegated to an inferior social and economic
status which tended to aggravate their time-honoured distrust for outsiders.
The missionaries, with financial assistance from the
Federal Government, first provided the children of British
Columbia's Indians with a measure of segregated, formal
education. Their efforts met with limited success. Some
literacy, nevertheless, was achieved enabling the majority
to accept the Christian religion and providing a foundation
for the better organized education program which was to develop. iii
' After World War II when the Indians themselves began to remonstrate, other citizens became concerned about the ineffectual education being provided to Indian children.
Two results of these protests developed concurrently—the
Government of Canada took a series of steps which vastly improved the existing system of segregated schools and the public school authorities, with the active support of federal officials, aggressively undertook to integrate the Indian
children into non-Indian schools.
With the full consent of their parents, almost half of the Indian pupils have now been integrated; the remainder
continue to receive their education separated from other
Canadian children. There are two.major difficulties in
increasing the proportion of Indian children attending the public schools:
(1) A large percentage of the Indians of the province
live on reserves located sufficiently distant from non-Indian
communities to preclude integration. Since the economy on many of these reserves is becoming increasingly sterilesome program of relocation to more productive areas will be required for humanitarian reasons. When this transpires, more
children may be integrated.
(2) The absence of religious instruction in the public
schools creates the second major barrier to further integration.
Many citizens may have viewed the Indians as a mentally, morally and socially inferior group and therefore considered the iv enrolment of Indian children in public schools to be somewhat injudicious. In connection with this study, however, question• naires were distributed to educators and Indian Affairs Branch personnel and indicated that integration has been successful for both Indians and non-Indians. Indeed, the great majority of the educators who took part in this survey would prefer to effect total integration immediately and believe that the transfer of the responsibility for the education of Indians from federal to provincial or local authorities is now desir• able—a conviction shared by many officials who have had long years of service with the Indian people. •
The survey also Indicates a need for an appropriate education program for the majority of Indian parents. They have not, as yet, learned to function supportively in the total education program; this shortcoming reduces the maximum poten• tial benefit from the funds and effort being devoted to Indian education. V
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer wishes to thank Dr.- F. Henry Johnson for assistance given throughout the development of this thesis and
Dr. Robin Smith for guidance and suggestions.
The active support from Dr. J. F. K. English, Deputy
Minister and Superintendent of Education, school principals, teachers, school trustees and Indian Affairs Branch personnel made possible the compilation of a wide sampling of opinion concerning the integration of Indian children into the public school system. vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION 1
' Purpose of the Study 2
Supplementary Problems 4
Importance of the Study 4
Limitations of the Study 5
Definition of Terms 6
Special Aspects of the Study 7
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 8
Government Publications 8
• Reports of Government Sponsored Studies 11
Submissions^ to the Government . . • 14
University Research 15
III. ACCULTURATIONAL HISTORY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA INDIANS. 17 Prehistoric Culture 17 Impact of White Culture 42 IV. ALTERNATIVE TO INTEGRATED EDUCATION 56 The Indian School System 57 Evaluation of the Indian School System ...... 72 V. EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED EDUCATION 77 Beginnings of Integration 77 Forces for Change 79 Leadership 80 vii TABLE OP CONTENTS (continued)
CHAPTER PAGE
Government Action 8l
Jointly Constructed Schools 86
Supportive Forces 90
, Barriers to Further Integration 96
VI. ASSESSMENT OF INTEGRATED EDUCATION 99 Opinions of School Trustees 101
Opinions of School Principals 102
Opinions of Teachers 106
Opinions of Indian Affairs Branch Personnel . . . 114
VII. CONCLUSIONS 120
VIII. BIBLIOGRAPHY 124
IX. APPENDICES 131
A Enrolment of Indian Children Grades I to VIII
Inclusive in Indian, Provincial and Private
Schools of British Columbia 132
B District Organization—British Columbia
Indian Schools, 1964. Accompanied by Map . . . 133
C Indian Pupil Grade Distribution in British
Columbia—All Schools . 136
D Indian Pupil Grade Distribution In Canada-
All Schools 137
E Indian Pupil Enrolment—British Columbia School
Year 196I-I962 138 viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (concluded)
PAGE
P Average Dally Attendance and Percentage of
Attendance by Regions for Indian Day and
Residential Schools Year 1959-1960 . 139
G Resolution No. 5 British Columbia School
Trustees Convention 1950 140 H Sample Joint School Agreement . 146 I Sample Federal - Provincial Agreement-re
Tuition Fees 148
J Letters Mailed with Questionnaires 153 K School Boards Participating in Questionnaire
Survey 157 L Schools Included in Survey 158 ix
LIST OP TABLES
TABLE PAGE
I. Summary of Qualifications of Teaching Staff
in All Indian Schools in Canada as of
January i960 70
II. Improvement in Qualifications of Teaching
Staff in Indian Schools from 1955 to i960 . . 71
III. Chronological Listing of Joint Schools
Constructed in British Columbia Including
Grades and Numbers of Indian Children and
the Financial Contributions of- the Indian
Affairs Branch 91 IV. Causes of Indian Drop-Outs Submitted by Public
School Principals 109 X
ILLUSTRATIONS
FRONTISPIECE—Courtesy of the Director of Information,
Department of Citizenship and Immigration,
Ottawa
FIGURE PAGE
1. Percentages of Indian Children Attending
Non-Indian Schools by Years 3
2. Map of British Columbia Joint Schools 19^9-1964 94
3. Map of British Columbia Indian School Districts 1964 135
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Until recently virtually all of the Native Canadian Indian children of British Columbia received their education in resi• dential and day schools provided and operated by the Federal
Government, and were thus segregated from their non-Indian age-mates. Annual reports of the Indian Affairs Branch of the
Government of Canada show the first enrolment of an Indian child in a public school during the 1913-1914 school year. At this time Elizabeth McCaffery enrolled an Indian boy in her class at Hedley.1
Reports over the subsequent twenty-five years indicate the attendance in public schools of varying but insignificant numbers of Indian children. In the year 1941-1942 the total number was five. Because there were so few Indian children enrolled In the public schools, apparently no consistent effort was made by either federal or provincial authorities to compile accurate statistics concerning them.
The records of the Indian Affairs Branch Regional Office in Vancouver, however, indicate that the number of Indian children enrolled in non-Indian schools in the province had,
Annual Report of the Indian Affairs Department 1913-1914, (Ottawa, King's Printer, 1915). in fact, been increasing slowly and that by 194-5 there were actually almost one hundred children desegregated. In 1950 the number of Indian children in public or private elementary school grades was reported to have been 495- (Appendix A)
Thus the commencement of the trend toward integrating Indian school children was more a minor Infiltration than a systematic and planned development.
From 1950 to the present time there has been a steadily increasing number of Indian children enrolling in the public school system. Attendance records from the school . year 1962-1963 indicate that forty percent of the Indian pupils have been desegregated.
Figure I, page 3, shows the percentages of Indian childre attending non-Indian schools by years, as derived from Indian
Affairs Branch Annual Reports 1942 to 1963 inclusive.
(Appendix A.) From this graph one can readily perceive the gradual positive trend characterized by an absence of plateaus.
I. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The formal integration of Canadian Indian children into public schools began In the province of British Columbia. The primary purpose of this study is to record the historical aspects of the movement. An attempt has also been made to assess the effectiveness of the integration process by examinin the opinions and observations of people who have been directly involved in it—teachers, principals, school board members and 3
IOCH
90-
80
70-
60-
5a
O) 0) 0) 0) 0> 0> (J) O ff) (J) O 0) rJ)CDO)|J)(J)CO)0) o> o>
igure I ~
Percentages of Indian Children attending non - Indian Schools by Years •Ji'Data from Appendix A 4
Indian Affairs Branch personnel. Their views have been obtained through the use of questionnaire forms designed specifically for this study.
IIV SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS
The study also attempts to answer a number of questions which are of some importance in understanding the Integration of Indian children into the public school system. Why, for example, was integrated schooling for Indians so long In coming to this province? What caused the rather sudden and continued upsurge in Indian enrolment in non-Indian schools?
Can we not now Integrate all the Indian pupils and dispense with the segregated schools? How soon will total integration come? If the present trend continues, all Indian school children will be integrated by 1985. What measures can be undertaken to expedite total integration?
III. IMPORTANCE OP THE STUDY
The foregoing questions are not advanced casually. Never in the history of modern man has so much emphasis been placed on the emancipation of racial minorities throughout the world. Canada as a force in the United Nations and in world affairs has occasionally assumed the role of mediator and has often encouraged the development of new nations. Many Canadians have championed the cause of oppressed racial minorities and have at times criticized other countries for 5 their treatment of these peoples.
Rarely are we reminded that because of the tendency to perpetuate our system of reserves for the Indian minority and because of our tolerance for an education system which permits the segregation of most Indian school children, Canadians too, might be guilty of a form of discrimination.
Cn the other hand, because of the present stage of acculturation of the Canadian Indian, the rate at which Indian children are being integrated might be realistic and appropriate.
IV. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
When the enrolment of Indian pupils in the public schools had become fairly widespread, integration of Indian children into the parochial schools of the province took place. An assessment of the success of Indian integration in such schools is not attempted here although these schools are included in the historical and statistical sections.
A more serious limitation of the study is the absence of direct participation by Indian parents. For practical reasons, it was necessary to obtain through questionnaires sent to officials of the Indian Affairs Branch, an indication of the impact of integration on the way of life of Indian families. Similarly, the degree to which Indian children were accepted socially in the classrooms was not established sociometrically but only as reported by classroom teachers. 6
VV DEFINITION OF TERMS
In this study "integrated schooling" refers to the education of Indian children in non-Indian schools either public or private; "segregation" refers to their enrolment in
Indian schools operated by the Federal Government.
The term "Indian" also requires definition. Many
Canadians whose forbears were members of the North American
Indian race may be classified ethnically as Indian or part
Indian. Legally, however, some of these people have ceased to
be Indians. In a legal sense an Indian is one who is included
on the Indian Register established and maintained by federal
authorities. Over the years hundreds of ethnic Indians have
lost their legal Indian status through becoming enfranchised
or, in the case of women, by marrying non-Indians. Once a
person's name is deleted from the Indian Register, statistically
and legally he is no longer "Indian". The term "Indian" in
this study therefore refers to Indians in a legal rather than
an ethnic sense.
The word "reserves" refers to those tracts of land set
aside by the Government of Canada for the use and benefit of
Indian bands.
2The Indian Act, (Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1958), Sections 5 to 15 inclusive. 7
VI. SPECIAL ASPECTS OP THE STUDY
A consideration of the success of integration entails an understanding of the background of the minority group, its traditional values, training techniques and its aspirations.
Also required is some knowledge of the formal education made available to Indians since the advent of European culture and an appreciation of the results of this experience on the
Indians as a group. This is of particular significance since the Indian is frequently prejudged on the basis of his adjust• ment to educational techniques attempted in the past.
It is also important to examine the standards of the
Indian day and residential schools which are the alternatives to the integrated classroom. Many of the Indian parents may select the type of school they prefer; it is the intent of the Indian Act that their wishes be observed. An examination of these alternatives will be included in this study. CHAPTER II
REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE
Little has been written about the education of Indian children in this country; even less has been written about the trend to integrate them into non-Indian schools. The very recency of this movement is a prime reason for the scarcity of pertinent literature. The nature of the integrative process with its unobtrusive beginnings and gradual impetus has not attracted the attention of those engaged in educational research.
Integration appears to have been accepted by most educators as an inevitable, wholesome and necessary development. Each year
Canadian schools successfully train thousands of New Canadians;
the annual admission of a few hundred Indians presents no
overwhelming problems to the school system.
Broadly speaking, writings on Indian education, rare as
these might be, fall Into four categories: government publi•
cations, reports of. government sponsored studies, submissions
to the government and university research.
I. GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS
The bulk of the literature available on Indian education is published by the Federal Government. In 19^-9 the adminis• tration of Indian welfare came under the jurisdiction of the 9
Federal Government's Department of Citizenship and Immigration, and their Indian Affairs Branch distributes this literature.
It was the British North America Act in the first instance which stipulated that the welfare of the Indians of Canada should be placed within the competence of the Federal Government. By
1880 an Act respecting Indians had been made law. This Indian
Act with periodic revisions and amendments, being pivotal in the administration of all matters pertaining to Indians, has been given wide circulation. It contains one hundred twenty- three sections, ten of which relate exclusively to the education of Indian children."*"
Other publications sponsored by the Indian Affairs Branch are obviously designed to disseminate information concerning
Indians to the general public and more especially to the
Indians themselves. The Indian News, published quarterly in
Ottawa, Is circulated to all Indian offices in Canada. This periodical records the current activities and the minor and major triumphs of Indian individuals and groups. Special emphasis is placed on examples of the success of Indians who have assumed responsibility beyond the reserve setting.
Reports of the scholastic success of Indians merit a prominent place in the publication. More historically oriented are several booklets prepared by the Indian Affairs Branch—The
^The Indian Act (Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1958), pp. 37 to 40. 10
Canadian Indian, The Indian In Transition, Indians of British
Columbia, The Indian People of Canada (an excerpt from Notes
on the Canadian Family Tree) and A_ Review of Activities 19^8-
1958 Indian Affairs Branch.' These pamphlets were produced in
an attempt to overcome a rather general ignorance of the
Indian of to-day and yesterday; each compresses a fairly large
amount of information into relatively few pages. All have
space devoted to education and integration. Since the Indian
Affairs Branch promulgated virtually no information of this
type before i960, the material is of very recent origin.
The federal publication most valuable for research
relating to Indian education is the annual report of the Indian
Affairs Branch. This comparatively brief but comprehensive
document outlines the activities of the Branch and reports on
new developments concerning achievements of the Indians.
Education has traditionally been given prominence in this
report, particularly in those sections giving statistical
information. The latter includes enrolment figures for the
various classifications of federal Indian schools as well as
for the enrolment of Indians in non-Indian schools. The
annual report presents a type of statistical continuity which
is most helpful in any longitudinal survey. The numerous
tabulations given in this report permit the ready compilation
of trend graphs and facilitate inter-provincial comparisons
and the formulation of national summations. 11
All these federal publications are succinct, objective, and, since they are always subject to public scrutiny, very factual. The selected information outlines what has been done or what is being accomplished at the present time, but it does not suggest what needs to be done.
II. REPORTS OP GOVERNMENT SPONSORED STUDIES
Government sponsored studies usually are undertaken on the basis of concise terms of reference stipulated by the requesting authority and deal with selected aspects rather than comprehensive ones. Frequently, they bring a fresh viewpoint which often is in sharp contrast to traditional civil service attitudes and approaches. There is, however, the ever present possibility that the government may decide to withhold the report or defer making it public.
A case In point occurred in 1955 when Mr. C. G. Brown, the former municipal inspector of schools for Burnaby, B. C, was asked by the Indian Affairs Branch to chair a committee to conduct a survey of the educational needs of Canadian Indian Schools and to present recommendations for the promotion of Integration of Indians. The two other committee members were Dr. B. 0. Filteau, formerly French Secretary and Deputy Minister of Education, Quebec and Dr. G. J. Buck, the then Director of Correspondence Education for the province of Saskatchewan. This committee spent almost a year travelling to the majority of Indian residential schools and to many 12
Indian day schools throughout Canada. They met with principals, teachers, parents, public and parochial school officials, and employees of the Indian Affairs Branch. Mr. Brown was well known for his strong views concerning the desirability of educating the Indian children in integrated schools. Indeed he considered the need for integration to be urgent. The report submitted by this committee has never been made public and therefore cannot be used as a source of information.
One major and widely quoted study of the Indians of
British Columbia has been conducted at the request and expense of the Indian Affairs Branch. This survey, completed in 1956, is reported in The Indian's' of British Columbia. The report virtually overlooks the enrolment of Indian children in non-Indian schools—a dramatic development well under way when the survey was in progress. It concentrates on recommend• ing improvements for existing segregated schools rather than evaluating any efforts to provide education in an integrated setting.
Since it ".'.was impossible "for the members of the research team to visit schools systematically", questionnaires were sent to the teachers concerned. The report draws heavily on their views for the compilation of a number of guiding principles for the operation of Indian schools.
2H. B. Hawthorn, C. S. Belshaw, S. M. Jamieson, The Indians of British Columbia (University of Toronto Press, 1958), P. 293. The authors suggest that "the joint education of
residential school children with White children in the upper
grades and extending downwards is a step In the right direc-
tion". This is the only recommendation for integrated
education contained in the report which avoids almost completely
any consideration of the wisdom or dangers of enrolling Indian
children in non-Indian schools.
In i960 the report of the Royal Commission on Education,
headed by Dr. S. N. P. Chant, recorded both the evidence and
the success of the integration of Indian children into the public school system. The Commission concluded "that the present trend toward Integration is desirable and should be
encouraged. The Commission gained the impression that, on the whole, the program of Integration was progressing In an encour•
aging manner".^ The Commissioners visited the Port Edward
school in which a large number of Indians are enrolled and were
impressed by the "success with which the Indian pupils had
become integrated into this public school".
3Ibid., p. 321. ^S. N. P. Chant and others, Report of the' Royal Com• mission on Education, (Victoria, Queen's Printer, I960), p. 140.
5Ibid., pp. 139-140. 14
III. SUBMISSIONS TO THE GOVERNMENT
The federal authorities receive an abundance of submissions concerning Indian affairs generally. They are sent by well meaning individuals and groups. Sometimes Indians themselves forward them to the authorities. Most of them contain obser• vations and recommendations with respect to education.
A brief containing recommendations was submitted by the
Vancouver Branch of the Canadian Civil Liberties Union to the
Prime Minister in 1951. In this submission the traditional paternalistic approach of the government authorities and the development of a "reserve complex" were decried and blamed for the depressed and backward condition of the Indians as a 6 whole. Stating that the absence of an adequate and appro• priate education policy was also a fundamental weakness, the brief made several recommendations in this field including the "use of public schools rather than Indian schools".^ The brief urged that Indian schools be placed under the jurisdiction of provincial educational departments and that all secondary education should be given in unsegregated schools.
Canadian Civil Liberties Union—Vancouver Branch, A Brief Concerning an Act to Replace The Indian Act (Pamphlet, undated, circa 1951T7 P' 4. 'Ibid., p. 36. 15
IV. UNIVERSITY RESEARCH
Pew studies by graduate students have been devoted to problems of Indian education. In 19^2 J. H. Val lery submitted to Queen's University a Master of Arts thesis entitled
A History of Indian Education in Canada. Unfortunately this
study predates any noticeable trend toward desegregation of
Indian school children in any province of Canada.
In 1959 a thesis titled Indian Education in British
Columbia was submitted to the University of British Columbia by Lester R.,Peterson as one of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Education. This work is perhaps the most extensive treatment of the education system for the Indian
children of this province and, as such, assumes some importance.
Mr. Peterson's approach is both historical and descriptive.
He makes no attempt to analyse in detail the components of the
Integrative process although his conclusions imply that Canada
is failing in the total area of Indian integration. Prom
Information obtained from Indian Agency Superintendents,
Mr. Peterson reports that Indians are slow to become enfran•
chised and to acculturate through mixed marriages. In his view
failure to be assimilated is equivalent to failure to be
integrated; lack of aspiration for a white man's education is Q tantamount to a rejection of it.
^L. R. Peterson, Indian' Education' in British Columbia (Master of Arts thesis, University of British Columbia, 1959)> p. 120. 16
• In 1962 at the College of Education, University of
Toronto, Mr. H. J. Dilling submitted a Master of Education thesis entitled Integration of the Indian Canadian In And
Through Schools With Emphasis' On' The' Saint Clair Reserve In
Sarnla. To Mr. Dilling the integration of the Indian children on this particular reserve was of special significance sinoe it was not a gradual process. In one step, all the Indian child• ren of school age were integrated into the local public school at the beginning of the 1954 term. Mr. Dilling reports that the program has been successful but admits that his findings
"have limited application due to the small population of Indian 9 and non-Indian students involved in each grade . The study
is restricted entirely to the one reserve and one non-Indian
community.
H. J. Dilling, Integration' of the Indian Canadian In And Through Schools- With Emphasis On The Saint Clair Reserve In Samla, (Master of Education thesis, University of Toronto, 1962), p. 154. CHAPTER III
ACCULTURATIONAL HISTORY OP BRITISH COLUMBIA INDIANS
Those citizens, both Indian and non-Indian, who assert that the advent of the white men destroyed an idyllic or
Utopian life of plenty may he more emotional than realistic.
The suggestion too, that the white man from the time of his first arrival has been deified and considered superior by the
Indians is also of doubtful validity as is the concept that the majority of the Indians have accepted the white man's vices but none of his virtues. The greater the extent and accuracy of knowledge concerning the minority group possessed by the dominating culture, the more rapid and more facile the integrative process should be—whether at the school age or adult level.
I. PREHISTORIC CULTURE
The community
Population. Anthropologists have estimated that the population of Indians in what is now British Columbia was over seventy thousand at the time of first settlement by Europeans.1 The majority were located.along river valleys and on coastal
British Columbia Natural Resources Conference, British Columbia Atlas of Resources> (Vancouver, Smith Lithograph Co. Limited, 1956), p.TB"! 18 inlets. The extremely rugged topography of the area and the dense vegetation in the coastal strip combined with rigorous climatic conditions tended to confine most tribes to their own general areas although regular migratory patterns within these 2 areas were common. Basic needs of linguistic groups were satisfied without outside help. The population is assumed to have been reasonably stable. Language. Since the rough terrain of the province separated the tribes one from another, linguistic fragmentation was inevitable. Thus we find among our British Columbia Indians - different linguistic families; Macro-Penutian, Na-dene, and Macro-Algonkian. Each of these is composed of several linguistic sub-families. The Macro-Algonkian, for example, includes the Kutenai, Wakashan and Salish, each of which has its own subdivisions. The Salish had almost thirty different dialects. It is probably safe to predict that we will never know exactly how many dialects existed in what is now British Columbia, since some have become extinct. We do know that at least fifty were in use when the Europeans first arrived. Because of the occasional raiding activity of many of the tribes
Wayne Suttles, "Affinal Ties, Subsistence and Prestige Among the Coast Salish", A me r1c a n Anthropologist, i960, p. 302. Wayne Suttles—lecture, University of British Columbia, Sept. 22, 1962. 19
4 for women and slaves as well as for material goods, it was not uncommon for villages to have inhabitants who knew the languages of neighbouring tribes. This proved useful to such explorers as Simon Praser and David Thompson and to the traders who followed them.
Social relationships. Within the sub cultures, rather rigorous standards with respect to family relationships developed, and these, like the languages, varied from group to group. The Haidas and the Tlingit for example were matri- lineal; the Salish patrilineal. The Tlingit had two major kin divisions or moieties whereas their neighbours, the Tsimshians had four exogamous phratries. Beyond the family groups there existed different degrees of social stratification. Most coastal tribes recognized three separate classes—nobles, commoners and slaves. With some of the interior tribes there was greater egalitarianism.
Creative arts. In mythology, many stories were similar in plot and general plan but different in locale and details according to the geographic or linguistic areas in which they were told. In the art forms of the area, there were funda• mental likenesses but details and techniques varied. In technology there was a basic sameness in tools, weapons and
Harold E. Driver, Indians of North America, (University of Chicago Press, 196l), p. 358. 20 artifacts generally, but there were differences in the techniques of various tribes. In short, there was a fundamental North
West culture. Within it were many minor and some major varia• tions, all of which no doubt assumed great importance in the eyes of members of individual groups.
Intercommunlca t i'on. Fortunately, the area's first white visitors went beyond recording geographic facts, often provid• ing fairly detailed descriptions of the native inhabitants, their behaviour and their customs. We are therefore able to assess, to a certain extent at least, the social adaptability and the fundamental character of the Indians and the degree to which they were integrated on an inter-tribal basis.
We know there must have been at least token communi• cation between the separate little worlds that existed. In 1793 when he reached the central interior region of what is now British Columbia, Alexander Mackenzie discovered that the Indians in this area had items made from iron and knew about white men. Traders had been active in the coastal inlets since 1778 when Captain Cook became the first white man actually to make a landing on the North West Coast. There were lines of communication but we can only guess about the frequency with
^Alexander Mackenzie, Voyage's' from Montreal Through the Continent of North America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans in 1-789 and "1793, (Toronto, G. N. Morang & Co. Ltd., 1902), p. 91. which these were used. • We are told by Harold Driver that dentalium shells were used quite widely as a medium of 6 exchange, and it is possible that limited trading in food• stuffs may have extended beyond tribal boundaries in prehistoric times.
Barriers to commerce and communication, however, were such that each cultural sub area was probably self-supporting with the people preferring to remain within the traditionally held living areas. Native settlements were on or near the sea
shore or waterways and few inhabitants travelled any distance.
In cataloguing the vessels developed by the Nootkas, the peerless boat builders of the coast, Drucker lists freight, whaling, fur seal hunting, fishing and even small training 7 canoes. The freight canoe was used to carry goods and chattels during seasonal migrations; no vessel was designed specifically for long distance commerce. Although travel up and down the coast for hundreds of miles became common for these people after the white man's arrival, there is little evidence to suggest regular, lengthy journeys by substantial numbers of prehistoric Indians. In the interior of the province the more severe climate in addition to the swift rivers restricted most of the Inhabitants to relatively small
Driver, _op. cit., p. 230. ^Philip Drucker, "The Northern and Central Nootkan Tribes", Bureau of American Ethnology #144, 1951> P« 83. 22
areas.
Insecurity. Although there Is no record of ambitious, full scale wars, there was spasmodic, unorganized warfare.
Many of the raids were impetuous and senseless, some were vengeful and others were primarily looting expeditions.
John Jewitt, the English mariner who was captured by Chief
Maquina of the Nootkas, has described a bloodthirsty raid on a village in which the old and inform inhabitants were put to Q death and the remainder enslaved. Raids were also common among interior tribes and, according to Alexander Mackenzie, were inevitably followed by massacres. The surprise attack, executed early in the morning, was the principal tactic q employed. Simon Fraser, during the course of his most famous voyage, was warned by the Indians to be on guard against certain of their tribes "for, should we surprise the Natives, they might take us for enemies, and, through fear, attack us with their arrows"."1"^ Under such conditions, one would hardly expect many Indians to range too far from the relative safety of familiar surroundings and kinsmen.
The area's first explorers experienced constant frus• tration from having their guides desert them. Alexander
Mackenzie reported great concern on the part of one group of
Indians for the safety of a guide who had offered to serve the
8John Jewitt, The Adventures of John Jewitt, (London, Clement Wilson, 1896), p. 194. 9Driver, op. cit., p. 358.
lOL. R. Mas son, Les Bourgeois de JLa. Compagnle du Nord- Ouest, (Quebec, A. Cote et CieT, 183"9~J> p. lbO. 23 explorer."'"'1" This guide eventually deserted in spite of being . under surveillance. Later in his voyage, Mackenzie withstood a strong smell of fish oil and a vermin infested cloak while 12 actually sleeping with a guide to prevent his defection. David Thompson was deserted by his guide on his first journey from Kootenae House and had great difficulty securing a 13 replacement. •J Like Mackenzie, Simon Fraser at times kept his guide in his own tent at night in order to retain his ser- 14 vices. In spite of generous remuneration and outright pampering by the explorers, the guides, to the consternation of their employers, frequently vanished. The primary motive evidently was fear—both personal and for the family left behind.
It seems safe to assume that for thousands of years the
Indians in what is now British Columbia, lived an existence rich in some ways, but fraught with suspicions and anxiety. 15 Infant mortality was high as it was everywhere on the continent, and relatively few reached old age. Thus, in spite of the
legendary bountiful nature of the area, the native population was hardly exploding at the time of European contact. The early white explorers found many distinct groups, each of which had "'""'"Mackenzie,- _op. cit., p. 102.
12lbid., p. 207. 13 ^David Thompson Narrative of His Explorations in Western America 1784-1812, (The Champlain Society, Toronto, 19T5") ,p.390. 14 Masson, op. cit., p. 163.
"^Driver, op. cit-., p. 44l. 24 its individual characteristics modified by spasmodic, and frequently reluctant contact with near neighbours.
The child and his training
Pregnancy. In most cultures birth is an awe-inspiring event. That the Indians shared this reverence is apparent from a number of accounts concerning attitudes toward pregnancy.
According to Murdock, a Haida woman about to give birth was forbidden . to do heavy lifting, should not roll over in bed, was not allowed to view any ugly object or a dying animal and was not permitted to eat any food gathered at low tide.1^
In most tribes, mothers-to-be were isolated from their usual domiciles and had shelters built for them for the occasion.
Bella Coola women had to stay in this specially built hut for 17 ten days after the birth. ' With Coast Salish tribes, mothers-to-be went to a small lodge and remained there for four, eight or twelve days or for some multiple of the number " ' • ' • ' • 18 four, which, for'the Salish, was a mystic number. In .this temporary Isolation a soft bed of furs and mats was provided and ther16e was usually no lack of assistance at delivery time. G. P. Murdock, Our Primitive Contemporaries, (New York, MacMillan Co., 193^77 p. 248. 'J. G. Frazer, The. Native Races of America, (London, Percy Lund Humphries & Co. Ltd., 1939), P. 109- 1 8 C. Hill-Tout, "Report.on the Ethnology of the Lillooets", JournaT of the Royal Anthropological Institute, vol. 35, (1935), P. 139. 25
Birth. While the men and children customarily absented
themselves, at least one midwife was on hand for the actual
birth. With the Haida, a paternal aunt delivered the child,
severed the umbilical cord and tied it with a string of cedar
bark fibre. She then took the infant, cleaned out its mouth
with her finger, gave it a drink of warm water, greased its
body, bathed it, and rubbed it with powdered charcoal to pre- 19 vent chafing. ^ Slaves were used as attendants for Tlingit mothers who brought bad luck if they gave birth to offspring 20 while in their usual living quarters. The severed umbilical cord of a Tlingit infant was placed in a special bag and sus• pended around his neck for an eight day period. His nose was painted red to give him strength. Kaska infants were thoroughly washed in warm water after being helped into the world by an old 21 and experienced woman skilled in parturition techniques. .Additions to the Nootka tribes were greeted more ceremoniously by several shamans who would take up the infants and sing while squeezing the abdomens to cast our inherent evil. According to Father Brabant this treatment often exhausted the babies until 22 death ensued. Although the position assumed for parturition ^Murdock, loc. cit. 20 J. R. Swanton, "Social Conditions, Beliefs, and Linguistic Relationship of the Tlingit Indians", Bureau of American Ethnology Annual Report #26 (1908), p. 429. J. J. Honigmann, Culture and Personality, (New York, Harper and Bros., 1954), p. 5. 22 A. J. Brabant & C. Moser, Reminiscences of the West Coast of Vancouver Island (Victoria, Acme Press, 1926), p. 88, 26 varied somewhat among the different tribes, the hygienic treat• ment of the new-born, the provision of ample, experienced help to the mother and the isolation of the mother from the usual domicile were widely observed customs through the North West area.
The event was marked by special rituals and taboos in most Indian communities. Following the mystic welcome of the Nootka baby, the father was required to cleanse himself care- 23 fully. Bathing by the father, which was highly desirable for one who would soon be fondling the new born infant, was a procedure demanded by the traditions of most tribal groups. The mother too was required to bathe within a reasonable time after the birth of her child. The Thompson Indians had rules about the disposal of the after birth—this was suspended from the branch of a tree so that no dog or snake might touch it. 24 If touched by either, the woman ostensibly became sterile. Other tribes, such as the Coast Salish, held that having a midwife who had herself given birth to children who turned out PR well, would ensure a good life for the newly born child. ^ Father's role' at birth. The father 1s role during the birth of his child was generally mundane. He was however,
23 Frazer, _op. cit., p. 98.
2^lbid., p. 68. 2^G. A. Pettitt, "Primitive Education in North America", Publications.in American Archaeology and Ethnology, vol. xliii, (1946), p.6b. expected to "be attentive and to remain reasonably close. Perhaps the absence of any form of couvade In this culture is explained by the fact that the father was occupied in marking 26 the occasion by distributing presents to his fellow tribesmen.
If the child was his first born, he had reason to be generous,
since most Indians believed that any married person without 27 progeny was not completely adult. It was the father's duty
at this time to select a temporary name for his child.
Infancy. Following the birth of her child the Indian mother returned to normal duties within a few days. Haida mothers, however, were required by custom to remain quiet for
ten days during which time they wore broad cedar bark belts 28 around the abdomen. Dietary restrictions were usually dis•
continued shortly after birth; the mother presumably was
considered capable of properly selecting the right amounts and
types of food. Shuswap mothers proved an exception and 29 abstained from fresh meat for several days.
Two years of lactation was followed by a period when the offspring was fed pre-masticated food. During all this time the baby was confined in a cradle of cedar or birch bark, basketry or hide, depending on the locale. Shaped like a small coffin, the typical cradle was sufficiently roomy to 26Hill-Tout, loc. cit. 27Pettitt, 0£. cit., p. 7.
Murdock, loc'. elf.
^Frazer, op. cit., p. 105. 28 allow for padding, had holes for leather straps, and was equipped with some type of device for suspension from a tree or pole erected for the purpose.-^ Some cradles had protective movable hoods. Among those tribes which practised head flattening, the cradle was readily adaptable for purposes of applying cedar bark forehead depressor pads. If the mother was busy with household or other tasks, she could either carry the cradle on her hip or over her shoulders; she might suspend it in such a manner that someone in the family could pull an attached cord to provide soothing action for the occupant.
Many Indian neighbourhoods were frequented by half-starved dogs, according to Diamond Jenness, and this protective tech- 31 nique served to check an already high infant mortality rate. Babies were suckled, dandled and amused while firmly strapped into their cradles and enjoyed freedom of movement 32 only once or twice during the day while they were being washed. In spite of such rigid confinement, the children, upon release from the cradle, rapidly acquired walking skills and soon joined their peers and siblings in play activity. The degree of freedom then achieved was physically almost complete since, except in the coldest part of winter, practically no clothing was worn. Some tribes marked the noble child's cradle 3°Audrey Hawthorn,',. People of the Potlatch, (Vancouver, Sunprinting, 1956), plate 15. •^Diamond Jenness, "The Indians of Canada", National Museum of Canada, Bulletin No. 65, (1934), p. 150.
32C. Hill-Tout, British North America--The Par West (London, Archibald Constable & Co. Ltd., lyuy), p.~^*F3. 29- graduation by feasting and mutilation of the infant's face.
The shaman performed the latter operation using a pointed bone 33 for the ear piercing ceremony.
Attitude's' to' infants. The attitudes of North West
Indian parents to their small children had a special significance
In terms of personality development and subsequent training.
Furthermore these attitudes apparently differed with various tribes. On the one hand, instances of gambling away wives and 34 children are cited; on the other, Father Brabant describes the intense grief shown by parents when large numbers of Nootka 35 children died with measles. In some areas the performance of children in certain rituals was required. Coast Salish child- 36 ren were important participants in salmon catch ceremonies. By and large small children were pretty well ignored— 37 even rejected. They had to learn at an early age behaviour restrictions which applied to the community at large. • Thus they were taught to never throw fish bones to the dogs. They did not receive the sympathy extended to their age level by many cultures. If a child cried, even while in the cradle stage, he was immediately isolated and soon learned that to
33Ibld., p. 245. 34 ^ Jenness, op_. cit., p. 159. 3-^Brabant, op_. cit., p. 116. J Frazer, op* cit., p. 95. 37 ^'Honigmann, loc. cit. 30 to get attention, quietness was a more effective technique.
Possibly the fact that a crying child can betray the position of an encampment to night raiders suggests that conditioning of this nature was more the result of a-desire for self OO preservation than lack of parental affection. Parents were supported in this attitude by their relatives and neighbours who shared the task of guiding the growth of all children of the group. The long term result of this total group involve• ment and the other stereotyped practices already mentioned could well have developed personality traits that would tend to promote community survival.
One can assume that the primary physiological needs
of Indian children were satisfied in proportion to and in accordance with their environment. While the food supply
fluctuated from season to season and from year to year,
serious starvation was probably uncommon. Covering materials
for the retention of body heat were plentiful. The need for physical activity during infancy was subservient to safety
needs which demanded a device such as the portable cradle— possibly the most functional implement of an Indian mother's paraphernalia. For those children who survived infancy,
reasonably good general health might be expected.
5 E. A. Hoebel, The Cheyennes, (New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, i960), p. 91- Skills learned. Subjects as varied as language, navi• gation, meteorology, personal development and art, to mention just a few, were actively taught although not depart• mentalized and formalized as they a re to-day. The Indians, for reasons of survival, stressed physical development. Boys especially received unceasing encouragement to engage in competitions with their age-mates in wrestling, running, climbing, jumping and lifting. References to swimming tech• niques are virtually non-existent in the ethnographies. It is safe to assume that most of them could swim at least a short distance if only by imitating the movements of dogs and other animals. The daily plunges required of many boys over the age of four years were less for the development of swimming skill than for purposes of hardening the body against the privations and fatigues of the chase. For the same reason teen-age boys slept outside through the night without clothes
39 or cover. Through exposure to cold, to pain and to loneliness the Indians thought they could most effectively develop the type of physique and the quality of character they admired thobservable most. e iInf the gameelements thas ot f thechancy playede and , strategthe elemeny wert e of 40 physical skill was even more emphasized. Many of the gar in which children were encouraged were imitations of adult
39Hill-Tout, op. cit. (1907), P. 245.
^°B. Sutton-Smith, "Child Training and Game Involve• ment", Ethnology, vol. 1, #2, (1962), p. 166. hunting and fishing techniques and thus promoted physical development where it would prove most advantageous In later life.
To equate mental activity with intellectual development or training is a questionable practice. Be that as it may, there is ample evidence that the Indians of the North West coast engaged in pursuits of a surprisingly high' intellectual nature. Many of the elaborate stories and myths, judging by their content and messages, were aimed at the young children who apparently often formed part of the audience. The Tlingits, for example, had a story about a boy who was forever crying.
After he had been fed two objects which looked like black• berries, the boy disappeared for two days and when found, had a greatly distended abdomen which remained inflated until the child was given some salmon broth. As a result of this treat• ment, spiders and other small creatures escaped from all parts of the boy's body, leaving nothing but his skin which was 41 unceremoniously thrown away. Other stories relate how brave acts of boys and occasionally girls brought rewards to 42 the rest of the villagers. The rites and ceremonies in which children participated were stereotyped and highly intricate. Unless these rituals were followed as prescribed by traditional beliefs, dire results were anticipated. Such was the case with the extensive
J. R. Swanton, op. cit., p. 4l.
42Ibid., p. 19^. restrictions and regulations concerning salmon which had to be ho learned by the Coast Salish. J Techniques of food gathering,
the assimilation of genealogical data and shamanistic rituals were other tasks involving higher mental processes and, like the activities previously mentioned, had to be learned—all without the benefit of written idiom.
Some intellectual tasks had emotional overtones. Indian
children were taught to fear not only animals of their environ• ment which were a danger to them, but more especially, unknown
or supernatural elements which were thought to be constantly in close proximity. A feeling of apprehension was an integral part of the wolf ceremony of the Nootkas. "During the season
of secret society festivities, (Bella Coola Indian) children moved about with solemn faces, believing that supernatural ,,44 beings were constantly in their midst. Many of the tales told to children were designed to elicit a fear response. Possibly because warfare was not a primary feature of the North West culture, feelings, of hostility or belligerence were not 45 engendered as they were with some of the Plains Indians. Feelings of affection were not systematically nurtured since romance was secondary to more important features such as rank or skill and courage in hunting.^ In short, the North West ^3Frazer, _op. c±t., p. 112.
44Je nness, op. cit., p. 342. ^5N. L. Munn, Psychology—The Fundamentals of Human Adjustment, (Boston,Houghton-Mifflin Co., 19bl), p. 296^ ^Jenness, op. cit., p. 154. coast Indians promoted emotional responses such as fear and pride which were important to their culture, but generally tended to minimize love, hostility and avarice which were of less value to them.
Social training. With the development of pride, largely restricted to Indians of noble status, came social responsi• bilities and certain acceptable codes of behaviour toward others. The children required instruction in order to fulfil the obligations of rank. The potlatch, for example, became rather stylized with protocol an essential factor. Entry into secret societies also presupposed the assimilation of factual knowledge and attitudes relative to the functioning of these groups.
Moral training". Closely allied to social training was the inculcation of moral and spiritual values. Certain per• sonality characteristics such as bravery, honesty, perseverance and self-sufficiency were considered fundamental by most
Indian tribes, and the acquisition of such traits was not left to phance. While guardian spirits were said to bestow certain qualities, the traditional quests in which Indian youth sought their guardian spirits were prepared for with a thoroughness 47 that extended over years. 1 A child's Injuries and misfortunes were attributed to the supernatural; his strengths were credited to benevolent spirits. But moral values were constantly
Pettitt, op., cit., p. 90. articulated to the growing child. The Thompsons inveighed against stealing, lying, laziness, adultery, cowardice and 48 boastfulness; the Tlingits, as previously mentioned, favoured stories with lessons in morals. From this emphasis on accepted modes of behaviour and on reverence for the supernatural, entry to spiritual training is hardly perceptible, although the preparation of boys to fill shaman roles Implied the transference of numerous skills, rites, taboos, incantations and dances.
Young shamans were selected because of personality and intellectual attributes or through inheritance, but not with- 49 out some cue, ostensibly from the supernatural. Training in basic skills. There were, of course, rout• ine tasks to be done in this setting. Food had to be gathered and prepared for immediate or subsequent consumption. Shelters and body coverings had to be fashioned. There was an age, based on maturity rather than calendar years, at which a child was required to learn the practical skills which con• stituted his or her heritage. Tools, weapons, utensils, vessels, clothing, bedding, houses and food products were rarely as nature provided them. Their transformation to usable goods required effort and skill; the latter had to be transmitted from the old to the young. If the finished product was to have aesthetic value, highly developed dexterity and inspiration
W. D. Hambly, Origins of Education Among Primitive People, (London, MacMillan & Co., 1926), p. 152. ^Pettitt, op. cit., p. 119. 36 were essential. The development of such artistic talents was not a haphazard affair, but came as a consequence of the proper selection of gifted individuals and their special training.
Training techniques. Lowie has stated that some primitive peoples have long used educational postulates which modern 50 educators have formulated in detail only in recent years.
George A. Pettitt suggests that some present day confusion in educational practice could have been avoided had educators not neglected certain techniques developed by less civilized cultures. At the same time he chides anthropologists for not 51 giving enough attention to these techniques.
The North West coast Indians might well be cited as a group which knowingly or otherwise used methods which would be endorsed by many modern educators, especially those who lean toward pragmatism. The development of fear and anxiety is the most outstanding of their techniques. Father Brabant relates how'the Nootka Indians took elaborate measures to Instil fear in the hearts of the children during their Wolf 52 ceremonies/ This seems to be typical of most secret society initiation ceremonies—the children developed a wholesome awe for the mysterious proceedings and were thus more receptive to the esoteric instruction they would eventually receive. ^°Ibid., p. 15.
^Ibid., p. 4 and 15.
52Brabant, op. cit., p. 116. Naming customs, because of their suggestive nature, provided motivation through identification. With the Coast
Salish, the children no doubt hoped for a name carrying maximum prestige when their nicknames were discarded, and put forth special effort to this end. A name of distinction was worth striving for and, once achieved, worth upholding.
Similarly, the concept of maintaining favour with one's guard• ian spirit provided a goal for all, especially the impression• able youths.
Direct imitation was another device used for successful instruction. The Nootkas again provide an illustration— during the Wolf ceremonies the women, far from reassuring their young, deliberately affected intense fear in order to 53 impart this emotion to the children. Most activities were more wholesome and children delighted in imitating their elders. This would apply, for example, to hunting and fishing as well as carving and singing. Again the imitation was not left to the whim of the children. When they were mature enough, they were given toy boats and weapons, and were taken along on short food gathering expeditions. Whether the skill to be learned was in the physical, social, spiritual or artistic category, direct imitation was a universal training device.
Pettitt, _op. cit., p. 36. 38
Repetition, also familiar in the education of to-day's youth, was widely used by the North West Indians. Because of the intense quality of motivation, the technique was probably more fruitful. The cyclic patterns of weather and food supply on which the existence of the Indians depended, created an endless sequence of activities which was highly repetitive.
With the arrival of each winter there came the telling of familiar stories, myths and rituals. The advent of the salmon or the return of game from the hills also brought the repetition of familiar pursuits.
Rewarding the children for lessons well learned was common practice. Approval by elders of success in wholesome activities was apparently the rule with all North American 54 Indians. Boys and girls both, having made their first kill or collected their first berries, were not allowed to eat the fruits of their labour, but did hear lavish praise from the elders while the latter consumed the prizes. • First attempts at handicrafts were accorded similar honours. Nootka children were encouraged to mimic their elders in oratory, and the old men of the tribe would give 55 advice and praise as needed. ^ Interior boys would engage in war-like exercises after their morning baths while the 56 women and girls watched and encouraged them. Children, like
54Ibld., p. 48.
-^Ibid., p. 6.
56Hill-Tout, op_. cit., (1907), P. 248. their parents, had their accomplishments recognized overtly, whether the deeds were of a physical, moral or social classi• fication . On the other hand, unacceptable patterns of behaviour were followed by punishment. The infliction of physical pain was generally abhorred by the Indians. Scolding, however, was 57 common. Indeed, derision, an immediate deterrent, was used effectively on Indians of all ages. Since discipline was usually referred to spiritual forces, perhaps the child's fear response to supernatural beings acquired early in life was sufficient to ensure good behaviour. Primitive peoples may have long ago recognized the futility and potentially danger• ous results of intense physical punishment. If physical punishment was used, it was inflicted by relatives rather than by parents. Although the community at large accepted responsibility for the training of the young, education of a slightly more formal type was delegated to a relative, usually the maternal uncle for a boy and the paternal aunt for a girl. When a Haida boy had reached ten years of age he moved from his parents' home to live with his mother's brother who assumed sole charge of his discipline and training. Such widely separated groups as the Carriers, the Okanogans and the Nootkas 58 followed the same procedure.-^ Thus the Indians, while shunning
57
^'Honigmann, _op. cit., p. 7.
-^Pettitt, op. cit., p. 20. formal organization for training purposes, did recognize that every child had in fact four sets of teachers—his parents, his relatives, his peers and the community.
Puberty rites. Puberty, significant from a biological standpoint, marked the completion of a child's training period.
With some tribes, this stage was seen as a time to concentrate 59 on learning life's necessary skills. ^ Training, which up to this time had frequently been scarcely distinguishable from play activities or light hearted Imitation, now became a serious matter. Although puberty created eligibility for adult status, many youths were unhurried about accepting the 60 privileges and responsibilities pertaining to adulthood. Nevertheless the onset of adolescence was regarded as a myster• ious and dangerous time when the individual's future was truly in the hands of the spirits. In the case of the girls, the menarche provided a more concise indication of approaching fecundity. They were required to go through elaborate ceremonies, often were subjected to numerous taboos, could wear adult coiffures and garments and might have to observe certain rules of deportment. Perhaps parents wished to publicize their off• springs' marriageability.
59Hill-Tout, op. cit., (1907), P. 247. ^Jenness, op. cit., p. 154. 4l
Hill-Tout has described the rites imposed on Coast Salish girls at maturity. Many were isolated in small lodges or shelters equipped with holes in which the girls were obliged
6l to remain for specified lengths of time. Haida girls were not only forbidden certain foods and liquids but were kept isolated from weapons and. implements lest these be contamin- 62 ated. Nass River Indians still discuss a cave near Gwinaha to which pubescent girls were taken by a chaperone for traditional rites and instruction. Tahltan girls covered 63 their head with robes so that no men could see their face. 64 Haida girls could not talk or laugh.
Boys were more fortunate. Rites for males coming of age were not customary. Although the Chilcotins had their ankles, wrists and legs adorned with feather down and sinew 65 rings, decorations for boys at puberty were rare. ^ Many boys.did undergo fasting, isolation and self-inflicted punishment while in search of their guardian spirits which were considered more communicative than usual at this time 66 of a boy's life. Boys attain puberty somewhat more gradually than girls, and as a consequence, there was comparatively little 6lHill-Tout, op. cit., (1935), p. 163. 62 Murdock, o_p. cit., p. 250. ^^Jenness, op. cit., p. 374. 64 Frazer, op. cit., p. 60. 65Ibid., p. 68. 66 DDIbid., p. 72. 42 excitement when they came of age.
By the time they were in their early teens, Indian boys and girls were adequately prepared for the rigours of adult life. • Many individuals played a part In their education.
Even supernatural beings had provided incentives toward better performance and more efficient learning. Although no class• rooms were developed in the culture, the whole child had been given instruction in a substantial number of different subject areas and by a variety of proven techniques.
II. IMPACT OP WHITE CULTURE
Fur-trading era (Coastal)
After Captain James Cook made his memorable first landing at Nootka, taking away sea otter pelts and other furs which were to prove so popular with Cantonese merchants, there was a lull of seven years before British vessels began arriv• ing in a relentless procession under such men as Hanna, Strange, Meares, Barkley and others less renowned. Soon American vessels appeared, necessitating a distinction between a "Boston man" and a "Kintshautsh man" (King George 67 man). Inevitably, the Spanish, who did have a legitimate claim to the area, reappeared to establish their sovereignty for five short years. In the far north the Russians were trading assiduously and had established a post in Cook's
Jewitt, o£. cit., p. 30. 6ft Inlet by 1788. French traders were also ranging the coast 69 from the Strait of Juan de Fuca to as far north as Sitka.
In early trading the Indians valued highly the white man's trinkets and baubles. As time went by, they became astute traders for more valuable items. They doubtless enjoyed the attention they were receiving; they derived satis• faction from being sought after in the numerous inlets up and down the coast. Fear and reverence for the white man was not especially in evidence during this brief fur-trading era.
The Indians were also losing their distrust for tribes other than their own and were venturing farther and farther afield. Chinook, the lingua franca which had developed as an aid to commerce, was helping to break down traditional linguistic barriers. Coastal Indians met with interior
Indians regularly for the former often acted as middle men in the fur traffic. Meanwhile the white traders became hard 70 pressed to find trade items that might appeal to the Natives. Rather suddenly, and after only two decades, the com• mercial climate changed. The ruthless quest for sea otters all but extinguished this species. Lower prices of other pelts "slackened the trapper's zeal".''71 Furthermore, with ^Margaret Ormsby, British Columbia: A. History, (Vancouver, MacMillan Co., 1958), p. 16. 69 / "Captain Vancouver's investigations which demonstrated the non existence of a strait, of reasonable width, to Hudson's Bay or the Atlantic Ocean, the interest of the English in the North West coast dwindled. At the same time the fur trade 72 became less profitable." Thus the lively commerce which had flourished on the coast declined as rapidly as it began. The great trading boom which had proven so exciting and profitable to the Indians was followed by a dull, monotonous recession which has continued for many until this day. Fur-trading era (Interior) Vancouver's main expedition, however, had coincided with Alexander Mackenzie's remarkable achievement—the completion of his overland journey from Canada to the Pacific in 1793. This feat was followed closely by the explorations of Simon Fraser and David Thompson, both of whom built trading posts Inland. Most of these were destined to prosper longer than the maritime trading posts. The interior forts and the trading patterns they established were to have an effect on the life and outlook of the Indians as revolutionary as that of the coastal traders. The yearly cycle of activities came to be centred largely around the needs and benefits of the trading posts. The factors who regulated post activities often extended their influence to foster greater harmony between the nearby tribes. These outposts, then, offered Krause, op. cit., p. 27. services beyond the mere provision of material items to the native population. For the first half of the nineteenth century the North West Company and the Hudson's Bay Company (they amalgamated in 1821) were in complete control of the economy of what is now British Columbia and continued to exercise great influence over the day-to-day life of large numbers of the Indians. Historians, although they may blame the Hudson's Bay Company 73 for the loss of the Oregon Territory to the Americans,1^ infrequently pass judgment on the treatment of the Indians by the Company. By and large, the Company representatives were aware that profits were in direct ratio to the quality of their rapport with the trappers and treated the Indians accordingly. Many married Native girls. Often the factors took a constructive, fatherly interest in the Indians living within their spheres of operation and went to some lengths to improve their lot and maintain their well-being. Still, the fur trade was primarily a business operation and other considerations were secondary to the main aim of turning a profit. Thus fur trading posts in those days were closed (as they are to-day in the North) when they did not produce expected results. The fact that the post had become the focus of the new way of life for the Indians of the area was considered of little importance. W. Stewart Wallace, A New History of Great Britain and Canada, (Toronto, MacMillan Co. of Canada, 1936), p. 91. 46 Colonization era' Richard Blanshard, the first governor of the Vancouver Island Colony, returned to England after a frustrating eigh• teen months tenure of office. During this time he discovered that the needs of the mere handful of colonists were being met by the Hudson's Bay Company. After his departure, however, settlers began to arrive in such numbers that the customs and rights of the Indians were challenged. For the first time, the Indian became redundant and of little consequence to the total economy. The general population was unconcerned when the Indians were isolated by a system of reserves on which they attempted to preserve their traditional way of life. White man's diseases, malnutrition, coastal village raids which for a period increased as if to fill the void created by the 74 demise of the exciting fur trade, all combined to effect a decline In Native population. During this period most of the Indians came to accept the role imposed on them by the invading culture. The bitter, defeatist attitude which was the inevitable concomitant of a dying race resulted In the rejection of many elements of the dominant white culture. Jewitt, op. cit., p. 26. hi 75 Pre World War II formal schooling Canada and the Indian population owe to the early missionaries a debt which defies calculation. During the exploitation of the Natives by traders and early settlers, the clergy often succeeded in articulating Indian needs and views. One cannot hope to assess the current problems of the \ i Indians without an objective examination of the early attempts ! made at formal education. Originally and quite predictably, the very first formal instruction had a religious raison d'etre and a clerical bias. The missionaries' duty was clear-- the conversion of the heathen. This could not be consummated without considerable instruction to both old and young. The first instructors were not professional educators although they aspired to this role. They were grateful to see the first' "teachers" arrive to supplement their efforts. With the latter, as with the missionaries, the primary aim was the teaching of sufficient English to permit the learning of the Christian religion. The clergy constantly reminded the federal authorities that through the British North America Act Indian education was the clear responsibility of that level of government. Their continued efforts resulted in the gradual appearance of Indian schools, owned by the church or by the Federal Govern• ment. By World War II, the amorphous collection of institutions ^Information given in the remainder of this chapter was obtained by the writer during his experience as Regional Sup• erintendent of Indian Schools for B. C. from 1952 to 1961 from correspondence, reports, and conversations with numerous government officials, teachers, principals, and Indians. 48 was showing some signs of becoming a Federal system. A school inspector had been appointed and was attempting to provide a modicum of qualified supervision. Thus the Ottawa authorities had indicated an intention to fulfil their obligations even though the Indians were considered to be a vanishing race. By most educational standards, however, the program of education for the Indian children until approximately the end of World War II had a number of serious weaknesses which tended to nullify the program as an instrument for integration or economic emancipation. Complete segregation. Until 1946 there were few Indian children in the province who were not segregated for purposes of schooling. Schools were built on or contiguous to reserves; no attempt was made to enrol children in non-Indian schools regardless of how convenient these might be to the Indian homes. In many areas Indian schools existed within short walking distance of non-Indian schools, and rarely was there more than token communication between them. By World War II, there had not been any suggestion of any planned or de facto desegregation. Parental attitudes. The attitude of the Indians to the schools provided for them was characteristically ambi• valent. Many parents believed they were doing the church or the government a favour by enroling their children. Indeed, the principals of some of the residential schools went on annual recruiting trips in order to fill their institutions. 49 The attitude of the Indians was not without cause; some of the long established residential schools have their own graveyards. In the days of high mortality from tuber• culosis it was not uncommon to have children leave for school never to return. Once the children were admitted to the schools, they became virtual prisoners. Occasionally, in the North, attempts to escape in mid-winter had tragic consequences. Most parents who had attended residential school had rather strong opinions about life in that type of institution; only the realization that conditions were constantly improving influenced them to permit the enrolment of their offspring. Attendance. The school year In many localities was abbreviated because of the migratory patterns of the families to the fishing grounds, the fish canneries, hop fields or berry farms. During the year, malnutrition, skin troubles, communicable diseases, combined with lack of parental interest to produce a singularly poor attendance record. The tradi• tional Indian lack of appreciation for punctuality and for regular attendance often proved demoralizing to the teachers. Condition of pupils. When the children in the out• lying reserves did arrive at school, they were frequently dirty and had an odour which teachers found offensive. Those teachers who were aware of the pitiful home circumstances and who attempted to understand the problems facing the parents, were more patient in coping with such situations. Others just left as soon as possible, often from fear of contamination. 50 "Industrial" schools. Immediately prior to World War II about half of the Indian children were enrolled in twelve residential schools. The pupils over nine years of age were kept in class for only half the school day. The remaining waking hours they spent playing or doing chores around the buildings or on the farm which usually adjoined these insti• tutions. Thus some of the schools in this category were called "industrial" schools. There was considerable rationalization about this child labour; the children were "learning" farming techniques, cleanliness, maintenance skills and developing favorable attributes of character. Oddly enough, after years of "graduating" children who consistently failed to use the skills they were supposed to have learned, the schools were reluctant to change their routines. In fairness to the school administrators, all but one of whom were members of the clergy, it should be pointed out that, because of low per capita grants then made on behalf of pupils by the Federal Government, the farm operations were essential for the economic survival of the schools. Size of classes. If the teachers were discouraged by partial or irregular attendance, they might be further demoralized by the unbelievable pupil-teacher ratio which existed in many schools. There was an abnormally long time lag between the need for and the actual provision of class• room facilities. Thus in many schools teachers found them• selves with far more children than they could effectively instruct, especially on those occasions when all the pupils were present. In the residential schools, cost was again the con• trolling factor. Principals had a limited amount of federal money on which to operate their schools and payment of teachers' salaries came out of the total grant. Oneway to effect economy, then, was to keep the number of teachers to a minimum. As a result, one teacher in an interior residential school taught over eighty children in the forenoon and another group of similar size in the afternoon. In the winter months, when days were short, pupils often worked or played outdoors until dusk at which time they entered the classroom for formal instruction. Professional standards. During this period, the Federal Government provided scant academic leadership to the far flung collection of schools for which it was legally and morally responsible. This was largely the residual effect of a sincere belief that Indians, even if they were not now dying out as a race, were actually uneducable, and were better left to the care of the various churches who had reasons to aim for some degree of literacy for them. There was, therefore, no consistent policy about the curriculum; in practice this was left to the discretion of the principal or teacher. The aims of Indian education were never enunciated in detail by the Indian Affairs Branch. Record keeping was neglected. Adult education for Indians was almost unknown. Any professional leadership which appeared 52 to emanate from Ottawa was the result of pressures from the church authorities who occasionally had to answer to the Indians and to the public. Teacher status. Thanks to a surplus of teachers in the early decades of this century, there was a sufficient number of qualified, missionary-minded instructors available for the Indian classrooms. There was no salary schedule for these teachers, no pension plan, no isolation allowances and very little security. Teachers who did accept employment in Indian classrooms often received no credit for this service if they subsequently transferred to public schools since the reports of federal school inspectors were not recognized by provincial authorities. The attitude of most teachers in the province to the concept of teaching in an Indian school was understandably one of disdain. Yet there were numbers of dedicated and often highly capable people who, for various reasons, overlooked the deficiencies of the system and taught in Indian schools. Supervision. For the purpose of administration of the Indian Act, British Columbia has been divided into regions or agencies for almost one hundred years. One of the chief duties of the Agency Superintendent has traditionally been to see that the physical needs of schools and teacher residences are supplied. Apart from the occasional visit of these officials to schools, very little interest had been shown in them and the work going on within. A few old time superintendents had almost messianic feelings about their role and these men sometimes proved more of a detriment than an asset to the school system. They were at least showing interest and trying to provide a measure of guidance and leadership. Academic leadership". The principals of the residential schools were primarily missionaries rather than educators. As their numerous other duties precluded any possibility of serious academic leadership for the classroom teachers, they occasionally asked one of the teaching staff to assume the role of leading teacher. This was quasi-official and was of limited usefulness. In the absence of academic orientation the schools continued to be fundamentally religious with emphasis on various types of extrinsic motivation. General deficiencies. School supplies were either over-abundant or ridiculously inadequate, often depending on the mood of a distant government official. School maintenance standards were inconsistent throughout the province. No program of scientific educational research was undertaken. Little effort was made to give the Indian parents a voice In the education of their children or even to interest them. There was no organized follow-up or placement program for the drop-outs and the few graduates. Popular mi sconcept 1 ons'. As a result of the shortcomings of the school system several misconceptions concerning the 54 capabilities of Indian students became popular. The belief that the average Indian excels in Art stems chiefly from the practice of allowing pupils to spend hours doing intricate designs and craft work, rather than engaging in remedial work. The impression that Indian children are superior to whites in physical skills developed largely because most Indians were retarded two or more grades. Many teachers maintained that Indian children automatically required two years in Grade I because they were less capable. The fact that most Indian homes were culturally deprived was a secondary consideration. The commonly held opinion that Indians were mentally inferior to non-Indians or were lazy was justified on the basis of heredity--the limited offerings and resources of the schools were rarely considered to be the cause. These concepts, developed in a deficient education program, are almost certainly without foundation. Their prevalence has contributed to a defeatist attitude among the Indians and to questionable opinions among non-Indians. In spite of the many difficulties in their Pre World War II school system, the Indian people were being gradually introduced to formal education. This was done with a minimum of governmental pressure. The literacy level rose slowly until all but a few of the most isolated could read at lea.st a little. There was constant instruction and example in white moral standards, and, although it is impossible to measure accurately the degree of acceptance, a goodly number of Indians apparently share the predominant values of the majority of 55 Canadian citizens. Many children developed affection and respect for their teachers and for learning. A few did succeed in graduating from elementary and occasionally high school and university. The schools provided some knowledge of life beyond reserve boundaries and did help to prevent a wholesale return to a completely primitive way of life. Above all, partly through their contact with teachers and schools, many Indians developed a desire to see that their own children fared better educationally than they them• selves had done. CHAPTER IV ALTERNATIVE TO INTEGRATED EDUCATION The majority of Indian children in British Columbia have "been separated from other Canadian children for formal education. In some cases, the Indian parents may choose between integrated and segregated schooling for their children. Attending school with non-Indian children is often not possible because of geographic isolation or because of the conviction of some parents that to have religious instruction is more important \ than to be integrated. To many citizens who are oriented toward the public schools, this situation is lamentable. Estimating the relative advantage of integrated schooling, however, is impossible without a qualitative appraisal of the Indian school system. Despite efforts on the part of the Government of Canada to create a more productive training program for Indian children, many misconceptions and outdated opinions about their education persist. Many improvements in the Indian school system have been effected since World War II. Possibly the contribution to the total war effort by Canadian Indians, a group previously considered to be Inferior, created feelings of guilt with many Canadians. Perhaps the statistical evidence, making clear the obvious resurgence rather than the disappear• ance of the Indian race, provided the major impetus. There were, in fact, many stimulants. The Indians, the churches, 57 the personnel of the Indian Affairs Branch, the press and the general public became more and more insistent that improve• ments were overdue. Many citizens were aware that the country was overlooking a major potential for the labour force and that allowing large numbers of untrained Indians to spend a fruitless life on the reserve was economically absurd. I. THE INDIAN SCHOOL SYSTEM In the fiscal year 1951-52 the Indian Affairs Branch expended $7,192,759.00 for the education of the Indians of 1 2 Canada. By 1962 the amount had increased to $28,661,113.09. This fourfold increase in expenditure in ten years has been accompanied by the development of a more expert education staff in the Ottawa headquarters. The Director of the Indian Affairs Branch has an officer in charge of the Education Division. The present incumbent, Mr. R. F. Davey, has .on his staff an assistant, a chief inspector of schools, a Guidance officer, an Industrial Arts specialist, Reading specialists, a registrar, an accounts officer, and purchasing officers as well as other specialists and clerical assistants. In most of the provinces there are Regional officials who administer and supervise the local school programs. Report of the Indian.:Affairs Branch, 1952, (Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1953), p. 70. Report of the Indian Affairs Branch, 1962, (Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1963), Table 13. 58 British Columbia has more than one fifth of the school age Indian population of Canada. Traditionally, four churches have been active participants in the education system—the Roman Catholic, Anglican, United and the Salvation Army. The competition which has existed between these various bodies may have contributed to the improvement of the total system. Day schools There are seventy-two day schools, none of which gives instruction higher than the Grade VIII level. Location and size. Most of the schools are of small size, although the uninitiated may be surprised to learn of a fairly large school in some Isolated and little known com• munity. Bella Bella, for example, has a nine-room school; Port Simpson also has one of this size. Until World War II, keeping abreast of the school-age Indian population presented no special problem. Since that time, however, the total number of pupils has increased so rapidly that some areas have had inadequate facilities. Sixty-eight per cent of the currently operating day schools In this province have been built or expanded since 1952; eighty-six per cent of the classrooms now being used are new since World War II. Although the Branch attempts to preserve an improved pupil- teacher ratio, the phenomenal rise in school-age population has made this impossible for some schools. The current JInformation received from the office of the Indian Commissioner, Vancouver. average teaching load is approximately twenty-seven per 4 classroom. Distances between villages or lack of adequate highway facilities have almost completely prevented consoli• dation . Religion. Section 120 of the Indian Act states that "Where the majority of the members of a band belongs to one religious denomination, the school established on the reserve that has been set apart for the use and benefit of that band shall be taught by a teacher of that denomination."v This clause, although presenting obvious limitations in teacher recruitment, does ensure a common ground and basis of communi• cation between the teacher and the community. Although by regulations, teachers are permitted to give, in addition to the provincial curriculum, a maximum of thirty minutes reli• gious instruction per day, not always is this amount of time devoted to the subject. The quality and quantity of religion taught depends on the extent to which the teacher is oriented toward religion and to the zeal and persuasiveness of the local clergyman. Parental involvement. In nine British Columbia Indian reserves, school committees have been formed to participate in 6 the operation of the day schools since 1957. This break ^Information received from Indian Affairs Branch, Ottawa ^The Indian Act, (Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1958), p. 39. 6 Information received from Indian Affairs Branch, Ottawa with tradition in allowing Indian adults some degree of auth- " ority with respect to school functioning is perhaps the most significant aspect of the updating of the Indian school system. Three or more Indian band members are appointed by the Band Council and, with guidance from Branch officials, make deci• sions and recommendations concerning school equipment, maintenance, attendance and pupil problems. In the writer's experience, where committees have been formed the members have taken their duties seriously, have attended meetings faith• fully, have Increased community interest in school activities and have generally assisted teachers and Branch personnel. This has usually been done without interfering in classroom matters which are not included in their terms of reference. Parental participation, the long Ignored aspect of the edu• cation of Indian children, has thus been achieved in at least a few of the reserves. Indian day schools are, in most respects, indistin• guishable from other rural and semi-rural schools in the province. Some buildings have been constructed from plans obtained from provincial authorities; others have been planned and built by the same contractors who construct schools for the various school districts. The text books, the course of study, the time schedule, the teaching aids and the instructional techniques are all identical to or modified versions of those of the non-Indian schools. Religious instruction, when given, is in addition to the regular program. The fundamental difference is that the 61 children are Indians. Residential schools Originally designed "for the instruction of Indian children in mechanical arts and in agriculture, as well as in the ordinary branches of education", these schools were first established in Western Canada by the Government of Sir John A. •7 MacDonald in 1883. During this year residential schools were opened at Battleford, Qu'Appelle and High River. To-day, twelve of Canada-'s sixty-four residential schools are in British Columbia. Ten of the- twelve schools enroll children of the elementary level only; two offer in addition to this instruction, a limited program for high school pupils. A growing number of schools in this category are now functioning as hostels for children who attend nearby public schools for secondary instruction. Location and size. When the early missionaries selected the sites of the first hostels for Indian children their choice of location often appears to have been governed more by aesthetic than functional considerations. Many are several miles from the nearest white communities. Located in widely separated areas and varying in size from those enrolling 120 students to one enrolling over 400, these schools all operate under the sponsorship of one of the churches, but by the 47th. Sessional Papers (no. 4), Vol. 17 ending Dec. 31~ 1883 (Ottawa, MacLean, Roger and Company), p. XI. 62 authority and at the expense of the Federal Government. Religion. While there is clearly an emphasis on reli• gion in all of these schools, this is rarely pervasive. Most principals, being members of the clergy, include several religious services in the weekly routine. In such cases, the amount of religion taught in. the classroom is frequently less than the thirty minutes per day permitted under federal regulations. In those residential schools operated under the Roman Catholic auspices, fifty-five per cent of the total number of teachers are members of religious orders; all of the 8 senior teachers are in this category. The popular conception that the children are plied with religion throughout the day is quite erroneous. Occasionally an over-zealous teacher places undue emphasis on religion, otherwise classroom instruction in the subjects' of the curriculum is rarely more 9 flavoured by religion than in the public schools. Staff. The principals are nominated by the religious bodies, but are appointed by the Indian Affairs Branch. The teachers are appointed by the Indian Affairs Branch upon the recommendation of the Superintendent of Indian Schools in whose district the school is located. Nominations for Information received from the office of the Indian Commissioner, Vancouver. 9 ^Conclusion based on the observations of the writer during numerous formal classroom inspections and visits in Indian and non-Indian schools. - 63 teaching positions are approved and occasionally proffered Toy the school principal. The teachers are on the federal salary schedule. Other staff members are appointed solely by the principal and paid from grants made by the government to the school. They are not classified as public servants. Since the schools have children ranging from six years of age to sixteen and older, in residence for ten or more months per year, a diverse staff of nurses, supervisors, cooks, laundry workers, mainten• ance men, gardeners and drivers is required. Where these employees are members of religious orders, the turnover is small, but with lay staff the reverse is often true. In the past, principals avoided appointing Indians to fill these posts; in recent years there has been an increasing number employed. While training is customarily of the on-the-job type, some experimentation has been done with more formal preparatory programs. Pupils. Residential schools are for orphans, children of broken homes or destitute families, children from isolated villages which are too small for day schools and for students obtaining a secondary education. To some parents the enrolment of their offspring in this type of institution is an indication of influence and the school is symbolic of their prestige. Inspection. Residential schools are now subjected to a number of inspections and checks which ensure the welfare and 64 the safety of the children to the extent that physical faci• lities will allow. Nurses and doctors employed by the Department of Health and Welfare frequently visit the schools to immunize, x-ray and examine the children. A dietitian from the same Department makes regular visits to inspect the kitchens, the quality of the food and the adequacy of the diet. The federal District Superintendent of Schools is required to inspect and submit annual reports on the academic program (which is identical to that of the Indian day schools), the extracurricular activities, standards of pupils' clothing, dormitory conditions, fire drill training, standards of sanitation, diet, water supply, Industrial Arts and Home Economics training and general efficiency of operation. Representatives of the Provincial Fire-Marshal's office also inspect facilities from time to time. Boilers are inspected regularly by provincial personnel; Branch engineers check other aspects of operation and maintenance. Physically, the residential schools, according to offi• cial reports, tend to meet the needs of the children rather well. Hospital schools Instruction in school subjects ig given in the three Indian hospitals operated in British Columbia by the Department of Health and Welfare. Located at Sardis, Nanaimo and Miller Bay (near Prince Rupert), these hospitals function primarily for tuberculosis cases, a fairly large percentage 65 of whom are children. The Indian Affairs Branch maintains a teaching staff in each of these institutions. There are cur• rently seven such appointees for the three hospitals. These teachers, through individual bedside or group instruction, attempt to prevent pupil patients from becoming too greatly retarded in their school-work. They also give the children and adults constructive activities to relieve the tedium of long periods of hospitalization. Supervision of Indian schools In 1959 the province of British Columbia was divided into five districts to facilitate the administration and supervision of Indian education. (Appendix B) In charge of each district Is a Superintendent of Schools responsible to a Regional Superintendent based in Vancouver. These men are expected to work closely with Provincial Superintendents of Schools who visit all the Indian day schools in their districts. All federal District Superintendents are now being pro• vided with counsellors and other specialists. Fewer than ten years ago It was not uncommon for teachers to be appointed to isolated schools in which they remained for an entire school year without having a visit from•a-qualified educator.1^ It was not possible for the one supervisory official, then desig• nated as Regional Inspector of Indian Schools, to visit all of the widely separated classrooms in the province and to cope Information received from the office of the Indian Commissioner, Vancouver. 66 with the numerous other duties of his office. Teachers of Indian schools to-day receive regular visits from trained personnel. Teacher accommodation Because teachers employed in most Indian schools cannot be boarded conveniently in Indian homes and since white settlements are often at some distance from the reserves, the Government provides furnished living quarters. Until 1957 these were free of charge. A review of the residences showed a great variance in size, conditions and furnishings, and in fairness to the tenants, a rental was levied, based on the location and the quality of the accommodation. These residences must often be shared by two or more teachers. Curriculum Teachers were once apt to use the course of study most familiar to them, but to-day they must adhere reasonably closely to the British Columbia curriculum. Although Ottawa headquarters supply text books to Indian schools, purchasing routines have been made more efficient so that the traditional time lag in receiving new issues has almost disappeared. School operation Regulations covering the operation of both day and residential schools have been promulgated from Ottawa 67 clarifying fundamental issues and promoting a more consistent pattern of school operation. Of special importance t'o the teacher has been the adoption of a practical pupil-teacher ratio. The Indian Affairs Branch endeavours to limit the number of pupils in each classroom to twenty-five, regardless of the number of classes in the school.11 Teaching personnel No legislation can completely eliminate the isolation, the loneliness or the frontier type of existence which is part of the job of teaching on some of the Indian reserves in this province. Nevertheless, the Indian Affairs Branch has attempted to compete with other teacher recruiting authorities in the search for qualified personnel, and has introduced improvements designed to aid in teacher retention. In September, 1947, for the first time, a salary schedule for Indian Day School teachers was adopted. In 1954, all teachers employed In government owned residential schools were placed on this salary schedule. The Branch has revised this schedule approximately every two years. Designed prim• arily to attract teachers for elementary grades, the schedule has been superior to salary schedules of some provinces. In British Columbia, the salaries have usually been slightly lower than those paid to teachers of most provincial school districts. Teachers in Indian day schools, however, point Information received from Indian Affairs Branch, Ottawa. 68 out that the provision of living accommodation at reasonable rates usually compensates for any deficiency in remuneration. In 1954, too, coverage under the Public Service Super• annuation Act was extended to all teachers in Indian schools. As a result these employees were included in what was generally considered to be one of the best pension plans in Canada. Until World War II any teacher transferring from a federal Indian school to a public school was not given credit on the salary schedule for Indian school experience. In the post-war era, most school boards agreed to recognize this service. The Department of Education in Victoria also began to accept the reports of the then Regional Inspector of Indian Schools in granting permanent certification to beginning teachers. The Branch officially authorized the closure of Indian schools to enable teachers to attend conferences and institutes arranged by provincial teachers' organizations. With help from all these sources the stigma so long attached / to teaching in Indian schools began to be removed. More aggressive techniques were employed in recruitment of these teachers. • The perennial terse announcements in the press that the Government of Canada required teachers for Indian schools were superseded by more imaginative and more specific advertisements. These were placed in United Kingdom educational publications as well as in papers in Canadian provinces where the teacher shortage was less acute. In 1958 the Indian Affairs Branch sent a representative to Britain 69 for purposes of teacher recruitment. Subsequently the Regional Superintendent of Indian Schools for British Columbia travelled to various parts of Canada in order to interview applicants. There is still a serious teacher shortage and a constant drive for personnel. The competition for qualified teachers Is keen. The Indian Affairs Branch has rarely had a year when all its British Columbia schools have been staffed with qualified teachers at the beginning of the Fall term. Table I, page 70 and Table II, page 71, show that the proportion of qualified persons on the teaching force, however, has increased steadily. In Canada in 1955 only 85.3 per cent of the teachers in Indian day schools were qualified; by i960 the percentage had risen to 90.6. In the residential schools the proportion 12 for the same period rose from 76.7 per cent to 84.3 por cent. Enrolment The Indian Act specifies that all children between the 13 ages of seven and sixteen inclusive must attend school. ^ In practice, most of the six-year old children, and many younger, are enrolled in either day or residential schools. Few children are allowed to leave school before the legal age, although the Minister of Citizenship and Immigration may approve of some premature withdrawals under special circum• stances . 12 Information received from Indian Affairs Branch, Ottawa. P. 38. 13 The Indian Act, (Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1958), 70 TABLE I SUMMARY OP QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHING STAFF IN ALL INDIAN SCHOOLS IN CANADA AS OF JANUARY i960 Senior Matric. Junior Matric. Unqualified and and Teachers 1 Year Teach. 1 Year Teach. Educ. Educ. " or" Higher •' ' Day 547 (65.9$) 205 (24.7$) 78 ( 9.4$) Residential 296 (64.5$) 91 (19.8$) 72 (15.7$) Total 843 (65.4$) 296 (22.9$) 150 (11.7$) Total 1289 teachers (100$) 65.4$ have Senior Matriculation standing and one year or more of teacher Education 22.9$ have Junior Matriculation standing and one year teacher Education 11.7$ are not professionally trained and have not been granted Teaching Certificate 11.8$ of the teachers in Indian Schools in British Columbia are unqualified Categories certified by Indian Affairs Branch, Ottawa. Information received from Indian Affairs Branch, Ottawa. TABLE II* IMPROVEMENT IN QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHING STAFF IN INDIAN SCHOOLS FROM 1955 TO i960 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 I960 A. Day Schools Qualified^ 85.3$ 90.2$ 88.8$ 91.7$ 90.5$ 90.6$ Unqualified 14.7$ 9-8$ 11.2$ 8.3$ 9-5$ 9.4$ B. Residential Schools Qualified 76.7$ 80.1$ 79.5$ 82.5$ 83.5$ 84.3$ Unqualified 23.3$ 19.9$ 20.5$ 17-5$ 16.5$ 15-7$ Information received from Indian Affairs Branch, Ottawa. ^Table I. In the school year 1961-62 there were 10,401 children of legal Indian status enrolled in schools in the province of British Columbia. Of these, 3,638 were in Indian day schools, 2,229 in Indian residential schools, 64 in Indian hospital schools and 4,470 in non-Indian schools.1^ The percentage attendance for all Indian schools in the school year 196O- 1961 was ninety.1^ For public schools in the same year the 16 percentage attendance was 92.67. II. EVALUATION OP THE INDIAN SCHOOL SYSTEM Strengths The -'^traditional argument advanced in favour of the Indian school located on the reserve is that such a facility exerts a powerful influence for good in the community. There is plentiful empirical evidence to substantiate this claim. Providing a school on a reserve brings to that community and Its inhabitants a new status. The size of the school seems to be unimportant--the fact that the settlement is worthy of a school appears to elicit feelings of pride and possessiveness. These reactions are especially evident at official school 1 Report of Indian Affairs Branch 1961-62, (Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1963), p. 79. 15Ibid., p. 75. 16 Public Schools Report 1960/61, (Victoria, Queen's Printer, 1962), p. 14. 73 opening functions. 1 The elation is also due in no small measure to the realization that the teacher may be an intermediary between the people and officialdom and may successfully communicate the views and aspirations of the villagers to the more transient Branch officials. Almost certainly the teacher will be called upon to provide some adult education, however unorganized and informal this may be. In short, the teacher is usually a wel• come and effective agent in the acculturation process. Prom the point of view of the deserving Indian student, the segregated school system has one distinct advantage. The aggressive and talented students become conspicuous in the Indian school setting and are frequently singled out for special attention. The Government of Canada has attempted to promote higher education for Indians through the provision of tuition assistance.. Counselling, guidance, and monetary aid are available to every boy or girl whose occupational interest and choice indicate the desirability of a course of training at a business college, vocational school, or technical insti• tute. The cost of fees, books, transportation, and, in many cases room and board away from home is defrayed for them from grants authorized in proportions varying according to the merits and circumstances of the student. In connection with this assistance, both at high schools, vocational schools and universities, the Department (of Citizenship and Immigration) in applying its policy, expects the parent and student to make maximum contri• bution within their means toward the cost of this train• ing. 18 'Information received from Indian Affairs Branch per• sonnel . 18 R. P. Davey, "Education of Indians in Canada", Canadian Education, Vol. X, No. 3, (1955), p. 36. The assistance outlined above is, of course, available to all students of Indian status whether integrated or segregated. There is less likelihood, however, of a student in the latter category being overlooked or being unaware of the help available to him. Within the Indian schools these opportunities are well known; outside the system, they have received little publicity. Where the degree of literacy in an Indian village is particularly low, there may be special merit in teaching the children in a segregated school which provides a setting where all of the pupils are at approximately the same stage in the acculturation process. The low literacy environment however often mitigates against progress. Schooling on the reserve is a preparatory stage in which the teacher helps to inculcate those non-Indian values which are so essential to successful adaptation to non-Indian routines or standards. The Indian school, whether day or residential, often serves as an intermediate step between the reserve culture and that of the non-Indian community. Through the full academic and extra-curricular program and through the comparatively large and stable number of white employees, the typical residential school presents to the pupils a sample of the non-Indian culture. As mentioned previously, almost half of the Indian pupils in British Columbia attend non-Indian schools. All of these children, however, have not been enrolled in these schools for their entire education. Many of the pupils were not desegregated until the junior or senior secondary level; some were integrated after receiving primary level instruction In Indian schools; a few attended kindergartens operated exclusively for Indians who commence Grade I in the non- Indian schools. The grade level for Integration has usually been determined by local attitudes and circumstances rather than by established policy. In a sense, many Indian children have not been integrated until they have been brought to a certain level of acculturation in a segregated school. Weaknesses Seventy-five years ago many people were probably sincere in their belief that the Indian children needed a special type of education and that setting up schools for Indians only was in their best:: interests. Most Indians, evidently feeling more secure under federal rather than provincial or local jurisdiction, did not formally object to this segregation. Probably the chief weakness of Canada1s present education system for Indian children is the continued segregation of most of the pupils. There are, of course, still many reserves so far removed from white settlements that there are no non- Indian schools in which the children can be enrolled and where integration is not possible. The segregated education system can be costly. The expense of maintaining and educating a child in a residential school in British Columbia in 1963 averaged $1041.00. The per pupil cost in the public school system for the year 1960- 20 6l was $365.20. A residential school commonly enrols more than one member of a family. It might be less costly to relocate many families willing to move from their reserves to less isolated communities than to continue educating their children in a residential school. 19 ^Information received from Indian Affairs Branch, Ottawa. 20 Public Schools Report 1960/61, (Victoria, Queen's Printer, 1962), p. 26. CHAPTER V EVOLUTION OP INTEGRATED EDUCATION Por many decades prior to World War II so few Indians attended public schools that neither the federal nor provincial authorities maintained separate records of their enrolment. There was no particular locality in the province which had an aggressive program of encouraging the enrolment of Indian children in its schools. A few Indians left their reserves and purchased or rented property in non-Indian communities and thereby acquired the right to free public school education for their children. Some of these had married non-Indians who favoured public rather than reserve schooling. A very small group used public high school facilities as there was no secondary education offered on the reserves. Despite these cases, the public schools enrolled only a few Indians. I.- BEGINNINGS OP INTEGRATION Some of the Indian children who lived on reserves adjacent to non-Indian communities, attended the local public school rather than leave their homes to enrol in a residential school. Por the tuition of the relatively few children in this category, the Indian.Affairs Branch paid to the local school board annual fees which for many years were set at $20.00 per child. Resolution No.,15, submitted by the Deroche School 78 District to the British Columbia School Trustee Associa• tion convention, urged an increase in this amount. Speaking to this resolution, Mr. Wardrop of Deroche stated: We have a few Indian families living in the Deroche District and the Indian Department has no school there. We do not need to take Indian children into our public schools if we do not want to do so, but on the other hand, we at Deroche have always felt that so long as there were only a few Indian children and they were well behaved, there would be no objection. School costs of all kinds have advanced since the Indian Department set a per capita rate of $20.00 some fifteen years ago, which works out to less than ten cents a day, and in most cases the average pupil doesn't attend full time. There are many public schools in British Columbia where a few Indian children attend, and it seems in all fairness to all the schools, the rate should be raised by the Indian Department. As a result of this resolution, which was adopted without discussion, the Honourable H.J-Perry, then Minister of Education, made appropriate representations to the federal authorities. Within several months, the tuition fee was raised to $35-00 per annum. During the years that followed, several increments were made in the fee by some of the school districts. The Branch appears to have paid the sums requested although the amount levied in various districts ranged from a very high fee to an extremely low one. By 1950 the Department of Education and the Indian Affairs Branch agreed to set an annual tuition fee of $150.00 per Indian child and this levy was adopted by all boards enrolling Indian children.1 In coming to this agreement the two bodies had set a precedent-- Information received from E. Espley, Comptroller of Expenditures, Department of Education, Victoria. 79 for the first time the provincial and federal authorities had jointly formulated a procedure relating to the education of Indians which was to be permanent, though subject to revision. Recently the fee structure was revised, and the current annual rate is $250 per child. (Appendix I) II. FORCES FOR CHANGE The payment of a standard tuition fee constituted one of the first official acts which recognized the growing tendency toward integration. The trend was not merely a reflection of the sudden growth of the Indian population. In many sections of the province forces were at work actively promoting the desegregation of Indian children. During World War II the Indian school system had been greatly retarded by the diversion of federal funds to defense. Although the schools continued to function in an austere fashion, normal development ceased and was slow to be resumed. Furthermore, by joining the armed forces in large numbers, the Indians had proved beyond doubt that they were ready to accept their responsibilities and now might expect privileges other Canadians were enjoying. Many Indians have stated to the writer that one of these privileges was the right to obtain for their children the same educational opportunities.that were available to other citizens. The teaching of religion in Indian schools began to be a contentious issue with many Canadians—both Indian and non-Indian. From the Indians' point of view, it was difficult 80 to justify automatic religious training for them when there was an obvious need for moral if not religious training for many non-Indians. The implication seemed to be that Indians were morally Inferior and needed religious training whereas non-Indian children did not require this. This emphasis on religious training regardless of the personal preferences of the Indians appeared to be a form of. discrimination to which a few Indians objected strongly. To them, transferring their children from federal to public schools was a way of rebelling against a school system which had a traditional religious orientation. III.- LEADERSHIP A number of Indians had sufficient courage and foresight to voice their preferences for integrated schooling despite the certain knowledge that many of their people opposed change. The Reverend Peter Kelly, an ordained minister of the United Church of Canada, joined such other Indian leaders as. Chief William Scow of Village Island, Chief Jimmie Sewid of Alert Bay and Bob Clifton of Hartley Bay in promoting the integration of Indian school children into the public school system. Mrs. Victor Guerin of the Musqueam Reserve sent her own children to non-Indian schools. In her continuing efforts to improve the educational opportunities for Indians, she emphasizes that integration is a "two-way street" in which the Indians must make some effort if success is to be achieved. The Indian leaders received articulate co-operation from numerous non-Indian supporters. Some were government employees; others were simply interested citizens. A prominent example of the latter was Mr. Hunter Lewis who, while a member of the faculty of the University of British Columbia, prepared the case for British Columbia Indians for presentation to the Joint Parliamentary Committee which sat in 1946-1947. In this brief, which was sponsored by the Vancouver Branch of the Canadian Civil Liberties Union, strong representations were made for the use of public rather than segregated schools for Indians. TV. GOVERNMENT ACTION It is significant that the Civil Service Poster issued in 19^6 calling for applications for the position of Inspector of Indian schools in British Columbia specified that one of the duties of the incumbent would be "to arrange for the admission of Indian children to provincial schools". Appar• ently some of the views of Mr. Hunter and the Canadian Civil Liberties Union were shared by the Indian Affairs Branch. The Vancouver Sun, Oct. 5, 1962, p. 27. ^Canadian Civil Liberties Union, Vancouver Branch, A Brief Concerning An Act to Replace the Indian Act (Pamphlet, undated, circa 1951~JT Sec. 58" p. 36. 82 In 1948 the Honourable W. T. Straith, Minister of Edu• cation for British Columbia, was especially disturbed over a situation in Hazelton where both the federal and local school authorities were faced with the problem of expanding school facilities and indications were that separate structures would be built within a few yards of each other. Mr. Straith journeyed to Ottawa to confer with Dr. Hugh Keenlyside, then Deputy Minister of the Department of Mines and Resources in which the Indian Affairs Branch was located at the time. The two men discussed ways and means of fostering the education of Indian children in the public schools of this province. Dr. Keenly- side was fully sympathetic to the Minister's proposals. After his return from Ottawa, Mr. Straith voiced a plea in the Victoria Legislature for greater integration of Indian children in public schools. This seems to have been the first pronouncement on this subject by a cabinet minister on the floor of the House. Mr. Straith recalls receiving the 4 support of all members of all parties in the Assembly. His expressed desire for more widespread integration could not legally be implemented, however, until certain changes in provincial statutes were made. Accordingly, in 1949 the Public Schools Act of the Province of British Columbia was amended to empower the Council of Public Instruction to permit the completion of joint agreements with federal authorities. To Section 13, Chapter 57 was added the • V 4 4 Personal interview with Honourable W. T. Straith, Feb. 6, 1964. 83 following clause: (h) to authorize the Minister or a Board of School Trustees to enter into an agreement with the Depart• ment of Mines and Resources (Indian Affairs Branch) of the Dominion Government for the education of Indian children resident in their respective school districts and to approve such agreement. Accompanied by Dr. P. T. Fairey, at that time Superin• tendent of Education for British Columbia, Mr. Straith then held discussions with Mr. W. S. Arneil, the Indian Commissioner for British Columbia, and Mr. R. P. Davey, who had been recently appointed Regional Inspector of Indian Schools. Their aim was 5 to explore and determine any legal impediment to integration. The talks made clear that the provincial officials supported the proposal for increased integration but that, because of the large measure of local autonomy enjoyed by the school districts, the onus was on Indian Affairs Branch personnel to obtain the agreement of local school boards and to arrange any joint projects with these bodies rather than with the Depart• ment of Education. To R. F. Davey, who presently superintends Indian edu• cation for the whole of Canada, fell the task of carrying on negotiations and of obtaining from school authorities the support for integrating Indian pupils into the public schools. After a public school education in Victoria and university training at the University of British Columbia, Mr. Davey commenced his teaching career in the Indian school at --'Personal interview with Dr. F. T. Pairey, Victoria, Feb. 6, 1964. 84 Hartley Bay and then transferred to public schools in northern British Columbia. To him, more than to any other single individual must be accorded the credit for aggressively pursuing the policies which may ultimately result in the dis• appearance of the federal Indian school system. Mr. Davey1s role in promoting integration was facilitated by the co-operative attitudes of provincial school inspectors and school board members. During World War II and other periods when there were no federal inspectors, the Indian Affairs Branch had requested inspection of some of the Indian schools by provincial personnel. These inspectors (now district superintendents) had become aware of some of the shortcomings of the segregated Indian schools by direct association with them. Through their knowledge and sympathy these men were able to assist Mr. Davey in his integration program. Dr. W. Plenderleith actively promoted the desegregation of the Indian children in Nanaimo and in other parts of the province; J. Chell helped to prepare the Queen Charlotte Islands for the eventual elimination of Indian classes above the primary level; H. C. Ferguson worked in the Hazelton area to make this locality one of the first to be integrated on a large scale; A. D. Jones accomplished similar results in the northern interior of the province and more recently in Vancouver Island; Col. J. N. Burnet became well known to Indian Affairs Branch officials for his co-operation in inte• grating the Indian children of Alert Bay. An outstanding 85 contribution has been made by G. W. Graham, not only during his period as an inspector on the north coast but also during his term as Assistant Superintendent (Administration) with the Department of Education in Victoria. On numerous occasions Mr. Graham has, in effect, provided liaison between federal officials and some of the,school boards during negotiations for the joint construction of schools. At the 1950 Annual Convention of the British Columbia School Trustees Association, the following resolution (Number 5) was submitted: Resolved that it is in the interests of the Indian children of British Columbia and the Province as a whole that the education of native Indian children should be placed under the authority and jurisdiction of the Department of Education, Provincial Government of British Columbia, and such education should be carried out in common with that of all other pupils of the Province. (Appendix G) After some discussion the resolution was put to the convention and carried. In 1959 the British Columbia School Trustees Associa• tion brief to the Chant Royal Commission recommended the integration of Indian school children within the public school system. The sentiments expressed by trustees have been effectively incorporated into the policies of the Trustees Association largely because of the enthusiasm for integration of Mr. P. M. Reder, the General Secretary. V. JOINTLY CONSTRUCTED SCHOOLS Although Deputy Minister Keenlysicle and officials of the Indian Affairs Branch had made clear their support of integration and while the Privy Council had authorized contri• butions to the construction of a few public schools, the Indian Act contained no provision for such procedures. This was rectified In 1951 when the following clause appeared in the Act: The Governor in Council may authorize the Minister, in accordance with this Act, (a) to establish, operate and maintain schools for Indian children, (b) to enter into agreements on behalf of Her Majesty for the education in accordance with this Act of Indian children, with (i^ the government of a province (ii) a public or separate school board, and (iii) a religious or charitable organization.° These legislative amendments enabled the Federal Government to enter into contracts with provincial or local authorities to provide school facilities for joint use by Indian and non-Indian pupils. From 19^9 to the present day fifty separate agreements were concluded with public or parochial school authorities in British Columbia (Table III, p. 91). These represented an expenditure of federal funds in excess of three million dollars. Agreement was first achieved and contracts developed through conferences and the exchange of correspondence between Branch officials and school boards. "The Indian Act, (Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1951), .Chapter TP}, Section 113. 87 Standard joint agreement forms were later developed to facili• tate negotiations. (Appendix H.) A school board, in addition to the usual requirements and procedures associated with the construction of new schools, was confronted with other considerations when joining forces with federal authorities to provide facilities. Was the community willing to accept the Indian children? What would be the advantages and disadvantages of integration? In a few instances, the communities benefitted materially as a result of the admission of Indian children since the enlarged enrolment qualified the schools for provincial grants provid• ing such facilities as Home Economics, Industrial Arts, Physical Education and Library. Thus the inclusion of Indian children could sometimes make the difference between a collection of classrooms and a more comprehensive school plant. In most joint projects, the school boards were probably motivated primarily by the desire to give the Indian children the same educational opportunities enjoyed by non-Indian children. The local school board was the agency which took the initial step toward integration by inviting the Indian Affairs Branch to participate in the building of a new school or in the enlargement of an existing structure. When the personnel of the Branch received such a proposal, they were obliged to consider several factors. The attitude of the Indian parents was, of course, of prime importance. In most cases, the Indians were totally in favour of integration. Occasionally, the parents wanted assurance that the enrolment of their 88 children in non-Indian schools would be accomplished at no cost to themselves. There were also some Indian parents who favoured integration above the primary level but opposed it for the smaller children when a long bus or boat journey was required daily. The purpose of integration could be defeated if the population of a school became overwhelmingly Indian—thus prompting the criticism that the non-Indians were being integrated into what was, in effect, an Indian school. Population surveys were therefore scrutinized carefully by local and federal authorities. When agreement was reached on the ratio of Indian to non-Indian pupils, the share of the Indian Affairs Branch in the cost of building and furnishing the school was computed. This was a purely mathematical procedure. The contribution of the Branch was based on the proportion of Indian children in the total enrolment. (Appendix H.) Since the stated policy of the Branch was in favour of integrated education, rarely was there any difficulty in obtaining the Federal Government's approval of a joint project. When budgetary and fiscal conditions were satisfied, funds were seldom delayed. With the turning over of the federal share of costs to the provincial authorities, the Branch's role became advisory and supportive. The administration and supervision of the schools were, by agreement, left entirely to provincial and local officials. Thus a dichotomous administration was 89 avoided. The first agreement between the Indian Affairs Branch and a local authority was with the South Cariboo School District. The Branch contributed $742.50 towards the cost of transforming an unused room of the Lytton Public School into a suitable classroom. The Order in Council, although dated July, 1949, authorized the agreement to be effective January 1, 1949. This was the earliest effective date of any joint agree- 7 ment in any of the provinces. The following year a contribution of $1500.00 was made by the Indian Affairs Branch towards the improvement of facilities at the Port Essington Elementary School in the Prince Rupert School District. The Indian children mentioned in the agreement were pupils who had actually attended this school over several years in varying numbers. The first major contract with a school board came in 1950. The Branch contributed $73,000.00 towards the cost of a new elementary high school at Hazelton. The opening of the joint facilities here resulted in the closure of the long- established Hazelton Indian Day School. As Indicated in Table III, page 91, this joint school was subsequently expanded four times with further financial participation by federal authority. Soon agreements were being consummated in several centres on the mainland, Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlottes. Information received from Indian Affairs Branch, Ottawa. 90 (Map 1, page 94.) From 1958 to i960 Roman Catholic authorities negotiated with federal officials in Ottawa concerning the integration of four hundred Indian children in parochial schools planned for the northern interior. The government contributed close to one million dollars toward the con• struction of six of these schools between Prince George and Hazelton. Of the fifty agreements developed up to the time of writing, twenty have been arranged in order to expand schools which were originally constructed jointly by the federal and local authorities. VI." SUPPORTIVE FORCES The support given to the integration movement by provincial District Superintendents of Schools has been mentioned. In 1955 Dr. H. L. Campbell, then Superintendent of Education for the province of British Columbia, with the approval of the Honourable L. Peterson, Minister of Education, agreed to have members of his field staff pay regular visits to all Indian Day Schools and submit reports to the Branch. This was not to be a temporary measure such as that introduced during World War II but a permanent arrangement for which the Branch was to pay a prescribed amount per visit. The significance of this development lay In its primary purpose—the creation of improved liaison between provincial and Indian school personnel at the field level. This was a step toward further integration. \ 91 TABLE III* CHRONOLOGICAL LISTING OP JOINT SCHOOLS CONSTRUCTED IN BRITISH COLUMBIA INCLUDING GRADES AND NUMBERS OF INDIAN CHILDREN AND THE FINANCIAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE INDIAN AFFAIRS BRANCH School I.A.B. No. of ' District School Contrib. Indian Grades • ' ' Pupils Integ'd. 49 S. Cariboo Lytton Elem. $ 742.50 9 1- 8 50 Pr. Rupert Port Essington Elem . 1,500.00 22 1- 8 50 Telegraph Cr. Telegraph Cr. Elem. 22,177.43 54 1- 8 50 Terrace Hazelton El-High 73,000.00 90 1- 12 50 Campbell Rv. Campbell Rv.El-High 18,728.00 15 4- 12 50 Alberni Gill Elem. 25,264.29 50 l- 8 51 Nanaimo Bayview Elem. 37,229.21 50 1- 8 51 Campbell Rv. Quadra Elem. 23,076.00 20 l- 8 52 Quatsino Port Hardy El-High 25,000.00 25 l- 12 52 Qn. Charlotte Masset El-High 25,918.00 30 l- 12 52 S. Cariboo Lytton El-High 42,745.59 56 l- 12 52 Alert Bay- Alert Bay El-High 80,000 .,00 100 7- 12 53 Ocean Falls Bella Coola Elem. 37,723.57 45 1 53 S. Cariboo Lytton El-High 28,596.76 35 1- 12 53 Telegraph Cr. Telegraph Cr.Elem. 15,733,43 - 1- 8 53 Ocean Falls Bella Coola Elem. 65,207.73 61 2- 8 55 Qn. Charlotte Q.C. City.El-High 35,273.00 31 7- 12 56 Ocean Falls Sir A. Mack.High 18,000.00 25 9- 12 57 Terrace Hazelton El-High 53,697.00 92 1- 12 57 Qn.Charlotte Masset El-High 38,803.00 80 4- 12 s n cl Q.C. City El-High 92 TABLE III. (continued) School I.A.B. No. of * District School Contrib. Indian Grades - - Pupils Integ'd. 58 R.C.Epis.Corp. Smithers Parochial 120,668.00 75 1- 8 of Pr.Rupert 58 Vanderhoof Paroch. 108,495.00 55 1- 8 58 Burns Lke.Paroch. 119,930.34 75 1- 8 58 Fort St.James 107,494.68 60 1- 8 Parochial 58 New Hazelton 35,000.00 30 1- 8 Parochial 58 Ocean Palls Sir A.Mack. High 25,563.50 - 7- 12 58 Campbell Rv. Quadra Elem. 18,770.00 20 1- 8 58 Alberni A.W.Neil Jr. High 112,475.66 100 7- 9 58 R.C.Epis.Corp.. St.Thos. Acquinas 80,000.00 50 9- 12 of Vancouver 59 Alert Bay Alert Bay El-High 52,873.00 50 7- 12 59 R.C.Epis.Corp. Kamloops Par. High 125,000.00 60 10- 12 of Kamioops 59 Terrace Hazelton El-High 35,528.00 43 1- 12 59 Bishop of Penticton Paroch. 21,441.00 25 4- 7 Nelson 60 Ocean Palls Sir A. Mack. High 3,173.00 - 7- 12 60 R.C. Epis.Corp .Prince George 430,000.00 100 of Pr.Rupert Parochial High 6l R.C.Epis.Corp. Powell River Par. 4l,408.00 50 1- 8 of Vancouver 6l Ocean Palls Bella Coola Elem. 10,000.00 15 1- 6 6l Merritt Merritt El-High 27,791.00 60 1- 12 6l R.C.Epis.Corp. Burns Lke. Paroch. 19,000.00 120 1- 8 of Pr.Rupert 93 TABLE III. (concluded) School I.A.B. No. of Yr. District School Contrib. Indian Grades Pupil's • Integ'd 61 S. Cariboo Lytton High 209,241.69 168 7-12 62 Enderby Enderby Elem.-High. 48,510.00 60 1-12 62 Quatsino Port Hardy Elem. 25,000.00 25 1-12 62 Pr. Rupert Pr. Rupert El. 60,000.00 50 1-6 Schools •63 Qn. Charlotte Masset El-High 50,820.00 50 4-12 63 Terrace Hazelton Amal. 43,500.00 60 1-7 63 Ucluelet- Ucluelet Sec. 17,499.00 20 8-12 Tofino 63 Burns Lake Pendleton Bay Elem . 17,275.00 42 1-7 63 Burns Lake Topley Lndg. Elem. 10,356.00 15 1-8 63 S. Cariboo Spences Bridge 22,962.00 20 1-7 63 R.C .Epis.Corp. Chemainus Paroch. 25,800.00 30 1-8 of Victoria •^Compiled from information received from Indian Affairs Branch, Ottawa and from the office of Indian Commissioner, Vancouver. 94 ® ® Public Schools 9 Roman Catholic Parochial Schools ®9 ® s® 3 Figure 2 British Columbia Joint Schools 1949-1964 Among the organizations operating in British Columbia, none has shown more active interest in the integration of Indian pupils than the Parent-Teacher Federation. This body 8 has adopted a clear policy in support of integration. It has developed a well organized and aggressive program designed to foster the Integration of both Indian pupils and their parents. A standing "Indian Integration Committee" meets regularly to discuss ways and means of fostering increased participation by all Indians in' the public school program and to consider progress reports from the integration.': committees of various local Parent-Teacher Associations. This committee is endeavouring to persuade the Department of Education of the need for more classroom instruction about Canadian Indians. Some laymen engaged in church work have made out• standing contributions to the movement. Mr. A. E. Caldwell, who for many years did missionary work for the United Church in Manitoba and coastal British Columbia, promoted the enrolment in public schools of the Indian children of the Alberni Residential School where he was principal. Another layman, Mr. Dean Goard, as a member of the Indian Work Committee, B. C. Conference, United Church of Canada and as President of the Native Service Council, has been an British Columbia Parent-Teacher Federation, Minutes of the meeting of the Indian Integration Committee, May 10, 19T5T7 96 articulate spokesman for integration in the Vancouver area. In his former capacity as principal of the Vancouver Vocational Institute, Mr. Goard took a personal interest in the Indian students and assisted them in the educative and placement processes. He has also promoted special training programs for the Indians of the Musqueam Reserve. The arrangements for the accommodation in Vancouver United Church homes of twenty Bella Bella students attending the Vancouver Vocational Institute was largely the result of Mr. Goard's efforts. Until the Very Reverend Bishop 0'Grady of the Diocese of Prince Rupert commenced arrangements with the Federal Government for the joint construction of parochial schools in his northern district, the Roman Catholic church had tended to adopt a cautious attitude toward integration and in some areas continues to do so. It is difficult to pre• dict when one might expect to see full integration of Roman Catholic Indians into the parochial schools of such areas as Vancouver Island and the Lower Mainland. VII. BARRIERS TO FURTHER INTEGRATION Although the Federal Government wholeheartedly endorses the policy of integrating Indian children into non-Indian schools, the majority of Indian children are still segregated for formal education (Appendix A). 97 Would the transfer of the responsibility for Indian education from federal to provincial or to municipal authority quickly effect total integration? The question is not easily answered. Demographic factors create barriers which prohibit integration. Many Indian villages on the coast or on coastal islands are several hours from white communities of comparable size. In the north, the reserves on the Nass River are far removed from white settlements. In the interior of the province Port Babine, Port Douglas and Takla Landing are typical of a number of Indian villages of moderate size situated so far from non-Indian communities that integration in the area is not conceivable. If integration were placed before religious instruction in importance for Indian children, the enrolment of approxi• mately two thousand of these pupils in British Columbia public schools could be arranged. Pour of the residential schools could become hostels from which the children could be transported to nearby public schools for their academic training; there are at least twelve day schools which could be closed following transfer of their pupils to public schools The Indians, who in the final analysis must decide which is more essential for their children—integration or religious education, if both are not possible--do not present a united front in this matter. Some of the elderly Indians not yet convinced that education with non-Indian children is in the best interests of the Indians, still favour the traditional segregated schools. Others wish to avoid integration because this might mean the deterioration of the reserve system—a consequence which would have economic repercussions for many. Still others have heard acculturation through integrated schooling described by some educated white people as a risky process fraught with deep emotional problems. The Honourable Ellen Fairclough, Canada's Minister of Citizenship and Immigration from May 1958 to August 1962, once declared that opposition in the field of integrated education comes in "part from the Indian parents themselves who do not ,,Q fully understand the objectives of integrated schooling. Barriers to further Integration may be removed by the passage of time, by more enlightened official policies and by the efforts of the Indians themselves. ^Address to Canadian Association of School Superin• tendents and Inspectors, Saskatoon, Sept. 15, 1959. CHAPTER VI ASSESSMENT OF INTEGRATED EDUCATION An evaluation of integrated schooling for Indian children should, if possible, include a comparison between the academic achievement of Indian children enrolled in public schools and that of segregated pupils. Although Indian children at the Grade VII level have been tested in achievement, a complete summary of the results is not yet available. An examination of the data from a few of the schools suggests that residential school means were slightly higher than those of integrated Indian pupils. The latter in turn were higher than those of the Indian day school children.1 The advantages of residential school enrolment may explain the apparently higher rate of achievement. Children in these schools keep regular hours, have a properly regulated diet, engage in a full program of extra-curricular activities and have supervised study periods after school hours. The non-Indian schools, on the other hand, though usually larger and able to offer more comprehensive programs, share with most Indian day schools the problems resulting from the depressed socio-economic conditions found on most reserves and from the indifference of the majority of Indian parents. The Information received from the office of the Indian Commissioner, Vancouver. 100 possible advantages of slightly superior academic achievement by residential school pupils must be considered in conjunction with the disadvantages of this type of school—segregation, regimentation and separation from home and parents. As Indian parents learn to support the efforts of the day school children and as the home conditions improve, increases in achievement in both day and Integrated schools should ensue. An appraisal of the quality of the total adjustment of Indian children in the Integrated setting has been made possible through the co-operation of many people who have been directly involved in the process. To aid in this assessment, questionnaires were compiled and distributed to school boards, school principals, teachers and Indian Agency Superintendents and other Branch officials. All questionnaires were mailed during the week of February 16, 1964 with covering letters attached (Appendix J). Within three weeks the majority of the forms had been com• pleted and returned as is shown in these results: Circular Number Number Percentage mailed returned returned School trustees 4l 33 80 Principals 106 8-3 79 Teachers 199 119 60 Branch officials _2J_ _23 _§5 Totals 373 • 258 69 101 An examination of the observations and opinions expressed in the questionnaires by people whose attitudes are of prime importance, has been a determining force in judging the efficacy of this Integration movement. I. OPINIONS OP SCHOOL TRUSTEES Forty-one of the eighty-three school boards of the province were included in the survey. Thirty-three boards (Appendix K) returned completed questionnaires. (Page 103.) In two separate aspects these school .boards expressed unanimous opinions—the people of their communities generally support the principle of the integration of Indian children in the public schools, and the boards have never had any reason to regret accepting those Indian children who have already been integrated (Questions 10 and 15). Almost one third of the boards reported they were willing to accept all Indian children, regardless of whether the number integrated would create a non-Indian minority; an equal percentage of boards would hesitate to arrange for joint schooling if this would mean a preponderance of Indian children in a school (Question 12). Boards favour rapid rather than gradual inte• gration and support the idea of using kindergartens for Indian pupils (Questions 13 and 16). While most boards have good liaison with personnel of the Indian Affairs Branch, they nevertheless believe that 102 Indian education should be a provincial or local rather than a federal function (Question 18). The great majority of boards believe that Indians should be encouraged to vote in elections for school trustees (Question 17); responses indicated that Indian parents rarely take an interest in the work of the school boards and seldom take problems to these bodies (Question 5)• II. OPINIONS OF SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Dr. J. F. K. English, Deputy Minister and Superintendent of Education who has had an enduring interest In the education of Indian children, requested co-operation in this survey from the principals. Seventy-nine per cent of them completed the questionnaire. Forty-one of the eighty-three school districts of the province were represented in this survey. Of one hundred six questionnaires distributed (page 107) eighty-four were returned (Appendix L). The average enrolment of the schools which responded was 3^8. The total number of Indian children enrolled in these schools was 2265—an average of 27 per school. Thus the principals were actually offering opinions on the school adjustment of over half the total number of Indian children enrolled in the public schools of the province. In the opinion of the principals who favour the move• ment—So out pf a total of 83--there was general agreement that it should take place at the Kindergarten or Grade I level; 103 QUESTIONNAIRE POR SCHOOL BOARDS Aff. Neg. Indefi• nite 1. In applying for employment do teachers ever express an interest in a specific classroom or school because of a desire to teach Indian children? 4 27 2 2. Does the presence of Indian children in a school or classroom ever appear to be a major factor In the resigna• tion of teachers? 33 3. Have there been any instances where teachers have remained on your staff chiefly because of an interest In teaching Indian children? 5 27 1 4. Has your Board ever received a rep• resentation from an Indian or group of Indians concerning a classroom .matter? (if YES, please specify.) 4 29 5. Do the Indian parents show an Interest in the work of the School Board to the same extent as do the non Indian parents? 6 23 4 6. In your opinion would an Indian member on your Board have special value? 9 21 3 7. • Does there appear to be any possi• bility of more extensive Integration of Indians in your District? (Not including natural population increase) 16 11 6 8. Do you at present employ any teachers of Indian status? 3 30 9. Does your Board see a need for greater liaison with officials of the Indian Affairs Branch? 13 l8 2 10. Do the non Indian people of your District generally appear to support the principle of admission of Indian children in the public schools? 33 104 Questionnaire for School Boards (continued) Aff. Neg. Indefi• nite 11. Is your Board unanimously in favour of accepting Indian children where this does not mean a preponderance of the latter? 31 1 1 12. Does your Board favour acceptance of Indian pupils in schools where their number exceeds that of non Indian children? 13 8 12 13- Does your Board favour rapid as opposed to gradual Integration of Indians in the public schools? 17 8 8 14. Does the Board consider the amount of tuition paid by the federal government on behalf of the Indian pupils to be adequate? 17 5 11 15. Has the Board ever had occasion to regret the acceptance of the Indian pupils as a group? (If YES, please specify) 33 16. Do you see a special need for kindergartens for Indian children? 21 10 2 17. Should Indians be encouraged to vote at School Board elections? 30 1 2 18. Would you be in favour of the placement of those Indian schools within the boundaries of your District under the jurisdiction of your Board? In other words, do you believe that Indian education should be a provincial or local rather than a federal responsibility? 22 3 8 105 three principals would transfer the children from Indian to public schools at the Grade VI, VII and IX levels respectively, two at the Grade VIII level (Question 19). Although the majority of the principals stated that the presence of Indian children did not improve the tone of their school, they averred that these pupils did not affect tone adversely. The replies suggest that Indian pupils are not commonly disciplinary problems or a major source of complaints by teachers at either the elementary or secondary level (Question l). The irregular attendance, tardiness and truancy of the Indian pupils are reported to be areas for concern. Most principals who, recorded a tendency for Indians to fraternize with fellow pupils of their own race pointed out that this habit resulted from the fact that most of the children were neighbours or were related to one another. No principal was at all concerned about any slight tendency the Indian students have to "stick together" (Question 8). Approximately one half of the principals stated they were not fully aware of the financial assistance available to Indian students for advanced training. (Question 17)• A large number of principals expressed a desire to have a closer liaison with personnel of the Indian Affairs Branch. A majority reported that Indian parents, though co-operative in most cases, do not show as much interest in the progress of their children as do non-Indian parents. Drop-outs among the Indian pupils are primarily attributed by the io6 principals to the reserve environment and to the lack of parental support (Table IV, p. 109). III. OPINIONS OP TEACHERS Only those teachers enrolling a minimum of five Indian pupils were asked to complete the questionnaire. One hundred nineteen (Appendix L) of the one hundred ninety-nine questionnaires (page 111) were returned. The average Indian enrolment per classroom surveyed was twelve. The total Indian enrolment in the classes taught by the teachers who submitted forms, was in excess of 1450. This represents more than one third of the Indian pupils enrolled in all public schools of British Columbia at the time of the survey. The opinions of the teachers indicated almost total approval of integrating the Indian children. Attendance and punctuality of Indian children were reported by almost half of the teachers to be below non-Indian standards. In the opinion of most of the teachers, Indian children appear as well fed and as well dressed as the majority of non-Indian pupils. They do seem to get less sleep and have more minor physical problems than the non-Indians. The great majority of the teachers reported that Indian children do not generally become behaviour problems. On the other hand, they are rarely as responsive as their fellow classmates. A few teachers remarked that some of the Indians (in the lower grades) become more talkative during recess 107 CONFIDENTIAL QUESTIONNAIRE- FOR PRINCIPALS School School District Total enrolment Indian enrolment Aff, Neg. Indefi• nite 1. Do your Indian pupils present any special disciplinary problems? 15 67 2. Do you hear an abnormal number of complaints about the Indian children from your teachers? 16 63 3. Is the counselling of Indian children especially difficult? 4l 31 11 4. Do you believe that the presence of Indian children improves the tone of your school? 11 46 26 5. Do you find evidence in the school situation of any form of discrimin• ation against the Indians as a group? 13 67 3 6, Is truancy a special•problem with Indian students? 31 47 5 7, Is tardiness more common with Indian pupils? 30 50 3 Do the Indian children have a tendency to "stick together" on the playgrounds, in assemblies, etc.? 33 4l 9. Has it been necessary for you to institute special or remedial programs in language arts for the Indians? 43 36 10, Do your Indian pupils assume leader• ship in school activities to the same extent as the non Indian children? 24 55 4 Questionnaire for Principals (continued) Aff. 11. Do the Indian parents participate in school activities to the same extent as non Indian parents? 17 12. Do you experience more difficulty in obtaining cooperation from Indian than from non Indian parents? 35 13. Do the Indian parents show as much interest in the progress of their children as the other parents? 23 14. Do you consider the effectiveness of the work of your teachers to be limited because of a lack of inform• ation about the Indians and their background? 21 15. Do you see a need for greater liaison with officials of the Indian Affairs Branch? 46 16. Do you or your teachers ever have occasion to visit the homes of your Indian children? 4l 17. Are you aware of the extent to which the federal government will provide financial assistance to all Indian pupils who wish to continue their education through or beyond the high school level? 47 18. Do you personally favour the enrol• ment of Indian children in provincial schools rather than in separate fed• erally operated ones? 80 19. Assuming that an Indian parent has a choice between sending his child to an Indian school or a public school, at what grade level should the child be sent to the public school? 20. The drop-out rate of Indians at the secondary level is in most cases high. What in your opinion is the main reason for this? 109 TABLE IV CAUSES OP INDIAN DROP-OUTS SUBMITTED BY PUBLIC SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Cause Submitted Number of ' ' - . . - Principal's 1. Lack of parental support 26 2. Reserve environment 16; 3. Economic--to get jobs 14 4. Lack of ability 11 5. Low achievement 10 6. Lack of initiative 10 7. Discrimination limits choice of jobs 10 8. Peelings of inferiority 8 9. Home study conditions 8 10. Setting up housekeeping 7 11. The Government caters to their needs 7 12. Language handicap 6 13. Poor preparation in fundamental skills 6 14. Absenteeism 5 15. Vague goals 3 16. Lack of examples from their own people 3 17. Living for the present 3 18. Alcoholism on the reserves 3 19. Failure of the curriculum to meet needs 3 20. Attitudes of older Indians to educated Indian youth 3 21. Escapism 2 22. Mentally lazy 1 23. Teacher bias 1 24. Lack of pride 1 110 period and breaks when they can be alone with the teacher. Most teachers report that their Indian pupils are accepted socially and are selected as frequently as the non-Indians for special duties, offices and honours (Ques• tion 22). Discrimination against the Indians is rarely noticed by teachers. Three teachers reported that where the Indians outnumber the non-Indians, they occasionally discrim• inate against the minority. In the judgment of most teachers, the Indian children are somewhat inferior academically (Question 28). This is not surprising since a large percentage of the teachers reported difficulty in the teaching of language arts to Indian children (Question 30). Fewer than one half of the teachers reported that Indian children show special aptitude in Art (Question 27); fewer still believed them to be superior athletically (Question 26). The Indian children are generally trustworthy and co• operative, but do not persist at assigned tasks as diligently as non-Indians (Questions 12 and 20). They appear to be happy, well adjusted children with a sense of humour comparable to that of non-Indians (Questions 17 and 18). According to the majority of the teachers, Indian parents seem to show less interest than the non-Indian parents in the school work of their children (Question 9). Ill CONFIDENTIAL QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS School Location School District Grade Date Total enrolment Indian enrolment Please answer YES or NO to the following questions. Complete frankness will be appreciated. Responses should be based on the standards of your Indian pupils AS A GROUP rather than as indi• viduals . Indef i- Affir. Neg. nite 1. Are standards of dress of your Indian pupils reasonably comparable to those of the non Indian children? 97 20 2 2. Are your Indian pupils usually as clean and well groomed as th£ir classmates? 60 56 3 3. Do the Indian children seem to have more colds, skin trouble and.minor ailments than the other children? 6l 53 5 4. Do the Indian children appear to be as well fed as the others? 86 29 4 5. Would you say that the Indian pupils were getting less sleep than their classmates? 53 55 11 6. Is the attendance of Indian children as regular as that of the white children? 55 6l 3 7. Are the Indian children less punctual than the other pupils? 47 70 2 8. Do the Indian children complete homework assignments less faithfully than the non Indian children? 50 58 11 9. Do your Indian pupils seem to receive as much parental support and encourage• ment as the other children? 29 82 8 112 Questionnaire for Teachers' (continued) Indefi- Affir. Neg. nite 10. Do the Indian children appear to have more emotional problems stemming from home conditions? 34 79 6 11. Do the standards of classroom deport• ment of the Indian children compare favorably with those of the other children? 103 13 3 12. Are the Indian children less trust• worthy than the other children? 21 97 1 13. Do the Indian children show aver• age leadership qualities in the classroom situation? 43 71 5 14. Are the Indian pupils as co• operative as their classmates? 100 18 1 15. Are they as responsive in oral lessons? 23 91 5 16. Do the Indian children show less initiative than white children? 82 33 4 17. Do the Indian children have a sense of humour comparable to that of the other pupils? 97 17 5 18. Do-they appear to be happy, well adjusted children? 91 17 11 19. • Do you consider them to be liabilities to your class? 19 94 6 20. Do the Indian children persist in their work to the same degree; as the other pupils? 51 64 4 21. Do the Indian children tend to be socially isolated from the rest of the group? 31 84 4 22. Are the Indian children ever selected by their classmates for special duties,, offices or honours? 91 21 7 113 Questionnaire for Teachers (continued) Indefi• Affir. Neg. nite 23. Do you notice any evidence of discrimination against the Indian children? 18 97 4 24. Do the Indian children tend to "stick together? 71 37 11 25. Do the Indian children tend to want special attention from you? 25 93 1 26. Have you found your Indian pupils to be superior athletically to other pupils of the same age? 27 86 6 27. Do your Indian pupils show special aptitude in Art? 53 50 16 28. Do your Indian children compare favorably academically to non Indians? 34 79 6 29. Do you support the policy of integration of Indian school children? 108 5 6 30. Is the teaching of the language arts a particular problem with Indian children? 83 24 12 REMARKS (Optional) 114 IV. OPINIONS OP INDIAN AFFAIRS BRANCH PERSONNEL Questionnaires were mailed to seventeen Agency Superintendents and to ten other Branch officials who have worked closely with the Indians. The average length of service with the Branch of the twenty-four officials who returned the completed questionnaire was thirteen years. Thus the majority had participated in the development of planned integrated schooling almost from its inception. In the summary which follows a noteworthy feature is the close agreement of the officials on almost all aspects of the integration movement. Question 1. IN WHAT WAYS (IF ANY) HAS THE ENROLMENT OP INDIAN CHILDREN IN NON-INDIAN SCHOOLS AFFECTED STANDARDS IN THE INDIAN HOMES AND ON THE RESERVES? "Where possible the standards have been raised. The students in many ,cases make new friends and strive to reach the same standard." W. Easton Eighty-eight per cent of the officials supported this view, .stating they had noted improvements;, in dress, house• keeping, cleanliness and- diet. Twelve per cent reported having observed no appreciable changes. Question-2. HOW DO THE MAJORITY OP INDIAN PARENTS VIEW HAVING THEIR CHILDREN ENROLLED IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS INSTEAD OP IN INDIAN DAY SCHOOLS? "The majority are in favour of public schools, though there is some minor opposition to having Grades I to III enrolled, owing to transportation difficulties and the long day for smaller child• ren . P. Henson Eighty-four per cent of the responses reported complete parental support with no qualifications. The remainder reported having observed no opposition. As mentioned previously, the Indian Affairs Branch does not support integration unless the Agency Superintendent has reported the parents to be in favour of the enrolment of their children in the non-Indian school. The superintendent determines the attitudes of parents through personal contact and discussions at band meetings. Question 3. DO ANY PARENTS SEEM TO PREFER RESIDENTIAL SCHOOLS TO NON-INDIAN SCHOOLS FOR ACADEMIC REASONS? Eighty-eight per cent of officials reported no expressed preference for these reasons. A small number of Indians appear to favour this type of school because of supervised study conditions, or because, in their opinion, the standard of teaching is higher. Question 4. WHAT SPECIAL PROBLEMS, IF ANY, HAS INTEGRATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS CREATED FOR THE INDIAN PARENTS? "It increases the demand on the parents' resources. This is due to a desire for more and better clothing, lunches, etc. to conform or be equal to the non-Indian children." W. Demarais All but two officials reported an economic problem similar to the above. Eight superintendents stated that 116 financial assistance from the Branch is available in these circumstances. Question <5. HOW HAS INTEGRATION OP THE INDIAN CHILDREN APPECTED THE AVERAGE INDIAN'S ATTITUDE TOWARD EDUCATION? "Integration has increased the desire of the Indian for education. He has found he can com• pete with the non-Indian." C. Roach "it has made them realize the absolute necessity of ensuring as far as possible that their children obtain an adequate education." J. McGregor One report stated that there had been no appreciable change. The remainder have observed an increased interest in education. Seven reported that Indians had been encouraged by the realization that many children of their race can effectively compete with non-Indians. Question 6. IF YOU RECEIVE COMPLAINTS ABOUT THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS FROM INDIAN PARENTS, PLEASE SPECIFY THE NATURE OF THEIR DISSATISFACTIONS. Three officials reported receiving occasional com• plaints concerning teachers who were considered by the Indians to be too strict about cleanliness or dress. The remainder had received no complaints. Question 7. IN YOUR OPINION DO THE PRINCIPALS AND TEACHERS OP THESE SCHOOLS HAVE ADEQUATE KNOWLEDGE OF THE INDIAN WAY OF LIFE AND RESERVE CONDITIONS? "Most of the principals and a number of teachers appear familiar with the educational problems that face Indian pupils, and, are on the whole, very considerate of these diffi• culties. However it is felt that Indian pupils require extra attention and assistance,particularly when they first enter. When they become acclimatized they are generally as profi• cient as their non-Indian comrades." A. M. Appleby Fifty-eight per cent of the replies expressed similar opinions. The remainder saw no reason why school personnel should have an intimate knowledge of reserve conditions. Question 8. HAS THE INTEGRATION OF INDIAN CHILDREN CHANGED THEIR ATTITUDES OR PERSONALITIES IN ANY APPARENT WAY? PLEASE SPECIFY. "They are not as shy; more ready to mix with other people; seem to be more inclined to join non-Indian organizations, sports, etc." H. Ellis The majority of officials reported changes similar to the above. Others stated that the children had become more fastidious, more ambitious, and have developed broader outlooks. Question 9. HAVE ANY INSTANCES OF ALLEGED DISCRIMINATION AGAINST INDIAN STUDENTS EVER BEEN BROUGHT TO YOUR ATTENTION BY INDIAN PARENTS? Eighty-four per cent of the responses were in the negative. Alleged discrimination appears to have been the result of a social rather than racial factors. Question 10. HAVE YOU EVER BEEN CALLED UPON TO ADDRESS THE TEACHERS OR THE P.T.A. OF AN INTEGRATED SCHOOL? IF SO, PLEASE INDICATE THE TOPIC(S) YOU WERE REQUESTED TO DISCUSS. Seven officials had been invited to address such groups. The topics requested were: Indian Problems Indian Culture 118 Educational Program Integration Branch Assistance to Indian Students Reserve Life Role of the Indian School Teacher in the Community Cultural Changes in Indian Society Indian Affairs Administration Integration Possibilities Agency Superintendent - Teacher Relationship Question 11. HAS THE ENROLMENT IN NON-INDIAN SCHOOLS INCREASED THE INTEREST OF THE INDIAN CHILDREN IN HIGHER EDUCATION? "Without doubt, yes. This is very true of those who have until recently been associated with non-Indian culture to a minimum degree." R. Kendall All but one of the officials declared an increased interest in secondary education. Question 12. DO YOU BELIEVE THAT THE MAJORITY OF THE INDIANS WITH WHOM YOU HAVE WORKED ARE "READY" FOR THE INTEGRATION OF THEIR CHILDREN IN NON-INDIAN SCHOOLS? No official suggested a reason for delaying integration except In unusual circumstances. Several believe complete integration of Indian school children to be "past due". Question 13. IN YOUR OPINION SHOULD STEPS NOW BE TAKEN TO EFFECT THE EVENTUAL TRANSFER OF THE RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE EDUCATION OF INDIANS FROM THE FEDERAL TO PROVINCIAL AUTHORITIES? All but two Branch officials clearly believe this should be done. Some suggested that the transfer should be a "gradual process" or "on a limited scale only". Others pointed out that some Indian bands have already requested this change. 119 Question 14. TO WHAT DEGREE WOULD A PROGRAM OP ADULT EDUCATION FOR THE PARENTS OP. INDIAN PUPILS ENROLLED IN NON-INDIAN SCHOOLS IMPROVE THE EDUCATIONAL POSSIBILITIES OF THESE CHILDREN? "When I think of adult education as sug• gested In this question, I do not think of teaching the Indians to read and write. If we could get some form of classes going that would make the Indian parent more aware of the need of education for his children and of the fact that the growing population of the Indian people makes it impossible for them to stay on the reserve, this would definitely help. We also find some signs of jealousy amongst the Indian parents. If a father has had only Grade VI, when his child starts to get beyond that grade, he is not too sure that this is good. Some form of adult education might be able to overcome this feeling." D. M. Hett Mr. Hett's views are in harmony with those expressed in the majority of the responses to this question. \ CHAPTER VII CONCLUSIONS The opinions of numerous people involved in the integrative process may he summarized as follows: Integration and the Indian child 1. Attending schools with other Canadians and being accepted by them has attenuated traditional feelings of inferiority and has produced improvements In the appearance, the attitude and the personality of Indian youth. 2. Many Indian children are retarded at the primary level in public schools because of a language difficulty. Training in kindergartens is considered a practical and effective way to help overcome this deficiency. 3. The reserve environment is a major deterrent to progress in school and advancement beyond the legal school leaving age. Indian children become increasingly conscious of the short• comings of their home communities as they enter and progress through the secondary grades. 4. Few educators in this province believe the average Indian child to be Inferior intellectually to his classmates. Poor academic achievement, where this obtains, is believed in most cases to result from environmental not Inherited factors. 5. Typically, the Indian boy or girl attending public school in British Columbia is a co-operative, well adjusted pupil for 121 whom racial background creates no disadvantage. The lack of Initiative or perseverance which characterizes many Indian children, is attributed by teachers and principals to different Indian values or attitudes. Some believe these have resulted from the treatment of the Indians by the dominant majority. Integration and the Indian Parent 1. No integrated schooling has been arranged without the support of the Indian parents. There is evidence to suggest that many have not fully adopted the role accepted by most parents of non-Indian public school pupils. 2. Indian children attending public schools observe the higher standards of their fellow pupils and assist their parents in establishing these in their own homes. 3. Absenteeism seems to result from parental attitudes, from minor physical ailments caused by inadequate home care and from lack of a clear conception of the objectives of the schools. 4. In the writer's opinion, the involvement of Indian parents in the education process is necessary to enable the children to obtain optimum results from public school enrolment. A carefully planned program designed to encourage Indian adults to exercise their franchise in voting for school trustees in the districts in which they reside would have the support of the school boards of this province. Field officials 122 of the Indian Affairs Branch believe that an appropriate adult education program would help to interpret the aims of the public schools to the Indian parents. School committees which could be formed by Indian bands on those reserves from which children attend public schools could profit by the experience of the committees now functioning in connection with a few Indian day schools. Integration and the Community 1. Anthropological data respecting British Columbia's Indian population is of less interest to public school principals and teachers than information about their present situation and the objectives of the Government of Canada concerning the Indians. Despite this fact, few Branch, officials are invited to address principals, teachers or Parent-Teacher Associations concerning these matters. 2. School boards, principals, teachers and key field personnel of the Indian Affairs Branch are virtually unanimous in their support of the integration principle. The boards and Branch officials generally agree that the transfer of responsibility for Indian education from federal to provincial and/or local authorities is now desirable. Integration of Indian school children into the public schools of the province of British.Columbia has apparently been successful in almost every aspect. The one major weakness 123 appears to have been the almost total exclusion of the Indian parents from the process of formal education. A school trustee-- himself partly Indian—presents the case for the Indian parents in a rather challenging way—"They have not got Into the white man's way of thinking pertaining to education. For many years their children started at elementary schools on the reserve. Then as they became older they were sent to Indian Residential Schools. In other words, they have not altogether grasped the idea that they have a say in how and where their children will be educated. It has always been done for them." BIBLIOGRAPHY 125 A. BOOKS Ausubel, David P. Maori Youth. Wellington: Price Milburn and Co. Ltd., 1961. The Fern and the Tiki. Sydney: Angus and Robertson, i960 Benedict, R. Patterns of Culture. New York: Mentor Books, 1934. Brabant, A. J. and Moser, C. Reminiscences of the West Coast of Vancouver Island. Victoria: Acme Press, 1926. British Columbia Natural Resources Conference. British Columbia Atlas of Resources. Vancouver: Smith Lithograph Co. Limited, 1956*. David Thompson Narrative of His Explorations in Western America 1784-1812. Toronto: The Champlain Society, 1916. Driver, Harold E. Indians of North America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 196TI Drucker, Philip. Indians of the Northwest Coast. New York: McGraw-Hill Co. Inc., 1955. Evans, Hubert. Mist on the River. Toronto: Copp Clark Co. Ltd., 1954. Frazer, J. G. The Native Races of America. London: Percy Lund Humphries and Co'. Ltd., 1939. Hambly, W. D. Origins of Education Among Primitive People. London: MacMillan and Co., 1926. Hawthorn, Audrey. People of the Potlaten. Vancouver: Sunprinting, 1956. . Hawthorn, H. B., Belshaw, C. S., Jamieson, S:.. M. The Indians of British Columbia. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1958. Hill-Tout, C. British North America-—The Far West. London: Archibald Constable and Co. Ltd., 1907. Hoebel, E. A. The Cheyennes. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 19"6oT 126 Honigmann, J. J.. Culture and Personality. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954. Jewitt, John. The Adventures of John Jewitt. London: Clement Wilson, 189"6T~ Klineberg, 0. Race Differences. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1935. Krause, Aurel. The Tlinglt Indians. Seattle: University of Washington Press" 1956. McKelvie, B. A. Maquinna the Magnificent. Vancouver: Vancouver Daily Province^ 1946. Mackenzie, Alexander. Voyages From Montreal Through the Continent of North America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans in 1789 and' 1793. Toronto: G. N. Morang and Co. Ltd.,' 1902. Masson, L. R. Les Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Quest. Quebec: A. Cote et Cie., lB?9. Morice, Rev. A. G., 0. M. I. The History of the Northern Interior of British Columbia. Toronto: William Briggs, 1904. Munn, N. L. Psychology—The Fundamentals of Human Adjustment. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1961. Murdock, G. P. Our Primitive Contemporaries. New York: MacMlllan . Co., 1~9W. Ormsby, Margaret. British Columbia: a History. Vancouver: The Macmillan Co. of Canada Ltd., 1958^ Porteous, S. D. Temperament and Race. Boston: The Gorham Press, 1926. Redl, F. and Wattenburg, W. W. Mental Hygiene in Teaching. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1959. Riessman, Frank. The Culturally Deprived Child. New York: Harper and Row, 1962"! Seward, G. Clinical Studies in Culture Conflict. New York: Ronald Press Co., 1958. Wallace, W. S. A New History of Great Britain and Canada. Toronto: The Macmillan Co. of Canada Ltd., 1936. 127 B. PERIODICALS Davey, R. P. "Education of Indians in Canada", Canadian Education, Vol. X, No. 3, 1955- Drucker, Philip. "The Northern and Central Nootkan Tribes", Bureau of American Ethnology No. 144, 1951. Garfield, Viola. "The Making of a Tsimshian Carver", Davidson Journal of Anthropology, Vol.1, No. 2, 1955. Hill-Tout, C. "Report on the Ethnology of the Lillooets", Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Vol. 35, 1935. Johnson, P. Henry. "Pur-Trading Days at Kamloops", The British Columbia Historical Quarterly, July, 1937. Pettitt, G. A. "Primitive Education in North America", Publications in American Archaeology, Vol. xliii, 1946. Reifel, Ben. "To Be or To Become", Indian Education, Apr. 15, 1957. Sapir, E. and Swadash, M. "Native Accounts of Nootka Ethno• graphy", International Journal of American Linguistics, Part II, Vol. 21, No. 4, 1955.' Suttles, Wayne. "Affinal Ties, Subsistence and Prestige Among the Coast Salish", American Anthropologist, i960. Sutton-Smith, B. "Child Training and Game Involvement", Ethnology, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1962. Swanton, John R. "Social Conditions, Beliefs, and Linguistic Relationships of the Tlingit Indians", Bureau of American Ethnology Annual Report, No. 25, 1908. "The Indian Tribes of North America", Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 145, 1952. Webber, John. "Drawings by John Webber of Natives of North West Coast of America 1778", Smithsonian Institute Publication 2961. 128 C. GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS British Columbia Government. Public Schools of the Province of British Columbia, Ninetieth Annual Report, 1960/bI. Victoria: Queen's Printer, 1962. Canada. Department of Citizenship and Immigration. Reports of Indian Affairs Branch, 1941-1963. Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1941- 19FT Canada. Department of Citizenship and Immigration, Canadian Citizenship Branch. Notes on the Canadian Family Tree. Ottawa: Queen's Printer, i960. Canada. Department of Indian Affairs. Annual Report of Indian Affairs Department 1913-1914. -Ottawa: King's Printer, 1915. Canada. Department of Mines and Resources. The Indian Act. Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1951. Canada. Department of Mines and Resources. The Indian Act. Ottawa: Queen's'Printer, 1958. Canada. Parliament. House of Commons. 47th. Sessional Papers (No. 4), Vol. 17, ending Dec. 31, 1883. Ottawa: MacLean, Roger & Co. Chant, S. N. F. and others. Report of the Royal Commission on Education. Victoria: Queen's Printer, I960. Jenness, Diamond. "The Ancient Education of a Carrier Indian", National Museum of Canada Bulletin No. 62. Ottawa: Department of Mines and Resources, King's Printer, 1929. "The Indians of Canada", National Museum of Canada Bulletin No. _65. Ottawa: Department of Mines and Resources, King's Printer, 1934. D." UNPUBLISHED WORKS Dilling, H. J. Integration of the Indian Canadian in and through Schools with Emphasis on The Saint Clair Reserve in Sarnia. Unpublished Master of Education thesis, University of Toronto, 1962. Peterson, Lester R. Indian Education in British Columbia. Unpublished Master of Arts thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, 1959. 129 EV NEWSPAPER ITEM The Vancouver Sun, October 5, 1962. PV REPORTS OP ORGANIZATIONS British Columbia Parent-Teacher Federation. Minutes of the meeting of the Indian Integration Committee. Board room of the British Columbia Teachers' Federation Building, Vancouver, May 10, 196l. Canadian Civil Liberties Union. Vancouver Branch. A Brief Concerning an Act to Replace the Indian Act. Submitted to the Prime Minister and the Cabinet and particularly to the Minister of Citizenship and Immigration. Undated, circa 1951. G. OTHER SOURCES Lecture—Wayne Suttles, Associate Professor of Anthropology, University of British Columbia. Vancouver, Sept..22, 1962. Personal interview—S. E. Espley, Comptroller of Expenditures, Department of Education, Victoria. Victoria, May 15, 1963. G. W. Graham, Assistant Superintendent (Administration), Department of Education, Victoria. Victoria, May 15, 1963. W. A. Plenderleith, Co-Ordinator of Special Services,' Department of Education, Victoria. Victoria, May 15, 1963. R. F. Davey, Assistant Director (Education), Indian Affairs Branch, Ottawa. Vancouver, Nov. 21, 1963. J. V. Boys, Indian Commissioner, Indian Affairs Branch, Vancouver. Vancouver, Feb., 3, 1964. Dr. J. F. K. English, Deputy Minister and Superintendent of Education, Victoria. Victoria, Feb. 6, 1964. Dr. F. T. Pairey, Former Superintendent of Education, Victoria. Victoria, Feb. 6, 1964. 130 Honourable W. T. Straith, Former Minister of Education, Victoria. Victoria, Feb. 6, 1964. F. M. Reder, General Secretary, British Columbia School Trustees Association, Vancouver. Vancouver, Feb. 17, 1964. 1 APPENDICES 132 APPENDIX A* ENROLMENT OP INDIAN CHILDREN GRADES I TO VIII INCLUSIVE IN INDIAN, PROVINCIAL AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS OP BRITISH COLUMBIA Indian Indian Total Provincial Percentage Year Day Residen• in and In Schools tial Indian Private Provincial Schools Schools Schools and Private • "Schools 1941-42 1936 1931 3867 5 _ 1942-43 1706 1875 3581 0 - 1943-44 1693 1888 3581 0 - 1944-45 1636 ' 1996 3632 0 - 1945-46 2088 2054 4l42 0 - 1946-47 2008 2079 4o87 0 - 1947-48 2176 2036 4212 0 - 1948-49 2442 2077 4519 0 - 1949-50 2703 2089 4792 495 9.4$ 1950-51 2905 2067 4972 756 13.2$ 1951-52 2950 2214 5164 902 14.9$ 1952-53 2738 2344 5082 1089 16.0$ 1953-54 2796 2634 5430 1230 18.3$ 195^-55 2808 2657 5465 1406 20.5$ 1955-56 2945 2646 5591 1508 21.2$ 1956-57 3165 2367 5532 1621 22.6$ 1957-58 3002 2108 5110 1877 26.7$ 1958-59 3241 2370 5611 2152 27.7$ 1959-60 3194 2160 5354 2525 32.0$ 1960-61 3^77 2103 5580 2858 33.8$ 1961-62 3638 2175 5813 3447 37.2$ 1962-63 3599 1952 5551 3830 40.8$ Enrolment figures are from Reports of the Indian Affairs Branch 1941-1963 (Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1941-1963). 133 APPENDIX B DISTRICT ORGANIZATION--BRITISH COLUMBIA INDIAN SCHOOLS, 1964 District Agencies Day Schools Residential Schools Southwest New West Chehalis (2) R.C. Mission (10) R.C. Seabird Island (2) R.C Snowcap (l) R.C. Vancouver Mount Currie (5) R.C. Sechelt (6) R.C. Homalco (2) R.C. Capilano (l) R.C. St. Paul's (4) R.C. Vancouver Cowichan Westholme fl) R.C. Kuper Island(5) R.C, Island Chemainus (l) R.C. Shell Beach (l) R.C. St. Catherine's(6)R.C. Nanaimo (l) U.C. Tsartlip (k) R.C. Songhees (l) R.C. Kwawkewlth Gilford Island(l)A.C.C. Alert Bay(Hostel)A.C.C. Tumour Island (l)A.C.C. Alert Bay (6) A.C.C. KIngcome Inlet (2) A.C.C. Mamalillikulla (1) A.C.C. Quatsino (I) A.C.C. Tanakteuk (l) U.C. Smith's Inlet (l) Sev.Day Ad. West Coast Kyuquot (l) R.C. Alberni (7) U.C. Ucluelet (2) U.C. Christie (4) R.C. Ahousaht (4) R.C.-U.C. Opitaht (2) R.C. Nootka (2) R.C. Southern Kamloops Deadman's Creek(l)R.C. Kamloops (l2)R.C. Interior Neskainlith (l) R.C. Adam's Lake (1) R.C. Kootenay Kootenay (5)R.C. Okanagan Okanagan (l) R.C. Lytton Seton Lake (2) R.C. St.Georges(5)A.C.C. Fountain (2.) R.C. Nicola Shulus (l) A.C.C. Upper Nicola (l) R.C. Quilchena (l) R.C. Compiled from Information received from the office of the Indian Commissioner, Vancouver. 134 Appendix B - District Organization—British Columbia Indian Schools, 19b4 (continue'dj District Agencies Day Schools Residential Schools Northern Fort Prophet River (l) R.C. Interior St.John Port Nelson (l) R.C. Halfway River (l) R.C. Blueberry River (l) R.C Williams Anahim Lake (2) R.C. Cariboo (10) R.C. Lake Nazko (l) R.C. Sugar Cane (l) R.C. Canim Lake (1) R.C. Alkali Lake (l) R.C. Chilcotin (4) R.C. Redstone (l) R.C. Canoe Creek (l) R.C. Stone (l) R.C. Burns Lk. Fort Babine (l (2 Stuart Ft.St.James Lejac (7) R.C. « Lake Stony Creek (1 Lower•Post(6)R.C * Takla Lndg. (l Fort Ware (l) Tache (l) R.C. North Queen Masset (3) A.C.C. Coast Charlotte Skidegate (2) U.C. Bella Bella Bella (9) U.C. Coola Klemtu (2) U.C. Skeena Hartley Bay (2) U.C. River Kincolith (3) A.C.C. Port Simpson (9) U.C. Kitkatla (4) A.C.C. Babine Glen Vowell (l) S.A. Kispiox (4) U.C. Kitsegukla (3) U.C. Kitwanga (2) A.C.C. Kitwoncool (l) A.C.C. (5) Terrace Kitimat U.C. Gitlakdamix (5) A.C.C Canyon City (lj S.A. Lakalzap (4) A.C.C. A.C.C. - Anglican Church of Canada S.A. - Salvation Army R.C. - Roman Catholic U.C. - United Church Number of classes included in brackets following name of school. ^Lower Post School, though located in British Columbia, is included in the Yukon Agency. Pupils are from both British Columbia and the Yukon. 135 AGENCIES 1 New West'r 5 West Coast 9 Lytton 13 Burns Lk. 17 Skeena R 2 Vancouver 6 Kamloops 10 Nicola 14 Stuart Lk. 18 Babine 3 Cowichon 7 Kootenay 11 Ft. St. John 15 Queen 19 Terrace Charlotte 4 Kwawkewlth 8 Okanagan I 2 Williams Lk. 20 Yukon 16 Bella Coola Figure 3 British Columbia Indian School Districts - 1964 136 APPENDIX C* INDIAN PUPIL GRADE DISTRIBUTION IN BRITISH COLUMBIA-- ALL SCHOOLS Grade 1940 1950 . i960 1963 Pre-1 225 470 1 1,691 1,725 1,627 1,714 2 656;; 94o .. 1,220 1,445 3 506 784 1,042 1,268 4 456 565 1,016 1,160 5 354 531 945 1,105 6 219 363 834 929 7 126 235 745 783 8 50 144 514 635 9 9 100 292 506 10 21 181 334 ll 25 99 152 12 13 51 105 Technical 5 45 133 Profes• 10 16 17 sional Not 2 313 Graded Total 4,067 5,463 8,852 11,069 *Information received from Indian Affairs Branch, Ottawa. 137 APPENDIX D* INDIAN PUPIL GRADE DISTRIBUTION IN CANADA-- ALL SCHOOLS Grade 1940 1950 I960 1963. . Pre-1 2,687 3,759 1 7,209 8,433 7,253 7,016 2 2,884 3,892 5,908 6,447 3 2,400 3,483 5,323 6,098 4 2,029 2,700 4,826 5,357 5 1,605 2,276 4,128 5,079 6 1,079 1,652 ' 3,389 4,038 7 677 1,092 2,652 3,334 8 420 692 1,715 2,43$ 9 93 447 1,115 1,827 10 139 599 1,065 11 99 384 54l 12 46 166 367 Technical 47 354 529 Profes• 29 138 155 sional Not 27 2,499 Graded Total 18,396 25,054 40,637 50,549 * Information received from Indian Affairs Branch, Ottawa. 138 APPENDIX E INDIAN PUPIL ENROLMENT--BRITISH COLUMBIA SCHOOL YEAR--1961-1962 Indian Indian Public Grade Residential Day and School School Private Schools Pre-1 77 377 35 1 290 697 610 2 252 609 486 3 265 536 421 4 284 421 393 5 253 373 389 6 247 278 326 7 173 227 443 8 155 120 344 9 53 395 10 259 11 167 12 107 Total 2,o49 3,638 4,375 Compiled from data in Report of the Indian Affairs Branch (Ottawa, Queen's Printer, 1963T7 139 APPENDIX P AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE AND PERCENTAGE OP ATTENDANCE BY REGIONS FOR INDIAN DAY AND RESIDENTIAL SCHOOLS YEAR 1959-1960 „ . Type and Re 10n S No. of Average Academic Net Daily Average Percent. Class- Enrol• Member• Daily Attend. • rooms ment ship Attend. Marit. Dayf 43 1,147 1,158 976 84 Res( 5 134 132 128 97 Quebec Day( 63 1,744 1,746 1,610 92 Res( 21 488 - 532 522 98 South. Day(102) 2,912 2,962 2,654 90 141 Ontario Res( 5) 141 130 92 North. Day( 80 2,292 2,260 1,977 87 Ontario Res( 39 1,009 1,019 978 96 Day(140 3,706 3,669 3,059 83 Man. Res( 52 1,394 i,4o4 1,343 96 Day(120) 2,852 2,969 2,557 86 Sask. Res( 68) 1,592 1,591 1,538 97 Day(l09) 2,164 2,271 2,024 89 Alberta Res( 77) 34608 1,689 1,612 95 B.C.and Day(l43 3,445 3,466 3,056 88 Yukon Resf 81 2,344 2,342 2,241 96 Total Day(800) 20,262 20,501 17,913 87 Canada Res(348) 8,710 8,850 8,492 Compiled from information received from Indian Affairs Branch, Ottawa. 140 APPENDIX G RESOLUTION NO. 5 BRITISH COLUMBIA SCHOOL TRUSTEES CONVENTION 1950 RESOLUTION No. 5--Submitted by the Okanagan Branch, B.C.S.T.A. RESOLVED that it Is in the interests of the Indian children of B. C. and the Province as a whole that the education of native Indian children should be placed under the authority and jurisdiction of the Department of Education, Provincial Government of B. C, and such education should be carried out in common with that of all other pupils of the Province. Moved by Mr. Hume (Kelowna), seconded by Mr. Burnstill (Kelowna). MR. HUME: We have a situation in our School District—a school at Westbank—where we have Indian children. In the school year of 1949-50 we had 11 children that I have a record of. The absenteeism was from 35 to 43 days' absence. That averaged out of 11 children at 70 days per pupil. This is hard on School Boards who have got to provide accommodation for all the school children in the district, and it is very hard to supply accommodation and not have attendance. The Boards are not able to force the Indian children to attend. It is hard for the Indian children not to have this.education, and the effect on the other children is pretty nearly as bad, because they see the Indian children staying away and they want to stay away themselves. I think the resolution really speaks for it• self, but I thought I should make an explanation as to why this resolution was put. Thank you. PRESIDENT: Any further discussion? MR. ROCHE (Port St. John): We have an unusual situation in our School District. This resolution states, "it is in the interests of the Indian children of B. C. and the Province as a whole." In our district we have a situation such as the previous speaker just mentioned. Due to the nomad habits of the Indian people in our area, it would be an impossibility to attempt to enforce on them the regulations governing the B. C. School Districts today. We cannot force those children to attend school. They- follow their parents on trap lines and in various pursuits for many miles, and I do not feel that this would be in the interests of the Province especially, and it certainly would not be any pleasure for any School Board to try to keep these youngsters in a school on the same basis as we do the native whites. 141 MR. MARTINSON (North Vancouver): We have some Indian students attending, and receive a certain grant towards their cost. I spoke with one of their leaders in B. C. concerning this motion and he spoke about the nomad travel of the Indians to their traplines, taking with them their families. He said it would be very hard for the children to attend school. He also spoke about the danger of certain white, communities resenting the presence of Indian children In the school. I think by all means they should be there, and should receive the finest education we can give them in order that they may be raised up to a full level in B. C- We, as trustees, and the public as a whole must support them in our own actions as children of B.C, who are entitled to a full education, and not show any discrimination. But it is hard for some of them to make their attendance. I personally hope the motion passes, and I think some allowance should be made for those - children who have to travel with their families. MR." REEVE;;,(Victoria) : We can expect problems and troubles, if we are going to raise them to a little higher level. I used to teach school and had a young lady come into my school. It was pathetic to see her eagerness, because it.was so much better than the Indian school she would normally have attended. It was only on account of her artistic ability she was getting the education her mind deserved. It is worth while, even if there is only one child out of a thousand. We will never get them anywhere until such time as we"make the effort, (applause) You may recognize her name--Judith Morgan--the girl of whom I spoke. MRS." SKIPSEY (Alberni) : I am very pleased to hear the name of Judith Morgan mentioned. We are very proud of her. She graduated from our school last year and is at present enrolled in the Victoria Normal School and hopes to go back to her people and teach. We have just opened a new 10-room school and 55 elementary Indians have been absorbed along with our white children. We make no difference between the Indians and the Whites. I think the Department of Indian Affairs', now under a new name, is doing all they possibly can for the Indians of our Province. I think we should do all we can to encourage them throughout the whole of the Province of B. C. MRS. BELL (Alert Bay): I just wanted to say that In Alert Bay they accept the High School students, and 12 have been attending. The drawback there is the fishing, because about October and from there on the High School students will want to earn money, and by the time they are through it is too late to go into High School. There is that trouble. 142 MR. RAMSAY (Burnaby): Just for information, sir that this will include Indians who are attending Indian schools on reservations? PRESIDENT: Is that so? Had the Mover that thought in mind? MR'.' HUME: It might, if all children were brought under the Department of Education, but I do not think we have that right. MR. RAMSAY: If the children are free from a reservation, don't they come under the School Board within that area, in which they normally reside? Is the answer "No" to that? MR. WILSON:: If they are living Off the reservation,, they are tax-payers, and are treated just as any other resident. An Indian under the Act is a person belonging to the Indian way of life; a member of a band. If they are paying taxes, there is no question. MR. RAMSAY: Then this resolution does not necessarily cover those people. Does it seek to disturb an Indian school where there are properly trained teachers to bring them up to Grades 4 and 5? Do we seek to disturb that situation In the Province ? MR. WILSON: We have run into this situation, and I think it will answer It partly. We have an Indian family, the wife being by birth a white woman, and the children belonging to the Indian way of life, living on the reservation. The mother is concerned.that the children should come to our school, and we have opened our school to those children. These Indian schools are by and large pretty inferior schools but, because there is an Indian school in the district, the Department of Indian Affairs does not wish to make any contribution to our School Board for taking those children. They have, provided them with a school. Where there is an Indian day school, the Indians should be permitted to come to our schools, if they so desire. They should not be forced into second class schools, and I think that is what is happening. MR. RAMSAY: Is there any conflict with the Federal authori• ties? MR." WASHTOCK (Fraser Canyon)1:. My question was partly answered by the previous speaker. I was wondering about the schools the Dominion run on those reservations. I have been in some of the Indian schools, and they have handicaps. They may not meet our standards, and the curriculum may not be as high as we provide for our own children, but It is possible they need- a lower standard, and I don't think we have ground to encroach on the Dominion authorities at all. 143 MR. MATHESON (inspector): Mr. Chairman and Delegates, I happen to be the Inspector in the Kelowna area, from which this resolution emanated. There are two or three points I would like to draw to your attention. First of all, there are many small reservations in various parts of the Province, especially perhaps in ther Okanagan, where there are no resi• dential schools. For many years the education of these children was entirely neglected, with consequent ill effects to the whole community. The intent of the resolution would not be to close any schools, because the whole business of the education of all children, including Indian children, would be under Provincial authority, and there is nothing to say that any existing Indian school would be closed. As a matter of fact, if it were an efficient Indian school, it might not be. However, let's consider this—the segregation of any children is most undesir• able. We admit every other race into our schools without question and still there is a tendency not to admit our first Canadians. The situation is quite difficult. In some areas they are nomadic, but in the areas that we envisage by this resolution the Indians are stationary. They have wood to cut, potatoes to pick and they have fishing and trapping to do. The mother takes a notion she will go on a holiday and the. children are left there alone. I am convinced that this is a very forward step, to try to bring the Indian children under the same system of education with all the rest. I have watched Indian children at school, and their capabilities are good. Some of our children with white skins are certainly no better, and some of our Indian children are really superior in many departments. Now, then, the idea of the resolution was to bring more unity to the Province by giving to our native population the same privileges and the same responsibilities that we give to people from the four quarters of the earth. It was not intended to close any school that should remain open, (applause) MR. ROCHE (Fort St. John): If this resolution is passed as It is worded, it is going to create a situation, at least in some parts of this Province, that is not going to be satis• factory. The gentleman behind me asked the question—would it disturb present Federal Government set-ups? I am from the far North-east part of the Province, and I do not understand too well the different parts. I understand that another speaker here recently stated that your Indians, including the children, are more or less stable. In our area they are anything but stable. Today we have three Federally operated and financed good government schools. If this resolution were passed, those schools are immediately going to be disturbed. If we pass this resolution, and it is adopted, then you assume that the government of those., children, from the educational point of view, becomes the same as it applies to the white children, 144 or the stable resident. We have quite a number of Indian children and half breeds and quarter breeds, but we also have in our.area a lot of those children who will not attend school, and I do not think the Government can force them to attend school. They have not been raised that way. They may eventually be prevailed upon to see the benefits. All I am concerned about it--I would not like to see the present Federal set-up disturbed, because they are operating efficiently. MR." JEUNE (Victoria): I think in Saanich we have this prob• lem, and it is my understanding that these children are just as good as my children ever were. I have not seen anyone object or suggest that an Indian boy when in uniform would not fight as well as anyone else. I.am asking every one of you to vote for this resolution, so that these boys and these girls can have the same chance as your boys and your girls. They are truly good Canadians right now. They will fight for us. (applause) MR." REID (Hope) : I quite agree with the speaker from Fort St. John. I have lived in the North country and know some• thing of the Indian habits. You have a totally different pro• position to handle in the North than you have here at the Coast. I would like to suggest that this resolution be tabled for the present. (No, no) Possibly it could be re-drafted to take care of the problem. I am heartily in favour of the resolution, but I think It should be re-drafted to cover this other problem, if it is possible. MRS. BRITTON (West Vancouver): There is one point we are overlooking. Up until recently, when the Indians of B. C. were granted citizenship, they came under the Federal authorities as wards of the Federal Government. We now call them citizens of B. C. As such, education under the B.N.A. Act is the business of the Provinces. To me It is automatic. I do not see that it needs a resolution, except that we are reminding the Government of B. C. that, as citizens, it is now our business. We have Federal schools in the North. Whether they are good schools or not, does not matter. It is primarily to give them what we call full citizenship, and have not yet given them. There can be a transfer of the Federal schools to the Provincial Government, in which case the educational standards of the Indian children will be the same as the edu• cational standards of the rest of the children of this Province. I think this is a legal or constitutional point. If they are citizens of this Province, their education is now the business of the Province. 145 MR; RAMSAY: I would like to move an ..amendment. I am in favour of this resolution, and I hope it passes, with this amendment: "That it be referred back to those School Boards throughout the Province where the Indian population is of consideration to the Board, and those Boards be asked to report back to the Executive as to their indication regarding this resolution, and then that the Executive be given power to act with respect to the resolution." Seconded by Mr. Roche (Port St. John). PRESIDENT: You have heard the amendment as presented by Mr. Ramsay? Do you wish to speak? MR. MARTINSON: Evidently the feeling of this Convention is in favour of the education of these Indian children, and I think correctly so, but in certain districts there are diffi• culties. What I had in mind was to have the resolution stand as it is, and add these words to the end of it--"where possible or feasible." Would that be satisfactory to the gentleman from the North, and allow a certain latitude to those dis• tricts where it is difficult to handle the situation? MR." RAMSAY: I do think that resolution should receive study from the Boards concerned. PRESIDENT: We have an amendment which I will put now. All in favour of the amendment? AMENDMENT LOST. We will now put the resolution. All in favour of the resolution? MOTION CARRIED. Minister:,s Reply to Resolution No. 5. The Schools of this Province are now open to any and all Indian Children upon payment of the per capita cost of the edu• cation of children within the School District. The Public Schools Act has been amended to permit School Boards to enter Into agreements with the Dominion Government to that end. Many School Boards have already made such agreements and now we have about 1000 Indian children in our Provincial School system. 146 APPENDIX H SAMPLE JOINT SCHOOL AGREEMENT MEMORANDUM OF AGREEMENT MADE THIS 30th DAY OF April 1962 BETWEEN: HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN in right of Canada represented herein by the Minister of Citizenship and Immigration, hereinafter called "the Minister" OF THE FIRST PART AND THE ENDERBY SCHOOL BOARD of the Province of British Columbia, hereinafter called "the Board" OF THE SECOND PART WHEREAS the Board has agreed to construct additional classroom accommodation for Indian children at the Enderby Public School in the Province of British Columbia. WHEREAS the Board estimates that the cost of construc• tion of this addition, including architect's fees, site, landscaping, furnishings and equipment, will be FORTY-EIGHT THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED AND TEN ($48,510.00) DOLLARS; NOW THIS AGREEMENT WITNESSETH that the parties hereto hereby covenant and agree each with the other as follows: 1. The Minister shall pay to the Board the cost of the addition to the school but the Minister's liability under -this agreement shall not exceed the sum of FORTY-EIGHT THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED AND TEN ($48,510.00) DOLLARS. 2. The cost of the construction of the addition to the school pursuant to paragraph 1, shall be paid as follows: two-thirds of the cost on the execution of this agreement and the balance on receipt by the Minister of a statement from the Board setting forth the expenditures with respect to the cost of construction of the addition to the school. 3. The Minister shall pay to the Board a tuition fee for each Indian child in attendance at the school but the tuition fee charged by the Board shall not exceed the net average cost per child in operating the school. 147 4. The Minister shall endeavour (a) to ensure the regular attendance of the Indian children at the school, and (b) to maintain a standard of health, cleanliness and clothing among the Indian children attending the school comparable to that of the non-Indian children attending the school. 5. The Board shall (a) arrange forthwith for the construction of the addition to the school, and (b) forward to the Minister, upon completion of construction of the addition to the school, a statement of expenditures with respect to the cost of construction of the addition to the school. 6. The Board shall accept for enrolment in the school, at the commencement of each school year, sixty Indian children residing on the Enderby Indian Reserve and shall provide to such children the same educational facilities and instruction as it provides to the non-Indian children. 7. The Board shall ensure that there will be no segre• gation in the school by reason of race or colour. 8. The Board shall quarterly forward to the Minister a statement of tuition fees to be paid with respect to the Indian children attending the school. 9. Nothing in this agreement shall confer on the Minister any right of supervision over the curriculum, the administration and teaching personnel., the methods or materials or Instruction or management generally of the school, provided the Minister or any person authorized by the Minister, shall have the right to Inspect the school from time to time. IN WITNESS WHEREOF these presents have been signed by the parties hereto, the day and year above written. Signed, sealed and delivered in the presence of: as to the signature of the Deputy Minister Deputy Minister of Citizen• ship and Immigration as to the signature of the Board Board 148 APPENDIX I SAMPLE FEDERAL-PROVINCIAL AGREEMENT RE TUITION FEES THIS AGREEMENT made this 12th day of November A. D. 1963 BETWEEN: THE GOVERNMENT OF CANADA, represented herein by the Minister of Citizenship and Immigration, (hereinafter referred to as "Canada") OF THE FIRST PART AND THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PROVINCE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA, represented herein by the Minister of Education, (herein• after referred to as "the Province") OF THE SECOND PART WHEREAS there are Indian children resident in the Province of British Columbia both within and outside the boundaries of School Districts of the Province: AND WHEREAS it is desirable that Indian children residing within the boundaries of School Districts in the Province of British Columbia be provided with education in accordance with applicable provincial legislation, regulations, orders and instructions governing education in the said Province; AND WHEREAS the Governor in Council has authorized byOOrder in Council No. P.C. 1963-5/382 dated 9th March, 1963, that the Minister of Citizenship and Immigration may enter into agreements with Provinces pursuant to Section 113(l)(a) of the Indian Act, R.S.C. 1952, Ch. 149. AND WHEREAS the Council of Public Instruction has by Order dated October 15th, 1963, approved by the Lieutenant Governor in Council, by Order in Council No. 2629, dated October 16, 1963, authorized the Minister of Education pursuant to Section 18(g) of the Public Schools Act, R.S.B.C. i960, Ch. 319, to enter into this agreement. NOW, THEREFORE, THIS AGREEMENT WITNESSETH that the parties hereto covenant and agree each with the other as follows: 149 1. Unless the context otherwise requires, in this agreement: (a) "Indian children" means the children who are Indians as defined in the "Indian Act" of Canada and who ordinarily, reside on a reserve or on lands belonging to Her Majesty in the right of Canada or a Province, and whose phase of education is in Grade 1 to Grade 12 inclusive, and kindergarten to Grade 13 if the latter two grades are provided in the school at which the Indian children attend. (b) "residence" means the place of residence of the parents of Indian children, or in the case of children not residing with their parents, any dormitory, foster home, or other lodging provided for Indian children by Canada at its own expense; (c) "operating expenses" means the.balance remaining, after deducting grants payable by the Province, of the total annual expenses incurred in respect of the operation, administration and maintenance of all public schools within the Province of British Columbia and includes the cost of transportation normally provided by the respective School Districts in accordance with provincial regulations; (d) "school building" means a building constructed or used for school purposes and includes the site, site improve• ments, furnishings and equipment and all other works appurtenant thereto. (e) "school" means an elementary school or a secondary school as defined in the Public Schools Act, R.S.B.C. i960, Ch. 319. 2. THE PROVINCE COVENANTS AND AGREES WITH CANADA: (a) Subject to Clause 4(b) Indian children may be enrolled in elementary and secondary public schools in the School Districts in which they are domiciled and shall be provided with education in accordance with applicable legislation, regulations, orders and instructions governing the education in the Province of British Columbia. (b) to submit to Canada at the end of each month, during the continuance of this Agreement, statements certified by the Secretary-Treasurers of the respective School Districts and by an authorized signing officer of the Department of Education for the Province of British Columbia, showing the total number, by schools and Indian Agencies, of Indian children enrolled in the Public schools in the Province of British Columbia. 3. CANADA COVENANTS AND AGREES WITH THE PROVINCE: (a) to pay to the Province as Canada's share of operating expenses tuition fees at the rate of $25.00 per month for each enrolled Indian child in attendance during that month in the elementary and secondary public schools in the Province of British Columbia; 150 (b) attendance of an Indian child for any part of a month shall be deemed enrolment for the whole of that month; (c) that the said tuition fee shall not be payable for more than ten (10) months in any school year, and the school year shall run from the first day of July in any calendar year to the last day of June in the following calendar year; (d) that tuition fees shall be paid by Canada at the end of the period September to December, and at the end of the period January to June in each school year; (e) to provide at its own expense transportation for Indian children to and from schools in which they are enrolled, unless the service can be made available by the Board at no additional cost as referred to In Clause 1(c). 4. IT IS MUTUALLY COVENANTED AND AGREED BY AND BETWEEN CANADA AND THE PROVINCE THAT: (a) the Province shall have complete and exclusive juris• diction over the administration, control and operation of all schools in which Indian children are enrolled under the terms of this Agreement, including the employment and supervision of teaching personnel and all matters relating to the curriculum, methods of instruction and material used for instruction in such schools, it being understood and agreed that the exercise of such juris• diction by any school board established pursuant to the Public Schools Act of British Columbia in respect of any such school shall, as between the parties hereto, be deemed to be the exercise of jurisdiction by the Province. (b) in any instance where in order to provide for the enrol• ment of Indian children in any school district it is necessary that a school building as defined in this Agreement, title to which is vested in the Board of School Trustees, be added to or constructed, the capital expenditures incurred by the School District shall be subject to a specific and particular agreement for the sharing of such capital expenditures by Canada;- (c) in any instance where the division is to assume the operation and maintenance of a school building owned by the Minister, each such assumption of operation and maintenance shall be subject as to the terms thereof, to a separate agreement between the parties hereto. (d) the rate of tuition fees payable by Canada in accord• ance with Clause 3(a) of this Agreement shall be the rate payable for the three year period next following the coming into force of this agreement and the monthly rate payable for each three year period there• after "shall be determined by negotiations; 151 (e) the coming into force of this Agreement shall supersede any agreement or arrangement entered into between Canada . and any Board of School Trustees of any School District in the province of British Columbia or the Province, jointly or severally, covering the provisions of edu• cation for Indian children and Canada shall, under the terms thereof, forthwith terminate any such agreement or arrangement, other than an agreement or arrangement with regard to capital expenditures. (f) upon payment of the fees herein provided for, Canada shall not be liable for school levies or for any other payments in respect of the education of these Indian children in elementary and secondary public schools in the Province, save and except for special charges and fees which in accordance with applicable provincial legislation, regulations and orders governing education in the Province, are or may be assessed upon taxpayers of the Province In addition to the normal school tax levy. (g) notwithstanding any term or condition herein contained, in the event Canada, at any time or times during the continuance of this agreement, contributes towards the cost of education of Indian children in the Province of British Columbia in any public school in the Province by means other than provided for in this Agreement, Canada shall forthwith cease to be liable to pay tuition fees to the Province pursuant to Clause 3 hereof in respect of such Indian children, without prejudice to the rights of the parties to negotiate tuition fees for such Indian children; (h) all notices or communications required to be given or sent under the terms of this Agreement shall be deemed to be sufficiently given or sent if mailed by post or sent by telegram to the recipient party, in the case of Canada to the Deputy Minister, Department of Citizenship and Immigration, Ottawa, Ontario, and, in the case of the Province, to the Deputy Minister, Department of Education, Province of British Columbia, Victoria, British Columbia; (i) this agreement shall come into force on the 1st day of January 1963, and may be terminated on the 30th day of June in any year by either party giving not less than thirty (30)days' written notice to the other party. 152 IN WITNESS WHEREOF the parties hereto have hereunto set their hands and seals this 12th day of November A. D. 1963 Signed, sealed and delivered ) DEPARTMENT OF CITIZENSHIP on behalf of the Government ) AND IMMIGRATION of Canada, in the presence of: Witness Deputy Minister Signed, sealed and delivered on behalf of the Government of British Columbia in the presence of: Witness Deputy Minister APPENDIX J LETTERS MAILED WITH QUESTIONNAIRES 1. Letter to School Boards Re Enrolment of Indian Children in Public Schools The attached questionnaire has been prepared in order to obtain from various B. C. School Boards their opinions concerning the above noted topic. The information" obtained through your co-operation in completing the questionnaire together with additional data requested from school principals, teachers and Indian Affairs Branch personnel will be used in connection with a survey now being undertaken at U. B. C. Please.feel free to be generous with your comments--your opinions, being in a sense a reflection of those of your community, will be most valuable for this survey. Your return of the completed form in the envelope provided at your earliest convenience will be especially appreciated. Thank you for your kind co-operation. Yours very truly, A. V. Parminter 2. Letter to School Principals Re Indian Integration Survey As you know, the widespread enrolment of Indian children in the public schools of B. C. is a fairly new development. The attached questionnaire has been prepared in order to obtain from school principals their opinions concerning the adjustment of these children in the integrated setting. The information obtained through your co-operation in completing the questionnaire will be used in connection with a survey now being conducted at U. B. C. Please feel free to be generous with your comments--your opinions, being based on your daily observations, are of prime importance in this survey. If you have no objections to being quoted, please sign the form at the bottom of the third page. Information given on unsigned forms will be used, but the' source will be kept entirely confidential. Your return of the completed questionnaire in the envelope provided at your earliest convenience will be greatly appreciated. Thank you for your kind co-operation. Yours very truly, A. V. Parminter 3. Letter to Principals and Teachers Re Indian'Integration Survey As you know, the widespread enrolment of Indian children in the public schools of B. C. is a fairly new development. The attached questionnaires have been prepared in order to obtain from principals and teachers their opinions concerning the adjustment of these children in the integrated setting. The information obtained through your co-operation in completing the questionnaires will be used in connection with a survey now being conducted at TJ. B. C. Please feel free to be generous with your comments. Your opinions, like those of your teachers, being based on daily observations are of special importance to this survey. If you or your staff members have no objections to being quoted, please sign your name at the end of the questionnaire. Information given on unsigned forms will be used but the source will be kept in confidence. "Will you kindly distribute the enclosed teacher questionnaires to those members of your staff who enrol the largest numbers of Indian children. Questions have been so constructed that a "yes" or "no" answer is all that is required. You will note that the underlying purpose is to compare the all round performance of Indian children with that of the non-Indians. Your return of the completed forms in the envelope provided at your earliest convenience will be greatly appreciated. Thank you for your kind co-operation. Yours very truly, A. V. Parminter 4. Letter to Indian Affairs Branch Officials Re Enrolment of Indian Children in non-Indian Schools The attached questionnaire has been prepared in order to obtain from Indian Affairs Branch officials their opinions concerning the above noted topic. Your answers to some of the questions will also indicate the views of Indian parents regarding the enrolment of their children in classrooms with non-Indians. The information obtained through your co-operation in completing the questionnaire will be used in connection with a survey now being undertaken at U. B. C. Please feel free to be generous with your comments-- your opinions are of special significance to the survey. If you have no objection to being quoted, please sign the questionnaire before returning it. The information on unsigned forms will be kept strictly confidential. - Your return of the questionnaire in the envelope provided will be greatly appreciated. • Thank you for your kind co-operation. Yours very truly, A. V. Parminter APPENDIX K SCHOOL BOARDS PARTICIPATING IN QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY Abbotsford Alberni Alert Bay Barriere Birch Island, Campbell River Cowichan Delta Enderby Fort Nelson Fraser Canyon Howe Sound Kitimat Lillooet Merritt Nanaimo Ocean Falls Penticton Prince Rupert Qualicum Quatsino Queen Charlotte Quesnel Richmond Smithers South Cariboo South Okanagan Surrey Terrace Ucluelet-Tofino Williams Lake Windermere Unidentified--One 158 APPENDIX L SCHOOLS INCLUDED IN SURVEY 1. Principal Questionnaire School Total Indian District School Enrolment Enrolment 2. Cranbrook Mt. Baker Sec. 780 11 Cranbrook Central 605 11 4.Windermere Invermere Elem. 275 6 David Thompson Sec. 332 :3 5.Creston Creston Elem.. 740 5 14.S.Okanagan Oliver Elem. 660 20 15•Penticton Princess Margaret El.-Jr.Sec. 542 35 l6.Keremeos Similkameen Sec. 24l 9 Cawston Elem. 127 32 20.Salmon Arm Falkland.El.-Jr.Sec. 147 10 Eagle River Elem. 342 7 Carlin Elem. 200 5 Salmon Arm West Elem. 101 6 21.Armstrong Armstrong Elem. 46o 7 22.Vernon Vernon Jr. Sec. 870 20 Vernon Senior High ' 750 5 23.Kelowna Westbank Elem. 182 22 24.Kamloops Chase Elem. Sec. 499 4o 25.Barriere Barriere Elem. Sec. 319 33 Chu Ch.ua Elem. 16 7 Little Fort Elem. 38 4 159 Schools included in Survey—Principal Questionnaire (continued) School Total Indian District. School Enrolment Enrolment 37.Williams Lk. Williams Lk. Sec. 601 14 29.Lillooet Pavillion Elem. 33 20 Lillooet Elem. Sec. 550 60 30.S.Cariboo Cache Creek Elem. 157 53 Ashcroft Elem. Sec. 375 20 Spences Bridge Elem. 54 20 Lytton Elem. 294 170 Kumsheen Sec. 146 86 31.Merritt Merritt Central El. 474 15 Merritt Sec. 464 23 32.Fraser Canyon Coquihalla Elem. 587 17 Boston Bar El. Sec. 229 35 33•Chilliwack Sardis Elem. 374 17 Chilliwack Central El. 650 6 Vedder Elem. 235 20 Bernard Elem. ^v. 270 8 48.Howe Sound Brackendale Elem. 120 16 49.Ocean Falls Sir A. Mackenzie Sec. 173 32 Namu Elem. 30 9 52.Prince Pr. Rupert Sr. Sec. 266 25 Rupert King Edward El. 517 18 Seal Cove Elem. 221 31 Booth Memorial Jr. Sec. 647 80 Conrad St. Elem. 374 34 i6o Schools included in Survey--Principal Questionnaire (continued) School Total Indian District School Enrolment Enrolment 53.Terrace Riverside Elem. 400 30 Cassie Hall Elem. 412 55 Hazelton Amalgamated 241 140 54.Smithers Houston El. Sec. 231 23 55.Burns Lake Grassy Plains El.Jr.Sec. 125 21 Topley Landing 23 • 21 6l.Greater Craigflower 367 10 Victoria 62.Sooke Saseenos Elem. 137 20 Metchosin Elem. 176 11 63.Saanich Brentwood Elem. 203 5 Mt.Newton Jr. Sec. 257 15 65.Cowichan Duncan Elem. 570 13 Cowichan Sr. Sec. 703 13 Alexander Elem. 117 15 67. Ladysmith Crozier Road Elem. 64 9 68. Nanaimo Nanaimo District Sec. 1200 8 North Cedar Elem. 192 25 John Barsby Jr. Sec. 887 19 69. Qualicum Nanoose Elem.. 80 7 Home Lake Elem. 27 6 70. Alberni G.W. Gray Elem. 238 3 Alberni Dist. Sec. 1258 45 Alberni Elem. 565 35 Eighth Ave. Elem. 609 38 l6l Schools included in Survey—Principal Questionnaire (continued) School Total Indian District School Enrolment Enrolment 71.Courtenay Comox Elem. 290 11 72.Campbell Campbell R. Sec. 946 31 River Quadra Elem. 180 60 • Elm Elem. 245 32 73.Alert Bay Alert Bay El. Sec. 376 188 74.Quatsino Robt. Scott El. Sec. 272 36 76 .Agassiz Agassiz El. Sec. • 511 39 Harrison River El. 51 18 78.Enderby M.V. Beattie Elem. 277 25 80.Kitimat Mt. Elizabeth Sec. 557 30 81.Port Nelson Fort Nelson El. Sec. 180 38 82.Chilcotin Tatlayoko Rural Elem. 24 7 Unattached Good Hope Lake 31 6 Unattached Eric Godson Memorial 47 20 (Bamfield) Total 29,241 2265 162 2. Teacher Questionnaire School Classification Teachers Reporting Alberni Elementary 3 Alert Bay Elementary Secondary 12 Armstrong Elementary 3 Barriere Elementary Secondary 2 Bella Coola Elementary 6 Booth Memorial Junior Sec. (Prince Rupert) 4 Boston Bar Elementary Secondary 4 Campbell River Secondary 5 Conrad Street Elementary (Prince Rupert) 4 Eighth Avenue Elementary (Alberni) 5 Elm Elementary (Campbell River) 5 Fort Nelson Elementary Secondary 1 Grassy Plains Elementary 3 Hazelton Elementary Secondary 9 John Barsby. Junior Sec. (Nanaimo) 3 Kumsheen Secondary (Lytton) 6 Lillooet Elementary Secondary 4 Lytton Elementary 8 Merritt Secondary 1 Merritt Central Elementary 5 Mount Elizabeth Secondary (KItimat) 6 Quadra Elem. (Quathiaski Cove) 5 Robert Scott Elem. (Port Hardy) 6 Seal Cove Elementary (Prince Rupert)- 3 Sir Alex Mackenzie Secondary (Hagensborg) 6 119