Ecological R. G. Fz~ller* - Battelle Columbns Laboratories, Las Vegas, Nevada Consequences of J. B. ~~irkwooclt Nuclear Testing Battelle Co111mbus Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio

Amcl~itka isln,zd has a Iristory of disturbnnce by nroder~r the i~ttertirlnlzone, nird an !inrletermitred nmou,rt of similnr matt, i,rclr~dingUS. military operatio~tson the isla~rddrrring hnbitat runs altered to sonre de~eeby lesser vertical Il'orld ll'nr % n~rterlnthrg the a~tder.qou~rdnuclear tests displacearent. Nilrow nrrd Cannikin, for which preparation begntr in 1966. No type of Imbitat on the islnnd zuns destroyed, and nlarry of the. terrestrial distarbnrrces resttlti,tg from ,taclear /ocn/ixed habitat losses in the terrestrinl, freshwater, and testing were superimposed on scars remai~tirrgfrom the marine ecosystems are belieued to lrnue been too slight to nrilitnry occt~pntiotz. haue perinane~tt effects on associnted biotic populations. Constrriction, road hirprouement, and the hlilrow an(/ No plant or animal population on or around the island was Cnrrnikbt nt~clenr deto~rntions resulted bt the loss or lost or endangered as a resalt of the tests, althouglr deterioratio,t of about 420 Ira (1040ncres) of terrestrial stcbstantial numbers of sen otters and freshwater and mnritte hnbitnt, or less thmr 1.5% of the total area of An~clritka.A fish were killed by the Catrnikin rleto~mtio~r.Posttest few streams and lakes were pollicted by drilling effluettts or inuestigations show that the affected popuiatior~sgenerally human wastes; nornlalflrislting action is expected to restore recaperated promptly throziglt reproduction or recruitnrent the qrrnlity of tnost of tltese freshwnter Iznbitats. I~ueversible from ~reighboringstocks. effects in freshrunters inclrrde tlte drairnbtnge of several ponds, The most sierificnnt ecologic cotrseqaence of the gross clran~relalterntion in a part of one stream, nnd the traclear test program is belieued to haue been the adverse crentio~r of n rrew lake zultich is deeper orrd which 110s n effects of scattered terrain disturbances on the aestlretic greater volume tlrn~r nrry of the inore than 2100 natural qrcnlity of the Amchitkn landrcape, an effect which was lakes on the sorrtheast half of Amchitka. Abotct 6 ha severe in localized areas atrd which will persist for decades (15 acres) of intertidal bench was displaced ton leuel above or centrcries.

This chapter summarizes \\,hat is now knolsll about influences of modern man on Amchitka prior to the impacts of nuclear tests on Amchitka ecosys- the start of the recent AEC test series. It is only tems, and the ecological significance of those against this background that we can clearly iden- impacts is discussed. The prompt bioen\,ironmental tify and evaluate the additional impacts assignable effects of the two high-yield nuclear detonations, to the nuclear test program for which preparations Milrow in 1969 and Cannikin in 1971, are dc- started in 1966 and which culminated in the scribed in ICirkxvood (1970) and ICirkwood and ivlilrow and Cannikin tests. Fuller (1972), respectively. Biological and physical effects of these tests are also described in Merritt BACKGROUND: PREVIOUS DISTURBANCES (1970; 1973), U. S. Geological Survey (1970; 1972), and Gonzalez, IVollitz, and Brethauer (1974). Since those references do not discuss Pre-World War I1 effects stemming from occupation of Amchitka by The long and unsavory history of sea otter$ a sizable work force or the impact of support hunting in the western Aleutians, first by the operations, such effects as well as those resulting Russians and later by the Americans, is discussed in directly from the nuclear detonations will be dealt Chaps. 6 and 20 of this volunle and elsewhere (e.g., with in this chapter. Lensink, 1962). For our purposes it is sufficient to Before we describe the overall impacts of the recall that fur hunting had nearly exterminated sea nuclear test program and assess their ecological otters in the Aleutians, including Amchitka, before consequences, we must review the more important

$\\'it11 trvo exceptions common names are used for *Present address: Oracle, Arizona. plants and animals referred to in this chapter. Latin names *Present address: U. S. Fish and IVildlife Ser\,ice, for all other species mentioned will he found in the Atlanta, Georgia. preceding chapters. the species was placed under protection by the island ecosystems. A complete inventory and de- terms of an international treaty in 1911. Remnant scription of clvanges wrought by military occupa- populations rcrnained on some islands. Iccnyon tion is beyond the scope of this chapter, but soille (1969) estimates that as many as 100 sea otters of the more obvious features must be called out as may have remained at Amchitka ~vhenthe protec- disturbances that predate nuclear tests on Am- tive treaty took effect. Under protection, sea otter chitka. populations at Amchitka and many other Aleutian Roads and Airstrips. Roads built by the mili- Islands gradually recovered from the effects of tary forces include a central roadway running overexploitation. almost the length of the island, a complex of roads In 1921, iunder a fox-farming agreement be- around Constantine Harbor and extending across tmeen the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the island, and a number of branch roads running Aleuts living on Atka, blue foxes were introduced from the central roadway to either seacoast. h,fost onto Ainchitka (Merritt, Chap. 6, this volume). roads were of dirt or dirt with gravel surfacing. This deliberate introdirction of a new predator had (The Geological Survey map in the pocket at the a predictable adverse effect on at least one avian back of this volume slto\vs most of the importaut species, the Aleutian Canada Goose, which for- military roads.) merly nested on Amchitka.* Three airstrips were constructed inland from Robert Jones, Jr., former h~Ianager of the Constantine Harbor. The longest, Baker Run\vay, is Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, of which about 3 km (2 miles) long and is in use today. The Amchitka is a part, cotnmented as follo\vs on the airstrips are hard-surfaced, and the two longer ones effects of the fox-farming enterprise at Amchitka: arc adjoined by numerous hardstands connected to "An episode in the islmd's history that can only be the landing strips by taxiways. regarded, from the vie\vpoint of the utilization of lands devoted to wildlife purposes, as un\vise and Off-Road Traffic. Beyond the established unfortunate, began according to our records, in roadways, military occupation left many scars on 1921. It was in this year that seven blue foxes Iverc the tundra mantle, the result of single or multiple placed on Amchitka by the native Atka residents as passes with tracked off-road vehicles. In the lo!\,- 'lessee' of the island for fox farming pur- land part of the island, even regularly used foot- poses. . . . \\re have the statement of the Atka paths remained as visible marks on the tundra. natives that Canada geese were abundant nesters on Housing. A3ilitary housing consisted of nearly Amchitka prior to 1921 and they attributed the 1900 widely dispersed Quonset-type huts, mostly disappearance of the population directly to the located near main or branch roads, primarily in the introduction of the foxes" (Jones, 1961). southeastern part of the island (Figs. 7 and 8, The Aleutiau Caiiarla Goose still does not breed Chap. 6, this volume). In the construction of the on Amchitka, although the fox population has huts, tundra vegetation and underlying peat was been extirpated. The effects, if any, of foxes on scraped aside and used to bank around the base of the breeding success of other avian species is hard the building \valls, h4ost buildings were framed of to evaluate since another predator, the Norway rat, ~voodwith masonite-type roofing and \\.ere left was inadvertently introduced during \\'orld War I1 standing when the occupation ended. They are (Brechbill, Chap. 12, this volume). gradually disintegrating by weathering. Some have been burned by Refuge personnel, and others were \\'orld War I1 Military Occupation burned by AEC contractors at the request of U. S. Department of the Interior representatives. hkany of the surface disturbances on Amchitka associated with AEC site preparation and opera- Other Construction. A dock was built on tions arc superimposed on the extensive arcas of wood pilings on the north side of Constantine disturbance that date from occupation of the Harbor; lookout posts and gun emplacements were island by U. S. military forces. That occupation, built at some points on the coastal bluffs. Two over the period 1943 to 1950, produced \vide- large gravel pits and a nulnber of sn~allerquarries spread and persistent changes in the appearance of and borro\v pits mere opened to provide materials the island and had some important impacts on for road building and other construction. Status at Ter~lli~latio~lof Military Occupa- *A third of a century earlier, Turner (1886) had tion. When military occupation ended some sal- reported: "On some of these islands foxes of various kinds vageable material was removed, but most of the are numerous, hence while they are excellent feeding grounds for the geese in the fall, the geese are compelled to dispersed housing units and a considerable amount rear their yoling on the nearest islets where the foxes of debris were left in place. The disintegrating cannot molest the young goslings." buildings are still a prominent feature of the Ecological Co~~sequencesof ~VuclearTesti~rg 629 Amchitka landscape. Even where the buildings thc blue fox, another nontlative predator, had ha\re been destroyed (by the elements or by fire), earlicr bce~l established on the island through the peat embankments with ~vhichthe bases of the deliberate human intervention. ICenyon believed hut walls were banked still mark the sites where that rats had extirpated t\vo nesting species, the they formerly stood. Exposed hut floors tend to Song Sparrow and the i\'intcr L\'rcn. I~Io\vever, remain \vaterlogged, and natural revegetation on some nesting areas must have escaped rat predation the floors is occurring only very sloxvly. because recent studies show that breeding popula- Gravel pits and borro~uareas were left pretty tions of the \\linter \,Vrctl nolv exist on the island, much as they were \vhen quarrying stopped. Some and the Song Sparso\\, occurs on offshore islets were used as dumps for waste material, often ~vl~ererats have not been seen (\\'bite, i\'illiamson, without backfilling. Else\vhere debris was si~nply and Emison, Chap. 11, this volume). left on the surface of the tundra. At least two species of nonnative plants were Some measure of the cxtcnt of clisturballce to introduced during military occupation. S\vect clo- Amchitka resulting from \\'orld \\Tar I1 activities can ver is still found in scattered patches in the lo~vland be inferred from the "Draft Environmental State- part of the island. This perennial is not spreading ment, Proposed Aleutian Islands l\lilderness, Aleu- because the plants apparently do not produce seed tian Islands National \Vildlife Refuge, Alaska" on Amchitka, perhaps because the insects required (U. S. Bureau of Sport Fislleries and \\'ildlife, for pollinatio~lare lacking (Kazn~aier,1968). A few 1974). This report recommends that certain lands small Sitka spruce trees that were planted in front fvithin the Refuge be excluded from the proposed of military buildings still sur\vive, although their Aleutian Islands IVitdemess for various reasons. growth in height has been minimal. Introduction of Among the types of lands proposed for such these nonnative plants is not known to have had exclusio~l are those ~vhicll ". . . contain major any effect on Amchitka ecosystems. \\'orld \\Tar I1 or postwar installations, since aban- There is some reason to speculate that military doned." It is noteworthy that for A~nchitkathis is personnel, in an effort to improve sport fishing, the basis cited for exclusion of 20,900acres may have stocked some la~ldlockedpot~ds with (8500 ha), or about 29% of the total area of the Dolly Varden that had been caught in ponds and island. This is not to suggest that the entire area so streams having access to the sea. This could explain designated is uniformly disturbed. It does meall the reported presence of the anadromous form of that the various military remains, i~lcludi~tgroad- Dolly Varden in landlocked ponds (Valdcz, 1-Ielm, \trays, airstrips, and other cxamples of disturbance, and Neuhold, Chap. 14, this volume). If any are so prominent an aspect of the landscape as to genetic differences existed bet~veen the anadro- render it unsuitable for inclnsion in a ~vilderness mous and landlocked forms, such transplanting area. Figure 1 sholvs a portion of the island where could have obscured these differences in ponds World \Var 11 disturbance \\.as most intensive. The where stocking occurred. nuclear tests took place within the area shown in Finally, two habitat changes ittributablc to Fig. 1. military occupation ~vhich may not have been entirely adverse were noted by avian ecologists Ecological Consequences. The terrain distu~ participating in the bioenvironmental program. bances and landscape modifications caused by the Roadside berms and tundra elnbankments around military occupation are still evident today. Their World War I1 housing units have come to support a adverse impact on the aesthetic quality of the dense stand of coarse native grasses, probably Amchitka landscape is severe and will last for many because of improved drainage. These grasses pro- decades. Other significant ecological conseque~lces vide a good nesting habitat for Lapland Longspurs, of the occupatioll are more difficult to identify but Mallards, and Rock Ptarmigan (Williamson and some can be recoguized. White, 1974). In effect, this would seem to suggest From an ecological point of view, the most that new breeding habitat for these species was important impact probably was the inadvertent created, although there is no way to deternli~le introduction of the Nor\vay rat. Fro111 Constantine whether the sizes of the breeding populations have Harbor, xvhere they were first seen, rats gradlrally been increased. Abando~ledmilitary buildings are dispersed over the island. I

Areas of general impact individually too numerous and complex to dif. Specific vehicle impact areas beyond the limio of general impact, i.e., single- ferentiate. These include living and work areas, off-road vehicular and foot Or multiple-pass vehicular imprints in thesame track. or areaswhere dngle and traffic. recreation, narage, hospital, and defense-related activities. multiple vehicle imprints are so numerous and closely spaced as to preclude differentiation. Fig. 1-Map of a portion of Amchitka Island showing terrain disturbances resulting from military occupation of the island during World War 11. Valid as of Mar. 17, 1948. (Adapted from Everett and Amundsen, 1975, Plate 1.) Ecologicnl Conseqztences of ~VfrclearTesting 631 World War I1 buildings. Thus the military occupa. habitat" (ICenyon, 1969), there is no reason to tion can be said to have created new nesting believe that the removal of this number of animals habitat for this species. for study or tra~lsplantattempts had any adverse ecological consequences. Post-\irorld \\'as I1 White Alice Station: 1959-1961. Western When Fish and \i1ildlife Service Management. Elcctric Company crews were on Amchitka from the military occupation of Amchitka ended in 1959 to 1961 constructing and operating a relay 1950, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) station of the "White Alice" commutiicatio~ls resunled control of the island. In the early 1950s system, part of tlie Distant Early Warning network major nvanagement objectives of the Refuge staff (DEIV Line). The station was located adjacent to were eradication of blue foxes and feral cats and Infantry Road, about 1.5 km north\vest of the dogs and reduction in the Norway rat population Cannikin test site. Several acres of theretofore to foster use of Amchitka as a bird nesting habitat. undisturbed tundra were stripped of vegetation in Starting in 1950 and continuing through 1957, building the installation. The accumulated litter Robert D. Jones, Jr., then Refuge Milllager, carried and debris associated with building and occupation out an intensive predator poisoning campaign with of the site were left on the surface when the strychnine and 1080%baits. The fox population station was closed down. dropped sharply from the start, and foxes are The loss of a few acres of terrestrial habitat as a believed to have been extirpated by about 1960 result of this distu~bancehad only a trivial impact (Kenyon, 1961). The rat population was also on the terrestrial ecosystem, partic~tlarly when reduced in local areas where poisoiling was concen- viewed against the massive disturbances attribut- trated, but rats were never elltirely eliminated. able to the earlier military occupation. However, The predator eradication program had some the scar left in the landscape represents a further adverse effects on carrion feeders, notably on the deterioration of the aesthetic values of tlie island, Bald Eagle and the Co~nmoiiRaven. Of the values that must be considered an important Bald Eagle, Kenyon (1961) states: "During the feature of the Refuge lands. period of intensive fox poisoning at Amchitka, in the early and mid-l950's, the eagle population was Sea Otter Harvests and Transplants: 1962 somewhat reduced. Several dead birds were found Tlirox~gh 1971. Starting in 1962 and continuing that had eaten poisoned pellets. Local reproduc- through 1971, substantial numbers of animals were tion and an influx of birds from other areas, deliberately removed from the Amchitka sea otter however, quickly restored the population, and in population. In 1962 and 1963 the Alaska Depart- 1959, it had apparently again reached its natural ment of Fish and Game (ADF&G) harvested otters ceiling." Kenyon also notes: "The raven \\'as at Amchitka to secure skins for study and sale. The formerly resident on Amchitka (Jones, in litt). The ADF&G made further harvests in 1967, 1970, and fox poisoning program has, holvever, no\\, elimi- 1971. Also, during the 4-year period from 1968 nated tlie resident population, but occasional pairs through 1971, with cooperation from the AEC and visit the island." \\'bite et al. (personal communi- the U. S. Fish and \Vildlife Service, the ADF&G cation) considered the ravens seen on Amchitka periodically captured sea otters at the island, during the recent bioenvironrnental studies to be transported them to distant locations in the United visitants from nearby islands where they still breed, States and Canada, and released them in habitats which suggests that the status of this species on the where it was believed they \vould survive and island has been altered in a persistent way by the reproduce. A few ottcrs were also sacrificed in use of poisons to eradicate foxes. 1969 in experiments designed to determine their Between 1951 and 1959, FWS personnel cap response to underwater pressure pulses. An ac- ried out natural-history studies at Amchitka, the count of the numbers of sea ottzrs re~no\'edfrom effort being focused n~ai~~lyon the sea otter. Otters Amchitka in the various harvest and tra~lsplant \\,ere captured and held in captivity for extended operations is given by Abegglen (Chap. 20, this periods for physiological investigations, and several volume). Chapter 20 also gives counts made of the attelnpts were made to transplant small groups of island sea otter population starting in 1935 and otters to other locations. According to Abegglen continuing interlnittently through 1974. (Chap. 20, this \volume), 180 ottcrs were removed Between 1962 and 1971 some 1800 sea otters from Amchitka during the 1950s. Given the were taken from Amchitka for skins, for study cxistence of a large sea otter population distributed purposes, and in transplant efforts. Nearly around the entire island and "overexploiting its 1200 a~limals were removed during the period 1968 through 1971, \\,hen aerial population counts *Sodium flooroacetate, a \videly used rodenticide. were being made annually with helicopter support. The col~nts (see Chap. 20, Table 1) sholv 110 Terrain effects of the Long Shot underground obvious population decline over the period of nuclear explosion are described in considerable intensive remo\'als. Since visual sea otter counts are detail by Shacklette, Erdman, and Iceit11 (1970). I imprecise (Estes, Chap. 21, this vollulnc), the coullt Effects observed included ". . . rupture of the data do not dcmollstrate conclusively that the tundra mat, damaged moss mounds, . . . and slump- removals had no inlpact on the Atnchitka otter ing of earth batiks." Distorbances of these types population. They do show that any impact they were scattered and mainly within a radius of may have had was not great enough to be reflected 4000 ft (1200 111) from SZ,* although some ground in the population counts made over the period slunlpi~lgwas obselved on unstable coastal banks when the itumber of anirnals being taken was more than a mile from SZ. Damage to moss greatest. mounds consisted of splitting and cracking or ejection of blocks of tundra from the summits. Project Long Shot. In 1965 Amchitka was the Slumping of earth banks around ponds and along site of an underground nuclear test, Long Shot, streams occurred in the vicinity of SZ and as far carried out by the Department of Defense \\,it11 the away as the Bering Sea coast. Water levels dropped assistance of the AEC. This test, and especially the in two ponds near SZ, and oil contaminatiol~(from I associated operational activities, had some impact drilling operations) was found in a stream draining ' on the A~nchitka landscape and ecosystems, al- the site area. Ground motion from the detonation though a minor one compared to that of the earlier is believed to have iuptured banks of settling military occupa t' ion. basins, releasing the contaminants to the drainage. Preparations for Long Shot began in 1964 !\ritll Localized aud temporary flooding of small areas the drilling of several exploratory holes to check near SZ resulted in the death of lichens in the plant geological structure. An emplacement hole was cotnmunity, but other plants were apparently later drilled at a site adjacent to Infantry Road, unaffected. about 8 km (5 miles) northwest of the head of Some time after the Long Shot detonation, Constantine Harbor. The underground nuclear test water in mud pits adjacent to the drill site was of 80 kt explosive yield was carried out in Octobcl; found to be contaminated with a lo\\, level of 1965 at a depth of 2300 ft (700 m). Bioem''1ro11- tritium. A peak level of 5130 tritium units (TU) mental effects of the detonation are discussed in was measured in surface-\\rater samples collected Seymour and Nakatani (1967). Results of test-time near Long Shot SZ in 1966. Average values obsersations aud live-box experinlcnts led to the measured have been on the order of 1800TU or conclusion that no biotic populations on or around lcss. The tritium levels in the Long Shot ponds the island were adversely affected by the explo- remain higher than those in freshwaters else\\.here sion. The Long Shot bioenvironmental studies did on the island but not high enough to constitute a not address the matter of effects due to human hazard to man or to native biota (Seymour and occupation, site preparation, and related opera- Nelson, Chap. 24, this volume). tions. In summary, site preparation for the Long Shot Some local terrain disturbance and habitat test increased by several hectares the amount of destruction resulted from grading and leveling at disturbed terrain on the island and decreased the and around the emplacement drill site. The cover area of natural terrestrial habitat by a like of living vegetation as tvell as the icnderlying peat amount.t Terrain disturbances caused by the dcto- mantle was graded off an area of about 3 ha nation, some of which were detectable nearly (7 acres) and pushed up in ridges around the site. 2 years after the test, are believed to be too Spoil and drilling wastes that could not be disposed scattered and too limited in extent to have any of in this way were hauled away and dumped onto demonstrable adverse ecological consequences the tundra in several areas near the drill site. either in terms of reduced productivity or of According to a scientist \\rho participated in the permanent damage to the habitat. The detonation- Long Shot bioen\~ironmentalstudies, se\leral miles of control and instrument cable was left on the tundra, and extensive use of off-road tracked vehicles left visible scars on the landscape within a radius of about 3 km (2 miles) around the cmplace- *SZ (surface zero) is the point on the surface directly above the point of the detonation. ment site (Karl IV. Kenyon, personal communica- jhs part of the ,\EC demobilization aud restoration tion). These terrain disturbances, although very effort after lLlilrow and Cannikin, the Long Shot site was small in area compared to those of \\forld War 11, cleared of surface debris, including the tnetnl building left are unsightly aud \\rill remain visible for many in place after the test. The SZ area was graded and seeded years. to grass (Nevada Operations Office, 1974). Ecological Co~iseqt~e~~cesof ~A~lrclear Testi~lg 633 related disturbances will gradually disappear under (Gravel was used for other construction and for the influence of natural processes (~veatheringand stemming emplacement holes, but much of it \vent growth of native vegetation). into roads; all effects of quarrying are discussed under road construction.) Sow1 (1969a) estimated IAIPACTS OF ARC CONS'I'RUCTION, SITE that about 91 ha (225 acres) of terrain disturbance was ascribable to quarries, borro~vpits, and associ- PREPARATION, AND OCCUPATION ated spoil-disposal areas. Thus about 262 ha The first inventory of nondetonation effects of (647 acres) of terrestrial habitat was substantialty the 1966 to 1973 test program on Amchitka is that disturbed by road itnprovement and construction; of Sowl* (1969a). This initial inventory was niade most of this disturbance was superimposed on the preexisting road system laid out during World War in mid-1969, a few months before the Milrow test, -- and hence does not cover the impact of any 11. operational activities that took place between This habitat disturbance or destruction, affect- Milrow and the conipletion of the AEC roll-up on ing less than 1% of the island surface, cannot be the island in September 1973. Revised estimates of considered to have had any significant direct effect the extent of some terrain disturbances are given in on Amcliitka ecosystems. Locally, aesthetic values So~vl (1969b). Neither reference addresses the were adversely affected, c.g., where spoil was piled question of effects caused by the nuclear explo- on previously undisturbed tundra or where new sions, but they are useful estinlates of disturbances borrow areas were used along the roadway. other than those related to the detonations since From an ecological vieypoint, the Inore impor. they were made after a large proportion of tant effects of road construction were indirect. operational impacts had occurred. Everett and Quarrying, road improvement, and next. road con- Amundsen (1975) also give an overall assessment struction resulted in siltation of a number of ponds of terrestrial inipacts of the AEC test program on and streams, an effect that had important, though Amchitka but in more general terms than the probably short-term, adverse effects in the fresh- inventories of Sow1 (1969a; 1969b). water ecosystem. Almost all streams crossed by new or improved roads experienced some siltation, as did some ponds downstream from road cross- Road Inlprove~nentand Construction ings. Gravel quarrying and xvashing operations also To a large extent, road construction during the produced stream and pond siltation, notably in the nuclear test program consisted of improvements to Silver Salmon drainage below Galion Pit. In Bridge roads built during World \Var 11, i.e., \videning, Creek a considerable alnount of siltation resulted regrading, and resurfacing of existing roadways. from road improvement and channel alteration Wherever this was done, of course, any vegetation near the road. Pink salmon spawning in these that had invaded the old roadways \\,as destroyecl. drainages may have been affected by the silt A few short sections of new roads were built, deposition in spatvning gravels. As of fall 1975, no giving access to drill sites, instrument installations, spawning pink salmon had been obsenled in the and st~tdyareas. The longest new segment is a Silver Salnlon drainage since 1970, when the branch road about 2 km (1.2 miles) long extending spalvning run was estimated at 30 adults. In Bridge northward from Rifle Range Point and built to Creek four adults were seen in 1974 and none in provide access to an instrunlent site and study area 1975, colnpared to 15 in 1970 (Nelson, 1975). at thc head of Duck Cove, on the Pacific Ocean In salmon surveys conducted in years subse- COBSt. quent to 1970, felver spa\vning pink salmon have Sow1 (1969a) estimated that ilnprovements to been seen in almost all streams, although some of Infantly Road plus the small amount of new road the streams are sufficiently remote from AEC test construction resulted in terrain disturbances total- sites to have escaped any influence of i~ncleartest ing about 171 ha (422 acres). New road construc- activities. Of 21 strcanls in ~vhichpink salnlon were tion totaling at most a fe\v hectares took place observed to be spalvning in 1970, 13 streams are after Sowl's inventory. Road improvenlent and known to have had spawners in 1974 and 4 in construction also required sand and gravel, 1vhic11 1975 (the off year for this biennial spawner).? were obtained cither by reopening \\rorld \\'ar I1 pits and borrolv areas or by opening new ones. tPink salmon runs in Arnchitka streams are consistently larger in even-numbered years than in odd-numbered years *LeRoy Sow1 was one of the wildlife biologists assigned (Valdez et al., Chap. 14, this volume). This is also true for by the U. S. Department of the Interior to monitor AEC Siberian streams but contrasts with those of the Puget actisities on Amchitka and to advise on measures and Sound region, where pink salmon runs are heaviest in practices to minimize adverse effects. odd-nt~mberedyears (Burner, 1964). Other Constructiol~ A nlud slide at Site E in 1968 resiilted in A~Iiscellaneousconstruction required to estab- substantial and persistent damage to the stream lish camps, laboratories, communication stations, valley. Sumps were constructed on \\,hat proved to and fuel-storage and other necessary support facili- be unstable soil, ~vhichgave way under the weight ties is estimated to have disturbed or destroyed of the liquid contents, causing a massive slide of about 64 ha (158 acres) of terrestrial habitat. The setniliquid soil doxvn the stream bed. As a result of this slide, the upper two-thirds of the stream areas affected range from about 12 ha (30 acres) down to 0.4 ha (1 acre) and are widely scattered course, about 1300 m (4300 ft) long, was grossly throughout the island, generally along the road- altered. Streamside vegetation was killed or se- ways and often on the sites of World War I1 verely damaged by the smothering effect of the muddy residue. This allowed the stream to deepen disturbances. A~lostof them represent sites where tundra and topsoil had to be graded off to permit and widen its channel so that it no longer the erection of a building or some other type of resembles the narrow grass-overhung lo~vcrpart of the stream, which was little affected by the slide. structure. The gross morphological changes in the upper stream course will persist for a very long time since Site Preprtration and Drilling much of the peat substrate that formerly main- In all, eight potential nuclear test sites were tained the integrity of the stream channel has considered during the AEC program. Of these, only eroded away (R. G. F., personal obser\ration, two (Sites B and C) were actually used for tests. 1975). Large-diameter enlplacement holes were also In those instances where contamination was drilled at Sites D and F but were not used. An limited to sporadic releases of drilling wastes or exploratory hole was drilled at Site E, whereas supernatant from drilling sumps, stream morphol- Site H was only graded preparatory to drilling. ogy was not altered; effects were primarily on Sites A and G were located and staked, but no populations of fish and invertebrates and changes further preparation was made. Soxel (1969b) esti- in habitat, such as siltation of spawning gravels. mated that, at Sites B, C, D, E, F, and H, about The effects were largely transient in nature; toxic 79 ha (195 acres) was disturbed by drilling or co~ltamii~antsand silt were flushed from the preparation for drilling. This figure includes access streams during heavy flows, and fish and inverte- roads and spoil-disposal areas. brate populations had an opportunity to recover. The most adverse effect associated \\it11 drilling Valdez et al. (Chap. 14, this volume) describe the operations was the release of noxious drilling fluids results of a series of drilling-waste spills into and particulate wastes into the fresh~vatersof the Clevenger Creek from Site B (Milro\v). In 1968 and island. The spongy, porous nature of much of the 1969 toxic releases into the stream ahnost elimi- tundra soils made containment of drilling fluids nated fish (juvenile Dolly Varden) and n~acroinver- difficult, and precautions taken to maintain the tebrates from the affected section of the Clevenger integrity of drilling-sump svalls were not al\vays Creek drainage. Recovcry of fish and invertebrates adequate. Spills occurred at all sites ~vheredrilling was nearly complete by 1974. was carried on (Sites B, C, D, E, and F). At Site D Studies of mud-spill effects and subsequent the major spill occurred after drilling was sus- recovery of freshwater biota in other drainages pended; ground motion from Cannikin breached a contalninated by drilling operations were not as dike around a holding pond, allowiilg some 4800 detailed as those in Clevenger Creek. There is good m3 (30,000 barrels) of water and mud to flow into reason, however, to believe that restoration of Falls Creek, which drains the site. The prompt normal habitat and biotic populations will ulti- biological consequences of this spill and a subse- mately take place in all drainages except that quent intentional release into the same drainage are below Site E, where irreversible morphological described in Valdez ct al., Chap. 14, this volume. changes in the stream occurrcd. In all instances In a few instances small freshwater pontls were where stream biota were atlversely affected, parts used for drilling-mttd storage or nraste disposal as of tltc drainages escaped contamination; stocks of an alternative to constructing holding ponds. Esti- fish and invertebrates re~nainedavailable for re- mates made by Sotvl (1969a), supplelnented by cruitment to the affected portion once stream kno~vledgeof spills occurring after his inventory flushing had made the habitat suitable for re- \\.as made, indicate that freshwater contamination colonization. associated with drilling affected about 22 ha (55 acres) of ponds and 15 kin (9 miles) of streams Off-Road Vehicle Traffic in scvcn drainages. The extent and persistence of Tracked vehicles were used to some extent in the contamination varied. several kinds of operations: cable laying, installa- Ecological Co~~seqtte~tcesof ~Vtlclear Testing 635 tion of monitoring stations, and travel to remote 1975). The lagoon for the I-Iuskey Camp drains study sites. Some damage to the terrestrial habitat into a stream running into the head of Constantine inevitably resulted from thesc off-road excursions; Harbor. Although no measurements reflecting ef- the amount and importance of this damage are fects of pollutants were tnade, it can be assumed difficult to assess. As recently as the summer of that nutrient enrichment also affected the biota of 1975, tracks made by a Snow-Trac that was used this stream. Natural flushing will probably retnove repeatedly* to t~welfro111 Infantry Road to the the sewage wastes from these two watersheds, but mouth of hilidden Creek in 1970, 1971, and 1972 we cannot predict how long this may take. Burkett were still readily discernible; the vegetative covcr is (Chap. 13, this volume) found heavy blooms of shortel and less diverse than that of the surround- blue-green algae in other lakes in the part of the ing undistulbed tundla (R. G. F., personal observa- island densely inhabited by troops during tion). Howe\ler, the tracks are fully vegetated World War 11 and theorized that nutrient enrich- except in a few swampy sections, and there is no ment of these lakes might be attributable to reason to believe that this instance of off-road leachate from pit toilets used during the military traffic significantly altered the terrestrial habitat. occupation. Tracks made by off-road vehicles that are deep A garbageddisposal area for the AEC Main enough to contain standing tvater will probably not Camp was established near the camp on tile site of be revegetated for Inany years. The adverse effect a World War I1 trash dump. Garbage and other in these instances is primarily aesthetic since a camp wastes were periodically covered by bull- relatively small amount of habitat has been af- dozer, but the food scraps at the dump stiil fected. attracted large numbers of Bald Eagles, gulls, and rats. Sherrod (1975) reported that tlie garbage Human Occupation dump was an i~ilportantfood source for Bald The existence of a large work force on Ani- Eagles during the AEC occupation, especially during the winters. He speculated that the exis- chitka over a period of several years (1966 to 1973) had identifiable ecologic consequences. Dur- tence of this supplementary food source affected ing the periods of peak activity, i.e., during the the composition and distribution of the Bald Eagle preparation for the Milrow and Cannikin tests, the nesting population on A~nchitkaover the period 1969 to 1972. His evidence indicated that the total work force ~iumbered over 700. Housing, messing, and laboratory and shop facilities were abnndant food supply during this period permitted more birds to reach adulthood and to nest on the provided at the Main Camp, at Huskey Camp, anti island. This finding is corroborated by the slightly in several \varehouses and shops located near Baker greater concentration of active nest sites in the Runway and Constantine Harbor. In addition, a soutlleaster~ithird of the islatld where the dump smaller camp facility, control point, and fallout was located. Estimates made in May 1974 indi- shelter were constructed near the north end of the cate that the total Bald Eagle population was then island for occupation during the execution of the about 38% less than the average for 1969 to 1972, A~lilrowand Cannikin tests. All three camps were established on areas previously disturbed tluring or 175 versus 281 (Kirktvood, 1974). The popula- tion drop was greatest (63%) among immature World War I1 or Long Shot. birds. Waste Disposal. Lagoons were constructed to No data are available on the influence, if any, receive sewage from Huskey Camp and from the of tlie dump 011 the gull population, although Main Camp. The outfall from the Main Camp observations indicated that it was a feeding place lagoon flows into a small lake and thence into a for many g~tlls.It was also observed that, after the short stream rumling to the Pacific coast. Enrich- dump closed, the change in the adult-to-imn~ature ment of the lake water resulted in dense blooms of wtio for gulls was similar to that for eagles (C. M. blue-green algae and, in 1972, a rate of primary White, personal communication), productivity many times as high as that of most undisturbed lakes on the island (see Burkett, Recreational Activities. Sport fishing, an im- Chap. 13, this volume). Productivity nleasurements portant form of recreation for island personnel made in spring and fall of 1974, after the work during the AEC occupation, produced some impact force had departed, yielded values more typical of on the freshtvater ecosystem. Fishing pressure was uncontaminated lakes on the island (ICirktvood, heavy on anadromot~s Dolly Varden and pink sal~llonreturning to freshwater streams to spawn, *Twenty-five round trips in June, July, August, and Valdez et al. (Chap. 14, this volume) noted that Septe~nberover the 3 years (R. A. Valdez, personal com- salmon runs into Amchitka streams, which are munication). meager at best and vely vnlnerable because strcanls ;Ire small and shallo\\~,suffered from the efforts of slight vertical mo\~ementalong one side of a fault o\~erzcalousfishcrmen. It \vill be some years before line estet~dingacross thc intertidal bench on the ii definitive assessment cart be made of this Pacific Ocean coast. Chimney collapse after the lmtentially longter~neffect of human predatio~lon event partially drained tlvo lakes close to SZ and spawning salmon. prodilced some cracking and fissul.ing in the tundra \\'hat is perhaps a more ecologically significant mantle in the vicinity of SZ. perturbation from recreational activity \\'as the Coastal Rockfalls and Turf Palls. Rockfalls I tielibcrate stocking of some fresh\vaters with anad- estimated to comprise at least 6900 m" occurred romous Dolly Vardcn taken from streams with along the coasts, no st of them from cliffs within acccss to the sea. The extent of this sort of 4 knl (2.5 miles) of Milrow SZ. Over 70% of the manipulation cannot be documented, but hcarsay I total is accounted for in a single fall in Square Bay 1 information collected by the freshwater biologists on the Bering Sea coast; most of the balance was indicates that the practice \cras fairly common. This distributed along a 4-km (2.5-mile) section of the cxplains why certain lancllocked ponds were found Pacific shoreline near the AiIilrow site. Although to contain Dolly \Tarden with the morphological rockfalls occurred in the vicinity of one falcon , charactcristics of the anadromous type. It is not , eyrie and from one sea stack occupied by an eagle known whether genetic differences exist bet\veen nest, both nest sites were later used by these landlocked and anadromous populations of Dolly nesting raptors. However, the eagle nest was not Varden. If they do, the opportunity for genetic usable after 1973 (C, A'I. White, personal communi- mixing may have obliterated the differences in cation). Small turf falls \\,ere widely scattered along cases where the two forms have been brought both coasts. In a sense the Milrow ground motion together by stocking. accelerated the nor~nalattrition of the peat mantle that overhangs many of the cliff tops and extends IMPACTS OF NUCLEAR DETONATIONS part way down the unstable cliff slopes. The ecological consequences of localized rock- The prompt biocl~virol~melltaleffects of the falls and turf falls were negligible. Small areas of h,lilro\\r and Calnlikin detonations are described in habitat in the high intertidal zone were buried, and detail in the references cited previously. Such the algae and invertebrates inhabiting them \\'ere effects \vill be treated here only in summary form; smothered. However, the areas so affected are too the emphasis \\rill be primarily on results of studies small to have any real impact on the extensive conducted since the tests to monitor long-term intertidal marine connnunities that surround the effects and recovery from initial disturbances island. The fallen material is gradually being eroded (IGrkwood, 1974; 1975; Nclson, 1975). away by wave action or becoming stabilized in the new location. When enough erosion occurs to Physical and Biological Effects of iVIilro\\' restore intertidal conditions, a typical intertidal flora and fauna \\ill again become cstablished. A nuclear device of less than 1 hslt yield was detonated at Site B on Oct. 2, 1969. The shot Fault Shift. A slight and apparently recent point was about 1218 nl (4000 ft) below SZ. The shift along a preexisting fault line extending across i\.lilrolv test was carried out as a "calibration shot" the intertidal rock bench, at Duck Cove on the to e\~aluatethe feasibility of conducting a higher Pacific Ocean coast, was first recognized in the yield test at Amchitka and to improve capabilities spring of 1970, about 6 nlonths after the h'Iilro~v for predicting the effects of the proposed larger test. The evidence suggested that the movement test. Extcnsive field observations, test-time cxperi- was triggered by A4ilrotcr. Along the fault line, ments, and measurements were conducted in con- which extends across an intertidal bench about nection with the h'lilro\v evcnt. Late pretcst and 100 111 (330 ft) wide, the average vertical displace- early posttest visual surveys, sanlple collections, ment on the uplifted side tvas estin~atcdto have and photography \\,ere used to identify effects of been about 12 cm (5 in.). The bct~chis believed to the detonation on the island terrain and biota. have been un~novedon the other side of the fault Follow-up studies ha\re continued in those few (see Chap. 17, Fig. 20, this volume). Tlle slight areas \vllere persistent changes attributable to the vertical displacement, Ivhich occurred in an inter- detonation were detectctl. tidal zone rvhere elevation is a critical factor Ground motion from the iCIilro\s shot pro- influencing survival of algae and associated inverte- duced some persistent effects in the bioenr'11ron- brates, produced recognizable changes in the algal ment, the most notable of xvhicb \\.ere rockfalls and turf falls along both coasts, the explosive *The estimate was originally 10,000 m3, but later disruption of a fc\cr turf u~ou~tdsnear SZ, and a studies led to the lo\ser estimate (Kirkwood, 1974). Ecological Cor~seyuerrcesof Nuclear Testi~tg 637 cover. In the area of maximum uplift, immediately fractures and scarps \trill remain visible for many adjacent to the fault, algae of some species died years. and were ultilnately removed by wave action. The Effects in the Fresh\vater Ecosystenl. The exposed bench has since been recolonized by shock wave generated by the Milro\\r detonation species of algae adapted to the new elevation or killed many threespine sticklebacks in t\vo fresb- remains bare in places. Erosion of bare areas is \\rater ponds within 930 n~ (3050 ft) of SZ (Neu- continuing (R. G. F., personal observation, 1975). hold, Helm, and Valdez, 197 1). Sympatric pop111a- The area over which composition of the algal cover tions of Dolly Varden were not affected. Autopsy \\,as affected to some degree has been estimated to of sticklebacks found dead in these ponds after the be about 4 ha (10 acres), although the area ex- test revealed ruptured s\vim bladdei-s, internal hibiting extensive die-off was considerably slnaller hemorrhaging, and pale gill filaments, symptoms (Lebednik, 1973; Lebednik and Palmisano, believed to havc been due to the rapid pressure Chap. 17, this volume). Populations of marine changes accompanying the passage of the shock invertebrates associated with the plant cover have \\rave through the ponds. A few sticklebacks \\,ere also undergone some shifts in composition as a also killed by stranding after they had been thro\\rn consequence of the uplift and resultant changes in ashore with the lake tvatcr as the shock \crar,e cover (Burgner and Nakatani, 1972). passed. Some unharmed threespine sticklebacks The uplifted intertidal area, especially the sulvived in the lakes where fish kills were observed, portion subjected to masimuln displacement, has and normal reproduction by the surviving stickle- been the subject of intensive study, perhaps be- backs \vas observed in 1970 in Clam Lake, about cause it is the only identified instance of a 600 m (2000 ft) from SZ, where the greatest persistent effect in the marine environment attrib- mortality had occurred (Neuhold et al., 1971). No utable to the h4ilro\cr detonation. The studies persistent effects on the populatiot~sof threespine demonstrate the not surprising sensitivity of inter. sticklebacks can be attributed to h3ilro\\~. tidal benthic conlmunities to changes in elevation, Transient changes in stream flow rates, in- however slight. A new stable community of algae creased turbidity in fresh\vaters, and altered lake and invertebrates is gradually becoming established levels were also noted shortly after the detonation. on the uplifted bench, and no long-range ecological These are detailed in reports referred to earlier and consequences of the uplift have been identified need no further discussion here. None was persis- (Lebednik and Paln~isano,Chap. 17, this volume). tent or of recognizable consequence in the fresh- Terrain Disturbances. A highly visible terrain water ecosystem. effect of the h4ilrow ground motion \\?as the Marine I\Iammals and Fish. Populations of explosive disruption of a few natural tundra marine lnamlnals found around Amchitka (sea mounds n'ithin about 1.5 knl (4900 ft) of SZ. otters, sea lions, seals, and porpoises) were not Large blocks of peat that had been ejected from detectably affected by the h,Iilrow test. Three days the mounds fell back in random orientations. after the test, a single dead porpoise was found on Vegetation, mainly grasses, is becoming established the Bering Sea coast about 3.2 km (2 miles) from on the freshly exposed surfaces (Everett and SZ. Death was due to penetration of the animal's Atnundsen, 1975). lung by a fractured rib, and the injury is not Chimney collapse, \vhich took place about 37 hr believed attributable to i\'Iilrow. No other dead or after the Milrow detonation, produced a shallo\y injured marine marnlnals were seen in posttest I-ectilincar deprcssion about 540 nl (1 770 ft) surveys. No effect of h,Iilro~\, on marine fish across, centered on SZ, aud about 6.1 m (20 ft) populations was detected in colnparing pretest and deep at its deepest point (AtIorris and Card, 1970). posttest catches made off A~nchitkawith standard T\vo lakes located partly ~vithinthe perimeter of fishing gear (Kirk~vood,1970). the depression were tiltcd toward SZ and partially drained by tilting and by fissuring of the lake Physical and Biological Effects of Can~~ikin bottoms. The lakes remain only partially filled, and A nuclear device of approxi~nately5 h4t explo- in 1975, 6 years after the test, the fissures \\,ere sive yield was detonated at Site C on Nov. 6, 1971. still clearly visible. Vegetative cover is developing The shot point was 1790 m (5875 ft) below SZ. on the exposed bottom; the cover is heaviest \\,here Prompt effects \\,ere evaluated through late pretest the substrate is peat and sparse \\(here it is rocky and early posttcst measurements, extensive mineral soil. \\'ithin and outside the deprcssion, posttest sur\reys, and soine test-time experiments. chimney collapse caused inany tears and fractures Extren~ely adverse nreather just before the test in the peat mantle, in some instances leaving pre\rented the execution of some planned experi- vertical scarps up to 1.5 In (5 ft) high. These Inents. The physical effects of the Cannikin test were "Three falcon nest sites \\,ere unusable as a result similar to those of h,lilrow but were generally more of the testing program. The rubble \\?as cleared severe, as \\.as predicted from the greater explosive from one of these in 1972, ho\vever, aild it was yield of Cannikin. They included coastal rockfalls used successfully in 1973. The other t\vo sites had and turf falls, uplift of a section of intertidal bench been used irregularly by a single pair in previous on the Bering Sea coast, and creation of a large years, and that pair successfully occupied another subsidence deprcssiotl accompanied by drainage of site in 1972 and 1973. Thus the Peregrine Falcon ponds and fornlation of scarps and fissures in and population was essentially unaffccted by short around the depressed area. term effects of AEC activities." Effects on fauna were much tnore severe than those attributable to Milrow. Large numbers of Fault Shift. A section of intertidal bench on animals, including fish, marine mammals, and some the Bering Sea coast was displaced upward with birds, were estimated to have becn killed in the effects similar to but rnole severe than those marine, freshwater, and terrestrial ecosystems. obselved on the Pacific Ocean coast after Milrole. The maximum uplift occurred in a ". . .l.9-km Coastal Rockfalls and Turf Falls. Co,~stal (1.2-mi) sector iinmediately to the east of Sand rockfalls and turf falls were greatest along the Beach Cove, on the Bering Sea coast. Here vertical Bering Sea coast in a section about 7.5 km displacements of 25 to 107 cm (10 to 42 ill) were (4.7 miles) long. It was estimated that within this measured" (I

Fig. 3-Rockfall on Bering Sea coast resulting from Cannikin-generated ground motion. (Photograph by T. R. hIerrell, Jr., National Marine Fisheries Service.)

5.8 ha* (14 acres) of intertidal bench was lifted (0.9 mile), and severe along 1.9 km (1.2 miles) into the supralittoral fringe zone. This area \\rill uot (Lebednik and Palmisano, Chap. 17, this \~olumc). be recolonized by lnarille forms until erosioil The 1.9-km scctioil of ~llasimumdisturbance con- restores it to the intertidal zone. The net loss of stitutes only a little more than 1% of tlte approxi- intertidal habitat is believed to be somewhat less mately 171-km (106-mile) coastline of Amchitka, than 5.8 ha since some undetermined a~l~ountof much of which has intertidal bench habitat similar bottom has also been uplifted from the subtidal to that displaced by Cannikin. The effects of uplift level into the intertidal zone. on the illtertidal communities, though locally Outside the areas of intensive study (and severe, cannot be said to have had any ecologically maxi~llum uplift), data on effects of uplift are significant effects on the island ecosystem. limited to subjective evaluatio~lbased on observa- In early post-Cannikin surveys, divcrs observed tioils made along the shore. These observations some physical disturbance in the shallo\s subtidal indicate that intertidal algae \sere affected to some zone off Sand Beach Cove. Numerotts large blocks degree along about 6.1 km (3.8 miles) of shoreline. \\,ere broke11 from the bedrock or dislodged from Die-off was characterized as detectable along vertical bottom surfaces, with consequent distu~ 2.7 km (1.7 miles) of coast, moderate along 1.5 km bance of algae and i~lvertebratesoccupying this habitat (ICirkwood and Fuller, 1972). By August *This area was earlier reported as 57.6 ha (143 acres) 1974 lllost of the t~e~vlyexposed rock surfaces had (Kirkwood, 1975). A recent recheck of the data has sho\vn been recolo~lizedand differed from nearby undis- that tllc original estimate was too large by a factor of 10 owing to a computational error. turbed surfaces only in that indi\~idualalgae plants Ecological Cot~sequet~cesof ~Vlrclen?Testitlg 641

Fig. 4-Sea stack on Pacific Ocean coast where eagle nest site was destroyed by Cannikin- generated ground motion. (Photograph by Pan American, Las Vegas, Nevada.) were smaller, presumably because they \\,ere (or skeletons) of the other 9 adults \sere too badly younger than those ~vhicll escaped disturbance deteriorated \\'hen found to justify autopsy. It was (I(irkwood, 1974). The ecological consequences of judged that 10 of the animals autopsied had lesions these localized subtidal disturbances \\?ere minor caused by sharp tra~~sielltpressure pulses in the and transient. \\.ater with the passage of the shock wave, \\,hereas 2 were crushed by falliilg rocks (Rausch, 1973). Marine hIax~~~i~alsand Fish. Substantial nunl- The animals recovered arc thought to represent bers of fish and marine mammals, principally sea only a slnall fraction of the total ilumbcr of otters otters, are estimated to have been killed by the killed by Cannikin, as judged by coinparison of Cannikin test along the Bering Sea coast and in the pretest and posttest counts of otters along the sea adjacent to the coast opposite SZ. To a large Bering Sea coast adjacent to SZ. For a number of degree these estimates are based on comparison of reasons, the absolute number of auiinals that inay pretest and posttest counts (sea otters) or catch have been killed is very difficult to estimate. A statistics (marine fish) rather than on actual recov- count made along a 16-km (10-mile) sector of ery or observations of dead animals. They are the Bering Sea coast about 2 \vecks after Cannikiit best estimates available and are believed to reflect shor\red a drop of 87% from the previous peak fairly accurately the general magnitude of the kills. count made on the same coastal sector in June T~venty-onedead or injured sea otters and t\\ro 1971, a drop from 1206 to 153. The significance abandoned otter pups were recovered or obse~ved of this change is hard to interpret, given the in post-Cannikin searches. Autopsies rvere per- difference in season and in counting conditions. In formed on 12 of the animals recovered; carcasses August 1972, under colnparable conditions, 521~ 642 Fuller a~tdKirkwood animals were counted in the same sector, a son, and Burgner, 1973), although the data do not reditction of 57% from the pre-Cannikin count. provide an adequate basis for quantifying tlie These data can be interpreted to mean that, out of presumed kill. A year after the test, bottotn-trand a population estimated at over GOO0 animals, catches of rock sole in the affected area \\'ere not several hundred sea otters may have been killed by significantly different from pretest catches; this the Cannikin detonation. Estes and Smith (1973), recovery of the population is assumed to have who reported both the pre- and post-Cannikin occitrred by immigration from nearby unaffected counts and the population estimates for the island, areas (Nakatani and Burgner, 1974). concluded that "The Amchitka sea otter popula- 'The prompt recovery of local populations of tion \\rill suffer no long-term effects from Can- rock greenling and rock sole, the only two species nikin." of marine fish kno\vn to have been affected Four dead or injured harbor seals were found significantly by Cannikin, suggests that no irrevers- after the Cannikin test. Autopsies showed that ible or long-term adverse effects on fish in the they also had suffered the effects of rapid pressure marine ecosystem resulted from the Cannikin change in the water (Rausch, 1973). No attempt event. The rapid recovery of these two populations has been made to estimate the number of seals also argues against the likelihood of any important killed by the test, but the Amchitka seal popula- secondary ecological effects resultiilg from the tion is not believed to have been affected in any ,temporary decline in numbers of rock greenling long-term sense by the detonation. and rock sole or of any other fish species that may The only direct evidence of a substantial kill of fiave been affected in the marine environment off marine fish by the Cannikiil test was found along a Amchi tka. 3-km (2-mile) section of Bering Sea coast adjacent Effects on Birds. Post-Cannikin searches re- to SZ. Along this section of beach, posttest covered 16 dead birds, all aquatic types, 15 of searches recovered nearly 300 dead rock greenling, ~ehichare thought to have been killed by the test. a fish conunon in the nearshore habitat and one Eight were judged to have been killed by vertical that characteristically feeds over the intertidal acceleration damage while they perched on shore- bench during high tide. Autopsies indicated that line rocks and seven by pressure pillses \vhile they the greenling were killed either by stranding on the were in the water (Rausch, 1973). Four of the uplifted portion of the bench or possibly by dead birds were found on the Pacific Ocean coast physical damage resulting from vertical accelera- and eleven on the Bering Sea coast. It is believed tion of the bottom \\it11 passage of the shock wave. that only a fraction of the aquatic birds killed by Further evidence of a localized kill of rock Cannikin \\,ere recovered, owing to adverse \\rind greenling was provided by the comparison of and sea conditions prevailing follo\ving the test. pretest and posttest trainme1 net catches in near- IHomever, conlparison of pretest and posttcst shore Bering Sea \\raters immediately adjacent to counts of representative species indicated no de- Canilikin SZ. Catches per unit fishing effort de- tectable test-related declines it1 avian populatio~ts clined sharply immediately after the test, although (Kirk\vood and Fuller, 1972). evidence of recovery was seen ~vithin about 2 Short-term effects of the loss of a fe\v raptor weeks after the event. By the early fall of 1972, nest sites, mentioned above, and the death of a less than 1 year posttcst, catches of rock greenling small tlu~nberof aquatic birds appear to have been were equal to those recorded before the test (see of little ecological significance. As noted by \\'bite Chap. 19, Fig. 12, this volume). There is no reason et al. (Chap. 11, this volume), long-tern1 effects on to believe that this transient and localized decline avian populations ~vouldbe detectable only after 5 in the rock greenling population had significant to 10 years (one ge~~crationtime for eagles and ecologic consequences. Greenling play a small part falcons). In vie'iv of the small percentage of the in the diet of the sea otter and perhaps of some sea potential raptor nesting sites on Amchitka that was birds (Icenyon, 1969; Nakatani and Burgner, affected, the likelihood of long-term effects on 1974), but neither ottcrs nor sea birds are suffi- raptor pop~llationsseenls slight. ciently dependeilt on them to have been affected by a temporary reduction in availability of this Effects in the Fresh\vater Ecosystem. The food item. effects of the Cannikin detonation in freshwater Catches of rock sole in bottom trawls off the lakes and streams inclitded co~npleteor partial Bering Sea coast adjacent to Canilikin SZ showed a drainage of some lakes, increases in particulates in substantial decline after the test co~nparedto ponds close to SZ, fish kills in close-in lakes, and pretest catches. This was interpreted to have been changes in the stream drainage pattern near SZ the conseqicence of a "large localized mortality" of \vhich resulted in the creation of a large lake where rock sole attributable to Cannikin (Nakatani, Isak- none had existed before. Six small lakes and ponds Ecological Co~lsequencesof ~VuclearTesting 643

Fig. 5-Fissure in bottom of pond east of Cannikin SZ which was drained by Cannikin- generated ground motion. (Photograph by T. R. Merrell, Jr., National h'larine Fisheries Service.)

\\?erecompletely or partially drained by fissuring of An estimated 10,000 threespine sticklebacks the bottoms aid by tilting that occurred when a and 700 Dolly Varden were killed by Cannikin, all collapse crater formed about 38 hr after the ~vithin a radius of 1.8 krii (1.1 miles) from SZ. detonation (see Fig. 5) [see Morris and Snyder Most of the fish were killed by stranding in the (1972) for a detailed description of the collapse drained lakes and ponds; a few were killed by depression and locatioil of the lakes affected by pressure pulses or by being thrown onto shore with it] . The drained poilds lie within about 1.2 km passage of the shock wa\,e. (0.7 mile) of SZ and altogether amount to less than The subsidence crater that formed with chim- 10 ha (25 acres) in area. Several lakes xvithin ney collapse after the detonation captured the 2.2 km (1.4 miles) of SZ showed transient in- drainages of the two branches of IVhite creases in particulate organic lllatter after Can- Alice Creek, and, for a little over a year after the nikin, probably the result of hank sluinpiilg and test, stream flotv in the lo\ser reaches of this creek suspension of bottoill sediments o\sing to ground leas sharply reduced (Gonzalez, \\lollit%, and n~otion. Bretbauer, 1974; Dudley et al., Chap. 3, this vol- 644 Fuller azzd Kirkzoood ume). By Dec. 1, 1972, the lake that had been in Merritt (1973) and h*Iorris and Snyder (1972). forming within the subsidence crater, nowv named An extensive systern of surficial cracks and tears Cannikin Lake, had reached its highest lesel and disrupted the tundra mantle in the vicinity of SZ had begun to spill into White Alice Creek. Can- (see Fig. 2). Soll~eof this terrain disturbance was nikitl Lake, with an area of 12 ha (30 acres) and a produced directly by ground motion from the maximum depth of 9.45 m (31 ft), is by far the detonation, but by far the greatest amount oc- deepest lake on Amchitka and has a larger volu~ne curred \\,it11 collapse of the chitnney and formation than any other lake on the island (see Chap. 3, of the subsidence sink (Fig. 6). Vertical scarps Figs. 5 and 6, this \volume). This lake and the rangiug up to 3 111 (10 ft) in height bound the sitbsidence sink that surrou~~dsit comprise the deepest part of the sink. k1ost of the other most conspicuous terrain disturbance attributable fractures and tears in the tundra mantle are within to Cannikin, Near the lake outlet, White Alice these bounding fractures, but lesser fractures, Creek no\\? flows in a meandering course of low scarps, and tears in the mantle are found outside gradient over a firm peat bottom. Cannikin Lake the tlepression at distances up to 2.5km will likely retain its present shoreline and depth for (1.G miles) from SZ. The fractures and scarps will many decades [see Gonzalcz et al. (1974) for a remain as recognizable terrain features for many detailed description of the bathymetry of Can- decades, although the freshly exposed peat surfaces nikin Lake]. will eventually be covered \\,it11 vegetation (some Follow\,-up studies indicate that Cantlikin Lake within a few years, as judged by recovery of peat is developiug a planktonic flora and fauna typical substrates exposed by g~.oundshock from hJilro\v). of freshwater lakes on Amchitka; \\rater-chemistry Except for the 12 ha (30 acres) of for~ner values for the lake are also within the spectrum of meadow habitat norv iniu~datedby Cannikin Lake, values found in nearby natural lakes. Productivity the amount of terrestrial habitat actually destroyed measured in autumn 1973 \\,as equal to or higher by Canuikin was small. Everett and Amundsen than that of all but the most productive (nutrient- (1975) estimated that, in the area most affected by enriched) lakes 011 the island (Burkett, Chap. 13, the Cannikin detonation [a circular area of 1000-m this volume). By August 1973 small Dolly Varden (3280-ft) radius centered 400 m (1300 ft) ENE of were present in the lake. Specimeus caught by gill- SZ] , a reduction of about 5900 kg in annual netting were judged to be of the dwarf or production mould be expected (about 4% of the landlocked form, indicating that they \\,ere re- total anuual production for the area). This repre- cruited from stocks residing in White Alice Creek, sents a loss of the production of about 14.5 ha \vl~icllis not accessible to anadromous fish. One (36 acres), or less than 0.05% of the total area of year later the lake wvas fouud to contain a Amchitka. The area covered by Ca~luikinLake population of Dolly Varden of a size that suggested accounts for most of this; the balance represents they could not have developed from the land- losses from scattered turf slides and related surfi- locked White Alice Creek stock. Subsequently it cia1 disturbances. The terrain scars are, of course, wvas learned that in 1973 xvorkmen on the island readily visible and \\rill remain so for a long time, even though the basic productivity of the terres- trial ecosystem in the \'icinity of SZ is altered only for studying the development of a ihdlocked slightly. Dolly Varden population, suddenly given access to a relatively large and deep lake habitat, has thus CLEANUP AND RESTORATION unfortu~~atelybeen lost. It is too early to determine what long-term During 1972 aud 1973 the AEC aud its effects the creation of Cannikin Lake may have on contractors carried out a de~nobilizationand resto- the Amchitka ecosystems. Certainly the new lake, ration program on Amchitka. The objectives were in terms of depth and volume, is a feature different to remove all AEC-constructed equipment and from ally of the ponds and lakes that existed on facilities except for those iten~sneeded to support the island before Cat~nikinand hence provides a the long-term monitoring program or those re- new sort of freshwater habitat. It will be years, or quested by the U. S. Department of the Interior decades, before we call knon. whether or not this and to, "insofar as practical, take the actious nrhich habitat will develop a biotic colnmunity different \\rill allot\, for and enhance the ~latilralrestoration fro111 those found in the shallower natural lakes. of land areas disturbed by AEC activities" (Nevada Terrain Disturbances. Terrestrial habitat dis- Operations Office, Las Vegas, Net,., personal com- turbances caused by Cannikin were similar to those n~unication).The program included cleanup and attributable to ivIilro\\~although some\vhat Inore restoration of the Long Shot site, although the severe. The physical changes in terrain are detailed LongShot test was not actually a part of the Ecological Co~lseqtre~lcesof ~VuclearTestiitg 645

Fig. 6-Fracture tllrough tundra southeast of Cannikin SZ produced by chimney collapse after the event. Vertical scarp in right foregound is about 1.3 m (4 ft) high. (Photograph by T. R. hferrell, Jr., National h,larine Fisheries Service.)

recent AEC test series. Also, in conlpliance \sit11 mixture of four grasses (three perennials and one the objectives of the Department of the Interior, annual intended to serve as a nurse crop). The some \ora I facilities \irere destroyed or grasses and the fertilizer treatment \\?ere selected re~novedwhere this could be done without further on the basis of revegetation studies collducted on disturbance to the latldscape. Details of \\,hat was Amchitka in 1971 and 1972 (i\litchell, 1976). The done uilder the demobilizatioll and restoration distribution of these plantings is as follo\\~s:Six program are given in Nevada Operations Office, drill sites, 39.6 ha (98acrcs); four gravel pits, 1974. 16.5 ha (41 acres); campsites and ~niscellaneous An island-{vide cleanup disposed of waste disturbed areas, 17.4 ha (43 acres) (hsl. P. Curran, materials and debris attributable to AEC activities Nollnes and Naiver, Inc., Las Vegas, Nev., personal and some debris remaining from \\'orld \\'ar 11. The communication). (The condition of the Cannikin material collected \\.as transported to a designated drill site 1 year after contouring and sccding can bc dump area. In contlectioll \\,it11 this cleanup, seen in thc foreground of Fig. 6, Chap. 3, this approxi~nately 400 \\'orld \\'a 11 stri~ctures\\,ere trolume). burned \\,it11 fire-control equipment standing by to The grass seedings produced good vegetational prevent spread of the fires. Salvageable equipment cover at all locations, although in the sumnler of and facilities not needed for long-term monitoring 1975 the vigor and density of the stands varied efforts or requested by the Department of the somewhat owing to the nature of the substrate and Interior to be left in place were removed from the some apparent non~uniforrnitiesin fertilizer applica- island. tion. At most sites an initial heavy gro\vth of Areas of terrain disturbance at drill sites, grwel annual ryegrass llas left a mat of dead stems and pits, campsites, and other areas used during the leaves that now serves as a mulch and helps to AEC test program were graded and contoured to retard erosion by water and \\rind. As of the reduce erosion. In the sunnner of 1973, with the summer of 1975, there was little evidence that approval and guidance of the U. S. Fish and native species were beco~ningestablished in the Wildlife Service, approximately 73.5 ha (182 acres) grass-seeded areas (R. G. F., personal observation). of prepared terrain was fertilized and seeded with a \Ve believe that the seeded sites \\,ill be invaded by 646 Filller and Kirkzuood

native grasses and forbs as the mat of dead ryegrass dikes could breach (as a result of a seismic shock, decays, le;tving bare areas between the clumps of for example) and release the contents of the sumps perennial grasses. into Falls Creek. Experience with other mud spills One consequence of the seeding program, the at Amchitka suggests that such an event \\rould introduction of a grass pathogen, Corticium fitci- cause severe, but probably transient, damage to the fome, to the island, \\'as not anticipated. This biota in the creek. Natural flushing action would fungal disease, comn~onlykno\vn as "pink patch," remove the contaminants within a few months to a was first noted in August 1974 in grass secdings yeal; allowing the restoration of a normal stream made in August 1973 (ICirk\vood, 1975). Positive biota from stocks in unaffected portions of the identification was made by J. S. Hardison, U. S. drainage. Department of Agriculture, during the 1975 Task Forcc visit to A~nchitkato study selected long- term effects and monitor for radioactivity. 'The SUMMARY route of transmission of C. fitcifornte to the Amchitka seedings is not known \vith certainty, We have described the important specific im- but Hardisoll speculates that it probably came in pacts of the AEC nuclear test program at Amchitka the seed of one of the perennial grasses, a cultivar and the efforts made to mitigate adverse effects. of Festuca rrtbra knou~nas Boreal red fescue. It is Additional details are given in the sources to which not known whether this introduced pathogen poses reference has been made. To assess the ecologic any threat to native grasses on Amchitka, but consequences of the various effects that have been Hardison did not find it on native grasses in the identified, we must go beyond specifics. We must vicinity of the test plots in August 1975 (Nelson, consider ho\v much habitat has been destroyed or 1975). damaged, what loss of productivity has occurred, Not all the tcrrain disturbed by AEC activities and how this loss is likely to affect the associated was graded, contoured, and seeded. For a number fauna. We must judge whether any biotic popula- of disturbed areas, especially at the northwest end tions have been destroyed or endangered. Finally, of the island, U. S. Fish and Ii'ildlife Service since aesthetic values are an important feature of representatives concluded that revegetation mith the natural ecosystem in a wildlife refuge, we must grasses would not be feasible or desirable, and the examine the impact of landscape disturbances on areas were only graded and contoured. In other those values. situations, e.g., where predominantly organic spoil In the terrestrial environment, about 405 ha had been deposited, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife (1000 acres) of habitat was destroyed or severely Service representatives believed that natural rcvege- disturbed by the combined effects of road im- tation \vould take place at an acceptable rate, and provement, construction, and drill-site preparation. no rcvegetation efforts were recommended About 74 ha (182 acres) has been partially restored (Carson Smith, Holmes and Narver, Inc., by contouring and seeding to perennial grasses. The Las Vegas, Nevada, personal communication). amount of terrestrial habitat lost as a result of the Drill holes, except for those few small-diameter nuclear detonations has not been precisely quanti- holes left open for monitoring purposes, \\,ere fied, but it is believed to consist mainly of the either capped or plugged and then covered with 12 ha (30 acres) of meadow submerged by the concrete slabs. Drilling mud and supernatant liquid fortllation of Cannikin Lake plus a small additional remain in holding ponds at Site D. During both the loss from miscellaneous disturbances. The total spring and fall Task Force visits to Amchitka in amount of terrestrial habitat destroyed from what- 1974, it was observed that drilling ~nudwas leaking ever cause represents less than 1.5% of the total from these holding ponds. The retaining dikes were area of Amchitka. In terms of primary productivity judged to be in poor condition and likely to break in the terrestrial ecosystem, this loss also represents and release a major mud spill into Falls Creek something less than 1.5% because part of the (Rirkwood, 1974; 1975). terrain disturbance took place in the northwest No leakage from the Site D ponds was obse~~red part of the island where the sparse vegetation is during tlte August 1975 Task Force visit, and the naturally less productive and because productivity dikes xvcrc still intact. Dike tops and outer faces has been restored to some extent on part of the had a good cover of secdetl gsass and appeared to severely disturbed area through seeding and fertil- be competent to hold the contents of the sumps. ization. R. A. Brecl~bill,\\rho saw tlte dikes in 1974 and in The individual areas of terrain disturbance are 1975, observed little change in their condition small and dispersed; no type of habitat has been since fall 1974 (personal obser\~ation).Neverthc- \vholly lost from the terrestrial ecosystem. Some less, there still remains a strong possibility that the cliff tops and sea stacks, which form an important Ecological Corueqtle~tcesof ~VztclearTestirtg 647 nesting habitat for the raptor populations, have program. Substantial kills of sea otters and of been damaged, but only a few nest sites formerly freshwater and marine fish resulted from the used by Peregrine Falcons and Bald Eagles have Cannikin detonation. Subsequent studies sholeed a been rendered unusable. In all but a few instances, persistent drop in the sea otter population along disturbed terrestrial habitat will undergo gradual only one section of Bering Sea coast; the effect on restoration through stabilization of the substrate the overall sea otter population is believed to be a and reestablishn~ent of vegetative cover. Alto- transient one. Marine fish stocks returned to their gether, we conclude that the loss of terrestrial pre-Cannikin status within a year through normal habitat has been too slight to adversely affect the reproduction and recruitment from unaffected faunal populations using that habitat. stocks. In the freshwater ponds that were wholly Some freshwater habitat has been destroyed by drained as a result of the detonation or subsidence, the drainage of several ponds, and some has been the local stocks of landlocked Dolly Varden or severely disturbed, as by the mud slide at Site E threespine sticklebacks were lost. However, there is and releases of noxious drillingfluids and wastes no reason to believe that populatio~~sin these into streams and ponds at other sites. A,lcCantl ponds were different from those in many other (1963) esti~uatedthat there are over 2100 lakes similar ponds on the island; so Amchitka popula- and ponds on the southeastern half of the island; tions of landlocked Dolly Varden and sticklebacks of these, 8 have been partially or completely cannot be said to have been endangered. drained and about the same niimber have been Whether salmon runs in some island streams affected to some degree by siltation or contamina- have suffered a long-tern1 decline as a consequence tion with drilling effluents or human wastes. A few of the nuclear test program has not been dete~ of the ponds were so badly contaminated that mined. If 1970 counts are used as a base line, there recovery will be very slo~v.In the others a fairly has since that year been a reductiotl in the number rapid recovery call be anticipated. Some 15 km of spawning pink salmon observed in a number of (9 miles) of stream course has been affected to Amchitka streams. Since some of these streams varying degrees. Most of this habitat will recover to could hardly have been affected by the test its original status in a short time as tlormal program, we camlot determine whether the decline stream-flushing action removes silt and other pol- of spalsni~lgin any stream system can be attributed lutants from the channels. One stream section to nuclear testing or to natural variations in about 1.3 km (0.8 mile) long belo\\, Site E has been spawning runs. There is no reason to believe that altered in what we believe is an irreversible way by ally stream formerly used by salmo11 has been a massive mud slide. One new lake, deeper and rendered unsuitable for salmon spawning. xvith a greater volume than any natural lake on The AEC iluclear test program had adverse Amchitka, has resulted from the tluclear testing. effects on the aesthetic quality of the Amcllitka All the changes in freshwaters attributable to the landscape wherever landforms were visibly altered test program taken together involve only a small by construction or by the nuclear detonations. The fraction of the total habitat of this type on deterioration in aesthetic values was, in many Amchitka, and the perturbations are, in most cases, instances, additive to clearly visible landscape scars self-correcting. No long-term adverse ecologic con- dating from \Sorld \\Tar 11; in other cases, e.g., at sequences are foreseen from loss or damage to drill sites E, 17, G, and H, parts of the island little freshwater habitat. affected by military occupation were scarred by Ide~ltifiablehabitat loss in the marine environ- the AEC operations. The la~~dscapedisturbances ment was limited to small areas of the intertidal resulting from the nuclear test program are locally bench which were smothered by rockfalls and turf severe and apparent to the most casual observer, falls onto the upper fringe of the bench or were even where mitigated to some degree by the uplifted out of the intertidal zone owing to vertical restoration efforts. Some of the scars will persist movement between two fault lines. Effects were for decades or centuries to be healed evetltually by severe locally but of little overall consequence in natural processes. vielv of the large atnou~ltof similar habitat around In conclusion, the ecologic impact of nuclear the island which remains unaffected. Natural pro- testing at Amchitka has been slight when viewed in cesses of erosion, weathering, and establishment of relation to the island as a whole. Deterioration of flora and fauna adapted to the new conditions are aesthetic quality in the terrestrial landscape consti- already operating to restore the habitat lost in the tutes the most important single effect, and this nearshore marine environment. affects only a small part of the island terrain. Some No evidence has been found to indicate that adverse effects, notably those resulting from spills any biotic population on Amchitka was lost or of drilling effluents, could and should have been endangered as a consequence of the nuclear test avoided by the exercise of greater care in opera- tions. Habitat deterioration in the terrestrial, fresh- Lensink, C. J., 1962, The History and Status of Sea Otters water, and marine environments, although locally in Alaska, Ph. D. Thesis, Purdue University, Xerox severe, is not of long-term ecological consequence. University I\licrofilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan. McCann, J. A,, 1963, A Suinmary of Biological Field Work i\,lost biotic populations on and around the island done on Amcliitka During the Siiinmer of 1962, hatre already essexltially recovered from any adverse unpublished report of the U. S. Fish and \\'ildlife effects suffered as a result of the test progsaln. Service (on file at the U. S. Fish and \\'ildlife Service Area Office, Anchorage, Alaska). ertt I L., 1973, Physical and Biological Effects: Cannikin, USAEC Report NVO-123, Nevada Operations REFERENCES Office. - 1970, Physical and Biological Effects, hlilro\\r Event, US/\EC Report NVO-79, Nevada Operations Office. Burgner, R. I,., and R. E. Nakatani, 1972, Amchitka Mitchell, W. \if.,1976, Revegetation Research of Amchitka Bioen\~ironn~entalProgram. Research Program on Ma- Island, a Maritime Tundra Location in Alaska, ERDA rine Ecology, Amchitka Island, Alaska, Annual Progress Report NVO-172, Nevada Operations Office. Report, July 1, 1970-June 30, 1971, USAEC Report orris R. H., and L. A,I. Gard, 1970, Visible Geologic BbII-171-144, Battelle AIemoriaI Institute. Effects, in Geologic and lIydrologic Effects of the Burner, C. J., 1964, Pacific Solrno,~,U.S. Fish and \Vildlife Milrow Event, Amchitka Island, Aleutian Islands, Service, Fisheries Leaflet 563. Alaska, UShEC Report USGS-474-71, pp. 3-17, U. S. Estes, J. A,, and N. S. Smith, 1973, Amchitka Bioenviron- Geological Survey. mental Program. Research on the Sea Otter, Ainchitka -, and R. P. Snyder, 1972, Visible Geologic Effects, in Island, Alaska, Final Report, October 1, 1970-Decem- Geologic and Hydrologic Effects of the Cannikin her 31. 1972. USAEC Reoort NVO-520-1, Nevada Underground Nuclear Explosion, Amchitka Island, Operations Office. Aleutian Islands, Alaska, USAEC Report USGS- Everett. K. R.. and C. C. i\mundsen. 1975. Amchitka 474-148, pp. 5-17, U. S. Geological Survey. Bioenvironmental Program. Geomorpl~ologyand Plant Nakatani, R. E., and R. I.. Burgner, 1974, Ainchitka Ecology: An Assessinent of the llnpact of AEC Nuclear Bioenvironmental Program. Research Program on Ma- Tests on Amchitka, ERDA Report BhlI-171-152, rine Ecology, Amchitka Island, Alaska, Annual Progress Battelle h,lemorial Institute. Report, July 1972 Through September 1973 and Gonzalez, D. D., L. E. \Vollitz, and G. E. Brethauer, 1974, Sutnmary Report 1967 Through 1973, USAEC Re- Bathymetrg of Cannikin Lake, Alnchitka Island, port BMI-171-156, Battelle Memorial institute. Alaska, \vith an Evaluation of Computer Mapping -, J. S. Isakson, and R. L. Burgner, 1973, Amchitka Techniques, USAEC Report USGS-474-203, U.S. Geo- Bioenvironmental Program. Researclt Prograin on Ma- logical Survey. rine Ecology, Amchitka Island, Alaska, Annltal Progress Jones, Robert D., 1961, Unpublished internal report in fifes Report, July 1, 1971-June 30, 1972, USAEC Report of U. S. Department of the Interior, U. S. Fish and BMI-171-150, Battelle h~leinorialInstitute. \\'ildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska. Nelson, \'. A. (Comp.), 1975, Bioenvironmental Studies, Kazmaier, H. E., 1968, Amchitka Bioensironmental Pro- Antcl~itka Island, Alaska, 1975 Task Force Report, grain. Annual Progress Report. Revegetation of Dis- ERDA Report NVO-269-26, Nevada Operations Office. turbed Areas of Ainchitka Island, USAEC Report BM1- Nenhold, J. BL, W. T. Helm, and R. A. Valdez, 1971, 171-105, Battelle Aletnorial institute. Amchitka Bioenvironmental Program. Freshwater Ver- Kenyon, K. I$'.,1969, TIte Sea Otter in tlte Eastern Pacific tebrate and Invertebrate Ecology of Amchitka Island. Ocemt, U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Annual Progress Report, July 1, 1970-June 30, 1971; Sport Fisheries and \\'ildlife, North American Fauna, USAEC Report BMI-171-142, Battelle Memorial Insti- No. 68. tute. -,1961, Birds of Amchitka Island, Alaska, Auk, 78(3): Nevada Operations Office, 1974, Summary Report, Am- 305-326. chitka Demobilization and Restoration Activities, Kirkwood, J. B. (Comp.), 1975, Bioenvirontnental and USAEC Report NVO-146. Hydrologic Studies, Arnchitka Island, Alaska, Fall, Rausch, R. L., 1973, Post h~lortee~Findings in Some Marine 1974 Task Force Report, ERDA Report BMI-171-158, hlaitttnals and Birds Following the Cannikin Test on Battelle Memorial Institute. Amchitka Island; USAEC Report N\'O-130, Nevada -, 1974, Amchitka Biocnvii'onmental Program. Bioenvi- Operations Office. ronmental Safety Studies, A~nchitka Island, nlaska, Seymour, A. 'I., and K. E. Nakatani, 1967, Long Shot Spriilg, 1974 Task Force Report, USAEC Report Bioenvironmental Safety Prosam, Final Report, BhI1-171-157, Battellc Memorial Institute. USAEC Report TID-24291, University of \\'ashington. -, 1970, Ainchitka Bioenvironmental Program. Bioenvi- Shacklette, H. T., J. A. Erdman, and J. R. Keith, 1970, ronmental Safety Studies, Arnchitka Island, Alaska, Botnnicnl Techniques for Otz-Site Inspections of Sus- Alilrow D+2 i\lonths Report, USAEC Kcport BkII- pected Undergrototd iVuclenr Explosio,zs, U. S. Geologi- 171-126, Battelle hlelnorial Institute. cal Survey,'l'echnical Letter, June 1970. and R. G. Fuller (Comps.), 1972, Anlchitka -, Sherrad, S. K., 1975, Biology of Northern Bald Eagles Bioenvirontnental Program. Bioenvironinental Safety (Haliaeetrrs lencocephnles nlascnnus) on Amchitka Is- Studies, Amchitka Island, Alaska, Cannikin D+2 land, Alaska, hi. S. Thesis, Brigham Young University. Months Report, USAEC Report Bh11-171-147, Battelle Memorial Institute. Sowl, L., 1969a, r\mchitka AEC Project-En\-irontuental Lebednik, P. A,, 1973, Ecological Effects of Intertidal Impact Siimniary, July 2, 1969, internal memorandum, Uplifting from Nuclear Testing, J. darine Biology, 20 in files of U. S. Fish and \\'ildlife Service Area Office, (3): 197-207. Anchorage, Alaska. Ecological Co~~seque?lcesof ~\'z~clenr Testi~tg 649

-, 1969b, Amchitka i\EC Project-Damage Ilepair and - 1970, Geologic and Hydrologic Effects of the AIilrow hlitigation, December 23, 1969, internal memorandum, Event, Atnchitka Island, Aleutian Islands, Alaska, in files of U. S. Fish and \\'ildlife Service Area Office, USAEC Report USGS-474-71. Anchorage, Alaska. Turner, I.. hi., 1886, Contributions to the i\'ntural History \Villiamson, P. S. L., and \V. B. Emison, 1969, Amchitka of Alaskn, in i\rctic Series Publication No. 2, pp. 3-226, Bioenviromnental Program. Annual Progress Report, Signal Service, U. S. Army, \I1ashington. June 1968-July 1969, Studies of thc Avifauna on U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, 1974, Draft Amchitka Island, Alaska, USAEC Report BAII-171.125, Environmental Statement: Proposed Aleutian Islands Battelle Mcmorial Institute. \$'ilderness, Aleutian Islands National \$'ildlife Refuge, Alaska, Report DES-74-21. -, and C. hf. \\'Bite, 1974, Amchitka Biocnrirontnental U.S. Geological Survey, 1972, Geologic and Hg&ologic Program. Studies of the Atxifauna on i\mchitka Island, Effects of the Cannikin Underground Nuclear Explo- Alaska, Final Progess and Summary Report, Aug. 14, sion, i\mchitka Island, Aleutian Islands, Alaska, USAEC 1967-Sept. 30, 1973, US/\EC Report BhII-171-155, Report USGS-474-148. Battelle Bleniorial Institute. This page intentionally left blank

Appendix A: Chronology

1964 1967 February 4 Rat Islald earthquake (R3, = January 13 DMAS authorizes construction. 7.75). February Population buildup for Milro\\c Party on Amchitka to investi- begins. gate earthquake damage. Spring Negotiations begin with various April Party on Ainchitka to pick ten- potential biological contrac- tative Long Shot site. tors. U. S. Atomic Energy Commis- June Reconnaissance by Battelle bi- sion (AEC) brought into Long ologists. Shot pla~lning and program. June 2 Proposed biological program May 16- Exploratory drilling and other discussed with Interior. December 14 field investigations to confirm Summer ADFGS sea otter harvest. site suitability for Long Shot. July 1 Existing Battelle contract (for December 23 Island evacuated. studies in Panama) modified 1965 to include Amchitka Bioenvi- April 3 Population buildup for Long ronmental Program. Shot begins. August General biological field \\cork June 2 AEC-DOD (Department of De- started. fense) menlorandilm of agee- November 7 Conference wit11 Interior and ment for Long Shot. ADFGS on sea otter. October 12- LRB/U'IV* biologists in field for 1968 November 2 Long Shot biological pro- January 29-31 Conference with Interior and gam. State of Alaska on coopera- October 27 Device in place and stemmed. tion in sea otter transplants. October 29 Long Shot detonated. June 3- Arcl~aeologicalsite survey. November 18- Project Breccia* field studies, October 18 December 10 includiilg some biological Summer ADFGS sea otter transplant, studies. with FWST and AEC assis- December Island evacuated. td1lCC. September 24 Briefing on Amchitka Bioenvi- 1966 ronmental Pro~amfor the June 23 Site Selectioil Committee (SSC) Panel on Biological aud hfledi- starts looking for a high-yield cal Sciences, Committee on supplen~entalnuclear test site Polar Research, National in the lower 48 states. Academy of Sciences. August RaIore field studies for Project Breccia-20 people. All year Biological field work; emphasis August Permissioil granted by the De- on base-line studies. partment of the Interior for 1969 use of Ainchitka by the AEC. June 18 Public announceinent of h,lilrotv. November 18 SSC duties expanded to include Summer ADFGS sea otter transplant, Amchitka. with AEC assistance. November 30- Field reconnaissance by U. S. September 25 President Nixon authorizes December G Geol. Survey-16 people. A~lilro~vdetonation. 651 October 2 Milro\v detonated. Seismic stations removed. All year Biological field ~vork;emphasis Long Shot related holes sealed on pre- and post-Milro\\' stud- and abandoned. ies. Summer Retrograde shipments start. September All remaining holes scaled and 1970 19-26 abandoned. ADFGS sea ottcr harvest. Aslay All year Biological field xvork; e\ralua- June 12 Draft En\~ironmentalStatement tion of Cannikin effects. for Catlnikin issued. July ADFGS sea otter transplant, 1973 \vith AEC assistance. April 11 Work on this book starts \\,it11 August 26-27 Syinposiitin on Amchitka bio- illeeting of principals in Den- environinental studies at ver. AIDS meeting, Bloomington, disturbed areas recon- Incl. toured and reseeded with All yeat Biological field studies; post- grass; island cleanup and blilrow and pre-Cannikin camp demobilization con- studies. tinues. September 8 Amchitka e\,acuated. Septetnber Coiltrol of Amchitka returned FWSq experiments \\,it11 trans- to Interior. plauts of the Aleutian Canada All year until Biolo~ical field \vork; post- Goose. September Cannikin studies. June Final Environmental Stateilleilt for Cwnikin issued. June t\DFG§ sea ottcr transplant, Spring 1974 Scientific Task with t\EC assistance. 37 people. October 27 Canniki~ldevice in place, stem- August 26- Fall 1974 Scientific Task ming starts. September 4 F~~~~**-30 people. Octoher 29 President Nixon autholizes Cailnikin detonation. 1975 1975 ScientificTask Force** November 6 Supreine Court denies injunc- August 8- tion against Cannikin; Can- September 9 13 people. nikin detonated. 1976 All year Biological field work; emphasis February FWSIJ puts small staff on on pre- and post-Canuikin Amchitka to rear Aleutian studies. Cai~adaGeese as the first step 1972 in reestablishment of a breed- February 25 Postshot drilling for radio- ing population of these geese. chemical samples completed; August 10-18 1976 scientific party visits**- Amchitka cleanup starts. 2 people.

*Laboratory of Radiation Biology, Uni\rersit)' of 1\1ashington. ti\ military-sponsored in\,estigation of possible surface indications of clandestine ~undergoiundnuclear tests (reported in Sltacklette et al., 1970). $Di\,ision of Military Application, U. S. Atoinic Energ Commission. SAlaska Departinent of Fish and Game. For details on sea otter transplallts and harvests, see Abegglen, Chap. 20, this volume. qU. S. Fish and \\'ildlifc Service, Departlnent of the Interior. **For cttntinuecl evaluation of test effects and environinental monitoring for radioactivit)'. Appendix B: Population History

YEAR This page intentionally left blank

Abrams, J. P., H. T. ICcmp, and J. B. ICirkn~ood, time Climatic Regime, 1973 Aniiual kfeeting, 1968, Amchitka Biocn\~iroiimeiital Program. timerican Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Commercial Fisheries Related to Amchitka Society of America, and Soil Scieiicc Society Island, USAEC Report Bh3I-171-109, Battelle of America, Las Vegas, Nevada, Novem- AIeillorial Institute. ber 11-16, 1973, Agronomy Abstracts, p. 39. Allison, R. C., 1973, h,Iarine Paleoclin~atologyand -, T. S. Chilcoat, ant1 E. E. C. Clcbsch, 1973, Palcoecology of a Pleistocene Invertebrate Dynamics and i\,Iethods Illvolved in the Revcge- Faitna from Amchitka Island, Alcutian Islands, tation of Amchitka Island, Progtess Report, April 1, 1972-January 1, 1973, USAEC Re- Alaska. Palaeo~eoer.." v, Palaeocli?iiatol.. Palaeo- ecol., 13(1): 15-48. port ORO-4180-3, University of Tennessee. Allton, F\'. H., 1968, Amchitka Bioen\~ironmental Anderson, R. E., 1971, Tectonic Setting of Am- Program. Annual Progress Report, Feb- cliitka Island, Alaska, USAEC Report USGS- ruary 20, 1968-June 20, 1968, Sea Otter 474-75(Rev. I), U. S. Geological Survey. Natural h,Iortalit)' at Axnchitka Island, Alaska, Anonymous, 1974, Summary Report: Amchitka USAEC Report Bh.11-171-101, Battelle hlenlo- Demobilizatioli and Restoration Activities, rial Institute. USAEC Report N1'0-146, Nevada Operatioils American Ornithologists' Union, 1976, Report of Office. the Committee bn Conservation, ~uk,93(4, -, 1973, NhIFS Finds Tons of Plastic Debris on Suppl.): 1DD-19DD. a1 Alaskan Island, I\~OAA Il'eek, 4(h,Iarch): 1. Amundscn, C. C., 1975, Dynamics of Reco\~cryof Armstrong, R. H., 1971, Physical Climatology of Damaged Tundra Vegetation, A~lllualProgress Amchitka Island, Alaska, BioSciei~ce,21(12): Report, USAEC Report 0R0-4180-5, Univer- 607-609. sity of Teiincssee. Ballance, \ C. 1974, Radiochemical hlonitoring -, 1974, Dynamics and Methods Involved in the of Water after the Cannikin Event, Amchitka Revegetation of Amchitka Island. 1. Revegeta- Island, Alaska, August 1973, USAEC Report tion of Damaged Areas. 2. Primary Consumer USGS-474-205, U. S. Geological Survey. Effects 011 \regetation, Allllual Report, Jan- Barr, L., 1971, Studies of Populations of Sea uary 1, 1973April 1, 1974, USAEC Urchins, Stro~zg)~loceiltrotttssp., in Re1a t'1011 to Report 0130-4180-4, Ui~iversityof Tennessee. Underground Nuclear Testing at Amchitka --, 1972, Amchitka Bioellvironme~italProgram. Island, Alaska, BioScieilce, 21(12): 614-617. Plant Ecology of Amchitka Island, Final Re- -, R. J. Ellis, and J. H. Helle, 1973, Fossil Trcc port, USAEC Report Bh,II-171.139, Battelle Stumps Found In Situ on Submerged Ridge at h,Iemorial Institute. Anichitka Island. Alaska. U. S. National A~larine , 1972, Dynamics and b,Iethods Involved in the Fisheries Service, Fish. B~tll., 71(4):

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Young, \\'. P. \\rillia~ns,and 1969, Radioecological Studies of Amchitka G. 15. Brethauer, 1967, Geologic Effects of the Island, Aleutian Islands, Alaska. 11. Gamma- Long Shot Explosion, Amchitka Island, Alaska, Emitting Radionuclides in the Terrestrial En- U. S. Geological Survey, Open-file Report. vironment, USAEC Report UCRL-50786, Merrell, T. R., Jr., 1971, Marine Fishery Resources Lawrence Radiation Laboratory. in the Vicinity of Amchitka Island, Alaska, Laursen, G. A., 1975, The Higher Fungi of Am- BioSciertce, 21(12): 610-614. cl~itkaand Adak Islands, Alaska, ERDA Report blerritt, At. L., 1973, Physical and Biological Ef- TID-27007, The Virginia Polytechnic Institute fects: Cannikin, USAEC Report NVO-123, and State University. Nevada Operations Office. Lebednik, P. A,, 1977, The Corallinaceae of North- - 1972, Cannikin: Effects on Archaeological western North America. I. Clatkrot~~orpl~z~~~~Sites, USAEC Report SC-RR-72 0359, Sandia Eoslie emend. Adey, Syesis, 9: 59-112. Laboratories. -, 1977, Postfertilization Development and -, 1971, Ground Shock and \\later Pressures Evolutio~t in the Rhodophyta, J. Playcol., from h,Iilro\v, BioScience, 21(12): 696-700. 13(Suppl.): (Abstract). -, 1970, Physical and Biological Effects: A'Iilro\v -, 1977, Algal Communities of the Aleutian Event, USAEC Report NVO-79, Nevada Opeia- Islands, J. Pltycol., 13(Suppl.): (Abstract). tions Office. Mitchell, \\I. IV., 1976, Revegetation Research on - 1977, Postfertilizatio~lDevelopment in Cln- Amchitka Island, a Maritime Tundra Location tltro)ttorplrtct~r, Melobesin, and Mesophyllun~, in Alaska, Final Report, ERDA Report NVO- with Co~nments on the Evolution of the 172, University of Alaska. Corallinaceae and the Cryptonemiales, Plt31- A,lizelle, J. D., and J. \\'. Crane, 1975, Studies on cologin, 16. -, 1975, Biosystematic Studies of Clathro- R~lonogenetic Trematodes. XLVl. A Redescrip- tion of Tetrno~lchztsnlaskensis Price, 1937, and ~tzorpland 11.lesophyllum with Commcnts a Review of the Family Tetraoilchidae By- on the Taxonomy of the Corallinaceae, J. chowsky, 1937, Call. J. Zool., 53(7): 908-915. Pl~ycol.,ll(Supp1.): 17 (Abstract). hflorris, R. H., 1973, Topographic and Isobase Rhps -, 1974, The Genera Clathro~i~or[~/zl~mand MESO- of the Cantliki~lSink, Amchitka Island, Alaska, plzyllt~m (Corallinaceae) from the Northeast USAEC Report USGS-474.125, U. S. Geologi- North Pacific Ocean, Ph. D. Thesis, University cal Su~~ey. of \\'ashington. [Diss. Abstr. It36(6): R~loi~ison,P R. I Rosenmann, and J. A. Estes, 2596-B.] 1974, A,Ietabolism and Thermoregulation in the - 1973, Ecological Effects of Intertidal Up- Sea Otter, Pttysiol. Zool., 47: 218-229. lifting from Nuclear Testing, J. &Inri~teBiol., Nakatani, R. E., and R. L. Bnrgner, 1974, Am- 20(3): 197-207. chitka Bioe~lvironmcntal Program. Research - F. C. Weinmann, and R. E. Norris, 1971, Program on A,Iarine Ecology, Amchitka Island, Spatial and Seasoiial Distributions of h'larine Alaska, Annual Progress Report, July 1972 Algal Com~uunitiesat Amchitka Island, Alaska, through September 1973, and Summary Re- BioScief~ce,21(12): 656-660. port, 1967 through 1973, USAEC Report Martin, J. R., and J. J. Icoranda, 1971, Recent BMI-171-156, Battelle h*lemorialInstitute. kleasurements of 137Cs Residence Time in -, J.S. Isakson, and R.L. Burgner, 1973, Alaskan Vegetation, USAEC Report UCRL- Amchitka Bioenviro~nnentalProgram. Research 72925, Lalvrence Radiation Laboratory. Program on h,larine Ecology, Amchitka Island, h,lathisen, 0. A., and A,f. A. A'I. Peck, 1971, The Alaska, Annual Progress Report, July 1, Coastal Zooplankton aound Amchitka Isla~id, 197 1-June 30, 1972, USAEC Report Bhs1I- Alaska,BioSciettce, 21(12): 652-655. 171-150. Battelle h,lemorial Institute. Nelson, V. A. (Comp.), 1975, Bioen\'ironmental Palmisano, J. F., 1975, Sea Otter Predation: Its Studies, Amchitka Island, Alaska, 1975 Task Role in Rocky Intertidal Commul~ityStructure Force Report, ERDA Report NVO-269-26, at Amchitka and Otller Aleutian Islands, Ph. D. University of Washington. Thesis, University of Washington. [Diss. rlbstr. -, and A. H. Seymour, 1976, Amchitka Radio- Ittt., 37(2): 595-B.] biological Program. Progress Report, January -, 1971, Fresll\vater Food Habits of Snlveli~tvs 1975 to December 1975, ERDA Report NVO- tnalnta (\\lalbaum) on Amchitka Island, Alaska, 269-27, Uiliversity of Mlashington. k1.S. Thesis, Utah State University. -, and A. H. Seymour, 1975, Amchitka Radio- -, and J. A. Estes, 1976, Sea Otters: Pillars of biological Program. Progress Report, January the Nearshore Community, ratto to.. Hist., 85(7): 1974 to December 1974, ERDA Report NVO- 46-53. 269-23, University of Washington. - and W. T. Helm, 1971, Freshwater Food -, and A. H. Seymour, 1974, Amchitka Radio- Habits of Salueiinirs ntnlma (H'albaum) on biological Program. Progress Report, Jan~luary Amchitka Island, Alaska, BioScie~ice,21(12): 1973 to December 1973, USAEC Report 637-641. NVO-269-21, University of Washington. -, and Y. S. Sheng, 1977, Blade Width of Neuhold, J. hs1., 1971, The Loxvland Stream Eco- Lat~titzariu 1011gipes (Phaeophyceae, Lami- system of Amchitka Island, Alaska, BioScie~tce, nariales) as an Indicator of \\rave Exposure, 21(12): 683-686. Syesis. -, and F\l. T. Helm, 1971, Amchitka Bioenviron- Peakall, D. B., T. J. Cade, C. h'l. \,\lhite, and J. R. mental Program. Annual Progress Report, Hangh, 1975, 01.ganochlorine Residues in Alas- Julyl, 1969-June30, 1970, Fresh\vater kan Peregrines, Pestic, ~Vjottitwi~igJ., Vertebrate and Invertebrate Ecolog)' of Am- 8: 255-260. chitka Island, USAEC Report BhsII-171.133, Peck, M. A. h,I., 1969, Amchitka Bioen\~ironmeiltal Battelle h'lemorial Institute. Program. Description and Distribution of the -, and W. T. Helm, 1970, Amchitka Bioenviron- Neritic Calanoida (Crustacea: Copepoda) off mental Progratn. Anni~al Progress Report, Amchitka Island, Alaska, in September 1967, July 1, 1968, to June 30, 1969, Fresh~vater M.S. Thesis, University of M'ashington. Vertebrate md Invertebrate Ecology of Am- Persson, H., 1968, Bryopl~ytesfrom the Aleutian chitka Island, USAEC Report BhclI-171-127, Islands, Alaska, Collected hclainly by Nans- Battelle blemorial Institute. - ford T. Shacklette, Sv. Botan. Tidskr., -, and \\I. T. Helm, 1968, Amchitka Bioenvi- 62(2): 369-387. ronlnental Program. Annual Progress Report, Polanshek, A. R., 1975, Hybridization Studies on August 30, 1967, to June 30, 1968, FresI~\\.ater Cultured Petrocelis Species froin California and Vertebrate and Invertebrate Ecology of Ain- the Aleutians, J. Phycol., ll(Supp1.): 17(Ab- chitka Island, USAEC Report BhcII-171.104, stract). Battellc h,lemorial Institute. -, and J. A. West, 1976, Culture and Hybridiza- -, I\'. T. Helm, and R. A. Valdez, 1974, Am- tion Studies on Petrocelis (Rhodophyta) from chitka Bioenr~ironmentalProgram. Fresh\vater Alaska and California, J. Pltycol., 11: 434-439. Vertebrate and Invertebrate Ecology of Am- Raines, G. E., and S. G. Bloom, 1969, Amchitka chitka Island, Alaska, Final Summary Report Bioenvironmental Program. Anllual Progress and Progress Report, July 1, 1972-- Report. Simulation Studies as Related to the September 30, 1973, USAEC Report Bh8l1- Ecological Effects of Underground Testing of 171.154, Battelle Memorial Institute. Nuclear Devices on Amchitka Island, USAEC , I\'. T. Hclm, and R. A. Valdez, 1971, Am- Report Bh'II-171-118, Battelle Ivlemorial Insti- chitka Bioenvironmental Program. Fresh\sater tute. Vertebrate mcl Iilvertebrate Ecology of Am- -, S. G. Bloom, P. A, h.IcI

Acnnthoe~ysisa~uatchensis, 293 Alarin zone, in marine littoral villages, 495 Aca,zthomysis sp., 468, 622 region, 363, 365, 367-370, 373, \~srfare,defense, and slavery, 73- Acarina sp., 408 375, 379, 387 74, 80, 110 Actinomycetes, 223 Alaska Peninsula, 13, 32, 80, 109, See also Population, human; Adsk Island, 3, 91, 116-117, 124- 333, 354, 382, 422, 452, 496, Procurement systems used by 125, 128-130, 132, 143, 145, 499,504, 506 Aleuts for food and ranr ma- 147, 149-150, 152, 169, 179, Alaska Statehood Act, 131, 501, terial; Karv materials used by 262-263, 265, 321, 335-337, 508 Aleuts 344-345, 397-398, 406, 419, ,\laskan stream or current, 332-333, Algae, marine macrophytic 498, 501-502, 529, 531, 534- 338, 347, 396, 422-423, 451, colonization sequence on denuded 535, 536, 538-541, 548 488 areas, 375-378 first appearance of rats on, 262 influence on invertebrate dis- effects of nuclear tests on, 382-387 Aesthetics, 629, 647 tribution, 422-423 effects of Cannikin, 382-383 jlethia sp. (see Auklets) Alepisafcrus ferox (see Lancetfish, effects of Milrow, 383-387 Agadak lsland (see Rat Island) longnose) new species and genera from first appearance of rats on, 261 Atnchitka, 358,382 Aleut Point, 3, 172, 175, 244, 256 llgarum cribrosum, 381, 388, 420, number of species in major zones, 539, 548-549, 551, 560.561, 563 Aleutian Canada Goose (see Goose, 367 Agattu Island, 32, 91, 116, 123, Aleutian Canada) phytogeography and floristics of, 131, 145, 147, 150, 154, 493, Aleutian Current, 332, 334 381-382 495-496, 506, 621-622 Aleutian Islands National X\'ildlife review of previous studies, 353- Agoitus ncipenserinus (see Poacher, Refuge (formerly the Aleutian 356 sturgeon) Islands Resenration), 1, 120-121, seasonal and annual variation in, Ahnfellia plicala, 368 123, 130-134, 138-139, 148.149, 370-373 ,\kum Island, 63, 109 496-497, 502, 507-508, 629 species list, 359 Akutan Island, 109 Aleutian Trench (see Tectonics) taxonomic studies of, 357-358 Alaid Island, 147 Aleu tinster scheffer;, 406-408 zonation, 362-369,373-375, /Ilnrin n,zgrzstntn, 374 378-381 Aleutican element in avifauna (see AIarin crispn, 366, 368-369, 371- causes for, 378-380 Arifauna, geographic affinities of) 372, 375-376, 378-379, 383, comparison with other regions, Aleuts 385-386, 388,407-409,412- 373-375 adaptations to and dependence on Algal blooms in fresh~r~aterlakes and 414, 416-417 the maritime, 60, 76-77, 115 ponds, 280, 282 seasonal variation in, 371-372 cultural interactions among, 91, ."- Allonn sp., 282 380-381, 383, 385, IUI Alnrin fistslosn, ANorchestes sp., 412-413 420, 468-469 ethnohistorical information about, Alopecurus aequolis, 221 damping- effect on nra\.es, 380, 60, 72-75, 83, 89, 110 Alopex ingopas (see ir'ox, Arctic) 383 feasts and festisals, 89, 110 lllvinin auriuillii, 407-408, 429 in marine sublittoral comn~unities, 67, 73, 80-83, 87-89 food, Atnaknak Island, 109 380-381, 383, 385, 388 housing, 75 Amatignak lsland, 1, 16, 499 impact on island ecology, 60, 115 tlloria-Herlophyllart, community in Amchitka Formation (see Forma- middens (see Archaeological sites) studies of marine invertebrates tions, geologic) 145-146, 150-151 defined, 409-410 origins, Amchitka Pass, 30, 60, 331, 333, invertebrates in, 405-406, 410- populatioll (see Population, 335-336, 338, 454 415, 427-428, 431-434 human) Amlia Island, 91 graphically sho\\m, 412-413 Russian impact on, 75, 80, 116- ~lmmodvteshexneterus lsee Sand Alnrin In~~ceolntn,3 73 119 lance, Pacific) Alnrin nlnrginata, 397 and sea otter, 531, 540, 564 Atnphiglenn pocificn, 413, 416 dlnrin sp., 369, 376-379, 381, 388, and sea urchins, 543, 556 Amnhineurans, 473, 481 469, 474, 531, 537-538, 540-542, trade and exchange among, 108, Amphipods, 471, 473-475, 477-482, 547-548, 550-552,561-562, 580 110 489, 540-541, 547, 552 Anrplrithoe sp., 412-413 exposure to rvinds, waves, and Au tolytzts sp., 416-41 7 Annbne,~nflos-nqrrnein nutrient- \%reather,72-73 Avifauna (i\ves) cnl-iched lakes, 280 faollal remains in, 62, 83-85, 493- affinities of for ecological for- I il,tnlipus association in Hedophyl- 494,541,543,556,564 mations, 227, 232-237 ln,n zone, 363, 365, 367-368, houses, 62, 75 See nlso Ecological formations 387 midden sequences, 62 used in avifaonal studies Am~li/>ttsfilifornris, 366, 368, 385 numbers of, 63-64 breeding phenology, of Lapland A,tnliprrs jnpo,ric!ts, 373-374 seasonal use of, 65 I.ongspor, 242-243 A,mliprcs sp., 357, 363, 365, 367, sizes of, 74 of Rock Ptarmigan, 242 370-371, 378-379, 387 \\'orld War I1 effects on, 65, 128, breeding populations of, 238-247, scasonal variations in, 370~371 151.152 251-256 taxonomic study of, 357 Arctognrlus borosoui (see Cod, censuses, 228, 238-251 ~htnrncrctn (see Pintail) toothed) of Bald Eagle, 250-251 /1,2nr clgpentn (see Shoveler) /Irctrtrrrs set~rsrts,478 of freshwater aquatic birds, Arms creccn (see Teal, Green. Arctrtrus sp., 479 247-249 winged) Aroclor, 616, 622 of Lapland Longspur and Rock A,mr penelo/>e (see \Yidgcon, Artifacts, archaeological, 89-108 Sandpiper, 238-242 European) of bone, 83, 92-98, 106-107 of marine rvatcrforvl, 249-250 /Inns plntyrhy,tchos (see Mallard) clccorative, 10.1-105 of Pclagic and Red-faced Andesite Point, 25 distributional studies of, 107 Cormorants, 238, 245-247 Andreanof Islands, 63, 83, 91, 107- Hrdlirka collections, 61, 91-92, of Peregrine Falcon, 253 109, 150,499, 538 149-152 of Rock Ptarmigan, 238, 242 See nlso individual islands by implements or tools, 80-92, 92-107 disharmonic nature of popula- name of skin, 86 tions, 227, 232 A,rgelicn Itccirln, 60 SEEnlso Boats, skin geographic affinities of, 227, 257- A,~isognez,,rnrus cortferuicolas, 414, Smithsonian collection, 90 258 417,429 spread of styles. 108-109 impact of human activity on, 259 i\nnelids of stone, 83, 92.106 impact of nuclear tests on, 258- in fieshwarcr ecosystem, 293, 297, of wood, 83 259 301-303, 305 \Yorld \\'aI1 collections, 61, 90- periods of nesting activity, 238- in marine ecosystem, 473-476, 91, 151-152 239 478-481 Asnbellirlus sibii.icn, 408 population densities of, 227, 240, Aaodo~itnberitigin~m, 293 Ascidians, 468 242, 244-245 A,zoplnrch~rspar.[,e~asce,ts (see Ash laym (oolcanic) in soil profiles, population distribution, by scason Cockscomb, high) 181-182, 184, 186, 188, 196 and ecological formation, 228, A,sopoplor,~nfi,nbrirr (see Sablefish) Asiatic clcment in wifaona (see 230-238 Arrser. fnbnlis (see Goose, Bean) ~\vifauna,geographic affinities of) species conlposition of, 227-229 Aathop1crti.n ele,q,ttissi,,ro. 41 1 Asplniichn sp., 281 Aythin collnris (see Duck, Tufted) r\ntllozoans, 468 /Istei~ionellajbn,tosn, 280 A?ttit~ichinsp., 183 Asterocolns hg/~o/~hyllophiln,382 Aplrn,~izo,,~e,zo,tflos-nqtcne in Asteroids, 476 Background radiation, 591.592, nutrient-cnricherl lakes, 280 Atherestlier stonzins (see i~loander, 610 Aplirlircn, sp., 408 armn~tooth) Badger Aptocgclas ue,,tricoses (see Lump- Athyrisn~sp., 220 American (lisiden sp.), 575 sucker, smooth) ,\tka (Island and village), 3, 91, European (itleles nreles), 571 Al-chaeological sites, Aleut, 60-85, 109, 117, 119-125, 129, 142- Baidaras and haidarkas (see Boats, skin) 115, 142-144, 151.154, 164, 153,354, 396,498, 506,628 Baker Run\vay (see Runways) 223, 540,543, 556, 564 Attu (Island and village), 3, 32, Boloenn glncinlis (\\'hale, Pacific See olso Inter- and Intra-island 91, 109, 116-117, 119.120, 124, right), 505 determinants 127, 129, 132, 138, 142-152, 335, Bnlne~m~~f),sticetss (\\'hale, bow- age of, 6 1, 90 396, '106, 496, 498-499, 502, 504- head), 505 artifacts (srr i\rtifacts, archaeo~ 506, 517-518, 522, 529-531, 534- Bnlne>?opteri'nncftto~ostr.ntn (\\'hale, logical) 535, 538-540, 543-544, 547-548, little piked), 505 aspect (orientation to the sea), 72 554-559, 561~563,621, 623 Bnlne~ropteraborenlis (\\'hale, sei), burials, 62 Aufwuchs, 582, 595, 601 316, 328-329, 505 chm.acteristic vegetation of, GO Auklet Bnlnetroptern t,ttcscelrrs (\\'hale, footnote, 154 Crested (Aethin cristntelln), 620 blue), 328, 505 depth of sites, 74 1.east (Aetlrio pssilln), 620, 622 Bnlno~optemphysrrles (\\'hale, fin- clistribution of, 61, 63-65, 72, Parakeet (Cyclorrl~yrrchaspsil- back), 316, 328-329, 505 89-90 tnculn), 620, 622 Bn/nites cnr-iosus, 409-415, 419, 423 effects of nuclear tcsts on, 63 \Vhiskered (ilethirr/>),g>,~neo),620 Bnlanrrsglnnrlalo, 409, 415~416, elevations abo\pe the sea, 66, 71-72 ilrrtolyfrrs bo.i~rgin,ras, 406, 41 1 418-419,423,424 Bnlnnrs sp., 423, 537-538, 540-542, Bl~cci?nr~~fsp., 420 Cape Thompson, 236, 242, 245, 545, 547-548, 552, 554, 556.558 Bace/~ltnlncln,tgeln (see Goldeneye, 255, 257 Bolcis rnmtrlolf)hi, 406, 41 2-413, 426, Connnon) Cof)itelln copitntn, 412, 417 429 Buldir Island, 1, 14, 60, 63, 66~68, Ccprelln ki~rcnidi,407-408 Bmzgin fuscopl~rrsersi,rus (see Fur seal) Cetaceans, 328, 505-506 Bering, Vitus, 115, 141, 494 Cnlthnpnlccstris, 222, 291 See also \\'hales Bering island (see IComandorskie Camp Cbaetognaths, 473, 476, 479, 481 Islands) main, 6, 635 Cltnefopterf~sunriopedntrcs, 420 Beryllium-7, 580-581, 589-592, northwest, 6, 635 Clmetozot~esp., 417 595 Topside, 6, 635 Chapcl Cove, 170, 172, 244, 256, Biological Survey, Bureau of the, Ca~rcerntnpister (Crab, Dungeness), 299 121-123, 148-150, 496-497 316, 423-424 Chapcl Cove Island, 262 BirdCapc,1,3,127,170,172,175, Caxcer orepo,tensis, 420-424 Chapel Cove stream, 299 244, 256, 358,362 Cannikin Cllar (see Dolly \'ardcn) Bird Rock, 63, 170, 262, 504 effects in avifauna, 258-259, 638, Cllarlie Runway (see Runways) rats on, 262 642 Chnaliod~tsnzncouni (see Viperfish, Birds (see under i\vifauna and tin- effects in freshnpaterecosystem, I'acific) der con~monnames) 285, 309-311, 642-644 Chichapf Harbor (Atta Island), Blef)sios cirrhos!rs (see Scolpin, effects on nlarine fishes and 534,544,548, 554, 556 silverspotted) mannnals, 484-488. 641-642 Clrilosc),/~hassp., 291 Iloats, skin effects in nearshore marine eco- Chinese tmclear tests, 581 Baidaras and haidarkas (kayaks system, 382-388, 424-432, Cltionoccefes bnirdi, 420 and umiaks), 76, 495, 504 638-641 Cltiot~aecelessp., 475, 478 useof, 60, 72-73, 76-77, 116 Cannikin I.akc, 38-39, 49, 198, 220, Cllio~~oecefestonseri (Crab, 'Tan- Boccnrdin prohosciden, 413 271, 273, 275-277, 279, 281- ner), 316, 478 Bog, 221, 223 283, 285, 293, 309-310, 589, Chirolophis ~rugolor(see \Yarbonnet, Bolitemto henthii, 464, 467, 479 591, 644-646 mossllead) Bonth Point (Shemya Island), 534 bottom composition, 273 Chitka Cove, 1, 3, 172, 244-245, Bot~elliopsisnlnskn,tn, 420 copepod populations, 282 444 Bosntino sp., 282 dimensions, 38, 273 cormorsnt colony at, 245 Bossielln crefncen, 368 fish in, 310 Chitka Cove stream, 289 Brnrrto cnnndensis (see Goosc, formation of, 39, 309 Chitka Point, 3, 16, 19, 24-27, 167, Canada) le\,els of specific clements in, 277- 169-170, 172, 244, 504 Bmtrm cn,?ndensis lerrcof~nrein(see 279 Chitka Point Formation (see Goose, Aleutian Canada) rnacroinvertebrates in, 293, 310 Formations, geologic) Bridge Creek, 164, 167, 241, 289- primary productivity, 282 Chitons, 476 290, 296, 299-305, 309, 589, 633 rotifer populations, 281 See nlso Kothnrinn Brolvrz Benr, M. V., 148, 150 specific conductance, 276 Clto?re ciitcfo, 412-413 Bryozoans, 468 zooplankton, 282-283 Cltorrhrin /ln~ellifo~~~~is,3 73-3 74 B~ccci,rantbneri i~torchinrtrtrn,4 12- Cape Adagdak (Adak Island), 534, Clrorrlnrin a~ngella,zicn,374 413, 429 554 Chrysn?rthe,,ntnt nrcticen~,190 668 111des

Cl~fhnmalssrlnlli, 423 Clover Lake, 240, 248, 256 Copepods I Cl~thn~~tnlessfellnfus, 423 Cltcpen hnre,tgns pnllnsi (see Hering, in freshwater ponds and lakes, Cinguln olcuticn. 41 2-413, 429 Pacific) 281.282 Cir~gulnnlnrtg,ti, 4 13, 418, 429 Coastal landforms in marine food web, 471, 473.475, Cingula sp., 429, 431-432 boulder and cobble beaches, 164- 477-482 Cilculation, oceanic, 331-335 165, 168,170, 172, 358,418 Copper Island (see Komandorskie Cirrotulus cirrntus spcctobilis, 407 embayments and coves, 162-164, Islands) Cirmfalfissp., 407-408, 412, 417- 168.170, 172 Cornllino association in Hedophyl- 418 headlands, 164, 168-170, 172 lunl zone, 363, 365, 367-368, Cirrttlicarpusg,,~elisi,381, 388 off-shoreislands, 170 375,379,387 Cladocerans, in freshwater ponds sand beaches, 168, 172, 358 CoroNi~tnpilulifern, 366-371, 374, and lakes, 282 sea cliffs, 161-162, 164-166, 168- 379 Cladonin pncifica, 221 I 70,'i72 Clndo~iiasp., 181-183, 186, 189, sea stacks, 163-164, 166, 170, seasonal variation in, 370 191, 210, 223,589 172,358,361 CornNittn sp., 374, 376-377, 379, See also Lichens storm beaches, 164, 166 383-384, 537 Cladophorn sp., 365, 368, 385 Cockscomb, high (Aaoplnrchus Coralliizn ua,tcouueriensis, 368, 375, Clam Lagoon (Adak Island), 534, purpuresce~~s),464, 47 1, 473- 378,407,412,416 542 474,476-477 Coralline algae (see Cornllina) Cfaln Lake, 293, 299, 339.310, Cod Corals, 467-468 589, 637 black (see Sablefish) Cormorant Clnthron~orpkumcircumscriptutn, Pacific (Gndfts macrocef~hales), Double-crested (Phalocrocorns 358, 367, 371-372, 381 316, 319, 328, 464, 469, 473, aurit~rs),622 seasonal variation in, 371-372 475-478, 482-489, 594, 622 Pelagic (Pl~nlocrocornspelngicus), Clnthromorpkutn compactuat, 382 toothed (Arctogadus borosoui), 245,247,622 Clnthrotnorphset loculosum, 366- 45 6 nesting colonies, 245-247 367, 382 Codiu~itritteri, 373, 381, 388 population estimates, breeding, C/athromorphuttt nereostmtuln, Curlopidae (kelp flies), 552 238, 247 381-382 Coilodeshte bttlligera, 368 total, 233 Clathromorphsm reclinntun~,382 Collections lists (see Species lists) predator on marine fish, 482 Clnthrornorpltum sp., 377, 381-382, Collisella digitalis, 416, 418-419 Red-faced (Plcnlocrocorns urile), 384, 388, 420 Co/li~e/l~peltn, 412-413, 419, 429, 245, 247,622 geographic distribution of, 382 537, 541-543, 546-547, 552, 554- nesting colonies, 245-247 taxonomic study of, 357,382 556 population estimates, breeding, Clnytonia sibirica, 60, 220 238,247 Colliselln sp., 414, 419, 425 Cleanup and restoratio~~of total, 233 Amchitka, 644-646 Column Ridge, 25-26 predator on marine fish, 482 pathogen introduced, 646 Comlnander Islands (see Komandor- Corophium breuis, 413-414 revegetation, 645-646 skie Islands) Corticiunt fuciforme (pink patch), Clevenger Creek, 276, 299, 305- Cornmur~ities,biological (see Alnrin- pathogen on grass, 646 307, 309-310, 589, 634 Iledot)l~~lhrntcommunity; Fish Coruus corm (see Raven, Common) Clevenger Lake, 240, 248, 307, 309, comnlllnities, elarine; I~alosac- Corypltnenoides acrolepis (see Kat- 399, 589 ciolt-puctrs commttnity; Hipparis- tail, roughscale) Climate, 53-58 Fontinnlis-Caltlzn community; Cor~~phoenoidespIifern(see Rat- altitude and terrain effects, 57 Lanlin~riacommunity; tail, filamented) Holocene (Recent), 31 Nearshore marine cotnmunities Cosfarin cosfotn, 537 maritime, 53 at various islands: Terrestrial plant Cottus aleutictcs (see Sculpin, coast- tnicroscale, 55, 218-219 conlm?lnities) range) Miocene, 24 Corrochilus sp., 281 C. P. Bluff, 175, 177 periglacial, 198 Constantine Harbor, 3, 5-6, 16, 22, Crab Pleistocene, 27 26, 29-31, 61, 119, 122, 125-126, Dungelless (Cancer mngister), 316, Pliocene, 25 143. 147, 150-151, 162-164, 167, 423-424 storm tracks, influence of on 240, 244-245, 249, 256, 262, 275, False King (Lithorles neqtrispina), weather, 53, 55-56 293, 300, 322, 397-399, 401, 321,467,475 Clinocnrditcn~nuftnlli (cockles), 542 420, 454, 468, 485, 497, 531, Fiddler, 475 C/inocottus ncuticeps (see Sculpin, 536, 538-539, 552, 554, 556.557, Hermit (Pngurr~ssp.). 475-476, sha~pnose) 569, 576, 589, 591, 628-629, 540, 542, 547-548, 564 Cli~tocotlusemb~ytcm (see Sculpin, 632,685 Horse (tirin~ncrusisenbeckii), 475 calico) Constantine Point, 240, 244, 512, King (Paralithodes cntttlschnficn), CJo~~diness,53-54 531,539,549 31 6, 320-322, 464, 467, 475, Clover, Sweet (fiifolium repens), Constalitinea roscmarina, 381, 388 477, 582, 596 629 Contalninants (see Pollutants) Spider (Chio,toecefes ?), 475 Tanner (Chionoecetes tnnneri), Dexiospira sp., 406-408, 425-426 Duck Cove stream, 305, 589 316,478 Dindora sp., 420 Dtcmonfin simplex, 378-379 Crabs, 316, 318, 581-582, 587, 589- Diapkus theta (see Ileadlightfish, Dutch Harbor, 124-125 590, 594-596 California) Dynamenelln sltenreri, 412 brachyuran, 473, 476, 481 Diatoms, early colonizers of dis- See also species of Cancer; turbed areas in marine littoral Clrionoecetes; Erirnnoas; Tel- region, 376-379 Eagle wtessus) Dinobryon sp., 280 Bald (Haliaeetus leucocepIta/us), lithodid, 473, 475, 477, 481 Diptcra sp., 480 155, 232, 238, 249-253, 258- See also species of Litl~odesand Disturbances, previous 259, 563, 631 Pnrnlitlt odes post-l\'orld War 11, 631-633 fish predation by, 482, 622 Crassostrea gigos, 538 pre-World War 11, 627-628 fledging success of, 251-252 Crisio sp., 412 World War 11, 628-631 relationship to nest location, Crowberry (see Enzpetncm nigrum) buildings, 628-629, 631 252 Crown Reefer Point, 5, 164, 166- off-road traffic, 628 garbage dump as food source 167, 244, 386,454,484,487 roads, 628-629, 631 for, 232, 250, 635 Crustaceans in freshwater ecosys- status at end of, 628-629 nest distribution, influence of tem, 293, 295, 297, 301, 305, Dolly Varden (Saluelinus malma) refuse dump on, 251 311 in freshwater ecosystem, 291, nest placement, 250-252 Cryoplanation, 170, 172 293-298, 300-301, 303-312, nesting attempts by year, 250- Cryptochiton stelleri, 386,423-424, 586, 588-589, 594-595, 603, 251 547 622,629,634 nestling mortality, 253 Cucumoria uegae, 412,413,429, age-length relationship, 296 nests damaged by nuclear tests, 431-432 effect of drilling effluents on, 636,638, 642, 647 Cumaceans, 473, 476, 481 305-306 PCU in tissues, 616, 620, 622 Curlew, Bristle-thighed (1Vumenitrs fecundity-length relationship, population estimates, 234, 238 tohitiensis), 623 297 predation on sea otter, 155 Currents, ocean, 331-347, 623 growth at sea vs. that in fresh- production, 252-253 drift-bottle studies, 333-335 water, 296 Gray Sea (Halineetus albicilla), drogue studies, 336 landlocked, 291, 294-295, 297, 152 tidal velocities, 335 304 Earthquakes transport by, 335,340, 623 length-frequency relationship, effect on Aleuts, 80 Cyclorrhynckss psittacula (see 295 effect on landforms, 162, 169.170 Auklet, Parakeet) migration patterns, 296 induced, 14 Cyntnthere triplicata, 369, 378-379, in marineecosystem, 471, 473, natural, 13-14, 132 381, 541, 556 475-477, 480 East Cape, 1, 24, 161-163, 358, Cyril Cove, 16, 26, 119, 133, 244, Dolphin, Pacific Whitesided (Lageeno 362, 504, 569 454, 468, 483-485, 487, 531 rhynchus obliquidens), 506 Echinoderms, 475, 480 Domin-Dahl, abundance--vigor- Ecological formations used in coverage scale, 204, 212, 214 avifaunal studies Davidof Island, 63, 66-67, 86, 498 Drainage alpine tundra, 228, 230, 233-237 DDE and DDT, 616,620-624 moisturegradient, 180, 184, 186, Carex meadow tundra, 228, 230, Deflation zones, 225 190, 198 233-237, 239-240, 242, 257 Delarof Islands, 30, 108, 499, 501 subsurface, 36-50, 166-167 coastal reefs, 228, 230, 233-237 See also individual islands by surface, 35-36, 42, 50-51, 161, disturbed areas, refuse dump, name 163, 166.168, 175 228, 232-237, 250-251 Delphiraapterus leucas (Beluga water table, 41-42, 181-186 World War I1 disturbances, 228, Whale), 505 Drift-kelp, 405 232-237 Demography (see Population, hu- Drill sites (see Sites A, B, etc.) Empetruin-Cladonin tundra, 228, man) Drilling effluents in fi.eshwater eco- 230, 232-242, 247, 257 Demonax sp., 406, 411-412 system fluviatile waters, 228, 230, 233- Density of seawater, 337-338 bioassay of, 305-306 237 Derntaturus mnndtii, 420, 424 effects on fishes, 305-307 lacustrine waters, 228, 230, 232- Deschantpsia beringensis, 208 effects on invertebrates, 306-307 237, 240, 258 Des~nnrestiasp., 539, 548-549, 551 effects in ponds, 285, 634 marine littoral waters, 228, 230, Detection limits in measurement of recovery of biota from, by natural 232-238, 258 radioactivity, 586 flushins, 307, 312, 634 offshore islands, 228, 232-238, Detritus, in marine food web, 476, Duck, Tufted (Aytltia collaris), 248 25 2 480 Duck Cove, 166, 361, 373, 375, pelagic waters, 228, 230, 232-237 DEW line, 130, 631 378-379, 382-383, 454, 493-494, birds regularly inhabiting, 237 Dexiospira semiflentata, 407, 413, 531, 537, 542, 552, 554, 557, riparianmeadow, 228, 230, 233- 425,429 589, 591, 633,636 242 sea beaches, 228, 230-237 PCB's in tissucs, 616, 624 distribution by communities, sea cliffs, 228, 230, 232-237 population estimates, breeding, 459, 464, 465-466 (tabulated) Eggshell thinning, 620, 624 238, 253, 256 gear types and methods used in Eider, Common (Somoteria ,nollis- total, 234 collecting, 453, 455 sima), 540, 556, 563 production, 253-256 gill net, 315, 320-321, 453 Eirn bnrbara (Tayra), 571 types of prey, 253 long line, 325, 453-454 Electrons arctica (see Laaternfish, Fallout traps, 455 bigeye) of radionuclides (see under indi- trawling, 315-316, 318, 324. Elymus arenarills a~oNis,60, 164, vidual nuclides) 328,453 169-170, 194, 205, 211, 220, of PCB's, 621-623 geographic distribution of, 456, 222-223, 621 process, 581 459, 460 (tabulated) En~petrumztigruum (crowbcrry), Falls Creek, 37, 306-307, 634, 646 impact of nuclear tests on, 482- 181, 183-184, 186, 188-193, 212, Faulting, age of, 16, 23-24, 26 488, 637, 642 221, 223 Faults, geologic Cannikin, 484-488, 642 Endocindin ,nuricaln, 415 Rifle Range Fault, 30-31, 167 Milrow, 483-484, 637 Engmalis jnyonica, 455 Teal Creek Fault, 25 species list, 457-459 Enh ydra Iutris (see Sea otter) See nlso Grabens trophic relationships of, 471-482 Entosphenus tridei~tatus(see Fen, 205, 221,223 graphically shown, 472-473 Lamprey, Pacific) Feral dogs and cats, 124, 631 occurrence of prey items in Equisetum mvense, 621 Ferns, 184 stomach contents, 481 (tabu- Ericaceae, 179 Ferret (ilfusteln ptr torit~s),57 1 lated) Erimacus isenbeckii (Horse crab), Festucn rubro, 222, 646 Fishing, sport, 629, 635-636, 644 475 Fesf~rcasp., 205, 222-223 Flounder, arrowtooth (A theresthes Erimacr~cssp., 478 Filinin sp., 281 stontias), 316, 319, 464, 467-468, Eriophorum sp., 220 475-477, 482 Finch, Gray-crowned Rosy (Lea. Eschrich tilts robust~rs(Gray \\'hale), Flsstrellidra uegae, 412 costicte tepl~rocotis),232, 257, 505 Fog, 53,57 259,620,629 Eskimos, relationship to Aleuts, 88, I"o?ztinalis ~zeon~exicana,291-292, Finger Ray (Adak Island), 534 143, 152 588-589, 594-595, 599 Eteoiie flnun. 408. 412 Fish communities, marine <. Food chains, 343, 476-481, 589- Eumetopinsjubnta (see Sealion) epipelagic, 461-465, 472, 476-477, 590 Eumicrolremus orbis (see LLI~D- 479 Food web, marine sucker, Pacific spiny) inshorelrock-algae, 461, 464-465, occurrence of items in fish stom- Euphausia pacifica, 464,467,479 468-470, 473-474, 476-477 ach contents, 476-477 (tabu- Enphausiids, 461, 467, 473, 476, inshorelsand-gravel, 46 1, 464- lated) 478-482 465, 468, 473, 475-477 schematic model of, 472-473 Exogonegem,n$era, 413 littoral, 461-465, 470-471, 473, trophic contributions of different Esosphaeronzn azztplicauda, 416-417, 476-477, 479.482 prey species, 481 (tabulated) 429,480 mesopelagic, 461, 464-465, 472, Formations, geologic Exposure, wave 476-477,479 ages of, 22, 24, 26 defined, 361 offshore demersallrock-sponge, Amchitka Formation, 15, 22, 24 effect on distribution of marine 461, 464-465, 467, 472, 476- Banjo Point Formation, 15, 19-24, algae, 361-365, 369, 378-380 47 7 26, 168 See also \\'ave action and shock offshore demersal/sand-gravel, Chitka Point Formation, 15-16, 461, 464-465, 468, 472, 475- 19, 24-25, 170, 172 478 Fabriciasnbella, 413, 416 Fossils I;nlco novaeseelandine (see Falcon, Fisheries Eocene-Oligocene. 23 New Zealand) commercial Miocene, 24 Fnlco peregrinus (see Falcon, catch statistics, 16, 318-320, Pleistocene, 27, 29, 31 Peregrine) 322-323, 328-329 pollen, 27 Folco r~rsficol~s(see Gyrfalcon) national sea corvs, 28-29 Falcon Canada, 318-320,322, 325 trees, 24-25, 143 New Zealand (Fal'nlco nounesee- Japan, 315-328,623 Fox inndine), 616, 620 other, 316, 318 Arctic [Alopex lngopirs (blue Peregrine (Falco peregrinus), 238, patrols, 315-328, 623 fox)], 83, 144, 149, 266, 249-255, 258 Soviet, 315-319, 322-323, 325, 621, 628-629,631 fledging period, 255 327-328, 623 American use of, 120 fledging success, 253-256 U. S., 316, 318, 320-323 effect on birds, 121-123 nest damage by nuclear tests, Fishes (see under common names) elimination from Amchitka by 636,638, 642, 647 Fishes, marine poisoning, 123-124, 131, 155 nesting attempts by year, 253, distribution by collection depth, farming, 121-123, 148, 154, 256 459, 462-463 (tabulated) 496,628 Russian use of, 115 influence on Norway Rat popula- See also Sea urchins blue (see Fox, Arctic) tion, 264-266 Greenling, rock (Ifexngramnros red (I4rlpes fulua), 121 Gareloi Island, 499 Iagocephalus), 456,461,467, Fox farming (see Fox, Arctic) Gasterosteus ncttleatrcs (see Stickle- 469-471, 473-474,476-477, Fox Islands, 73, 109 back, threespinc) 480, 482-489, 590, 594-595, Pox Runway (fee Runways) Gastropods, 473-474, 476, 478, 481 603,605,621-622,642 I;mterculn cornictclntn (see Puffin, Gauia immer (see Loon, Common) feeding behavior, 474, 480 Horned) Gnuin stellnta (see I.oon, Red- schooling behavior of juveniles, Freshwater ecosystem throated) 470 compartmental mod< -', 287, GE Lake, 240,248 territoriality, 470 301-304 Geomorphic regions (see Physio- Groundrvater interfaces in, pond to st re^-?, 291 graphic regions) deep, discharge of, 50 stream to ocean, 291, 301, Gcui~imacrophyllum, 222 dissolved solids (including sa- 303-304 Gigartina pacificn, 365-366, 368, linity), 46-47,49, 51 organic niatter in, detritus, 292, 378-379 flow, 43, 45,4940 301-303 freshwater lens, 45-46, 51 Glaciers and glaciation, 16, 164, dissolved carbon, 301-303 Ghyben-Herzberg relation- 167, 172, 175-176, 198.199 perturbations in, 304-312 ships, 45-49 ages of, 31-32 primary consumers (secondary shallo~v,discharge to surface fea- effects on groundwater, 46 producers), 292-294, 300-304 tures, 41-43 geomorpliic results, 30.31, 164, primary producers, 291-292, 301- 167, 170-172, 180 infiltration, 42-43 302 indications of, 164, 167, 171, 175- water table, 40-42 secondary consumers (tertiary See also Drainage 176 producers), 300-301, 303-304 Guanay (Pltalocrocornx botignin- stages of, ice caps, 31 trophic levels, 291-294, 300-304 Illinoian, 171 uillii), 622 Fritillarin camschatcet~sis,88, 265 Guillemot, Pigeon (Ceppltus interglacials, 27-29 Frost action on terrestrial vegetation \Visconsinian, 171 colurnbn), 482 (see Terrestrial vegetation) Globicephnln scnmntoni (Pilot Gull, Glaucous-winged (Lorus Fucus disticltus, 164, 358, 363, 365- \\'hale), 506 glaucescens), 232, 238, 245, 366, 369-374, 376, 378-380, Gloiopeltis capilloris, 374 247,556, 561, 635 383, 531,538, 540, 543, 588- Gloiopeltis coliformis, 374 nesting colonies, 247 589, 594-596, 598 Gloiopeltisfircntn, 373 population estimates, breeding, growth and distribution of, 372 Glyptocepholus zachirtls (see Sole, 238 Fucus zone, in marine littoral re- rex) total, 235 gion, 363, 365, 367-368, 370, Gt~nthophnusingigns, 479 predator on marine fish, 482 373, 375,383,388 Gnorisphaeroma luten, 293 predator on marine inverte- Fulmar (Fttlntnrisglncinlis), 623 Goldeneye, Common (Bttcepheln brates, 425 Fulmaris glacialis (see Foln~ar) clnngttln), 248 refuse dump as food source for, Fumarole Cove, 299, 305 Gonatus fabricii, 464, 467 232, 635 Fumarole stream and Valley, 16, Go,zntus tnngister, 464, 467 Gulo gulo (see \Yolverine) 299,305 Gortntss sp., 479 Gunnel, crescent (Pholis loetn), Fungi, 223 Goose 464,471, 473,476-477 Fur seal (Callorhi,zus rcrsinzts), 83, Aleutian Canada (Ilmntn cnr~ndert- Gymnoblnsten sp., 407 86, 119-120, 138, 493, 503-504, sislericoparein), 123, 130-131, Gym~toca~tthusgoleafris(see 507-508 144, 266,628 Scnlpin, armorhead) Fur Seal Treaty of 1911, 120, 495, Bean (Anscr fnbalis), 623 Gyrfalcon (Fnlco rusticolus), 620 501, 507,511, 628 Canada (Bmntn car~adertsis),248 Fur trade, 494-495,506-507, 51 1, Emperor (Philacte ca~iagica),522, 535,564 556,621 Haemotopt~sbachma~ti (see Oyster- See also Prorr~yshlenniki Hutchin's (Aleutian Canada catcher, Black) conselvation measures, 119-120, Goose) (see Goose, Aleutian 506-509 Halineetas nlbicilla (see Eagle, Gray fircina ishikaruae, 456, 459 Canada) Sea) Grabens Fusitriton oregonensis, 420 Haliaeet~esleucocephnltcs (see Eagle, Constantine IIarbor graben, 16, Bald) 18, 30-31, 163.164, 167 Gorlus mncrocephnl~rs(see Cod, deposits in, 26, 30 Halibut Pacific) South Right graben, 16, 18, 27, Greenland (Rehzhardtius hippo- Galion Pit, 167, 305, 633 29-30, 162, 167 glossoides), 343 Galitet~tltisarmntn, 464, 467, 479 undersea, 16 Pacific (Hippoglows stenolepis), Garbage and waste disposal Grasses, 179, 182, 186 316,319, 322-323, 464, 468, inflnence on Bald Eagles aid ot11e1 Graaing, by marine invertebrates, 473, 475-479, 482, 485, 488, birds, 629, 635 536-537, 552 589, 594-596, 604 Halichondrin pnnicea, 400, 406, Hippoglossoides elassodon (see Sole, Inter- and intra-island deter- 409, 412-413, 429 flathead) minants of arcllaeological sites Haloconchn minor, 416-417, 429 Hippoglossus steriolepis (see Hali- and population distribution Halophytes, 223 but, Pacific) aspect (orientation to the sea), 72 Hnlymenia sp., 368 Hippotlroa hyalinn, 407 beach and coastal confipration, Halosnccion association in Hedo- Hippuris-Fontinnlis-Cdthn com- 68,72 phylluni zone, 363, 365, 367-368, munity, in freshwater ecosystems, defense, 73 375, 387-388 291-292 elevation above the sea, 68 Holosnccion-l'ucus community in Hippuris uulgnris, 281 island size and shape, 66 studies of marine invertebrates Himndapus cazrdacntus (see Swift, isolation, 66-69 defined, 415 Spinetail) resource availability, 67-73 invertebrates in, 402, 405-406, Holothurians, 476 shore profile, 67, 69-71 415-419, 425, 427-428, 430- Honckenya peploides, 223 visibility between islands, 67 434 Hummocks, 187-188, 190, 192,194 Intertidal bench or platform, 19, graphically shown, 416-417 Hyallela sp., 293 161, 164-166, 168, 172, 358, Halosnccion glandiforme, 367-372, Ilydraulic properties of subsurface 401,405,415,420; 424 374-380, 383-385, 407-408, rocks uplift of, 430-431, 636-637, 638- 412-413, 415-417, 427, 537- hydraulic conductivity, 42, 49 640 538, 540, 543,552, 554 hydraulic gradient, 41, 45,49 Intertidal communities on various seasonal variation in, 370-372 porosity, effective, 42, 50 islands, 536-540, 555-558 Halosnccion saccatum, 374 static head, 41 Invertebrates, marine littoral and Hanleya sp., 407 transmissivity, 42-44, 49 sublittoral Hnpnlognster gebsitzkii, 424 water table, 41-42, 181-186 Asian vs. North American ele- Hnpnlognster sp., 477 Hydrodnmalis gigas (see Sea couif ments, 421-424 Headlightfish, California (Dinphus Hvdroeen, - climatic factors influencing, 399- tlletn), 461, 464, 467, 473, 476- tissue-bound (TBH), 585, 592, 400 477 594.612 distribution by communities, Heart Lake, 591 tissue-water (TIVH), 592, 594, 612 405-420 Hedophyllum asspciation in Hedo- See a/so Tritium graphically shown, 407-408, p11yNu1a zone, 363, 365, 375, Hydroids, 468 412-413, 416-417 379, 387 Hydrologic testing and monitoring, effects of Cannikin, 424-431 Hedophyllum sessile, 365-371, 373- extinction of species at Amchitka, 35, 42-44, 46-47 380, 383-384, 386, 407-409, 423-424 412-413, 416-417, 531, 537- Hymenodorn frontulis, 464, 467 geographical affinities, of major 538, 540-543, 552 Hyperiids, 479 taxonomic groups, 420-424 seasonal variation, 370 Hypophyllun~dentatsm, 382 tabulated, 421 Hedophyllum sp., 480 Hypophylhrm ruprech tio~lum,381, growth and feeding of, 537-538, Hedophyllum zone in marine lit- 388 552 toral region, 363, 365-370, 373- Hypothermia, lethal, sea otter, 575- methods of study, 400-404 376, 379-380, 383, 387-388 576 settling of, 538, 544 algal associations in, 363, 365-370, species list, annotated, 437-449 387 Iridaen association, in Hedophyllt~m Hemilepidotus hemilepidofus (see Ice Box Lake, 589 zone, 363,365, 368, 380, Lord, red Irish) Idotea zuosnesenskii, 416-417, 429, 387 Hemilepidotus jordnni (see Lord, 480, 537 Iridaea cornucopiae, 365-368, 371- yellow Irish) llak Island, 91 374, 376-380, 383, 386, 408, Henricia leuiuscula, 406, 409 Infantry Road, 3, 172, 175, 632. 413,415,417,540,548,552 Henricin sp., 420 633, 635 seasonal variation in, 371-372 He~tricintumidn, 407-409 Insects Iron-55, 584-585, 589, 592, 594- Heracleum Ianntu,n, 60, 117 freshwater aquatic, 291, 293-297, 595 Herring, Pacific (Clupea hnrettgus 299-305, 307, 311-312 tchyrocerus sp., 407-408, 416 pallnsi), 325, 475, 477, 479, 481 in diet of Dolly Varden, 293, Islets, vegetation on, 222 Heterochordaria (see Analip~cssp.) 295,301,304,312 Isoetes bbmunii, 292 Heteropods, 473, 476, 481 in diet of silver salmon, 299-300 Isopods, 473, 476-477, 480-481, Heterotrophy, in freshwater ponds in diet of threespine stickle- 540-541, 547, 552 and lakes, 285 back, 293, 297 Ivakin Point, 240, 244-245, 504 Ile~agrammosleucocephalus (see effect of drilling effluents on, cormorant colonies on, 245 Greenling, rock) 307, 312 Hexagrammos sp. in marine food web, 473, 476, in diet of Dolly Varden, 295 481 Jaeger, Pomarine (Stercornrius Hitdenbrandin sp., 366, 368 Insolation (see Solar radiation) pontnrinus), 622 Jassa sp., 408 Kuroshio (Japanese Cu~~ent),331- Leptasterias nleuticn, 406-408, 41 1, Jones Creek, 243, 293, 300, 305 333, 347,451 429 Jones Lake, 38, 240, 248,622 Lep tasterias hexnctis, 409 Juncus arcticus, 221, 292 Leptasterias sp., 537, 540, 544, 547, Juncus sp., 210, 222 Lngenorltynchus obliquidens (Pacific 552, 557-558, 564 White-sided Dolphin), 506 Leptostracans, 476 Lagopus ingopus (see Ptarmigan, Lepus americonlrs (see Thermal Kagalaska Island, 470 \Villow) conductance) Kagamil Island, 150 Logopus mtltus (see Ptarmigan, Leucosticte tephrocotis (see Finch, Kamchatka (including Petropav- Rock) Gray-crowned Rosy) lovsk), 1, 13, 115, 128, 145-148, Lagopus~llprestis(L. mutus), 145, Lichens, 179, 182, 184, 223, 581- 150, 333, 335, 355, 374, 388, 147 582, 586-589, 595, 602 396, 404, 421-423, 494, 505 Laingia alestica, 382 See nlso Clndonin Kamchatka Current, 333,396,420, Lake sediments, Pleistocene, 27 422-423 Lakes (see Ponds) Lightning, infrequency of,219 influence on invertebrate dis- La~ninariacommunity in studies of Li,pnllnsii, 426 tribution, 422-423 marine invertebrates Ligusticum hulte,tii, 60 Kanaga Island, 27, 91, 147, 149- defined, 405-406 Limanda aspern (see Sole, yellowfin) 150, 153,496,501 invertebrates in, 405-41 1, 425- Lipnris cnNyodon (see Snailfish, Kanechlor, 616, 622 427, 431-434 spotted) Kathnrina tunicata, 407, 414, 541- graphically shown, 407-408 Liparocephnlus breuipennis, 407- 543,547,555 Laminaria denfigern, 373, 381 429 Kavalga Island, 497 Laminarin groenlnndicn, 380-381, Lithodes neq~rispinn(false king Kelp beds, damping effecton waves, 383. 385 crab), 321, 467, 475 369,380,388 Laminaria japonica, 374 Lithodes sp., 477 See also Alaria fistulosa; Wave ac- Laminaria longipes, 363, 369, 371- Lithothamnium sp., 381, 388 tion and shock 379,381,383-388,406.408, Little Kiska Island, 61,63, 66, 88- Kelp flies (see Coefopidae) 412-413, 416-417, 531, 537- 91, 109, 150 KerateNa cochlearis, 281 552, 554, 556, 560.561, 563 Little Sitkin Island, 66-68, 86, 497. Keratelln quodrata, 28 1 blade width, 554, 557 498 Khvostof Island, 63, 66-67, 86, 498 seasonal variation, 371-373 Little Tanaga Island, 496 Kirilof Bay, 240,244,249,454,484 Laminarin sp., 363, 376-377, 379, Littoral and sublittoral regions, Kirilof Point, 164, 232, 240, 244- 384, 388, 420, 470-471 marine 245, 247, 380-381, 454, 484, Laminarin yezoensis, 321, 383-384 biological areas (zonation) in, 487, 512, 531, 538-539, 549 Lantinnria zone, in marine sublit- 362-375, 378-380 cormorant colony at, 245, 247 toral region, 363, 367-370, 373. climatic factors influencing, 362 Kirilof Rocks, 531, 538-539, 549 376. 379.387 topography of,358-361 Kiska Island, 14, 30, 32, 61, 63, Lampaiiyctf~sregulis (see Lampfish, wave exposure in, 361-362 66-68, 77, 86-87, 90, 109, 115, pinpoint) Littorina aleuticn, 415-418, 429, 124-125, 127, 129, 145, 147.150, Lampfish 433-434 162,321,397,496,499,623 northern (Stenobrachiusleuco- Littorina atkonn, 416-418, 427-429, Kittiwake, Black-legged (Rissa tri- snrus), 461, 464, 467, 479-481 433-434 dnctyla), 622 pinpoint (Larnpnnyctus regalis), Littorinn sitkona, 416-418, 429, 464,467 Kodiak (Island and town), 109-111, 433-434 Lamprey, Pacific (Entosphenus tri- 116-117, 129, 141, 149, 179, Littorina sp., 419, 426-427, 433- deiitatus), 467 434 249, 397,415, 419, 493-494, Lancetfish, fongnose (Alepisaurus 496-497, 502, 505, 620 Loiseleuria procun~bens,222 ferox), 456, 461, 473, 476-477, Long Lake, 38 Koenign islandica, 212, 220 479, 486-487 Long Shot Komandorskie Islands (including Lanternfish, bigeye (Electrons bioenvironmental studies, 632 Bering and Copper [hledttyi]Is- arcticn), 461, 464,476-477, 481 effectsof, 483, 632, 637 lands), 3, 29, 88, 115-117, 120- Lams glaucescens (see Gull, history, 133-134 121, 145, 147, 150-151, 156, Glaucous-winged) tritium in mudpits, 587, 592-595, 331, 333, 335, 354, 373-374, Larvaceans, 347, 351 632 381-382, 395-397, 420-421, 475, Lathyrus maritimus, 223 494, 506, 559 Longspur, Lapland (Calcarius lop- Latltyrus sp., 194 ponicus), 232, 237-238, 240, Korovin Bay (Atka), 117 Leafliesin difformis, 366, 378-379 242, 257, 259, 620, 629 Kuluk Bay (Adak Island), 534, age latios, 243 544, 554 breeding phenology, 242.243 Ki~rileIslands, 117, 127-128, 133, Lepidopsetta bilinenta (see Sole, disturbed areas, 232, 629 145, 151, 333, 355, 372, 382, rock) fledging success, 242 404,422 Leptasterias nlaskensis, 406 PCB's in tissues of,620 674 Index

population estimates, breeding, Amchitka, 1, 7, 15, 17-18, 36, 64, Mex Island, 20, 22, 26, 168, 170, 238-242 162, 240, 244, 246-247, 271- 232, 245,256, 487 total, 236 272, 288, 308, 386, 401,454, as bird-nestinghabitat, 232, 245, Loon 484-485, 467, 514-515, 521, 256 Common (Cnvia itnmer), 249 532-533, 630 rblicrocladia borealis, 366, 368, 378- Red-throated (Gnuin stellata), Attu, 535 379 248-249 general, 317, 332, 396 hlidden Cove, 170- 172, 299 predator on marine fishes, 482 geologic, 13 hlidden Cove stream (hlidden Lord Rat Islands, 1 Creek), 295-296, 299-300, 305, red Irish (Fen~ilepidotushemilepi- Shemya, 534 635 I dotzrs), 469, 473-479, 481-482, Alnrgnrites beringensis, 41$413,429 Middens, Aleut (see Arcltaeological I 484-485 dlargarites sp., 420 sites) I yelloxv Irish (HemiIepidotas Marine erosion hlidlittoral area jordani), 464, 467 of intertidal platform, 161, 163- algal zones and associations in, Low Bluff, 169 166, 168-169, 172 363, 365-369 Lz~t~~bricillassp., 414, 417 tsunami-caused, 161 defined. 363 Lsnlbri~~erisinflata, 407-408, 411 hlason Lake, 240, 248 hIilrow Lumpsucker hilass wasting effectsin avifauna, 258, 636, Pacific spiny (Eumicrotren~us alh~vialfans, 167 285,309,311,637 orbis), 473, 477, 479, 481 debris fans and cones, 170, 175 effectsin freshrvater ecosvstem. smooth (Aptocyclt~sventricosus), debris stripes, 172 285,309,311,637 467,471,473-477,482,622 deflation (lag gravel), 169, 172, effectson marine fishes, 483-484, 637 effectsin nearshore marine ecosys- effectof sea otter predation on, 175, 183-184, 192-194, 197 474-475, 482 frost heaving, 193-194, 197, 199 tem, 382-383,388,636-637 See also Site B; Nuclear testing at Lunda cirrhnta (see Puffin, Tufted) landslides, 16, 19, 169, 177 Amchitka, effectsof Lupinus t~ootkntensis,184, 192, protalus rampart, 171 225 rockfalls, 165-169 hlimrrlrcsguttatus, 223 Mink (Mustela visotz), 573-574 Lupinus sp., 205 scree and talus, 170-172 illitre110 omiantis, 406-408, 411, 429 Lutrn lutra (see Otter, river) solifluctioo lobes and sheets, 172- rlfnianr sp., 291 Lezslo sp., 208, 220 173 Moat area in marine littoral region, Lr~zulntundricoln, 220 tors, 122, 124 Lynt~taenabmssa, 293 turf-banked terraces, 169, 171- 358, 361, 365 ~llodiol~cssp., 517 173 turf falls and slides, 169 hilolluscs Mackerel, Atka (Pleurogron~mus in freshwater ecosystem, 293, monopterygius), 461, 473, 476- Massacre Bay (Attu Island), 534, 295,301,303,305 477, 482, 488-489 548, 554,556 in marine food web, 471, 474- Macoma cnlcnren, 414, 417 iblegaptera nouaenngliae (Humpback 475,478,480 hlacorna tzonc ta, 3 1 Whale), 505 i\lo~lostromn grevillei, 373 rlfocomn sp., 416, 429 Melonittn degln~tdi(see Scoter, dlonostrontn sp., 366, 378, 380 Mncrocystis sp., 563 White-winged) Mosses, 179, 181, 184, 190, 223 hlncroi~~vertebrates,in freshwater Alelanitto nigri (see Scoter, Black) Munt~asp., 407 ecosystem, 291-294, 301-307, llleles n~eles(see Badger, European) Aftulna stephezneni, 408 310-312 hlelospiza melodia (see Sparrow, tlfunna scrbneglectn, 407 See also Annelids; Crustaceans; Song) Murder Point (Attu Island), 534, Insects; hilolluscs; Nematodes dfephitis sp. (see Skunk) 538, 548,554 Alacrophytes, in freshwater ponds hilurre Merganser, Red-breasted (rlfergus and lakes, 273-292, 301-302 Co~nlnon(Uria nnlge), 482 serrator), 248, 482 Makarius Bay, 1, 162-163, 167,240, Thick-billed (Uria lomuin), 482, Alergus serrntor (see h.lergalser, Red- 263, 356, 364, 367, 372, 375, 622 breasted) 378-379, 398, 400-404, 406, 410, hlurrelet, Ancient (Synthlibornm- 420, 424-428, 431-432, 468, 531, Alertensin mnritimn, 223 phus n~zfiq~cus),620 536-539, 541-542, 552, 556-537 Alesometopa sp., 408 dffcsc~clusdiscors, 407 Makarius Island, 262 illesophyllu~nnletrticum, 381-382 Alurcctrl~rsuennicosus, 413, 420,429 dIalncocottzrs kincaidi (see Sculpin, AlesophyNum sp., 357, 382, 388, illustela sp. (see Ferret; h.link; blackfin) 468 Weasel) h,lallard (Arms platyrhyncl~os),232, taxonomic study of, 357, 382 hlustelidae, 569 248-249, 629 dlesoplodot~stejnegeri (Stejeneger's illya tmircata, 396 &laps Beaked Whale), 505 rUycoblastus sp., pathogen on Adak, 536 h~letabolism Empetrun,, 222 Aleutian Islands, 4, 64, 334, 336- of sea otter and other animals, i\lyosocephalus polyacanlhocepha- 338, 342, 347-349, 500-501, 571-574 hcs (see Scttlpin, great) 530 i\letridiun~ sp., 420 illyriophyllu~nsp., 273 111.yriophyllsm spicntirrn, 292 on freshrvater fish, 310, 637, Offshore demersajsand-gravel fish Alyselln aleuticn, 417-418 642-643 community, marine, 461, 464- Mysids, 461, 467, 469, 473-475, on marine fish, 483-488, 637, 465,468,472,475-477 477-482,489 642 Oglala Pass, 454 dlytilus cnlifontictrs, 397, 411, 423- on marine mammals, 637, 641- Ogliula Island, 497-498 424 642 Oikopleura sp., 475-476 Afytilus edulis, 410-41 1, 414, 416, on nearshore marine ecosystem, Omega Point, 30, 144, 240, 256 423-424, 429, 537-538, 540-542, 382-387, 424-431, 640.641 O~tcorl~y~tchussp. (see Saltnon) 547, 552, 555-558, 582, 590 on plankton, 644 Ophiopholis aculeata, 406, 408, 420 on productivity, 644 Ophiuroids, 473, 475-476, 478, 481 on salmon spawning, 647 Orchestia sp., 405, 425-426, 431- on sea otter, 501, 641-642 432, 552 physicat effects of Orchomene sp., 412, 417 i\kzitteris qr~adric~rspidiz,413, 416 Cannikin Lake, 309, 644, 646 Orcittus orcn (Killer Whale), 506 Najnn co~tsiliorum,413 earthquakes, 14 Organic niatter in freshwater ponds A'atica clausa, 406 fault shifts, 636-638 and lakes, Allochthonous vs. Near Islands, 32, 63, 83, 85, 91, on groundwater, 49 ai~tochthonous,9s4-285 107-110, 116, 121, 528, 530, habitat destruction, 640, Orthophosphate phosphorus in 535-536, 538-539, 548, 561, 642, 641 freshxvater ponds and lakes, 277 563 lake tilting and draining, Ostracods, 347-348 See also individual islands 285,309 Otnria hookeri (see Sea lion, Hook- Nearshore marine con~munitiesat nest destruction, 258, 638- er's) various islands 642 Otter intertidal rockfalls and turf falls, 424- giant Amazonian (Pterot~eurn Adak, 541-542, 555-558 425, 636, 638,640 brasiliensis), 569 Amchitka, 540-541, 555-558 subtidal terrain, 640.641 river (Lutra lutrn), 571 Attu, 547-548, 555-558 terrain disturbances, 219- sea (see Sea otter) Shemnya, 542-547, 555-558 220, 637-644 Oyashio (current), 331-333 subtidal turbidity, 637 Oystercatcher, Black (Haemotopus Adak, 548 uplift of intertidal benches, bncl~mani),425, 556 Amchitka, 548-552 Attu, 548 382-383, 424-425, 430.431, Shemya, 548-552 636.640 preparation for testing, effects of, Pacific huts, 3, 129 A'ebnlin sp., 407-408 285-286, 633-636 Pngunrs Rirsrrtiiisct~ltrs,424 N~ctoliparispelngicus (see Snailfish, Pnguri~ssp. (Crab, hermit), 475-476, construction, 305, 633-634 tadpole) 540, 542, 547-548, 564 Neittbttrsia prolifera, 382 off-road traffic, 307, 634 Patiboreal or circumpolar element, Nematodes, in freshwater ecosys- 635 in avifauna (see Avifauna, geo- site preparation and drilling, tem, 293,297,305 graphical affinities of) 285-286, 305307,634 Neoatolg%s littoralis, 426, 428-429 Paraclunio alaskensis, 426, 429 Nudibranchs, 476 Nereis pelogica, 412-413, 425, 431- Paralitltodes camtscltaticn (king Numenit~stohitiensis (see Curlew, 432 crab), 316, 320-322, 464, 467, Bristle-thighed) 475,477, 582,596 Nereocystis Iuetkea,za, 381 Pnrnlithodes sp., 477 Nereocystis sp., 537, 563 Parallorchestes ocltotmsis, 412.413, Nikolski (village), 3, 32, 124-125 425, 429, 431-432 Nittshin seriata, 343 Pornmetopella stelleri, 407, 413 North American element in avifauna Ocennodroma ft~rcnta(see Petrel, Paranais littoralis, 41 7-418 (see Avifauna, geograpl~icalaffini- Pork-tailed Storm) Parapltosus spinoses, 41 2, 417 ties) Oceanodromn leucorl~on(see Petrel, Parflple~istespugette~tsis,412, 414 North Bight, 162 Leach's Storm) Parasites, of freshwater fishes, 293, Northwest Camp Stream, 289 Ochro~ttonassp., 280 297-298 Nostoc sp., 292 Octopuses, 475-476, 478-479 Pornsitus sp., 426 Notoncmea sciitunt, 406-408, 411, Ocynectes maschnas, 456, 459 Paratltemisto abyssorutn, 475 429 Odius sp., 407-408 Pnrnthemisto libellula, 343 Notosfom~tsjoponictts, 464, 467 Odobenus rosinartcs (see Walrus) Parntltemisto pacifcn, 343 Nuclear testing at Amchitka Odoethaliojloccosn, 366, 368, 379, Passerines, relative scarcity of at aesthetic effects of, 647 407,412,416 A~nchitka,227, 256-257 biological effects of Odostotnin kmusei, 413, 416 Passes between islands, 333-347 on birds, 258-259, 642 Offshore demersaljrock-sponge Pathogens on freshwater ecosystem, 309- fish community, marine, 461, on E~ttpetwa,222 311, 637, 642-644 464-465, 467, 472, 476-478 introduced, 646 676 I~trles

Patterned ground related to pond and stream types, morphological changes, 285, 309 debris stripes, 172 287, 289-290 sewage pollution, 286 solifloction, 172-173, 188, 192, Phyticltthys chiras (see Prickleback, siltation, 305 197 ribbon) primary production by algae in, sorted circfcs, 172, 174 Phytogenic ponds and lakes, 290- 282-284 stone stripes, 176-177 292 types of, based on dominant algae, turf.banked terraces, 169, 171-173 Picen sitchensis (Sitka Spmce), 629 280 PCB, 615-624 Pintail (Anas acuta), 248-249 based on morphology, 272-273, Peat Pisaster ochraceus, 411, 414, 423 287, 290-292 calving over sea cliffs, 21 1, 218, Pisidium sp., 293 used for study, 270, 288 225 Place-name lists and tables, 6-11 Pontogenein makaroui, 412,417, depths of, 204, 212, 218 Planation 429 downslope movement of, 204, alti- and cryo-, 16, 170, 172 Pontoge~~eiasp., 408 212, 218, 223.225 marine, 16 Population, human Pedicularis chnatissonir, 190 Plankton Aleut, in Aleutian Islands, at con- Pelagophyctrs porra, 595 freshwater, 280-282, 644 tact, 75, 116 Pelecanoides urinntrix (see Petrel, marine, 344-352,582,590, 596 on Amchitka, 74-76 Diving) Platanttiera sp., 218 decline of, 75, 116-117 Pelecypods, 473, 481 Plectrophe~~oxniualis (see Bunting, dependence on food and raw Peluetin ruriglt tii, 374 Snow) materials, 78-80 Perch, Pacific Ocean (Sebastes Pleurogran~musmonopterygius (see equilibrium and stability, 80, 89 nlutus), 315-316, 318-319, 323- Mackerel, Atka) in individual sites, 74-75 324, 464, 467-468, 473, 476-479, Plutonium, 584, 586, 592, 595 natural phenomena, effects of, 481,489 Poa eminens, 222 61, 68, 80 Peregrine Falcon (see Falcon, Po0 sp., 211 during AEC occupation, 653 Peregrine) Poacher, sturgeon (Agottus acipen- during American times, 118 Permafrost, lack of, 179 serinus), 464, 468-470, 473-477 during Russian times, 116-119 Petalonin fascia, 378 Pododesmus sp., 517 of nearby places, 1-3 Petrel Poisoning campaign to rid Amchitka Porphyra perforatn, 374 Diving (Pelcca,toider urinatrix), of foxes, 123-124, 631 Porphyrn p~et~docrassn,3 74 622 Pollen in Pleistocene deposits, 27 Porpkyra Oseudolinearis, 365, 370, Fork-tailed Storm (Ocennodroma Pollock, walleye (Theragra chnlco- 385 furcntn), 232 gromma), 316, 319, 327-328, 464, seasonal variations, 370 Leach's Storm (Ocennodronta 467-468, 475, 478, 481-489 Porf~hyrasp., 357-358, 365, 370, leucorhoa), 232, 623 Pollutants 373-375, 377-379, 382-383, Petrel Point, 386, 425, 454, 484, chemical (PCB's, DDEIDDT), 385 487 615-624 phytogeography of, 382 Petrocelis middendorffii, 368 eggshell thinning, 620, 624 seasonal variations, 370 Petropat~lovsk(included in sources of, 615, 620-621, 623- taxonomic study of, 357 Kamchatka) 624 Porpltyra-Ulothrix zone, in marine tissues found in, 616, 620-623 littoral region, 363, 365, 367, Phalocrocorax sp. (see Cormorant; radioactive (see Radioactivity) 374, 387-388 Guanay; Shag) Polyartltra sp., 281 Porpoise Phnscolosoma ngassizii, 407-408, Polydorn sp., 413 Dall (Phocoenoides dnlli), 506 426,429 Polygonlrnt uiviparuni, 220 harbor (Pl~ocoenaphocoena), 506 Pl~ilncfecnnagica (see Goose, Polypera greetti (see Snailfish, lobe- Postelsia pa/maeformis, 369 Emperor) fin) Potamogeton unginntus, 292 Phocn uitulinn (see Seal, harbor) Ponds and lakes, freshwater Potassium-40, 580, 586-592, 595 Pltocoena phocoena (Porpoise, Har- algal blooms in, 220, 282 Porentilla hyparctica, 220 bor), 506 birds inhabiting, 240, 247-249 Pote~ttillauillosa, 223 Phocoenoides dalli (Porpoise, Dall), bottom composition of, 273, 290 Prasiola borealis, 365, 373 506 chemistry (see Water chemistry) Prnsiola sp., 358, 375 Pholis lnetn (see Gunnel, crescent) frequency in southeastern Am- Prasioln zone, in marine littoral re- Pltoloe minuta, 412 chitka, 290 gion, 363, 365, 367, 387 Phosphate, as limiting nutrient in net phytoplankton in, 280-281 Pratfall Lake, 305, 307, 310 freshwater ponds and lakes, 284 organic matter sources in, 284- Precipitation Phycodrys amchitkensis, 382 285,302 vs. attitude, 36 Physeter catodon (Sperm IVhale), origin of, 167, 290 intensity, 54 328, 505 perturbations by nuclear tests or mean annual, 53-55 Physiographic province, 3 associated activities, drilling mean monthly, 54 Physiographic regions effluent pollution, 285, 305- rain, 53-55 of Amchitka, 161-177 306 snow, 53-54 Pribilof Islands (including St. Pycnogonids, 407,476 eagle predation on, 265 George and St. Paul Islands), 83, Pygospio elegons, 417 environmental impact of, 266 120, 124, 146, 148, 335, 452, Pylaiella littoralis, epiphytic on food habits, 218, 232, 261, 265, 494, 502, 507-508 Fuctcs distichus, 365 405,629,635 Prickleback, ribbon (Phytichthys Pyramid Island, 63 herbivory, 261, 265 cltirus), 464, 471 history of, in western Aleutians, Primary productivity Quonset huts (see Pacific huts) 261-262 in freshwater ecosystem, benthic Quonset Lake, 240, 248, 292-293 impact on bird populations, 265 periphyton, 291-292, 302 impact of nuclear tests on, 262 phytoplankton, 291 Radiation background, 591-592, introduction during World JVar vascular plants, 291-292, 302 610 11, 261-262, 628 in marine ecosystem, near- Radioactivity measurements and ~Geightsof, 263 shore subtidal, 563 in air, 590, 607 melanism in inland population, planktonic, 339, 343-345 in birds, 588 263 in terrestrial ecosystem, 210, 212, in fish, 588, 603-606 nesting habits of, 284 223 in food-chain organisms, 589-590 PCB's in tissues of, 621 Problacmaea sybnritica, 412- in freshwater, 587, 609 population density and dis- 413 in Long Shot mud pits, 587, 591, tribution, 261-262, 264 Procurement systems used by Aleuts 593-594, 632 preferred habitat of, 264265 for food and raw material, 77-82 in marine plankton, 582, 590, 596 radionuclides in tissues of, 595 Promysltlenniki (Russian fur hunters in seafoods, 589 taxonomic status of Amchitka and traders), 83, 88, 116, 494 in seawater, 587, 590-591, 608 population, 261-263 See nlso Fur trade in seaweed, 598 trap avoidance, by inland popn- Protothaca sp., 542, 547 in soils and sands, 591, 610 lation, 264 Protothnca staminea, 537 Radiocarbon dates, 154, 172, 198- Rat Island (the island), 24, 30, 66- Pseudocalanus elongatas, 475 199 69, 76, 86-87, 90, 147, 261, 264, Pseudocalnnus sp., 343 Radiological sampling 497-499 Pseudocloeon sp., 293 air, 583, 590 Rat Islands (the group), 1, 16, 59- Ptarmigan analysis methods, 584-586 110, 116, 261, 422, 496, 499, Rock (Lngoptls ~nutus),151, 232, biological, 581-582 530, 535-536, 538, 561 238, 242-244, 249,629 detection limits, 586 See nlso individual islands age ratios, 242, 244 freshwater, 581, 591 Rattail breeding phenology, 243 indicator species, 588-589 filamented (Corvphaettoides.. clutch size, 242 seawater, 581, 583-584, 590-591 filifera), 456 PCB's in tissues of, 620-621 lladionuclides rough scale (Coryphaenoides population estimates, breeding, fallout, 581, 587, 592-595 acrolepis), 473,476-477,479 238, 242 naturally occurring, 580-581, 587, Rattus noruegicus (see Rat, Norway) total, 234 592 Rattus rattus (see Rat, black) radionuclides in tissues, 589, See also individual nuclides Raven, Common (Coruus corax), 595 Radulintcs asprellus (see Sculpin, 232,257,631 seasonal movements, 243-244 slim) Raw materials used by Aleuts sex separation, 244 Raja trachura (see Skate, roughtail) birds, 87 JVillow (Lagopus lagopus), 242, Ralfsiaficngiformis, 366, 368 driftwood, 83 621 Rampart area, in marine littoral re- fish, 87 Pternster sp., 420 gion, 358, 361, 365 inorganic, iron, 109 Pteroneura brasiliensis (see Otter, Ranunculas occidentalis, 220 obsidian, 87, 108-109 giant Amazonian) Rnnunculus sp., 222, 273, 581, 589, stone, 83, 86 Pteropods, 346-348, 473, 476, 478, 595, 600 sea mammals, 83, 87-88 481 Ranunculus trichophyllus, 292 shipwrecks supplying, 109 Pterosiphonia bipinnata, 373 Raptors (see Bald Eagle and Pere- Recurrent groups (fishes and in- Pterygophora sp., 563 grine Falcon) vertebrates) in marine ecosys- Ptilosarctis sp., 419 Rat tem, 461,464, 467-468, 471 Ptilota asplenioides, 368, 381, 388 black (Rattus rattus), 262-263 Reinhardtius hippoglossoides (see Ptilota filrcina, 368, 381, 388 brown (see Rat, Norway) Halibut, Greenland) Ptilota sp., 369 dock (see Rat, Norway) Relationship scores, for affinity of Puffin house (see Rat, Norway) birds with ecological formations, Horned (Fratercula corniculata), Norway (Rattus noruegicus) 232, 236-237, 255 482 breeding cycle, spring-summer Revegetation, 645-646 Tufted (Lunda cirrltata), 232, 238, peak, 264 Rhacomitrium lanuginosum, 189, 482 cannibalism among, 265 223 Ptzgettia gracilis, 424 control measures against, 265- Rhodochorton purpureum, 365, Pumphouse Lake, 38, 240, 248, 265 266 374 678 Index

Rhodocl~ortonzone, in lnarine lit- Sagitta planctonis, 479 Sandy Cove stream, 299 toral region, 363. 365, 367, 374, Sagitta sp., 479 Sargnssum sp., 595 387 Salinity Sau~tderiamarinus, 426, 428-429 Rhodomela larix, 373 ofgroundwater, 46-47, 49, 51 Saxifraga punctafa, 220 Rhodophyta, 539,548-549,551 ofseawater, 335-338, 531 Scattering layers, planktonic, in Rhodymenia palntnta, 368, 378- Salix arctica, 220 marine waters, 461, 467 379, 383,385, 539, 548-549, Sa1i.x cyclophylla, 220 Schistocepholus solidtcs, 297 551-552 Snlix rotundifolin, 220 Schizoplos bmndtii, 41fi-417, 429 Rhy tinn (Ilydrorln~~tnlis)(see Sea Salix sp., 183-184, 191, 193, 205, Scorpaenichtltys marmoratus (see Cow, Steller) 207,222 Cabezon) Rifle Range Fault (see Faults, Salmon Scoter geologic) Aleut use of, 73, 86 Black (Afelanitta aigra), 249 Rifle Range Lake, 240, 248 chinook [Otr~orh~~cclzustsltnwyt- \Vl~ite-winged(dIelanittn deglandi), Rifle Range Point, 30-31, 166, 179, sclrn (king salmon)], 316, 319- 249 198, 240, 356, 364-365, 369, 375, 320 Sculpin 378, 400, 402, 406-407, 409, chum (Oncorhy~tckusketn), 316, armorhead (Gymttocn~rtlrusgalen. 412, 415-416, 454, 470, 483- 319-320, 461, 464, 473, 476. tus), 468, 473, 475-478, 481- 484, 487, 531-532, 542, 554, 477,479 482 556-557 pink [O~~corlry~~chusgorDuscltn blackfin (Afalacocottus kincaidi), Rim Point, 175 (humpback salmon)],294 466,473,476-478,482 Rissa tridactyla (see Kittiwake, 296, 298-299, 301, 303, 305, calico (Clinocottus emb~yum), Black-legged) 309, 311, 316, 819-320, 473, 473.476-477 Road construction, effectof on 476-477 coastrange (Cottus aleu ticus), 294, freshwater ecosystem, 305 migration patterns of,296 300, 311 Rockfalls and turf falls, 636, 638, numbers in Amchitka streams great (Afyoxocephalt~spolya- 640 (tabulated by years, 1970- canthocephahcs), 459, 464, 469- Rockfish 1974), 298 471, 473-474, 476-478, 482, dusky (Sebastes cilintus), 469, radioactivity in, 581, 587, 594. 485, 487-488 473-474, 476-477, 485-486, 596, 603 ribbed (Triglops pingeli), 467 488 silver [Oncor.hynchtcs kisr~tch shal~nose(Cli~tocottus acuticeps), redbanded (Sebastes babcocki), 456 (coho salmon)],294-296, 464,470-471,473,476-477 redstripe (Sebastes proriger), 467 299-300, 303, 311, 316, 320 silverspotted (Blepsins cirrhostrs), rougheye (Sebnstes aleutia~~us), length-frequency relationship 469-470, 473-474, 476-477 464,467 of smolts, 295 slim (Radulinusasprellus), 456 Rodenticide, in Norway rat control, length-weight relationship of spectacled (Triglops scepticus), 265-266 adults, 300 467 Roller Coaster stream, 299 migration patterns, 296 Scyplra compress@,406-408, 411, Ronquil sockeye [O?icorhynchusnerka 429 Alaskan (Bafhymnstercaenrleo- (redsalmon)],294, 300, 311, Scytosiphon lomentoria, 378-379 frrsciatus), 473-474, 476-477, 316, 319-320, 461, 464, 473, Sea cow, Steller (Hydrodnmalis 488 476-477, 479 sisas),28-29, 88, 115, 506 northern (Ronguilir jordani), 464, Salmon spawning, 319, 633 Sea level 467, 469, 471 Snlueliicrrs ~nnlmn(see Dolly Varden) changes, 164 Ronquilis jordani (see Ronquil, Sand Beach Cove, 168-169, 430, effecton groundwater, 46 northern) 454,486-487, 589,591, 638,640 fossil sea cliffs(see Terraces, Rotenone, as fish poison Sand dollars, 476 marine) influence of temperature on ef- Sand dunes, 162,169-1 70, 177 Holocene (Recent), 27-30 fectiveness, 47 1 Sand lance, Pacific (Ammodytes marine transgressions, 26.27, 30- reaction time ofvarious fishes, hexapterus), 299, 335, 461, 464, 3 1 470-471 467-468, 473, 475-482, 489, 622 &Iiocene 24-25 Rtcbtcs sp., 210 Sandfish, Pacific (Trichodo~ttri- Pleistocene, 16, 30 Runrvays chodon), 473, 475477,486-487 Pliocene, 16 Baker, 3, 6, 126, 134, 628, 635 Sandpiper, Rock (Calidris ptilo- Sea lion Charlie, 6, 126 otemis) Hooker's (Olaria hookeri), 621 construction of, 126 population density, 240, 242 Steller (Etimetopiasjubntn), 86, Pox, 3, 126-127, 132 population estimates, breeding, 115, 493, 495, 503-504, 509, Russian nuclear tests, 580 238, 240, 242 621 Russian scientific investigators, 117, total, 234 surveys of,504 156, 355-356 predation by rats, 265 Sea otter (Enhydro lu tris) predator on marine littoral in- at Adak, 530-531, 554-556 Sablefish (Anopoplomafintbria), vertebrates, 405 Aleut use of, 83, 493-494 316, 319, 323-327 Sandy Cove, 299 American use of, 120, 495 at Attu, 530-531, 554556, 559 Sea urcllin (Strongylocen trotus Sergestes si~ttilis,467, 479 California, 559, 563 polyaca~tthus) Sertularelln pi~rttata,408 conservation measures, 119-120, at Adak, 530, 555-556 Sewage lagoons, effect of effluents 131-132 Aleut effect on, 556 on productivity in freshwater effects of nuclear tests on, 641- at Attu, 530, 555-556, 559, 561- ponds and lakes, 280,282,286 642 562 Shag, Anckland Island (Pl~alocro- effect of storms on, 522 biomass, 551-553 corax cantpbelli), 622 feeding and feeding behavior, 515- depth, 548, 561 Shell heaps (see Archaeological 518, 522,525, 529,554555, food preference, 552 sites) 559 grazing by, 406, 552, 556-557 Shemya island, 3, 23, 91, 128-130, depth limits, 521, 523 growth and feeding study, 552 132, 400, 406, 415, 419, 424, diurnal pattern of, 515-517, 522 in middens, 540, 556, 564 529-531, 534, 537-540, 542-543, food eaten, 515-518 population density, 411, 420, 545-548, 550-559, 561-564, 623 fraction of time submerged, 551-552, 555, 561 Shipwrecks, 109, 261 512, 515-517, 522, 525 predation on, 480, 554-556 Shoveler (Alms clypeata), 248 seasonal pattern of, 515, 517, at Shemya, 530, 551-552, 555. Shrimps, 461, 467, 471, 473-476, 522 556,559,561-562 478, 478-481 sexual differences not ap- size of individuals, 406, 551-553, Sibbaldia procstnbens, 225-226 parent, 515 556 Signal Cove, 170, 172, 175 water depth, dependence on, Seal Siltation 515-516 harbor (Plioca uituli~~n),493-495, effects in freshwater ecosystem, harvests of, 501, 631-632 504-505, 509, 524, 540, 563, 305,309 keystone species, 482, 489, 532, 571, 575, 595, 621 intertidal, 538, 552-554, 557 564 northern fur (see Fur seal) Silver Salmon Creek (Silver Saln~on n~etabolism,571-574 Searcher (Bathymaster signntrrs), stream), 299-300, 305 nutritional requirements, 522, 468, 473-474, 476-477, 480 Silver Salmon Lake, 3, 292-293, 529,555,573 Seawater, properties of 299, 305, 633 population chemical composition, 335, 339- Siplloitaria tkersites, 416-418 at Adak, 531 342 Sipunculids, 476 at Attu, 517,522,531 density, 337-338 Sites Bering vs. Pacific sides of Am- productivity, 339, 343-345 archaeological (see Arcbaeologi- chitka, 520-521 salinity, 335-338, 397-399 cal sites) densities, 512, 521, 524, 527, temperature, 335-337, 397-399 drilling 531 turbidity, 362 A, 134,634 sexual segregation, 518 zooplankton, 344-351 B, 35, 43-44,46-49, 55-56, 134, at Shemya, 531 Sebnstes nleutia~tus(see Rockfish, 634,636 population surveys at Amchitka, rougheye) See also h.lilrow 495-500, 531 Sebastes alutus (see Perch, Pacific C, 43-50, 55-56, 134, 305-306, aerial counts, 513-515, 518-520, Ocean) 584,634 See also Cannikin 523-524 Sebastes babcocki (see Rockfish, photogrammetric counts, 523- D, 44-45, 134, 305-307, 311, redbanded) 524 634,637, 646 shore-based counts, 513-515, Sebastes ciliatus (see Rockfish, E, 24, 44, 134, 198, 634, 647 518, 520,524-525 dusky) P, 24, 35, 43-44, 134, 305, 634, totals, 500, 521 Sebastesproriger (see Rockfish, 637 weather and viewing conditions, redstripe) G, 634,647 514-515, 521, 524 Sebastes sp., 477-478,487 H, 644, 647 predation by, 406, 474.475, 479, Sebastolobus alascantrs (see Thorny- Skagul Island, 493 529, 554-556 head, shortspine) Skate, roughtail (Raja tmchura), Russian use of, 115-116, 494-495 Sedges (see Cares) 456,467 at Shemya, 530-531,554556, 559 Seguam Island, 496 Skin boats (see Boats, skin) transplants of, 154-155, 501-503, Segda Island, 66-68, 77, 497-498 Skunk (111eplritis sp.), 575 507,631-632 Seismology (see Earthquakes; Smoothtongue, California (Botlly- See also Ilypothermia, lethal; Tectonics) lagzrsstilbius), 473, 476-479, 481 Metabolism; Temperature; Ther- Semichi Islands, 32, 145,496, 498 Snailfisl~ mal conductance Semisopocllnoi Island, 1, 61, 66.68, lobefin (Polyperagreeni), 471, Sea Otter Point, 5, 386, 454, 487 86-87, 145, 244, 321, 339, 473-474, 476-477, 482 Sea pens, 468 397,498 spotted (Liparis cnllyodo~~),464, Sea stacks and sea cliffs, vegetation distribution of Winter \Yrens on, 470-471, 473, 476-477, 480, on, 222-223 244 482,622 Sea stars, 476 Senecio pseudo-arnica, 164, 194, tadpole (Nectoli/~arispelagicas), See olso Leptasterins 211, 223 464,467,473,477,481 680 Index

Snow (see Precipitation) Solifluction zones, 225 effects of Cannikin on, 637 Soil moisture gradient, effect on Sonlateria mollissima (see Eider, toxicity of drilling effluents to, plant distribution, 205-206, 221- Conlmon) 306 222 Sorex cinereus (Long-tailed shrew), Stilonzysis sp., 622 Soils 571 St. Lawrence Island, avifauna of age of, 32, 19&199 Sorted circles, 172, 174 compared to that of Amchitka, chemical properties, exchangeable South Bight, 3, 16, 26-31, 161-163, 256-257 cations, 197-198, 200-201 167, 169, 171, 240, 244, 256, St. Makarius Point, 26, 232, 240, ferrohumateq 186, 188, 199 398,506 244,487,504 organic matter, 186, 188-189, Spargnninm hyperboreum, 221 Storms, sea otter response to, 522 192, 194-195, 197, 200-201, Sparganium sp., 292 Strandflat, 164 pH, 197,200-201 Sparrow, Song (Alelospiza melodio), See also Benchflat; Intertidal evolution of, 198-199 257, 265-266, 629 bench or platform factors influencing, climatic and Species (or generic) fists Streams, freshwater biotic, 179-180 algae, marine, 359 averaee gradients, 289-290 geologic, 180 aquatic macrophytes, freshwater, base flow, 36, 50-51 maps, 201 291-292 channel alterations in, 309, 633- organic, 161, 163-164, 172, 174, birds, 229 634,647 177,179 cetaceans, 505-506 disturbance by nuclear tests, physical properties, bulk density, fish, freshwater and anadromous, 309-310,637-642,644 181, 194-195 294 drainage basins, 35 hydraulic conductivity, 195-196 marine (including anadromous), drilling effluents in, 306-307 mineralogy, ash, 181.182, 184, 457-459 used for ecological studies and 186,188, 196 invertebrates, marine intertidal sampling, 272,288 clay, 190, 196-197 and subtidal, 437-449 flat\. in relation to altitude, 35-36 shrinkage, 195 net phytoplankton. freshwater, flow in relation to precipitation, soil moisture, 181, 184, 186, 280-281 35-38, 289-290 195,200 vascular plants (terrestrial and highland type, 289-291 temperature, 181, 195 freshwater aquatic), 215-217 lo\\-land type, 289, 291, 300 quaternary, 162, 167 zooplankton, freshwater, 281 midland type, 289 taxonomy marine, 346 outlet types, 287, 289, 291, 311 mineral soiis, 186-194 Species dive~sityof aquatic macro- siltation in, 304-305, 633 Entisols, 186, 194 invertebrates in freshwater eco- Strougyloce~~trotusdrobachieasis, Psamments (Cryopsam- system, 304-305 562 ments), 194, 197 Sphnerodoropsis sp., 412-413 Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, Inceptisols, 186, 189, 194 Sphaerosyllis sp., 407, 413-414 563 Andepts (Cryandepts), 170, Sphnerotilus nntans, as indicator of Strongylocentrotus polyacanthus 190-194, 197, 201 pollution in freshwaters, 309 (see Sea urchin) Aquepts (Cryaquepts), 186- Spio filicornis, 413 Strontiom-90, 585, 591-592, 595 190, 192,197, 200 "Sponge effect" of tundra on Styela clauata, 420 organic soils, 180-185, 198 stream flow, 289-290 Styela coriacen, 408, 429 Histosols, 180-181, 184, 186. Sponges, 467-468 Stye60 sp., 406-408, 412 187 Spongomorpha sp., 378-379 Subsidence sink (see Cannikin Lake) Fibrists (Cryofibrists), 181- Springs, as source of nutrients in Supralittoral fringe area, marine 200 freshwater lakes. 277, 280 algal zones in, 358, 363, 365, 369 Folists (Cryofolists), 181, Spruce, Sitka (Picea sitchensis), 629 defined, 363 184-186, 199 Square Bay, 5, 169, 356, 370, 398, Surface water, 35-40 Hemists (Cryohemists), 181- 400-402,406, 408, 410, 413, S~veeperCove (Adak Island), 534, 184,200 415, 417, 454, 487, 531, 533, 539,542,554 podzols, 199 554,557,589,636 Swift, Spinetail (Hinrtzdapus caudn- Solar radiation (insolation), 53, 57- Square Bluff, 16, 147, 175 cntus), 623 Syllis alternata, 412 58,80, 203, 219,221, 224 Squids, 467, 475-476, 478-479 Syllis armillaris, 407, 412-413 Sole Stenobrachius leucopsar~rs(see Syllis stewarti, 416 flathead (Hippoglossoides elas- Lampfish, northern) Syllis (Typosyllis) sp., 407-408, 412 sodon), 316,319 Stercocariuspomarinus (see Jaeger, rex (Glyptocephaluszachirus), Pomarine) Sytnpleustes sp., 413 Synckneta sp., 281 456 Sterna aleutica (see Tern, Aleutian) rock (Lepidopsetto bilineatn), 316, Sterna paradisnen (see Tern, Arctic) Synthlibornmplrus m~tiquus(see 319,464,468, 473, 475-478, Stickleback, threespine (Gasterosteas hlurrelet, Ancient) 481, 485-486, 488.489, 642 aculeatus), 293-294, 297-300, yellowfin (Limanda aspera), 316, 303, 306, 309-312, 637 Tanaga Island, 27, 32, 125, 143, 319 in diet of silver salmon, 299 147,497,499, 501 Index 681

Taxiden sp. (Badger, American), 575 decay and decomposition rates, lorvland tundra unit, 204-206, Tayra (Giro barbnm), 57 1 223 212,221-222 Teal, Green-winged (Anns crecca), distribution by topoenvironmental upland tundra unit, 204-206, 212, 232, 248-249, 620 units, 204-205, 210, 218 222.225 Teal Creek, 252 disturbance by Cannikin, 204, Topography, submarine, 14-15, 25, Teal Creek Fault (see Faults, Geo- 219-220, 226, 644 30, 467-468 logic) disturbance categories, 220 Toposequence, 179-181, 186-187, Tectonic ponds, 290-291 disturbance by Milrow, 208, 226. 210, 218 Tectonics, 13-15 637 Topside, 43 See also Earthquakes; Vulcanism frost heaving of, 219, 222, 225 Topside Creek, 5 microclim8te affecting, 218-219 Trace elements, inhibiting effect on Telmessus cheiragonus, 423-424 nl~trientsources, 223-224 carbon fixation in freshwater Temperature previous investigations, 203 ponds and lakes, 280,284 air, 53-54 primary consumers of, 218, 223- Transplants body, sea otter and other 224 of Dolly Varden, 629, 636, 644 animals, 575-576 productivity of, 210, 212, 223 of sea otter, 154-155, 501-503, vs. depth underground, 4445 rats as primary consumers of, 507, 631-632 seawater, 335-337, 531 205, 218, 224 Transport velocity, marine, 335, 340 soil, 181, 195 recovery on disturbed areas, 204- Trawlers (see Fisheries, national) Tern 205, 208, 220-221, 225-226 Trichodofc trichodon (see Sandfish, Aleutian (Sterna aleutica), sampling methods, 204-205 Pacific) predator on marine fish, 482 secondary succession, lack of, Trifoliunz repens (sweet clover), 629 Arctic (Sterna arcticn), predator 154,225 Triglopspingeli (see Sculpin, ribbed) on marine fish, 482 specieslist, 212, 215-217 Triglops scepticus (see Sculpin, Terraces, marine Thais en~arginata,423-424 spectacled) elevated, 16-18, 26-27, 29-30, Thais lamellosa, 423-424 Triglops sp., 464, 467 161-164, 166, 168, 170, 172, Thaislima, 416-417, 419, 423-424, Tritium (Hydrogen-3), 580, 584, 175 537, 540-542, 544, 547, 552, 587, 590, 592-594,632 intertidal bench, 19 557-558 See also Hydrogen submerged, 16-17, 30 Thalassiophyllum clathrus, 369, in Long Shot mud pits, 587, 592- Terrestrial ecosystem, schematic 373-374, 381,383, 385,420,537- 595,632 model of, 223-224 539, 541, 543, 546-549, 551-552, MPC and RPG, 593 Terrestrial invertebrates, as primary 566,562 Tritium Units defined, 592 consumers and decomposers, 223- Thamnolin uermicularis, 184, 192- Troglodytes troglodytes (see Wren, 224 193 Winter) Terrestrial plant communities Therngra chalcogramma (see Tsunami, 132.133, 161-162, 164 beach and dune unit, grass stands, Pollock, walleye) effects on Aleuts, 75, 80 205-206, 211, 222-223 Thermal conductance Tundra, maritime, 203, 205-206, succulents, 205-206, 223 of harbor seal, 575 219-220 "breakaway" tundra, 182, 205- of sea otter, 574-575 Tundra soils, 179 206, 218, 221 of snowshoe hare (Lepus ameri- Tunicates, 467, 476 crowber~y-grass-sedge meadow, canus), 574 205-206, 208-210, 212-214, Thornyhead, shortspine (Sebastolo- Turf falls and rockfalls caused by 218-223, 225 bus alascnnus), 464, 467 nuclear testing, 636, 638, 640 crowberry-grass stripe, 205-207, Tltysanoessa inermis, 343, 467, 479 Turnstone, Ruddy (Arenaria inter- 212,218, 220,222, 225 Thysanoessn longipes, 467, 479 pre~) crowberry-sedge-grass meadow, Thysanoessa sp., 622 predator on marine littoral in- 205-206, 212-214, 218-219, Thyxotrophy, 190,192 vertebrates, 405 221, 223 Tide pools and channels in marine Turtonia ntinuta, 416-417, 429, ephemeral pools, 205-206 littoral region, 358, 361 431-432 secondary recovery stands, 205- Tides, patterns and amplitude, 361, 206, 208, 212,218 397-398, 530, 539 sedge-lichen meadow, 205-206, Tilting 209-210, 212-214, 218-220 of lakes, 643 Ulak Island, 497 upland graminoid, 205-207, 210, Pleistocene, 26-27, 30 Ulothrix pacca, 365 213-214, 218, 222-223 Time zones, 6 seasonal variation in, 370 Terrestrial vegetation Tin Lake, 240, 248 Ulothrix psetcdoflacca, 374 average growing season, 219 Tokidndendron bullota, 368, 378- Ulotltrix sp., 358, 375 biomass, 204, 210, 218, 223 379 Ultra Creek, 210-211, 299-300 birds as primary consumers of, Topoenvironmental units Uva association, in Hedophyllum 218, 224 beach unit, 204-206, 211, 222- zone, 363,365, 368,380,387 cover-frequency indexes, 212-214 223 Ulua fenestrata, 374 Ulvo lnctt~ca,365, 367-368, 371, pH, alkalinity, total hardness, \Vhite Alice site, 631 374, 376, 378-380, 385, 538, 547, specific conductance, chlorides, \Vhite House Cove. 24-25.. 170. . 244 552,621 274-276 IVidgeon, European (Anas penelope), Ulun sp., 366, 368, 37 1, 384 phosphate phosphorus, 276-277 248 Ulvoids, as early colonizers in dis- quality, 39-41 Wildfire, in terrestrial vegetation, turbed marine littoral areas, solids, 276 219 376-380 \Vaterfowl Wind, 54-57 See also Ulva lactuca and Ulva sp. freshwater, population estimates prevailing surface, 623 Umak Island, 497 and distribution, 233-234, 238, storm systems, 53, 55-56 Umbelliferae, 222 247-249 topographic effects on, 56-57 Unmak Island, 3, 32, 61-62, 83, marine, population estimates and \Vindstortn, Project, 129-130 109, 120, 125, 147-149, 164, distribution, 233-234, 238, Windy Island, 16, 24, 72, 170, 232 354,397 249 as bird-nesting habitat, 232 Unalaska Island, 23, 75, 109, 117, species reguiatly found in pelagic 120, 124, 142.147, 203, 354,397, waters, 237 \Volverine (Gulo grclo), 571 494-495,497 \Vave action atid shock, 554, 557- \Vorld \Var I1 Unimak Island, 80, 109, 124, 132, 558 and the Aleuts, 124-125 149, 333, 335, 337, 354, 397, \\'easel (Uustela sp.), 571 the campaign in the Aleutians, 522 \Yeather (see Climate) 124-129 Urchin Point (Shemya Island), 534, Weathering effect on Amchitka, 628-631 542,554 felsenmeer, 172, 176.177, 185- evacuation of Amchitka after, 128 Uria anlge (see h,lurre, Common) 199 human wastes as nutrient source Uria lotttuia (see Aiurre, Thick- of intertidal platform, 164 in freshwater ponds and lakes, billed) tors, 172, 174 277. 280 Urosporn pencilliformis, 373 Weedy plant taxa, absence of in ter- Norway rat introduced during, Urtica lynNii on Aleut middens, 223 restrial ecosystem, 212, 225 261-262 U. S. nuclear tests (other than those \Vhale salvage after, 129-130 at Amchitka), 580 Baird's beaked (Bernrditis bnirdi), \\'ren, Winter (Troglodytes troglo. 505 dy tes) beluga (Delphimpterus leucas), geographic affinities, 257 Vaccinitrm sp., 222 505 population density in beach hahi- Vaccitti~rrnvitis-idaea, 222 blue (Bnlaenoptern mascul~rs), tat, 244-245 Veronica stelleri, 220 328,505 compared with that of Buldir, Viperfish, Pacific (Cltauliodas bo\vhead (Balaettn mysticetas), 245 ntncou~ti),461,464,467,476-477, 505 population estimates, breeding, 479,481 Cuvier's beaked (Ziphius cavirost- 238 Vista Island, 170, 232, 247 ris), 505 total, 235 as bird-nesting habitat, 232, 247 fin or finback (Balaenoptera predator on marine littoral in- Vitrinella sp., 413.414 physnlas), 316, 328-329, 505 vertebrates, 405 Vulcanism, 14-16, 22-24, 26-27, 61, glay (Eschriclttius robrrstus), 505 rat predation on, 265.266, 629 66, 68, 79-80, 152 humpback (dlegaptera novaeotzg- age of, 22 line), 328, 505 effects on Aleuts, 61, 68, 80 little piked (Bnlaenoptera acuto- islands involved, 66, 68 rostrata), 505 Zeto Point (Adak Island), 534 Vulpesfirlun (see Fox, red) Pacific right (Balae~taglacialis), Zinouaea ncanthocnrpa, 382 505 Ziphitcs cauirostris (~uvier'sBeaked pilot (Globicephala scamttroni), Whale), 505 \Valrus, Pacific (Odobe,ius rostna- 506 Zirconium-95, 584, 589-592, 595 ?us), 506, 509 sei (Bnlaenoptera borealis), 316. Zonation of marine littoral and sub- \Varbonnet, mosshead (Cl~irolophis 328-329, 505 littoral algae, 362-369, 378-380 nagntor), 456 spelm (Pltyseter catodon), 316, general classification scheme, 363 \Varfarin, in rat control, 265 328, 505 Zooplankton Water, sea (see Seawater) Stejneger's bcaked (hfesoplodon in freshwater ponds and lakes \Vater chemistry of freshwater stej~tegeri),505 cladocerans and copepods, 281- ponds, lakes, and streams White Alice communications sys- 282 Ca, Na, K, 276-277 tem, 130, 623 rotifers, 281 elemental con~positionby mass \Vhite Alice Creek, 38-40, 130, 273, marine, 344-351 spectrometry, 277-280 305-306, 309, 311, 386,643-644 Zostero sp., 148 This page intentionally left blank

NOTICE This book war prepared as an account of work sponsored by the United States Government. Neither the United States nor the Unitd States Energy Research and Development Administration, nor any of their employees, nor any of their contractors, subcontractors, or their employees, maker any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility far the accuracy. completenass or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product or process disclosed, ar represents that its use wwld not infringe privately awned rights. AMCHITKAValidity ISLAND, (JUI~,1969) ALASKA

PLATE IX -Lagend I Soil smup a, Soii group 0, ,m§oil gmup oJwciation 9. b y Soil smup b Soil group bh soil grpup assaciotion bbh % s,~ilgtoupassociation bhb soil grw~e ~~ii#imp asmeiotisn o,bh soil gmup asroeintion b,bh,~= $oil gq~p~svmiation c,m soil group assodation c,M,h mfl group ussodatlon c,ae,bh 1 Thioh: mot h Ssil greup h d Disturbed arm I 1 I I I I 1 I Sso Mter Rtii

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W -9 S:OlLS MAP, AMCH ITKA ISLAND, ALASKA - Validity (July, 1969) - PLATE U Cmrm Reefer Pohf Leaend R Soil glroup o, soil '"UP ' Soil group a~s~cintion0, b - - Soil gmup b 5 Soil group bh fl Seil greup association bbh ] . Sail group association bhb Soil group e - Soil group ossooioticn o.bh - jCIJ Soil group ~swciationb.bh,nI 08 Soil group associotlon e.M a sail group assooiation c,ce.b Soil group a~soointionc,ce,bh I Thick mot -

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I 1 I I 1 I I 1 - - - - I I I I I I I 1 I I - - - SOILS MAP, AMCH ITKA ISLAND. ALASKA Validity (July, 1969) -

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sm alter Paint

PLATE m Legend b sell qvauo 0, @ 9911 BrOUP BP @ Sod group os6oCloliOn 0.b ISO~I group b Sail @mup bh b Sol1 group ossoc~ottonbbh Sail group ossociotian bhb soil gaup e So11 grou!, oss~clotiono,bh Sorl group oseonolion b,bh,o, set1 associotron c,m soil +faup osaoc~otlnnc,~e,b Sail group P~saCidtlonc,ce,bh t Thrck mot h Soil grdlip h d Disturbed area

a m ym rwt-1 SOILS MAP, AMCHITKA ISLAND. ALASKA Validity (July,l969)

UTE I

I son Coup a, W!gr6ua a, & SQ~Igraup usqsiotien aib sot1 *q h mi! mP,UR bh Sail group oue~iationbbh @ Seil (dup ddianbhb gme B s.il qrws oatvdrflan +h 9dl swp mraCdton b,bh.at soic -up -rntian u.m I( spit WP ~~@!anti.m,ll & *I qroup o...oo~ottnno.cbbh i rnitr mt h SaM om%#h P oMurm-- (.VBEvdl I)