Science Teachers Taketo Thestage

Home , Clyde Cowan, Science on Stage Europe

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How many schools Summer 2011 Issue19 and teachers do you reach – worldwide? In this issue: A planet from another galaxy

Also: Science teachers taketo thestage

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Initially supported by the European Union: Subscribe (free in Europe): www.scienceinschool.org Highlighting the best in science teaching and research About Science in School Science in School promotes inspiring science teaching by encouraging communication between Editorial teachers, scientists and everyone else involved in European science education. The journal addresses science teaching both across Europe and across disciplines: highlighting the best in teaching and cutting-edge research. It covers not only biology, physics and chemistry, ife in space – scientists and lay people alike but also earth sciences, engineering and medicine, focusing on interdisciplinary work. are intrigued by this possibility. Recently, The contents include teaching materials; cutting- edge science; interviews with young scientists astronomers have found a planet orbiting and inspiring teachers; reviews of books and other L resources; and European events for teachers and a star that entered the Milky Way from another schools. galaxy (see page 26). Does that whet your appetite Science in School is published quarterly, both online and in print. The website is freely available, with for space travel? Why not discuss what we would articles in many European languages. The English- language print version is distributed free of charge need to live on another planetary body and get your within Europe. students to design a space habitat (see page 43)? Contact us Dr Eleanor Hayes / Dr Marlene Rau One of the many considerations for this activity is cosmic radiation – Science in School European Molecular Biology Laboratory high-energy particles that fall on Earth and other planets from space. Meyerhofstrasse 1 69117 Heidelberg One type of particle produced by cosmic rays is the neutrino; as Susana Germany Cebrián explains, thousands of them pass through your body in the time [email protected] Subscriptions it takes you to read these lines (see page 55). Register online to: · Receive an email alert when each issue is published Whereas huge detectors are necessary to find neutrinos, UK physics · Request a free print subscription (within Europe) · Swap ideas with teachers and scientists in the teacher Becky Parker and her students use tiny detectors to find other Science in School online forum cosmic particles – doing real science at school, with help from CERN. · Post comments on articles in Science in School. Submissions Learn more about the project and how to join on page 69. We welcome articles submitted by scientists, teachers and others interested in European science education. Another inspiring science teacher, Bernhard Sturm, introduced his See the author guidelines on our website. students to the chemistry of amber (see page 36). This fossilised resin is Referee panel Before publication, Science in School articles are also analysed by palaeontologists at the European Synchrotron Radiation reviewed by European science teachers to check that Facility, where their chemist colleagues have recently revealed why the they are suitable for publication. If you would like to join our panel of referees, please read the guidelines famously bright yellows of van Gogh’s paintings are darkening over time on our website. (see page 19). The culprit is thought to be a chemical reaction initiated Book reviewers If you teach science in Europe and would like to by light. review books or other resources for Science in School, please read the guidelines on our website. Reverse this process and, as Emma Welsh explains, the result is Translators We offer articles online in many European languages. chemiluminescence: the production of light from a chemical reaction If you would like to volunteer to translate articles into (see page 62). One of the applications of chemiluminescence is the your own language, please read the guidelines for translators on our website. detection of blood at crime scenes using luminol. Forensic scientists,

however, perform not only chemical but also genetic analyses, such as Advertising in Science in School – new lower prices DNA fingerprinting. Using this method, your students can solve a murder Science in School is the only European journal aimed at secondary-school science teachers across Europe mystery in the Gene Jury team’s DNA detective game (see page 30). and across the full spectrum of sciences. It is freely available online, and 15 000 full-colour printed If that sounds too lurid, you may prefer the Moja Island role play, to copies are distributed each quarter. The readership of Science in School includes determine the best sustainable energy solutions for fictitious island everyone involved in European science teaching, communities (see page 50). including: · Secondary-school science teachers · Scientists Is background reading what you are looking for, rather than games? Then · Primary-school teachers you may be interested in Laurence Reed and Jackie de Belleroche’s report · Teacher trainers · Science communicators. on the latest research into schizophrenia (see page 13), Andrew Wildes’ Web advertisements description of his life as a neutron scientist at the Institut Laue-Langevin Reach over 30 000 science educators worldwide every month. (see page 10), or one of the book or website reviews by our readers. You · € 200-350 per week can find all these articles and more on the Science in School website Print advertisements Reach over 15 000 readers per issue. (www.scienceinschool.org). · Full page: € 1495 · Half page: € 999 Marlene Rau · Quarter page: € 560 · Back cover (full page): € 1995 Editor of Science in School Distribution [email protected] Distribute flyers, DVDs or other materials to 3000 named subscribers or to all 15 000 print recipients. www.scienceinschool.org For more information, see www.scienceinschool.org/advertising or contact [email protected]

i I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Contents

Image courtesy of Vlue / iStockphoto i Editorial News from the EIROs 2 Rockets, genomes and particle accelerators Event 6 Science teachers take to the stage Feature article 13 10 Life in the line of fire Image courtesy of the Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam Cutting-edge science 13 Investigating the causes of schizophrenia 19 Van Gogh’s darkening legacy 26 A planet from another galaxy Teaching activities 30 The DNA detective game 36 Amber: an introduction to organic chemistry 19 Science education projects 43 Building a space habitat in the classroom Image courtesy of dtimiraos / iStockphoto 50 Moja Island: learning about renewable energy sources Science topics 55 Neutrinos: an introduction 62 What is chemiluminescence? Teacher profile 69 Schoolhouse scientists 30

Image courtesy of NASA Additional online material Reviews Exploring the Mystery of Matter: The ATLAS Experiment Ask a Biologist website 2010-2011 State of the Wild: A Global Portrait

Forthcoming events for schools: www.scienceinschool.org/events To read the whole issue, see: www.scienceinschool.org/2011/issue19 43

At the end of each article in this issue, you may notice a square black and white pattern. With the aid of a smart phone, this QR code will lead you straight to the online version of the article. All you need to do is download a free QR code reader app (such as BeeTagg or i-Nigma) for your smart phone and scan the code with your phone’s camera. To find a suitable one for your phone, see: http://tinyurl.com/byk4wg Hint: the apps works better in good light conditions, and with a steady hand. You may also want to try holding your camera at different distances from the code. You can then use all the live links to the references and resources, download the PDF, send the article to your friends, leave comments, and much more. What do you think about this new feature? Does it work for you? Leave your feedback here: www.scienceinschool.org/QRfeedback

Image courtesy of Kamioka Observatory, 55 ICRRwww.scienceinschool.org (Institute for Cosmic Ray Research), Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 1 The University of Tokyo The permanent exhibition ‘The Universe of particles’ at CERN

Rockets, genomes

and particle accelerators N ER / C lut ngb el Ju cha f Mi sy o urte e co Imag

Science in School is published by EIROforum, a collaboration of research organisations. Eleanor Hayes, Editor-in-Chief of Science in School, reviews some of the latest news from the EIROforum members.

mous particle accelerators, beams of CERN: visit the world’s largest neutrons or high-energy X-rays, large particle physics laboratory telescopes or the International Space In 2010, a stunning 58 000 people Station. visited CERN in Geneva, Switzerland. Whether individually or as part of The permanent exhibition entitled EIROforum, the EIROs are also in- ‘The Universe of particles’ attracts EIROforum volved in many outreach and educa- many visitors, offering them an over- IROforum, the publisher of Sci- tion activities – for school students, view of CERN’s research goals, tools ence in School, is a partnership teachers and the general public. Sci- and impact throughout the world. of eight European inter-govern- ence in School is one example of a joint After that, many visitors go on to find mentalE scientific research organisa- EIROforum activity; this article details out more about the research at CERN, tions (EIROs). As regular readers of other research and outreach activities visiting the control centre, the com- Science in School will know, the range at some of the EIROs. puter centre and SM18, a large hall of research done at these organisations For a list of EIROforum-related articles housing cross-sections of the magnets varies widely – from molecular biol- in Science in School, see: used in the Large Hadron Collider ogy to astronomy, from fusion energy www.scienceinschool.org/eiroforum (LHC), some superconducting cables to space science. The equipment is To learn more about EIROforum, see: and a life-size model of a section of also very disparate – including enor- www.eiroforum.org the LHC tunnel.

2 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org News from the EIROs

Image courtesy of Mel Cunningham By the end of 2012, CERN plans to www.magnificentrevolution.org/diy/ make the experience yet more spec- single-bike-generator www.pedalpowergenerator.com tacular for its visitors, with an even more realistic model of the LHC tun- If you prefer an energy bike for hire to nel, plus high-tech audiovisual tools come to your school, try Global Action to make the roles of the control centre Plan UK. See: www.globalactionplan. org.uk/energy-bike and computer centre clearer. To learn more about EFDA-JET, see: Why not apply to visit CERN with your www.jet.efda.org students (aged 12 and over)? For more For a list of EFDA-JET-related articles in details, see: http://outreach.web.cern. Science in School, see: ch/outreach/visites/index.html www.scienceinschool.org/efdajet The CERN education website offers information about all the teacher programmes, as well as educational resources for schools. See: http://education.web.cern.ch/ education/Welcome.html EMBL on air: ten years of the To find out more about the world’s largest Chris Warrick from EFDA-JET faces human genome N the ‘pedal power challenge’ ER and most powerful particle accelerator, / C lut ngb the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, It was a global endeavour to rival el Ju icha of M esy see: the space race: billions of dollars in- ourt age c Im Landua R, Rau M (2008) The LHC: vested, a massive international effort a step closer to the Big Bang. This involved a ‘pedal power chal- of singular scientific, medical, indus- Science in School 10: 26-33. lenge’ to find out how hard you have trial and societal significance. The www.scienceinschool.org/2008/ to pedal a static bicycle to produce nail-bitingly close and bitterly fought issue10/lhcwhy and enough energy for lighting up even a battle culminated in the publication Landua R (2010) The LHC: a look single light bulb (15 Watt). There were on 15 and 16 February 2001 of two inside. Science in School 10: 34-45. plenty of volunteers who wanted to scientific papers, one in Nature and www.scienceinschool.org/2008/ test their own energy and stamina the other in Science, of the first draft issue10/lhchow at the fusion stand, as it is obviously sequence of the human genome. For a list of CERN-related articles easier to relate to explanations of the To celebrate ten years since the pub- in Science in School, see: global energy challenge in terms of an lication of the sequence, the European www.scienceinschool.org/cern individual’s energy needs. Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) To learn more about CERN, see: Why not visit EFDA-JET and its scientists www.cern.ch yourself? The Culham Centre for Fusion Energy runs special tours of the facilities as well as offering Open Evenings and running a great outreach pro- EFDA-JET: powered by humans gramme including the ‘Sun Dome’, an Image courtesy of Petra Riedinger / EMBL The young fusion scientists working exciting science roadshow for school at EFDA-JET in Culham, UK, make students aged 10-12. every effort to get the message about For more information on the outreach their research out to you, the public. programme and to visit EFDA-JET, see: In addition to their ‘day jobs’ in the www.ccfe.ac.uk lab, many are keen and happy to un- To find out more about the annual dertake outreach and education work. Oxfordshire Science Festival, see: A group of them recently gave up www.oxfordshiresciencefestival.co.uk their Saturday to join the very popular To build your own human powered opening event of the annual Oxford- bicycle generator, see: shire Science Festival, explaining why http://scienceshareware.com/ fusion research is so important in the bike_gen.htm Biologists are still striving to link genetic context of energy for the future of the www.instructables.com/id/ information to observable characteristics world. Bike-Generator

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 3 released a podcast describing what teachers with free materials for teach- At public events like Greenlight the breakthrough has meant for EMBL ing space science and astronomy, and for Girls days, the ESERO activities science and scientists. “The human develops resources to meet the needs are popular with children, who enjoy genome sequence provided a blue- of the national education communi- launching water rockets or making print of all the protein-coding genes in ties. comets out of dry ice, starch, soil, the human genome for the first time,” Founded in 2006, ESERO Belgium is water and window cleaner. In the fu- explains one EMBL scientist, Jan El- a collaboration between ESA and the ture, ESERO Belgium hopes to extend lenberg. “This changed how we go Belgian Federal Science Policy Office, its workshops to secondary-school about studying protein function.” based in Brussels at the Planetarium trainee teachers. The second in a new online series of the Royal Observatory of Belgium. For information about all the aimed at the general public, this In cooperation with colleges in Flan- ESEROs, see: www.esa.int/esero podcast is complemented by a written ders and Brussels, it offers weekly Greenlight for Girls encourages girls of article and visuals. To view the grow- workshops for trainee teachers on all ages to consider a future in maths, ing collection, see: www.embl.de/ how to teach children about space and science, engineering and technology aboutus/communication_outreach/ astronomy. The young teachers work by introducing them to the world explore together to make and launch rockets of science in fun and exciting ways. fuelled by vinegar and baking pow- To find out more, see: See the original 2001 research papers: der, build a lunar landscape out of www.greenlightforgirls.org International Human Genome plaster or use paper to build a model To learn more about the European Space Sequencing Consortium (2001) of the Solar System. They use quiz- Agency, see: www.esa.int Human genome. Nature 409: zes and games to help the children For a list of all ESA-related articles 860-921. doi:10.1038/35057062 published in Science in School, see: Download the article free of charge to learn and remember. Many of the www.scienceinschool.org/esa from the Science in School website participants are amazed at how much (www.scienceinschool.org/2011/ fun – and how easy – teaching about issue19/eiroforum#resources), space can be. ESO: planet formation in action? or subscribe to Nature today: www.nature.com/subscribe Planets form from the Venter JC et al. (2001) The sequence discs of material around of the human genome. Science 291: young stars, but the transi- 1304-1351. doi: 10.1126/ tion from dust disc to science.1058040 planetary system is rapid, For a list of EMBL-related and few objects have been detected

articles in Science in School, see: Images courtesy of Ellen Geerts, ESERO Belgium during this phase. One such object is www.scienceinschool.org/embl T Chamaeleontis (T Cha), a faint star To learn more about EMBL, see: in the small southern constellation of www.embl.org Launching water rockets Chamaeleon that is comparable to the at a science day Sun, but very near the beginning of its life (the Sun is about half-way through its life). T Cha lies about 350 light- ESA years from Earth and is only about When you think of the European seven million years old. Space Agency (ESA), do you fantasise After careful analysis with the Very about being an astronaut or consider Large Telescope of the European ESA’s wide range of research and Southern Observatory (ESO), a group technology development? Did you of astronomers found the clear signa- know that, with the help of partners ture of an object located within a gap in Belgium, Ireland, the Netherlands, in the dust disc, about one billion kilo- Norway and the UK, ESA also offers metres from the star – slightly further training sessions and conferences for out than Jupiter is within our Solar primary- and secondary-school teach- System and close to the outer edge ers? Through the European Space of the gap. This is the first detection How are impact craters Education Resource Offices (ESEROs) formed? Let’s find out! of an object much smaller than a star in these countries, ESA also provides within a gap in the planet-forming

4 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org News from the EIROs Image courtesy of ESO / L Calçada Image courtesy of P Ginter / ESRF

This artist’s impression shows the disc around the young star T Cha. Using ESO’s Very Large Telescope, this disc has been found to be in two parts, a narrow ring close to the star and the remainder of the disc material much further Sample stage (centre) and 2D detector out. A companion object, seen in the foreground, has been detected in the (background) on ESRF beamline ID23, gap in the disc; it may be either a brown dwarf or a large planet. The inner where the GPCR protein structures dust disc is lost in the glare of the star on this picture were determined

dust disc around a young star. The ESRF: I can sense your heartbeat to four different agonists. These evidence suggests that the companion structures enabled the researchers to More than a quar- object cannot be a normal star, but it identify the interactions that appear to ter of all drugs work could be either a brown dwarf sur- be crucial in signal transmission. thanks to G-protein- rounded by dust or, most excitingly, a To learn more, see the news article on the coupled receptors recently formed planet. ESRF website (www.esrf.eu/news/ (GPCRs). These general/GPCR-structure) and the To learn more, see the press release proteins are embed- research paper: (www.eso.org/public/news/eso1047) ded in the cell membrane and bind Warne T et al. (2011) The structural and the research papers: other molecules, relaying the signals basis for agonist and partial agonist Olofsson J et al. (2011) Warm dust conveyed by them through the mem- action on a β -adrenergic receptor. resolved in the cold disk around T brane. This process often transmits 1 Chamaeleontis with VLTI / AMBER. Nature 469: 241–244. doi: sensory information or changes in Astronomy & Astrophysics 528: L6. 10.1038/nature09746 doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201016074 the physiological state from one cell Download the article free of charge β www.eso.org/public/archives/releases/ to another. The 1-adrenergic recep- from the Science in School website sciencepapers/eso1106/eso1106a.pdf tor, for example, is the GPCR relaying (www.scienceinschool.org/2011/ Huélamo N et al. (2011) A com- a signal conveyed by the release of issue19/eiroforum#resources), or panion candidate in the gap of the adrenalin or related agonists into cells subscribe to Nature today: T Chamaeleontis transitional disk. in a number of organs including the www.nature.com/subscribe Astronomy & Astrophysics 528: L7. heart, where it leads to an increase of For a list of ESRF-related articles doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201016395 the heart rate, one of the most impor- in Science in School, see: www.eso.org/public/archives/releases/ tant body functions. www.scienceinschool.org/esrf sciencepapers/eso1106/eso1106b.pdf Determining the structure and func- To learn more about ESRF, see: To find out more about ESO’s Very Large β tion of 1-adrenergic receptor could www.esrf.eu Telescope, see: therefore help pharmaceutical compa- Pierce-Price (2006) Running one of nies to develop more efficient drugs. the world’s largest telescopes. However, good crystals of these pro- Science in School 1: 56-60. teins are extremely difficult to make. www.scienceinschool.org/2006/ issue1/telescope With the help of micro-focus X-ray beams at the European Synchrotron For more information about ESO, see: www.eso.org Radiation Facility (ESRF), however, Tony Warne and colleagues from the For a list of ESO-related articles MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology To learn how to in Science in School, see: use this code, see www.scienceinschool.org/eso in Cambridge, UK, were able to solve page 1. four structures of this receptor, bound www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 5 Eye-catching stage shows are an integral part of Science on Stage

Science teachers take to the stage Science recognises no national borders – and neither does Science on Stage, the network for European science teachers. Eleanor Hayes attended the international festival.

Image courtesy of Science on Stage Europe

oth Science in School and the the school receives visitors from home with so many simple ideas I Science on Stage network across the world, eager to learn can try out straightaway. For example for teachers were initiated about the school’s philosophy of Katerina Lipertova’s ‘Playful physics’ by EIROforum, so as a representative teaching in open spaces – and to see projectw2 from the Czech Republic, B w1 of both EIROforum and Science in the architecture that supports such to build little moveable toys out of School, I was delighted to attend the teaching. recycled materials – it was simple and Science on Stagew2 international teach- During the festival, which took not expensive.” ing festival in April 2011. Where better place during the school holidays, There were also more than 30 to find teaching activities to share the fair occupied the open spaces on workshops and masterclasses by with you, our readers, than at a fes- all five floors, with teachers from 22 teachers and other experts in science tival of 350 science teachers, selected European countries displaying and educationw3. Paul Nugent, one of the from across Europe for their inspiring discussing 239 teaching projects, and organisers of Science on Stage Ireland, ideas? swapping ideas and experience. With explained: “The masterclasses were The European aspect is one of the so many projects, there was inspira- outstanding – really useful, practi- things that make Science on Stage tion for everyone to take home. cal teaching ideas that could be used so special. As Jörg Gutschank from Christian Selchow from Germany straightaway. I particularly liked the Germany explained, “Meeting people looks forward to trying out what he Spanish masterclass entitled ‘Listen- from so many different countries, you learned from the Czech stand: Zdenek ing to gravity’.” see so much more than you would Polak’s students put an infra-red filter Catherine Tattersall from Ireland, see at teachers’ meetings in your in front of a normal digital camera, whose innovative project with aqua own country.” Helle Houkjaer from and were able to visualise infra-red beads won a prize (see box on page Denmark agreed. “I most enjoyed ex- radiation and investigate how differ- 8), was fascinated by the European changing ideas with colleagues from ent materials react to itw3. “It’s inspir- Space Agency’s (ESA) workshopw3 other countries, and discussing how ing because I’ve already got all the on developing experiments to run on they teach the same subject as I do, materials, and I can work together the International Space Station. She but in another way.” with my students on it – we’ll be in and Shamim Hartevelt (ESA) plan to Appropriately enough, the the same experimental phase,” Chris- investigate whether these beads can festival was held at the Ørestad tian explains. be used to test how plants grow under upper-secondary school in Copen- Siri Krogh from Norway is in her conditions of microgravity. “I would hagen, Denmark. Opened in 2006, first year of teaching. “I will be going be the coolest teacher on Earth if I

6 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Event

could get a science project into space,” as well as videos of 50 of the experi- international festival will be a cross- she enthused. mentsw4. The team are also planning border event, hosted by the adjoining The participants in Angela Köh- workshops, to share the ideas with towns of Frankfurt an der Oder (Ger- ler’s masterclass about ‘Chocolate Irish teachers in a more hands-on way. many) and Słubice (Poland). In the science’w2 learned a lot, but so did she. Think Ing, an initiative of the Ger- run-up to that festival, there will be “Later, people asked me about the man Association of the Metal and dozens of national festivals, competi- project and we discussed the situation Electrical Industry Employers (Gesa- tions, workshops and other events in in their countries and how the project mtmetall), aims to improve science many countries to select the partici- could be used there.” teaching in Germany – and it supports pants. If you would like to join the There’s no doubt that for the 350 not only the German event but also Science on Stage network, exchanging participants, this all-expenses-paid Science on Stage Europe. As Wolfgang ideas and inspiration with colleagues festival was an inspiring experience Gollub from Think Ing explains, “To from across Europe, contact your that will enrich their teaching. But improve science teaching in Germany, national organiser through the Science that is only the tip of the iceberg: each you need to look around Europe, on Stage Europe websitew2. You may of these teachers was selected from look over the fences and try to gather even get to represent your country in among the most inspiring teachers in the best ideas for improving science 2013! their own countries and all of them teaching.” With Thing Ing’s support, will be taking ideas back home to the German team will also be publish- Reference share with their colleagues. ing some of their favourite experi- Hayes E (2010) Science on Stage: w5 Helle Houkjaer already has plans: ments and projects . sharing teaching ideas across “We have a network in our communi- Following a model established Europe. Science in School 16: 2-5. ty with one or two teachers from each by Science on Stage Germany (see www.scienceinschool.org/2010/ school, so at our next meeting, I can Hayes, 2010), Antonio Gandalfi from issue16/sons tell them about what I have learned Italy also hopes to maintain some of here.” the momentum of the international Web references When I spoke to the Irish team, they festival by inviting Science on Stage w1 - EIROforum is a partnership of were also planning to share some of teachers from other countries to run a eight of Europe’s largest inter-gov- the ideas from the festival – not only masterclass for Italian teachers. ernmental research organisations, with their Irish colleagues but also And of course, in forthcoming and is also the publisher of Science with all enthusiastic teachers. As they issues of Science in School, we hope to in School. See: www.eiroforum.org have done after each Physics on Stage share several of the activities from the w2 – To learn more about and Science on Stage festival, they Science on Stage international festival Science on Stage Europe, see: will prepare a downloadable book of with you. www.scienceonstage.eu demonstrations and teaching ideas, Momentum is an important element To find your national contact, including pictures and instructions, of Science on Stage. In 2013, the next click on ‘National activities’, then ‘Science on Stage countries’. Images courtesy of Eleanor Hayes w3 – The abstracts of all projects, workshops and masterclasses at the festival are available in the festival programme, which can be downloaded here: www.scienceonstage.eu/?p=3_2 w4 – To download free books of demonstrations and teaching ideas, chosen by the Irish team at all the previous Science on Stage and Physics on Stage festivals, visit www.scienceonstage.ie w5 – A publication with the German team’s favourite experiments and Georgios Georgiou from Cyprus challenges his students to wire the circuits projects will be freely available for correctly. Can they get the car windscreen wipers to start automatically when download from the Science on it rains? Will the supermarket conveyor belt stop when the food passes the photoelectric barrier? Stage Germany website: www.scienceonstage.de www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 7 Images courtesy of Eleanor Hayes

The winning projects

All the participants at the Science on Stage international festival were winners: they had been selected from among thousands of teachers across Europe for their innovative ideas. But there were further prizes for some lucky participants. 1 EIROforum, as the initiator of Science on Stage, was happy to continue its support in the form of three prizes: reserved all-expenses-paid places in the EIROforum teacher schoolw6 in October 2011, in a CERN teacher 3 schoolw7 and in an EMBL ELLS teacher workshopw8. Furthermore, Intel Corporation sponsored five gener- ous prizes: one of US$2000 and four of US$1000 each. As co-chairs of the award committee, Helle Houkjaer and I agreed on five criteria for a winning project: · Is it innovative? · Is it useable and relevant for science teaching? · Is it educational? · Is it easy for other teachers to repeat? · Does it make good use of minimal resources? Not all our winners had to meet all the criteria and, as Image courtesy of Eleanor Hayes always, it was very difficult to select eight from among so many outstanding projects. After much discussion, Helle, Jörg Gutschank (Germany), Fernand Wagner nologies involved in generating solar energy, then de- (Luxembourg), Michalis Hadjimarcou (Cyprus), Alison signed, developed and built several prototypes and ex- Alexander (UK), Anders Blomqvist (Sweden), Ulrich Jo- periments to explain how we can exploit solar energy han Kudahl (Denmark) and I agreed on the eight win- without using photovoltaic cells. ning projects. Intel prize (US$1000): Ida Regl from Austria for ‘Cosmi Intel prize (US$2000): Michael Vollmer and Kalus-Peter wants to know’, a development of her ‘Sunny side up Möllmann from Germany, for their ‘High speed / low project’ which won an award at Science on Stage 2 in speed’ project to understand the physics of phenomena 2007. Since then, the project has expanded to cover as varied as breaking spaghetti and exploding balloons all four years of primary education and – together with with the aid of inexpensive high-speed cameras. pupils, parents, the local council and scientists from Intel prize (US$1000): Catherine Tattersall from Ire- the university – the school has built a planetary walk. land, for her ‘Colourful science – introducing aqua Visitors can even borrow a rucksack filled with small beads’ project, in which she grew algae on hydroponic experiments to help them on their trip through the Solar gel beads for photosynthesis experiments, soaked the System. More information and instructions for carrying beads in universal indicator solution for pH tests and out the experiments are available on the project web- w9 developed many other innovative uses for the beads. site . She even hopes to send an experiment into space, with Intel prize (US$1000): Olaf Gutschker from Germany, help from the European Space Agency (see page 6). for his ‘Physics from the inside out’ project, which Intel prize (US$1000): Imma Abad and Pere Compte shows how magnetic resonance imaging works, with from Spain for their ‘Thermoelectric solar energy’ the aid of some simple equipment. project, in which the students investigated the tech- Jan Pavelka and Ondrej Pribyla from the Czech Repub- BACKGROUND

8 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org [Michal, can you fill in the gaps? Nicola, I’m still waiting for the answer.]

Event

Images courtesy of Eleanor Hayes w6 – From 9-12 October 2011, EIROforum, 1 Small, portable experiments that fit the publisher of Science in School, will be into a rucksack and can be taken along offering a free, three-day course entitled the Austrian Lichtenberg primary school’s ‘Physics and chemistry of life’ to Euro- planetary trail to demonstrate the science pean science teachers. To learn more, on the planets – and much more see: http://tinyurl.com/eiroschool To read about the first EIROforum teacher 2 Prize-winner Ida Regl from Austria school, see: displays the solar-powered ‘insects’ that Hayes (2010) Teachers and scientists she uses with her primary-school pupils face to face: the first EIROforum teacher to explain science along the planetary 2 trail that the school built school. Science in School 14: 6-9. www.scienceinschool.org/2010/issue14/ eiroforumschool w7 – CERN, the world’s largest particle 4 3 Gianluca Farusi’s Italian project physics laboratory and a member of involves studying chemistry with Pliny EIROforum, offers courses for physics the Elder. You too can smell like Julius teachers in English or in their mother Caesar! tongue, lasting between 3 days and 3 weeks. To learn more, see: http://education.web.cern.ch/education/ 4 Gabriele Sons, managing direc- Welcome.html tor of the German Association of the and Metal and Electrical Industry Employers CERN (2009) Particle physics close up: (Gesamtmetall), one of the sponsors of CERN high-school teachers programme. the festival, investigates audible light on Science in School 13: 4-5. stage www.scienceinschool.org/2009/issue13/ cernlist Image courtesy of Science on Stage Europe w8 – Based at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL, a member lic received the EIROforum prize for their project ‘See the sound, hear of EIROforum), ELLS is a science educa- the light’, which uses light to help us understand basic acoustic con- tion facility that brings secondary-school cepts in a dramatic and appealing way. teachers in contact with EMBL’s scientific environment, fostering mutual exchange For his ‘From rainbows to the chemistry of colours’ project, which uses between European high-school teachers simple home-made apparatus to demonstrate why a rainbow has its and research scientists. For more details, characteristic curved form, Elias Kalogirou from Greece received the see: www.embl.org/ells CERN prize. w9 – To learn more about ‘Cosmi wants to In this, the International Year of Chemistry, chemistry teacher Gianluca know’ and download instructions Farusi from Italy was delighted to win the ELLS prize for his extensive for the planetary experiments, see: and interdisciplinary project ‘Studying chemistry with Pliny the Elder’, www.cosmi.at one of the activities of which was the creation by his students of tel- inum, the perfume used by Julius Caesar. Resources To learn more about these and all other projects, workshops and mas- To read all previous articles terclasses, see the abstracts in the festival programmew3. about Science on Stage, see My EIROforum, CERN and EMBL colleagues look forward to welcom- www.scienceinschool.org/sons ing the prize-winners at their teacher workshops, where they will have the chance to develop their ideas together with research scientists and other exceptional science teachers. Congratulations to the prize-winners, but also to all 350 participants at the Science on Stage international festival. I hope to see some of you, our readers, at the next festival. To learn how to use this code, see page 1.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 9

Division

of labour: as an courte Image sy of And instrument scientist, rew W ild Andrew Wildes holds e s several diverse responsibilities Life in the line of fire All major X-ray and neutron facilities employ instrument scientists, who are experimental experts, liaison officers and researchers rolled into one. Andrew Wildes from the Institut Laue-Langevin explains how he juggles his daily tasks.

or the past 14 years I have are different, although there is some been working as an instru- overlap between the science that can ment scientist at the Institut be studied with them. I like to think of Laue-LangevinF (ILL) in Grenoble, the institute as a giant toolbox where France. Life in the French Alps is scientists can choose the right tool to certainly a far cry from my origins in solve each problem that comes along. the flatlands of Victoria in Australia, although the quality of the wine is Three jobs in one comparable. I came to Europe after The ILL employs about 70 full-time completing a physics degree at the scientists, and our work is roughly University of Melbourne, and a doc- divided into three parts. First, we torate in condensed-matter physics at each have responsibility for main- measure the properties of surfaces and Monash University, both in Victoria. taining and developing one of the sub-surface interfaces buried inside Initially I worked in the UK at Oxford instruments. I work on D17, which is a sample. The instrument is always University on neutron and X-ray scat- a neutron reflectometer designed to changing as we think of ways to im- tering experiments, but then, just be- prove it – from boosting the neutron fore my contract ended, I was offered intensity to developing the software a job at the ILL. Although I have now D17, a neu- used to run it. The scientific experi- tron reflectometer spent more time working here than on ments conducted with D17 are very designed to measure both my degrees and my postdoc put the properties of surfaces broad in scope, ranging from studies together, it feels much shorter! and sub-surface inter- of biological membranes to chemical Image courtesy of ILL / Briq The ILL is a high-neutron-flux faces buried inside a catalysis and magnetism, so careful research facility and is arguably the sample thought and lateral thinking are re- most powerful source of neutrons in quired to optimise each experiment. the world. More than 40 instruments Second, instrument scientists have for experimental science are attached local contact duties, which means to the nuclear reactor that produces helping visiting academics to carry the neutrons. Most of the instruments out and interpret their experiments. are used for neutron scattering, in The ILL welcomes about 2000 scien- addition to four for nuclear phys- tists each year who perform a total ics, one for radiography and one for of about 750 experiments during interferometry. All the instruments that time. Anyone can propose an

10 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Feature article

Physics Nuclear physics Physics careers Ages 16-19

Andrew Wildes, an instrument scientist at the Institut Laue-Langevin, discusses his life as a professional scientist and gives an insight into the workings of a large international scientific facility. The article would make a good starting point for a discussion of the careers available to scientists, and to physicists in particular. It also provides some information about how large-scale international facilities are run and how they operate.

REVIEW Alby Reid, UK

Image courtesy of ILL / P Ginter

VIVALDI, a Image courtesy of ILL /Artechnique typical neutron and the type of experiment, and the Laue diffrac- Neutron tometer visitors want to get the best use out of every available neutron. guides, down which the beams This aspect of the work can be very q / Bri of neutrons ILL of rewarding, as my colleagues and I are esy urt pass co e exposed to new and exciting ideas, ag and get to meet many people. We can Im act as the local contact on any of the instruments at the ILL. As well as working on D17, I often act as the local contact for the three-axis spectrometers, which are instruments experiment at the ILL, but they must particularly suited for be approved through competitive sci- measuring structural and entific evaluation. Once a proposal is magnetic vibrations in accepted, the researchers are assigned crystals. Being able to beam time to carry out the experiment. work on other instru- Neutron-scattering experiments typi- ments means that I can cally take between two days and two collaborate closely with weeks, depending on the instrument visitors as they move www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 11 Image courtesy of ILL / Artechnique

around the facilities at the ILL – far more satisfying than being confined to one-off experiments on a single instrument. Third, all instrument scientists have their own research programmes. Ultimately, the ILL is judged on the The ILL science that it produces, and we are reactor encouraged to publish our work regularly. My research is in the meas- urement of magnetic structures and it can be very difficult to find time for science and also employ instrument dynamics. A neutron has no electrical your own research. The reactor runs scientists who are trained in chemistry charge, but it does have a magnetic for four cycles of 50 days each year, or biology. moment that will interact with any and during these cycles it can be very Am I still enjoying working at the magnetic induction in a sample, busy indeed. Between cycles, there is ILL after 14 years? In Nick Hornby’s which makes neutron scattering a more time to concentrate on analys- novel How To Be Good, the main sensitive probe for experiments in ing data, writing journal articles and character compares science and the magnetism. One of my research pro- attending conferences, although any arts, saying one is “all empathy and grammes looks at the magnetic struc- major modifications to the instrument imagination and exploration and the tures of iron-based metallic glasses, must also be made while the reactor is shock of the new, and the outcome is which are poorly understood, but are shut down. Finding time for holidays uncertain”. That is how I feel about used widely in industry. Another pro- during all this can lead to friction, my job, every day. In fact, Hornby’s gramme looks at magnetic structures particularly when trying to negotiate character was actually talking about and vibrations in low-dimensional with one’s family. the arts, going on to say that science materials, such as thin magnetic films. Nevertheless, being an instrument “presses this button, then that one, Research is probably the most chal- scientist means having a great job, and bingo! Things happen. It’s like lenging and the most fun part of my tremendous fun and plenty of ca- operating a lift”. Believe me, this is work, as I am free to use my imagina- reer opportunities. A few years ago, nothing like what we do, and just goes tion and pursue the science that I find neutron scattering was considered to show that Hornby should spend the most interesting. to be in decline, with many of the more time in a physics lab. older neutron sources being closed A career with neutrons down. However, there is a new wave Acknowledgement The division of time between the of investment with the construction This is an updated version of an three parts of an instrument scientist’s of many new and powerful neutron article published in Physics World (see job can fluctuate enormously. You sources all over the world, and also Wildes, 2007) and is reproduced with must fight to make time for all three, with new instrumentation at estab- kind permission of the publisher. and sometimes it feels as though you lished sources like the ILL. Instrument do, in fact, have three jobs! In particu- scientists are in great demand, so it is Reference lar, when there are problems on the an excellent time to start a career with Wildes A (2007) Life in the line of fire. instrument or visitors needing help, neutrons. Physics World Sept 2007: 52-53 A good way to begin is to try courtesy of Resources Image ILL / Ar neutron experiments during doctoral tech niq ue work. I used neutron scattering dur- To learn more about neutron research,

ing my PhD for magnetic-structure FlatCone, see: http://neutron.neutron-eu.net determination, which taught me the one of ILL’s To find out more about ILL, basics and introduced me to many three-axis see www.ill.eu spectrometers other people who use neutrons, some of whom I now work with on a regular basis. A background in physics is useful for an instrument scientist, as

the techniques are all physics-based, To learn how to but centres like the ILL have excellent use this code, see opportunities for multidisciplinary page 1.

12 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Cutting edge-science

Investigating the causes of schizophrenia

Laurence Reed and Jackie de Belleroche discuss

schizophrenia – Image courtesy of Vlue / iStockphoto and how functional genomics could help to identify its causes.

Biology For example, the article could be used in a lesson on Medicine diseases that are caused, at least in part, by genetic factors. Some knowledge of molecular genetics would be Genetic diseases required. If the students want to investigate the subject Ages 17+ further, the author provides references and suggests resources. In many peoples’ minds, schizophrenia is equivalent to madness. This image is at least partially caused by Example comprehension questions include: ignorance of the nature of the disease. This article 1. What criteria can be used to recognise a person provides basic information about schizophrenia and with schizophrenia? elaborates on the possible causes of this devastating 2. What are the most common symptoms of disease. schizophrenia? Which are classified as positive After an unusual and clever prologue to introduce and which as negative? schizophrenia, the article concentrates on molecular 3. Describe a method that can be used to find out genetic methods that have been used to investigate the if a disease is genetic or not, and if it is, to what causes of schizophrenia. Although the scientific detail degree. and the terminology used might overwhelm a non-sci- 4. Explain what you have learned about the entific audience, advanced high-school biology teach- molecular genetic basis of the causes of ers will most likely find the information highly interest- schizophrenia. ing and useful and could use it in their teaching. Michalis Hadjimarcou, Cyprus REVIEW

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 13

Image courtesy of sandramo / iStockphoto Japanese writing, including kanji characters The experience of schizophrenia 私 “Don’t you think that Japanese letters – the kanji – are the most extraordinary things in the world? You can just write this symbol, 私 – which means ‘I’ – and it can communicate with people. It tells them where you have been and what you think; some kanji – the powerful ones – can tell them what to think and what to do. I started to notice this at school – I saw that some kanji were much more beautiful and much more powerful than others. I took down my posters in my room and painted my favourite kanji on the walls – the good ones – not the ones that made me feel afraid. My mother became very upset by this – we argued a lot about this – and tried to paint over them. I couldn’t go home – my mother had got rid of the good kanji – everywhere I looked there were bad kanji – I even started to be able to hear them. I slept wherever I could – it had to be outside – inside, I felt so trapped. I lost lots of weight and felt very weak. Six months later, I was picked up by the police and they took me to the clinic…”

Introduction to schizophrenia tions without any external physical Possible causes of schizophrenia Schizophrenia affects about 1 in 100 cause for the sensation. For example, The more we understand about a people and is recognised worldwide. in psychosis, these hallucinations are disorder, the more likely we are to be In this article, we will discuss what often in the form of ‘voices’, which able to diagnose and treat it effec- schizophrenia is and what its potential may tell the person what to do, or tively. In particular, it is important to causes are, and then introduce some may talk about the person, comment- understand what causes the disease of our recent research to investigate ing on their actions. or contributes to it. How much do we the combined genetic and environ- These features tend to appear in know about the causes of schizophre- mental influences that can lead to this adolescence, and tend to be ‘paranoid’ nia? devastating condition. – which simply means that the experi- Figure 1 (below) shows many of the The best introduction to schizophre- ences that a person is having, refer in factors that we know can influence a nia is to listen to what the person with some way to themselves, as if they are person’s behaviour, whether or not a diagnosis of schizophrenia actually in some way special. In AB’s case, he they are mentally ill. These factors says – and that is the introduction we experienced his mother’s attempts to are shown in a hierarchy, or a ladder, have tried to give here. AB’s account remove the kanji as threatening him starting from the most fundamental above is fictitious, but it is based upon directly, so he had to leave home. a real case. The story of each person Although these symptoms (known Image courtesy of Laurence Reed who suffers from schizophrenia is as positive symptoms) are striking, Environment and education different, but there are some common they are most often accompanied by and important features, which AB’s negative symptoms – inactivity, in- Behaviour case history shows. ability to relate to people and inability The most striking features of schizo- to look after oneself. In AB’s case, he Thoughts and feelings phrenia are those of psychosis – mean- has left school, left home and is walking delusions or hallucinations. Like ing the streets unable to look after Brain networks many words used to describe psychi- himself. Negative symptoms tend atric disorders, these terms are often to appear slowly and gradually, and Genes and proteins used quite loosely, although they have tend to last the lifetime of the sufferer. precise definitions. A delusion is when Whereas current medical treatments someone believes very odd ideas for work reasonably well with positive reasons that do not justify the belief. A symptoms, negative symptoms are Figure 1: The hierarchy of causes of hallucination is the experience of sensa- more difficult to treat. psychiatric disorders

14 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Cutting edge-science

Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons / Guillaume Paumier individual characteristics of a person through to factors that affect many people. At the base of this hierarchy are the genes that a person inherits from their parents. These genes make mRNA that makes proteins that make cells, including networks of nerve cells in our brains. These networks give rise to our thoughts and feelings, and hence to how we behave. The most important point is that this hierarchy doesn’t just work in one direction: the environment can affect how we behave, think and feel, and can produce changes in the brain itself – that is why the arrows go in both directions – and it is not always possible to say which are the most important factors without studying the disorder carefully. There are a number of clues about possible causes for schizophrenia. It tends to run in families, suggesting a genetic cause. However, it also tends to occur more often in conditions of overcrowding, suggesting that the environment has a role to play. Some drugs such as amphetamines cause A DNA microarray. Thousands of sections of DNA (probes), each corresponding to symptoms of psychosis. All these dif- a particular gene, are spotted onto a surface. A sample containing genes from an in- ferent factors may also work together dividual with schizophrenia is labelled a certain colour: red, for example. A second in a complicated way to cause schizo- sample from a healthy person is labelled green. The two samples are introduced to phrenia – this is what we have tried to the microarray, where they hybridise with the probe DNA, becoming fixed in place. show in Figure 1. Genes that are expressed in the schizophrenic individual appear as red spots, and in the healthy individual as green spots. If they are equally expressed in both, the Evidence for a genetic result is a yellow spot. Microarrays allow researchers to pin-point the differences in contribution gene expression levels between diseased and non-diseased individuals One of the simplest ways of understanding how our genes contribute to genetic and non-genetic (environ- active (expressed) in the brain regions any condition is to examine how that mental) factors play a significant part. affected in schizophrenia. Which of condition is shared between identical Untangling the genetic and environ- our genes are expressed depends, twins. If a condition is wholly genetic, mental factors is not simple, however. of course, on the genes encoded in then if either identical twin develops Furthermore, extensive DNA analysis our DNA but also on environmental the condition, the other twin will suggests that there is no single gene factors. For example, smokers have a develop the condition as well. This is involved in schizophrenia; instead, higher activity (expression) of genes called 100% concordance. If the con- many genes seem to be linked to the that encode enzymes involved in cordance rate is less than 100% (i.e. the condition, and their effect may be metabolising tobacco smoke than other twin does not always develop independent or cumulative. non-smokers do. We wanted to see the condition), then other factors must whether gene expression also differed contribute to the development of the Genetic and environmental between people with and without condition as well. In schizophrenia, interactions schizophrenia. twin studies report that concordance One way of investigating the com- We can determine the level of gene rates amongst identical twins world- bined effect of genes and the envi- expression by measuring the amount wide are 41-65%, suggesting that both ronment is to study which genes are of mRNA and protein that are pro- www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 15 Image courtesy of www.BrainHealthandPuzzles.com a Figure 2: From brain to synapse: gene expression changes in Parietal lobe schizophrenia are highly localised to the synapse a) We analysed the prefrontal cortex in the frontal lobe (purple) b) The cellular structure in these brain regions: a neuronal cell body with abundant tree-like branches known as dendrites, which receive numerous inputs from other neurons. The point of contact between neurons is known as the synapse (white box) c) The synapse, including examples of genes that are expressed Frontal lobe differently in schizophrenia. Red arrows indicate up-regulation; Pons Temporal lobe green ones indicate down-regulation Occipital lobe Medulla oblongata Cerebellum Spinal cord

Integrins Actin WASF i b c ELMO1 i OLFM1 i Modulation (via DISC1) of actin SEPT8 h cytoskeleton

ARF3 i ARL4D i SYN5 i ARPP19 i

VAMP2 i RABGGTB h ZnT3 i

h WNK1 Doc2A i CACNB i/G h VEGF h CAPNS1 i Signalling/ PIK4CB i LTP CMKK2 i GNG3 i SH2B3 i

Image courtesy of www.its.caltech.edu/~mbklab/ Image courtesy of Maycox et al. (2009) duced from particular genes. If a gene course, vary from tissue to tissue – from the brains of 28 patients with is expressed more (or less) in people this is one reason why different tissues schizophrenia (the test group) and 23 with schizophrenia than in unaf- are different. So how did we know healthy people (the control cases) in fected people, then the gene may be in which regions of the brain to test the UK, matched for age and gender. involved in schizophrenia (either as a the gene expression? Previous brain We also compared our results to those cause or a consequence of the disease). imaging and postmortem examina- of a similar study using a US database Examining gene expression allows tions have helped to define the main (Glatt et al., 2005). the combined influence of both the brain regions affected by schizophre- We found 49 genes that each genetic effects (encoded in the DNA) nia, for example by comparing brain showed a distinct difference in expres- and environmental effects (which images of people with and without sion between the test and control may modify levels of the expression schizophrenia. One of these key brain groups, a difference of the same direc- of some genes) to be investigated. regions is the frontal cortex, which tion in the US and UK groups (May- Through recent technological advanc- is responsible for complex planning; cox et al., 2009). Of these 49 genes, es, it is now possible to use microar- damage to this region results in a loss 33 were less active (down-regulated) rays, which allow the expression of of motivation, similar to the negative in patients with schizophrenia than more than 30 000 gene transcripts symptoms of schizophrenia. in healthy people, and 16 were more from a single individual to be ana- Based on these previous analyses, active (up-regulated). Potential con- lysed simultaneously (for a classroom therefore, we measured the changes founding factors such as exposure to activity to simulate microarrays, in gene expression in the prefrontal drugs of abuse and alcohol, smoking see Koutsos et al., 2009). cortex (which is part of the frontal or pharmacological treatment were The genes that are expressed, of cortex), using post-mortem samples examined, but there was no evidence

16 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Cutting edge-science

that the expression of these genes was mental brain processes that determine The unusual patterns of expres- correlated with such factors. how the cells in the brain respond to sion of the genes that we detected in Which functional pathways are external signals and to nerve impulses patients with schizophrenia suggest affected? elsewhere in the brain; these respons- that schizophrenia disrupts the synap- es include a change in the density of tic plasticity in the prefrontal cortex, When we looked at the functions of dendritic spines at the synapse. This which we would expect to result in the 49 genes that were expressed dif- is consistent with the decreases in impaired learning and social interac- ferently in healthy people and those synapse density observed microscopi- tion – features that are indeed associ- with schizophrenia, we could see that cally in post-mortem examinations ated with schizophrenia. Our results, they were involved in biochemical of the brains of people with schizo- therefore, suggest that schizophrenia pathways that affected specific func- phrenia. Such changes at the synapse tions in the brain: synaptic neuro- are known to be key to the adaptive Figure 3: Artist’s impression of a neuron, transmission, signal transduction, changes that occur during learning showing the release of a neurotransmitter cytoskeletal dynamics (see Figure 2, and development – changes known as chemical into the synaptic cleft. The neuro- page 16) and neurodevelopment. synaptic plasticity. transmitter interacts with receptors on the To understand this, we need to take adjacent cell membrane, propagating the nerve impulse a closer look at brain cells: neurons. Image courtesy of Animean / iStockphoto Typically, a neuron consists of a cell body, containing the nucleus; many extensions of the cell body, known as dendrites; and a single extension, Nucleus called an axon, which may be as long as 1 m (see Figure 3). Dendrites Neurons are linked together via synapses, allowing electrical nerve impulses to be passed from one neuron to the next: this is known as synaptic transmission and can be initiated by Cell body the release of a specialised chemical, a neurotransmitter, into the synapse. The neurotransmitters released by one neuron interact with receptors on either the dendritic spines (swell- Axon ings on the dendrites) or the cell body of the next neuron. In that second neuron, the chemical signal is con- verted back into an electrical signal in a process known as signal transduction. The structure of our neurons is, however, not static, but changes according to the signals we receive – our experiences. The structure of the synapse in particular can change in response to the signals it receives – this is how memories are formed, skills are learned and experiences are integrated. These changes reflect the cytoskeletal dynamics of the cell and contribute to the overall process known as synaptic plasticity. The 49 genes that were expressed differently in people with schizophrenia, therefore, are involved in funda- Synapse www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 17 may result from a cumulative effect of Resources multiple factors (genetic and envi- For more information about schizo- Laurence Reed is a psychiatrist ronmental) targeting these functional phrenia, its causes and treatment, working to innovate the treatment of pathways. see the website of the US National psychiatric disorders. He has a back- Institute of Mental Health (www. ground in neuroscience and uses brain Implications for patients nimh.nih.gov) and the Psychological imaging to understand how drugs From these and similar studies, we affect brain function. He works at the Information Online website: www. hope to understand what changes Hammersmith Hospital in London, psychologyinfo.com/schizophrenia occur at the molecular level in people the foremost centre for brain imaging with schizophrenia. Some of these mo- When teaching about schizophrenia, in the UK. lecular changes may be common to all it is important to bear in mind that Jackie de Belleroche is a professor patients with schizophrenia, whereas it may affect one or more of your at the Centre for Neuroscience in the others may correspond to specific students. They may be sufferers Faculty of Medicine at Imperial Col- features such as cognitive changes that themselves or they may have a fam- lege London, based at the Hammer- often lead to people with schizophre- ily member who is. Schizophrenia smith Hospital campus. She teaches nia having difficulty concentrating and is devastating for the whole family, on the undergraduate medical course learning. Fundamentally, this knowl- so do emphasise that help is avail- and is director of the neuroscience and edge will provide clues to the proc- able. Support groups are available mental health BSc course. She leads esses that take place as schizophrenia in many countries. For example, the neurogenetics research group, develops. If we can understand these the UK organisation Rethink offers which studies the molecular basis of processes, this knowledge may help us support for people with serious neurological and psychiatric disorders to diagnose the disease and to design mental illnesses and also for their and develops new strategies for treat- better treatments for patients or for families. To find out more, see: ment. particular groups of patients. Overall, www.rethink.org studies such as these provide ‘puz- The international, independent zle pieces’ which will help us to put non-profit organisation together the picture of how our genes Schizophrenia.com provides similar and environment contribute to the To learn how to information and support. See: use this code, see development of schizophrenia. www.schizophrenia.com page 1. References Written by Christian Seeger, then a university student, the short story Glatt et al. (2005) Comparative gene ‘I can see things that you can’t see’ expression analysis of blood and describes the effects of childhood brain provides concurrent valida- schizophrenia. It can be download- tion of SELENBP1 up-regulation ed from the Science in School website: in schizophrenia. Proceedings of the www.scienceinschool.org/2011/ National Academy of Sciences USA

issue19/schizophrenia#resources Image courtesy of Vlue / iStockphoto 102(43): 15533–15538. doi: 10.1073/ pnas.0507666102 Edwin H Rydberg’s story ‘Through Koutsos A, Manaia A, Willingale- the illusions’, about the link Theune J (2009) Fishing for genes: between schizophrenia and DNA microarrays in the classroom. smoking, won the EMBO Science Science in School 12: 44-49. www. Writing Prize in 2005 and can scienceinschool.org/2009/issue12/ be downloaded here: microarray www.embl.de/ExternalInfo/ SciSoc/downloads/ Maycox et al. (2009) Analysis of gene 2005_embo_rydberg.pdf expression in two large schizophrenia cohorts identifies multiple If you found this article interesting, changes associated with nerve you may like to read the other terminal function. Molecular Psy- medicine-related articles published chiatry 14: 1083-1094. doi: 10.1038/ in Science in School. See: mp.2009.18 www.scienceinschool.org/medicine

18 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Cutting edge-science

Van Gogh’s darkening legacy

The brilliant yellows of van Gogh’s paintings are turning a nasty brown. Andrew Brown reveals how sophisticated X-ray techniques courtesy of the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in Grenoble, France, can explain why.

Image courtesy of the Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam

long with his expansive one of these new pigments, called (PbCrO4 · xPbO), brought about by brush strokes, Vincent chrome yellow. Unfortunately, more exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light, are van Gogh’s (1853-1890) than 100 years after it left van Gogh’s responsible for its colour transforma- choiceA of vibrant and often unrealistic brush, chrome yellow has in some tion (Monico et al., 2011). The dark- colours to convey mood and emotion cases darkened visibly to a less than ening of the pigment in sunlight has were central to his unique style, one striking brown, a phenomenon that been known since its invention. Stud- which had a powerful influence on recently caught the interest of a group ies in the 1950s demonstrated that it is the development of modern paint- of scientists. caused by the reduction of chromium ing. The new-generation pigments of from Cr(VI) to Cr(III) (see Figure 1 on the 19th century made it possible for Vincent van Gogh page 20). van Gogh to create, for example, the An international team led by Koen Until now, however, the precise rich yellows used in his celebrated Janssens of the University of Ant- mechanism was unknown, and the Sunflowers. These striking shades, werp, Belgium, believes that chemical degradation products were uncharac- used in many of his works, contained changes to chrome yellow terised. www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 19 1853 1888 1889 1890 1890 Image courtesy of the Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam Wikimedia Commons Image courtesy of Acacia217; image source: Image courtesy of the Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam

Image courtesy of the Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam

Van Gogh, aged 13. Self-portrait with Bandaged Old Man in Sorrow (On the Wheatfield with Crows. In July Vincent van Gogh was Ear. In October 1888, van Threshold of Eternity). Van 1890, only three months after leav- born in 1853 in the Gogh was joined in France, Gogh admitted himself vol- ing the hospital and in the middle of town of Zundert, the where he was living, by untarily to a psychiatric hos- a period when his artistic vision was Netherlands. Although French painter Paul Gaugin. pital in Saint-Rémy, France. still developing, van Gogh walked only active as an Relations between the two In the 12 months he was into a wheat field and shot him- artist for 10 years, in men were fraught, and fol- there, he produced many of self in the chest. Of all van Gogh’s this short period he lowing an argument with his greatest masterpieces. paintings, Wheatfield with Crows is produced more than Gaugin on Christmas Eve, This painting, completed in probably subject to most specula- 800 paintings and 1000 van Gogh cut off half of his Spring 1890, of an old man tion. Many believe it to be his last drawings, of which he left ear; a graphic indicator in despair, provides a further work, interpreting the dramatic sky sold only one in his of the fragility of his mental insight into van Gogh’s filled with crows and the cut-off lifetime health mental state path as portents of his coming death

Historic paint tubes diation Facility (ESRF)w1 in Grenoble, To address these unknowns, Jans- France, where two techniques, XRF 3e- sens’s team began by collecting sam- and XANES, were used to detect, with Reduction ples from paint tubes belonging to van extreme sensitivity, the spatial distri- Gogh’s contemporary, Flemish painter bution and oxidation state of selected 6+ Cr 3+ Rik Wouters (1882-1913). Some tubes elements in the paint samples (see box Cr (VI) contained unmixed chrome yellow on page 22). (III) paint, whereas others contained paint Analyses revealed that the dark- of a lighter shade of yellow, formed by ening of the thin surface layer of Oxidation mixing chrome yellow with a white pigment was linked to a reduction 3e- substance. The researchers artificially of the chromium in chrome yellow aged the samples under UV light, from Cr(VI) to Cr(III); this fits with expecting to observe a colour change what has been observed for industrial Figure 1: Oxidation state. In chemis- after several months. To their surprise, paints based on lead chromate. In try, for reactions that involve electron in only three weeks, a thin surface addition, the Cr(III)-containing deg- transfer, oxidation is defined as the loss of electrons, whereas reduction is defined layer of the lighter yellow paint had radation product was identified for as the gain of electrons. We can de- darkened significantly to a choco- the first time as Cr O · 2H O, better 2 3 2 scribe these oxidation-reduction (redox) late brown. The unmixed samples known as the pigment viridian green. processes in terms of the oxidation state changed either comparatively little But how can a green pigment’s pres- of the reactants: oxidation is a reaction or not at all. “We were amazed,” says ence explain the brown colouration involving an increase in oxidation state, Janssens. observed in the researcher’s experi- whereas reduction involves a decrease. Having identified the sample most ments? The scientists suspect that the For example, two of chromium’s most likely to be undergoing the fatal reduced chromium in viridian green common oxidation states are III and VI, corresponding to Cr3+ and Cr6+ spe- chemical reaction, the team subjected is formed during the oxidation of the cies, respectively. We can say that Cr6+ it to sophisticated analyses based on oil component of the paint. It is this is reduced when it gains three electrons X-rays. Much of the work was carried oxidised form of the oil, together with to form Cr3+ because its oxidation state out at the European Synchrotron Ra- the mixture of green and any remain- decreases from VI to III

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Chemistry 2. A yellow precipitate of lead chromate will form in- Physics stantly. Filter off the residual liquid using a funnel and filter paper. In a fume hood, gently dry the pre- Science and conservation cipitate with a blow dryer, ensuring that it does not Deterioration by chemical processes dry completely. Ages 15–18 3. Prepare a dilute aqueous solution of hydrogen sul-

This article nicely links science with art and conser- phide (H2S), by dissolving 50 mg sodium sulphide (Na S), in 90 ml water. Add the resulting solution to vation studies. The sophisticated techniques used by 2 the scientists reveal chemical changes in the pigments, 10 ml hydrochloric acid (HCl, 0.1 M). Stir the mix- Image courtesy of the Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam which occur many decades after van Gogh’s paintings ture. were finished. 4. Fill a rubber balloon with air and connect it to a The article is a useful way of demonstrating to students small glass Drechsel’s bottle containing a few mil- that there is always a scientific explanation for why ar- lilitres of the dilute hydrogen sulphide solution (see image below). Aim the resulting stream of hydro- tefacts change with time. It would be best used as a gen-sulphide-gas-containing air onto the surface of teaching aid in chemistry lessons and for students aged the lead chromate precipitate. 16-18. The article could also be used to teach selected chemistry topics, such as oxidation and reduction. 5. The precipitate will instantly turn brown. You have simulated and accelerated the darkening process To develop the students’ understanding of the chem- observed in van Gogh’s paintings by many orders of istry behind the research, you could ask the following magnitude. Image courtesy of Vladimir Petruševski questions: 1. The work of the scientists described in this article shows that sulphide ions may be the chemical species responsible for the reduction of chromium. Write down separate equations for the reduction of

lead chromate (PbCrO4) by the sulphide-ion-con-

taining compounds H2S and PbS. Hint: Cr(VI) compounds are oxidising agents. Safety note: All soluble lead salts are toxic, and solu- 2. The scientists suggest that sulphate-containing com- ble chromates are toxic (above 0.003 M) and suspect- pounds in the paint used by van Gogh may be a ed to be carcinogenic. Potassium chromate may cause source of sulphide ions. Try to think of other ways in sensitisation and / or ulcers after contact with the skin. which paintings could be exposed to sulphide ions. There is limited evidence that lead chromate is carci- 3. Silver jewellery darkens over time when in contact nogenic. It may also cause harm to unborn children, so with air. Write down the equation for the reaction should not be used if the teacher or any of the students responsible for this. Note that this is not a simple are, or may be, pregnant. Hydrogen sulphide is a toxic displacement reaction. gas with a very unpleasant odour. To show that lead chromate darkens when exposed to Perform the above experiment in a fume hood and sulphide ions, you can demonstrate the following ex- wear safety goggles and gloves. Dispose of all chemi- periment in class: cals according to your local safety regulations. See also 1. Synthesise lead chromate in a beaker by adding the general safety note on the Science in School web- any water-soluble lead salt, such as lead(II) ace- site (www.scienceinschool.org/safety) and on page 73. You may find it helpful to consult the CLEAPSS student tate, Pb(CH3COO)2, or lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2, to w5

REVIEW an equal volume of potassium chromate solution, safety sheets on chromium and lead .

K2CrO4. Dilute solutions (~ 0.03 M) will be sufficient. Vladimir Petruševski, Republic of Macedonia

ing yellow pigment, that may be the concluded that these compounds were Shining the X-ray beam on root of the brown colouration. somehow involved in the reduction of van Gogh Using the X-ray techniques, the chromium, explaining why there was Having uncovered the chemistry of researchers were also able to show comparatively little darkening in the the reaction in isolated paint samples, that the mixed, lighter-coloured paint unmixed paint samples. the scientists sought to ask whether contained sulphur compounds. They the darkening of the surface layer of

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 21 Studying art with a synchrotron

The chemical characterisation of precious works of XANES art can be problematic. It is only possible to take a XANES spectroscopy relies on the physics of X-ray ab- few very small samples for analysis, and these often sorption. Atoms of a particular element absorb X-rays consist of a diverse mixture of complex compounds in a characteristic way. By looking at the X-ray absorp- in heterogeneous states of matter. To overcome these tion spectrum, which is the pattern of X-ray absorptions challenges, scientists use techniques based on X-rays. of a particular sample (Y axis) against the energy range The more powerful and precise the X-rays are, the bet- of the X-rays (X axis), it is therefore possible to identify ter the quality of the analysis. The most potent X-rays the sample’s constituent elements. High-resolution X-ray available are produced by a synchrotron sourcew2 (see absorption spectra are usually collected in particular en- Figure 2). In this study, two spectroscopic techniques at ergy regions (called XANES) that are close to an absorp- ESRF were used on the paint samples: XRF and XANES. tion edge of an element of interest (see Figures 3 and 4). Such detailed spectra can show what oxidation state the element of interest is in. This information was of great Image courtesy of EPSIM 3D / JF Santarelli, Synchrotron Soleil; image source: Wikimedia Commons interest to the researchers.

Figure 3: X-ray absorption (A) X-ray absorption spectrum. Let us take a pure sample of (A) an element. If X-rays directed at the sample are scanned through a range of energies, at certain energies the rays will be strongly absorbed, giving rise to a series of absorption edges. Each edge corresponds to the specific energy required to eject an electron occupying a par- (B) ticular energy level in the element’s atoms (see Figure (D) (C) 4). Thus, a ‘pattern’ of absorption edges emerges that is specific to atoms of that element, a sort of atomic hall- mark. In a sample that consists of multiple unidentified elements, it is possible to deduce the identity of those elements by observing the pattern of absorption edges (the X-ray absorption spectrum). The purple, green and red arrows correspond to the ejection of electrons from Figure 2: Synchrotrons. There are currently about the first (n=1), second (n=2) and third (n=3) energy 50 synchrotrons in the world, of which ESRF is levels, respectively the most powerful in Europe. The X-ray beams 12 produced by ESRF are a thousand billion (10 ) (B) An absorption edge in detail. When we zoom in on times brighter than those produced by a hospital a seemingly smooth absorption edge, we can find X-ray machine. Their high intensity and narrow that it is decorated with a number of smaller impres- diameter (100 µm to <1 µm) permit the detection sions relating to correspondingly smaller absorptions. of minute concentrations of elements at sub-micro- The region at the leading edge of the absoprtion edge scale resolution and from the smallest of samples. (shaded in blue) is referred to as an X-ray Absorption The production of X-ray beams in a synchrotron Near-Edge Structure (XANES, the dark blue box) and it begins with electrons (A), which are accelerated to corresponds to electrons making transitions to unoc- a very high energy (six billion electron-volt, 6 GeV, cupied energy levels close to those that they left. The at ESRF) before being injected into a storage ring XANES region was used by the scientists analysing the (B) where they circulate in a vacuum at close to van Gogh paintings, because it can provide informa- the speed of light. Strong magnetic fields (C) cause tion on the oxidation state of the atoms in a sample: the electrons to change direction, resulting in the atoms that have different oxidation states contain dif- emission of the X-ray beams, which are directed ferent numbers of electrons (see Figure 1, on page 20). towards the experimental stations (D) that surround This alters the value of their energy levels and there- the storage ring fore their XANES spectra BACKGROUND

22 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Image courtesy of the Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam

Cutting edge-science

Image courtesy of Nicola Graf XRF Figure 4: A common way of representing an atom is When they absorb X-rays, atoms enter an to have a central nucleus unstable excited state. When they then re- Unoccupied energy level surrounded by electrons turn to a more stable state, they emit sec- occupying distinct energy ondary X-rays in a process called X-ray fluo- levels. X-rays can eject elec- rescence (see Figure 5). The pattern of X-ray n=1 trons either into surrounding fluorescence (XRF) produced by a particu- n=2 space or into an unoccupied n=3 energy level lar sample, called the XRF spectrum, can be used to map the distribution of elements across a given area. In contrast, XANES can only be performed on an isolated point in Surrounding space the sample. By combining the information X-rays obtained with both XRF and XANES, the authors were able to form a detailed picture ﹛ Energy level: ﹛ n=3 ﹛ n=2 n=1 of the chemistry of the paint samples. (A) Image courtesy of Atenderhold; Image source; Wikimedia Commons

(A) Image courtesy of Nicola Graf

An absorption edge

X-rays Absorption X-ray fluorescence Energy (B)

(B) Image courtesy of M Blank: source; Wikimedia Commons

Figure 5: X-ray fluorescence. The ejection of XANES an electron following X-ray absorption leaves

Absorption an atom in an unstable excited state (A). The most important way in which the atom relaxes back to a stable state (B) is by the emission of secondary X-rays, or XRF signals. This is a consequence of electrons filling the vacancy

Energy left behind by the ejected electron

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 23 Image courtesy of the Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam

Science in art

What do you and your students think? Should science be used to halt the degradation of important works of art, or even return them to their original state? Or should the ravages of time be accepted and even val- ued as historical evidence? Leave your comments in our online discussion forum: www.scienceinschool.org/ forum/vangogh CLASSROOM ACTIVITY CLASSROOM

View of Arles with Irises yellow paint in samples taken from with chrome yellow to create the ing of van Gogh’s paintings. But can two of van Gogh’s paintings, View of lighter shades that were vital in creat- we use this knowledge to rescue the Arles with Irises (1888) and Bank of the ing the brightly lit scenes characteristic artist’s work? Ella Hendriks of the Seine (1887), could be attributed to the of a certain period of his life. Van Gogh Museumw3 in Amsterdam, same phenomenon. One important question remained: the Netherlands, has her doubts: “Ul- XRF spectroscopy was used to map how does the supposed trigger for traviolet light…is already filtered out the chemistry of the region encom- the reaction, UV light, actually work? in modern museums. We display the passing the interface between the Quite simply, it supplies the reactants paintings in a controlled environment dark surface layer and the underly- with the energy needed to overcome to maintain them in the best possible ing unaltered yellow layer of paint. the activation energy barrier, allowing condition.” Part of what constitutes a XANES spectra were collected at spe- the reaction to proceed (see Figure 6 controlled environment is the mainte- cific points within these regions. The on page 25). nance of a low temperature in the mu- findings mirrored those of the previ- seum. As a general rule, an increase of ous experiment: the reduced form of What can be done? 10 ºC increases the rate of a reaction chromium, Cr(III), was found in the Janssens’s team has exposed the by a factor of 2-4, and reduction of darker surface layer, suggesting that chemistry that underlies the darken- chromium is no exception to this. its presence here was responsible for the brown colouration. Furthermore, Image courtesy of Nicola Graf Cr(III) was not distributed uniformly, but occurred in loci that also featured electrons sulphate- and barium-containing com- 2- + 2- 3+ - 2- pounds. Chemically, these regions re- 8CrO4 + 20H + 3S ⇋ 8Cr + 20OH + 3SO4 sembled the lighter yellow paint sam- Cr(VI) Cr(III) ples from the previous experiment, further supporting the researchers’ The role of sulphur. Janssens’s team believe that sulphide ions (S2-) may be the conclusion that sulphur compounds chemical species responsible for the reduction of chromium. Sulphide ions are were involved in reducing chromium an electron-rich form of sulphur, which can readily donate electrons to and (see equation to the right). Because of thereby reduce Cr(VI) to Cr(III), by the above redox reaction. their white colour, van Gogh blended Barium was also associated with areas containing reduced chromium, possibly powders containing such compounds because compounds containing this element were a source of sulphide ions

24 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Cutting edge-science

Image courtesy of Nicola Graf Electrons w5 – CLEAPSS is a UK advisory serv- ice providing support in science and z z z z z Cr6+ technology teaching, on the subjects of health and safety; risk assess- S2- ment; sources and use of chemicals; and living organisms and equipment. For more information, see: www.cleapss.org.uk UV light For safety advice on using lead, 2- S Cr6+ Cr3+ chromium and their compounds, see the student safety sheets, which can be downloaded for free here: Figure 6: Electrons involved in a redox reaction cannot move spontaneously from www.cleapss.org.uk/ one reactant to another. UV light supplies the electrons belonging to sulphide ions free-publications (the form of sulphur thought to be involved in the darkening reaction) with sufficient energy for them to become mobile enough to be transferred to Cr(VI) Resources Images and an animation of the So if both UV levels and tempera- Web references investigation of the historic paint ture are already controlled, what more w1 – The European Synchrotron samples can be found at: can be done for van Gogh’s paintings? Radiation Facility (ESRF) is an www.vangogh.ua.ac.be There is a more radical alternative: international research institute for To learn more about the science of rather than slow the degradation cutting-edge science with photons. preserving art, see: process, attempt to reverse it altogeth- ESRF is a member of EIROforum, Leigh V (2009) The science of pre- er. “Our next experiments are already the publisher of Science in School. To serving art. Science in School 12: 70- in the pipeline,” says Janssens. “Obvi- learn more, visit: www.esrf.eu 75. www.scienceinschool.org/2009/ ously, we want to understand which w2 – For more details of how synchro- issue12/katylithgow conditions favour the reduction of tron radiation is used in research, If you enjoyed reading this article, chromium, and whether there is any see: take a look at other cutting-edge hope of reverting pigments to their research articles in Science in School. original state in paintings.”w4 Capellas M, Cornuéjols D (2006) See: www.scienceinschool.org/ Although turning back the hands of Shipwreck: science to the rescue! Science in School 1 cuttingedge time in this way would be the su- : 26-29. preme solution, Janssens admits that www.scienceinschool.org/2006/ To read all other Science in School the prospect of reverting the altered issue1/maryrose articles about research at ESRF, see: pigment to its original colour is at Capellas M (2007) Recovering www.scienceinschool.org/esrf present rather unlikely. Nevertheless, Pompeii. Science in School 6 the scientists’ work offers us reassur- www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ Andrew Brown recently graduated : 14-19. ance that we are doing everything we issue6/pompeii from the University of Bath, UK, with can to preserve van Gogh’s paintings, w3 – To learn more about Vincent van a degree in molecular and cellular and hope that future generations Gogh and his art, visit the excellent biology. During his course, he took a can appreciate what this great artist website of the Van Gogh Museum: year out to work for the agrochemical achieved. www.vangoghmuseum.nl company Syngenta where he special- A section of the museum’s website Reference ised in light and electron microscopy. also contains primary- and second- He now works as an intern for Science Monico L et al. (2011) Degradation ary-school teaching resources: in School, based at the European Mo- process of lead chromate in paint- www.vangoghmuseum.nl/vgm/ lecular Biology Laboratory in Heidel- ings by Vincent van Gogh studied index.jsp?page=110&lang=en berg, Germany. by means of synchrotron X-ray spec- w4 – To listen to an interview with tromicroscopy and related methods. Koen Janssens talking about his 2. Original paint layer samples. research on van Gogh’s paintings, Analytical Chemistry 83: 1224-1231. broadcast on BBC Radio 4, see: doi: 10.1021/ac1025122 www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/ To learn how to use this code, see b00yjs49 page 1. www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 25 Image courtesy of ESO / S Steinhöfel

A planet from another galaxy

As though planets from outside our Solar System were not exciting enough, astronomers have recently discovered a planet orbiting a star from outside our galaxy. Johny Setiawan reports.

or two decades, astronomers Our research group at the Max Recently, our team have successfully have known that there are Planck Institute for Astronomy in detected a planet around the star HIP planets beyond our Solar Heidelberg, Germany, however, 13044, which has left the red giant SystemF (Wolszczan & Frail, 1992). concentrates on the search for plan- phase. Orbiting other stars, they are known etary companions around stars that as extrasolar planets or exoplanets. are not in the main-sequence phase, An extragalactic star So far, more than 500 exoplanets have but in later evolutionary stages. These The star HIP 13044, which is about been detected, the majority of which include what is known as the red giant 2000 light years away from our Solar orbit stars with characteristics similar phase, during which the star expands System in the southern constellation to those of the Sun (as described in to hundreds of times its original diam- of Fornax (‘the furnace’), is signifi- Jørgensen, 2006). In particular, more eter. The detection of planets around cantly different from other known than 90% of the stars hosting exoplan- such giant stars is important for the stars with planets. In particular, it has ets are in the same evolutionary phase study of the evolution of planetary a very low abundance of the metal as the Sun – the main-sequence phase, systems. In particular, it allows us to iron – less than 1% of what the Sun during which stars burn hydrogen predict the future of our own Solar has. High metal abundance (stellar (see image above). System. metallicity) is important in the core ac-

26 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Cutting edge-science

Physics Chemistry Astronomy Earth science Ages 17-19 Before reading this article, I had not known that our galaxy, the Milky Way, hosts streams of stars from other galaxies. I was fascinated by the story of these alien visitors and an exoplanet on a galactic trip. For teaching purposes, I thought first of gravity – how powerful it can be, how universal and over what long distances it Stars like our Sun spend most of their lifetime in the main sequence, slowly burning works. The article could their primary nuclear fuel, hydrogen, into the heavier element helium. This is the stage also be easily applied our Sun is in. to other topics in phys- After several billion years, their fuel is almost exhausted and they start swelling, push- ics, chemistry, astronomy ing the outer layers away from what has turned into a small and very hot core. These and earth science: mass, ‘middle-aged’ stars become enormous, and thus cool and red, and are known as red giants. the Doppler effect, spec- After the red giant phase, the star enters the horizontal-branch phase, during which the troscopy (absorption and energy source is helium fusion in the core, and hydrogen fusion in the shell surround- emission lines), metal ing the core. This is the stage in which the star HIP 13044 is now. abundance in the Uni- Unlike much more massive stars, these Sun-like stars do not end their existence in verse, the mutual attrac- dramatic explosions, but die peacefully as planetary nebulae, blowing out everything tion of celestial bodies but a tiny remnant, known as a white dwarf. To learn more about the evolution of stars, see Boffin & Pierce-Price, 2007 (small and planetary accretion. It stars), Székely & Benedekfi, 2007 (massive stars) and the Langton Star Centre websitew1 could be used as the basis of a discussion on cosmol- ogy, the history of the So- lar System and the search for Earth-like planets and cretion model of planet formation: the assumed that the gravitational pull of extraterrestrial life. more metal there is in the star system, the Milky Way drew these stars into It could also be used for the higher the probability of forming our galaxy. a discussion of how sci- a planet. Given these low iron levels, This is the first time that astrono- ence works: how hypoth- we had not expected to find a planet mers have detected a planetary sys- eses and theories begin around HIP 13044. tem in a stellar stream of extragalactic with new observations What makes this star particularly origin. Because of the great distances and discoveries, and are interesting, however is, the fact that involved, there are no confirmed based on previous scien- HIP 13044 is one of a group of stars detections of planets in other galaxies. tific achievements and es- crossing our galaxy, the Milky Way, But this cosmic merger has brought an tablished techniques, by and orbiting the centre of the galaxy extragalactic planet within our reach. scientists who are open to on similar orbits; such a group is possibilities that had never known as a stellar stream. The Helmi Detecting exoplanets before been considered. stream, to which HIP 13044 belongs, Although the star HIP 13044 and its

REVIEW Marco Nicolini, Italy is known to have its origin outside attendant planet HIP 13044 b are now our galaxy, (Helmi et al., 1999). It is within the Milky Way, they are still

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 27 2000 light years from Earth; whereas Looking into our future? takes Earth. Such a small planetary the star can be seen with a telescope, HIP 13044 b is one of the few exo- orbit is common for stars in the main the planet itself is far too small to planets known to have survived the sequence, like the Sun, but is unusual observe directly. How, then, did we red giant phase of its host star, during for stars in late evolutionary phase detect it? which the star expands massively af- like giant stars. Using a technique known as radial ter exhausting the hydrogen fuel sup- Our team hypothesises that the velocity, we looked for tiny telltale ply in its core. The host star HIP 13044 planet’s orbit might initially have wobbles of the star caused by the has now contracted again and entered been much larger, but that it moved gravitational tug of its orbiting the horizontal branch, burning helium inwards during the red giant phase. companion. By examining the stellar in its core. This is the first exoplanet If the planet had been closer to the spectral lines at intervals, we detected detected around a horizontal-branch star, it may not have been so lucky: changes to those lines (see diagram star. The discovery of HIP 13044 b, the star is rotating relatively quickly below). These indicate changes in the therefore, is particularly intriguing for a horizontal branch star, and one velocity of the star along the line of when we consider the distant future explanation is that HIP 13044 swal- sight and can reveal the presence of of our own planetary system; the Sun lowed its inner planets during the red an unseen low-mass companion, such is already halfway through its life and giant phase, which would make the as a planet. Although there are other is expected to become a red giant in star spin more quickly (for an expla- techniques for detecting exoplanets about five billion years. nation of why this is, see Carlberg et (for example microlensing, as de- Not only the existence of the newly scribed in Jørgensen, 2006), the radial discovered planet is interesting; its al., 2009). velocity method has proved the most characteristics are also unusual. HIP Although HIP 13044 b has so far successful. For these precise observa- 13044 b has a mass at least 1.3 times escaped the fate of these inner planets, tions, we used the high-resolution that of Jupiter, the biggest planet in the star will expand again in the next spectrograph FEROS attached to the our Solar System, and orbits at a dis- stage of its evolution. HIP 13044 b, 2.2 m MPG / ESO telescope at the tance 0.12 that of the distance between having survived this long, may none- European Southern Observatory’s La the Sun and Earth (0.12 astronomical theless be about to be engulfed by its Silla facility in Chilew2. This observa- unit). Because it is so much closer to star. This could also foretell the de- tory is equipped with world-class its host star than we are to the Sun, mise of even our outer planets – such instruments for detecting extrasolar HIP 13044 b orbits its host star in as Jupiter – when the Sun approaches planets. only 16.2 days rather than the year it the end of its life.

Radial velocity technique for detecting exoplanets. If a star is sufficiently close to Earth, we can detect its light. The light contains information about the elements in the star’s atmosphere, which can be in the form of spectral lines (black lines on the coloured spectrum, right); these can be detected with, for example, a high-resolution spectrograph. In a star without a companion, the position of these lines in the spectrum shows no periodic change. However, the presence of an orbiting companion, such as a planet (blue ball) causes the star (orange ball) to wobble; the star’s movement is shown as a yellow line. As the star (not the planet!) moves towards us (towards the right of the diagram), the change in its radial velocity is negative (as shown in the graph, below); as it moves away from us (to the left), the change in its radial velocity is positive. This is reflected by a change in the position of the spectral lines: a positive change in radial velocity corresponds to a shift towards red wavelengths in the spectrum; a negative change corresponds to a shift towards the blue end. These changes are used to detect the presence of a companion orbiting the star

Our line of sight

Radial velocity

Time

Image courtesy of Johny Setiawan

28 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Cutting edge-science

References Boffin H, Pierce-Price D (2007) Fusion in the Universe: we are all stardust. Science in School 4: 61-63. www. scienceinschool.org/2007/issue4/ fusion Carlberg JK, Majewski SR, Arras P (2009) The role of planet accretion in creating the next generation of Image courtesy of ESO / H H Heyer red giant rapid rotators. The Astro- An artist’s impression of the exoplanet around the star HIP 13044 physical Journal 700(1): 832-843. doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/700/1/832 Helmi A (1999) Debris streams in the To find out how physics teacher tral lines of the Sun, see: solar neighbourhood as relicts from Becky Parker established The Lang- Westra MT (2007) A fresh look the formation of the Milky Way. Na- ton Star Centre, see: at light: build your own spectrom- ture 402: 53-55. doi: 10.1038/46980 Stanley S (2011) Schoolhouse sci- eter. Science in School 4: 30-34. Download the article free of charge entists. Science in School 19: 69-72. www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ from the Science in School website www.scienceinschool.org/2011/ issue4/spectrometer (www.scienceinschool.org/2011/ issue19/parker If you enjoyed this article, you may issue19/exoplanet#resources), or w2 – The European Southern Observ- find the complete series of Science subscribe to Nature today: atory (ESO) builds and operates a in School articles about fusion in www.nature.com/subscribe suite of the world’s most advanced the Universe interesting. See: Jørgensen UG (2006) Are there Earth- ground based telescopes. ESO is a www.scienceinschool.org/fusion like planets around other stars? member of EIROforum, the publish- To browse all astronomy-related arti- Science in School 2: 11-16. www. er of Science in School. To learn more cles published in Science in School, scienceinschool.org/2006/issue2/ about ESO, see: www.eso.org see: www.scienceinschool.org/ exoplanet To see all Science in School astronomy Székely P, Benedekfi Ö (2007) Fu- articles about ESO, see: sion in the Universe: when a giant www.scienceinschool.org/eso star dies... Science in School 6: 64-68. Resources Johny Setiawan studied phys- www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ ics at the Albert Ludwig University issue6/fusion To find out more about the research described in this article, see: in Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany, Wolszczan A, Frail DA (1992) A plan- before obtaining a PhD in astronomy etary system around the millisecond Setiawan J et al. (2010) A giant planet around a metal-poor star and astrophysics in 2003. He then pulsar PSR1257 + 12. Nature 355: moved to the Max Planck Institute for 145-147. doi:10.1038/355145a0 of extragalactic origin. Science 330(6011): 1642-1644. doi: 10.1126/ Astronomy in Heidelberg, Germany, Download the article free of charge science.1193342 where his research focuses on extraso- from the Science in School website lar planets of both evolved and young To learn about the European Space (www.scienceinschool.org/2011/ stars. In particular, he is working on Agency’s search for exoplanets, see: issue19/exoplanet#resources), or spectroscopic data of the optical spec- subscribe to Nature today: Fridlund M (2009) The CoRoT satel- trographs dedicated to planet search www.nature.com/subscribe lite: the search for Earth-like planets. programmes. Science in School 13: 15-18. www. Web reference scienceinschool.org/2009/issue13/ corot w1 – The Langton Star Centre supports research groups of school stu- To learn more about exoplanets, see dents who are involved in cutting- the press kits (in English and Span- edge scientific research. To learn ish) on the ESO website: www.eso. org/public/products/presskits more about the life cycle of a star, To learn how to see the resources on the website: To find out how to build your own use this code, see www.thelangtonstarcentre.org spectrometer and examine the spec- page 1. www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 29 Images courtesy of udokant, Paul Cowan and blackred / iStockphoto / blackred Pauland Cowan udokant, of courtesy Images The DNA detective game

With the help of a detective game, Kenneth Wallace-Müller from the Gene Jury team introduces the use of DNA in forensics and the ethical questions involved.

eter has been found dead in be downloaded from the Gene Juryw1 cards showing the DNA profiles his hotel room. Who could website. found around the crime scene and have killed him? What DNA · Worksheets (one per student or of the people in the DNA database; evidenceP can you find at the crime group) see Figure 4. Do not give these ma- scene and how can you analyse it? · One set of DNA evidence cards to terials to the students until later. Can you find the murderer? be laid out around the crime scene; Ideally, all the materials except the The game is most suitable for see Figure 1. worksheets should be printed in col- students aged 10-15 [note that the · One set of suspects’ statements our and laminated. reviewer suggested using the activity (green) and the pathologist’s re- with older students]. You will need port (purple); see Figure 2. Preparing the game time to print, cut and laminate the re- · Several sets (one per group) of Six students take the roles of the sources, 30 minutes to play the game, suspect (blue) and victim (purple) suspects: Alex, Eric, Lisa, Olivia, and additional time for discussion. DNA profile cards; see Figure 3. Melinda and Dave. Give each of the Before introducing the game, ex- · Several sets (one per group) of students the statement card and DNA plain how DNA fingerprinting works. Figure 1: The DNA evidence cards Do not forget to point out the differences between DNA fingerprinting (profiling) and sequencing the complete genome. You may find Hodge & Wegener (2006) and the resources on the Gene Jury websitew1 helpful.

Materials To run the game, you will need the following materials, all of which can Blood found on windowsill Skin cells found on knife handle

30 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Teaching activities

Images courtesy of Gene Jury a) b) Biology DNA structure Ages 16+

This article offers a brilliant idea for teaching about the DNA molecule, and should motivate quite a number of students. It would be feasible in any standard school classroom, so long as the teach- Figure 2: a) The suspects’ statements and a) the pathologist’s report er allocates enough time for preparation. Figure 3: The Andrew Galea, Malta a) b) Images courtesy of Gene Jury DNA profile * Note that the author uses the cards of a) the REVIEW activity with younger students. suspects and b) the victim

Figure 4: a) DNA profiles from the evidence and b) the DNA database

Images courtesy of Gene Jury profile card for their character. cards (the knife blade, the knife One student is the police patholo- handle, the victim’s fingernails, the gist; give him or her the pathologist’s victim’s jacket, and the blood on the report card and the DNA profile card window) around the ‘crime scene’. of the victim. The rest of the class are the Optionally, one student represents investigators, working in groups of b) the victim: lying on the floor with a about four. Give these students the knife (or substitute) nearby. Even if worksheets. you choose to imagine the victim and The teacher plays the role of the weapon, place the five DNA evidence chief inspector and the forensics

Images courtesy of Gene Jury

Skin cells found under victim’s fingernails Blood found on knife blade Skin cells found on victim’s jacket

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 31 laboratory. He or she needs the sheets 2. Investigators: look around the make things easy for you). with the DNA profiles from the evi- crime scene and use Table 1 to Suspects: give your DNA profile dence and the DNA database. record any evidence (the DNA card (Figure 3a) to the investiga- evidence cards in Figure 1; one tors who ask for it. Playing the game example has already been entered 7. Forensics laboratory: give the in- The flow diagram (Figure 5) illus- in the table below). vestigators the results of the DNA trates the game sequence. 3. Investigators: take your evidence analysis from the crime scene (the 1. Chief inspector (teacher): read out to the forensics laboratory (the victim’s DNA profile, Figure 3b) the introduction to the class. teacher) for analysis. and the DNA profiles found on the 4. Police pathologist: read out the evidence, (Figure 4a). Last night in the local hotel, a terrible report on your analysis of the vic- Investigators: does the DNA pro- crime was discovered. Peter, a well- tim’s body. file of any of your three suspects known businessman, was found dead Investigators: make notes about match the DNA profiles on any of in his hotel room by two guests, Alex the pathologist’s report. the evidence found at the crime and Olivia, at 11pm. They immedi- 5. Suspects: read out your statement scene? ately telephoned the police, who ar- of who you are and what you 8. Investigators: using Table 3, what rived soon afterwards. The pathologist know about the crime (Figure 2). can you conclude from your com- examined the body, and estimated the Investigators: using Table 2, make parison? Do you know who the time of death at 9pm, not long after notes on the suspects’ statements. murderer is? Remember what the Peter had finished dinner. Who do you think could be the suspects said in their statements, Peter had held a dinner party that murderer? All of them have given and do not forget that not all the evening with some friends to cel- you their permission to sample DNA found at the crime scene nec- ebrate finishing writing, by hand, a their DNA but the police chief essarily has anything to do with book about his life. The party had inspector has allowed you to take the murder. taken place in the hotel dining room samples from only three of the 9. Chief inspector: did any of the with his five friends, who had all suspects. Decide which three to groups identify the murderer? If stayed that night in the hotel. After the sample. not, announce that the investiga- police arrived, the five guests and the 6. Investigators: take a sample from tors can compare the samples taken hotel maid were woken, and assem- each of your three chosen suspects from the crime scene against a bled downstairs to be questioned. (the samples have already been national DNA database (Figure 4b). analysed by the laboratory, to You may choose to let the investigators compare their samples against Table 1: Collecting the evidence at the crime scene the database, even if they have identified a murder suspect. Type of sample (e.g. blood or skin) Where was it found? Investigators: can you find a match Skin On the victim’s jacket between the evidence collected at the crime scene and the profiles in the DNA database (Figure 4b)? Who do you think is the murderer? Table 2: Evidence from the suspects 10. Chief inspector: once all the groups have decided who they think the Notes from sus- Do you suspect Ask for sample? Name murderer is, reveal the murderer’s pect’s statement him / her? (Select only three) identity as Eric and read out his Alex confession.

Eric After his arrest, Eric decided to con- Lisa fess to the police what happened that Olivia night. In his former life, Eric had been ar- Melinda rested several times for carrying and Dave taking drugs. He had decided to forget his old life, and he now owned

32 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Teaching activities Image courtesy of dtimiraos / iStockphoto Image courtesy of Gene Jury

Figure 5: The flow chart of how to play the game

Ethical questions his own restaurant. Only a handful of walking past the room, and as he people knew about his past, including grabbed the book, he panicked, ac- The game raises several ethical Peter. Peter also had a dark past, and cidentally dropping the knife. questions about the forensic uses of a DNA database. Below are some ques- had known Eric very well. He decided After quickly walking back to his tions, together with possible answers, to write about Eric and include details room, he hid the book in his suitcase which can be used in a discussion. of his criminal activities in the book of in order to destroy it later. He planned Remember that there are no correct his life story. to use the excuse of an early business answers here: governments, doctors, On the evening of the murder, Peter meeting to leave first thing the next scientists and the general public may was celebrating the completion of his morning. all have different opinions. book by having dinner in the hotel with some friends, including Eric. During the conversation over the Table 3: The investigators’ conclusions meal, Eric realised what Peter had written about him in his book, and Does this profile match Do you think this how it could damage his reputation. Sample from the crime scene any of your suspects? If sample is from the After dinner, all the guests stayed in so, which? murderer? the restaurant for coffee. Eric finished and went for a walk in the gardens to Blood on the windowsill plan a way to silence Peter and steal his book. He crept into the kitchen Blood on the knife blade and stole a knife, concealing it in his trouser pocket. Eric hatched a plan to meet Peter in his hotel bedroom for a Skin cells on the knife handle chat, and – when Peter was least ex- Skin cells under the victim’s pecting it – to kill him using the knife. fingernails Everything went according to his plan, but while Peter lay dying on the floor Skin cells on the victim’s jacket covered in blood, Eric heard footsteps www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 33 How well does the game reflect reality?

The DNA profiles used in the DNA detective game codes’, are generated for every individual as well as are loosely based on band patterns from real profiles. from crime scene stains (such as blood, skin cells or Profiling involves forensic scientists looking for mark- hair). The eight markers used in the game are more ers (small sequences) within DNA, the sizes of which than enough to differentiate the six suspects from vary between people. By including multiple markers, one another. As in reality, each profile in the game is all with size variations between individuals, it is pos- compared with those of other suspects of a crime be- sible to create an almost unique profile for each per- ing investigated and other profiles found at the crime son. In early profiles, these marker sizes were shown scene. It can also be compared to a profile database as bands of different sizes (rather like barcodes), but of suspects and criminals and of samples from previ- these days, profiles are now often represented as ous crimes. graphs. The main problems that forensic scientists face in In the UK, 10 pairs of markers plus a sex chromo- generating real-life profiles are crime scene stains some marker are analysed to ensure that two given containing DNA from several people, stains contain-

people can effectively be differentiated. This would ing very small amounts of DNA, or stains containing Image courtesy of PaulCowan / iStockphoto give a match probability (the chance of finding two degraded DNA. These problems can be overcome to people with the same profile) of less than one in a bil- an extent by profiling all of the suspects and those lion (1 000 000 000). The chance of finding a match who may have visited the crime scene, by developing is higher between family members, whose DNA is newer profiling techniques and by using larger num- shared, and identical twins, who have identical (or bers of DNA markers. nearly identical) DNA profiles. Profiles generated in DNA profiling technology is used as a complement England and Wales are currently stored in the UK Na- to other investigative techniques and, in court, DNA- tional DNA Database. based evidence should be backed up with other non- The DNA detective game reflects reality in that pro- DNA-based evidence, such as video or witness state- files, loosely represented here as the original ‘bar- ments. BACKGROUND

1. Why do you think the murderer’s 2. What do you think should happen – even the DNA from people who DNA was in the DNA database? to the DNA profiles taken from were later proven innocent was kept How might you have found the suspects who turn out to be in- permanently. Following a decision in murderer if his DNA had not been nocent? Should their DNA profiles 2008 by the European Court of Hu- in the database? be put into the DNA database or man Rights, the situation in England should they be destroyed? What is will be changed to one similar to the The murderer had been convicted on the situation in your country? Scottish system. several occasions for drug possession, and each time, his DNA was put onto In Scotland, a suspect’s DNA must the DNA database. If the murderer 3. What do you think should happen normally be destroyed immediately if had not been in the database, DNA to the DNA profile of a 12-year-old they are not found guilty. For serious samples would have to be taken from shoplifter? Should children’s DNA crimes such as murder, an innocent all of the suspects (rather than just be in the DNA database – and suspect’s DNA may be kept in the three). More ‘traditional’ evidence does it depend on how serious the database for three years. DNA from would also have been useful, such as convicted criminals is kept perma- crime is? What about a 12-year-old fingerprints, closed-circuit television nently in the database. convicted of murder? if available, and deduction from the Until recently, in England, DNA suspect and witness statements. was taken from everybody who was In Scotland, the minimum age at arrested and put into the database which someone is considered to be

34 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Teaching activities

responsible for a crime that they com- · A balance must be found between www.biology.ed.ac.uk/projects/ mit is eight. Some people believe that valid personal concerns such as GeneJury/learningzone_whose children should not be treated and these, and the benefits of using DNA.html labelled as criminals, because they a criminal DNA database. These should be given a chance to learn are identified by discussion and Resources from their mistakes. Other people be- enforced by law. The University of Edinburgh has also lieve, however, that young offenders developed a discussion activity on are more likely to re-offend, and that the use of DNA databases in crimi- putting their DNA in the database will Acknowledgements nal investigations and for medical help to catch them if they do commit This game was developed as a research. To download the instruc- a crime in the future. collaborative effort by the Gene Jury tions, visit: http://sibe.bio.ed.ac. team – Heather McQueen, Fiona uk/resources Stewart, Sarah Keer-Keer and Kenneth For more detective mysteries in the 4. After playing this game, what Wallace-Müller – at the University of science classroom, see: do you think about using DNA Edinburgh, UK. For more details, see Gardner G (2006) The detective databases for solving crimes? Can the Gene Jury websitew1. mystery: an interdisciplinary you think of any reasons why you Thanks to Sandra Couperwhite, foray into basic forensic science. might not want your DNA on a forensic scientist with Lothian and Science in School 3: 35-38. database? Borders Police, for her help with the www.scienceinschool.org/2006/ box ‘How well does the game reflect issue3/detective reality?’ Although a DNA database is very use- For a forensic activity based on chro- ful in catching criminals and identify- Reference matography, see: www.csiro.au/ resources/colour-forensics-activity. ing dead bodies, there are several rea- Hodge R, Wegener AL (2006) Alec html sons why people wouldn’t want their Jeffreys interview: a pioneer on DNA on a database. For example: the frontier of human diversity. Science in School 3: 16-19. www. · Some people are concerned about Kenneth Wallace-Müller is a gradu- scienceinschool.org/2006/issue3/ the chances of mix-ups in the ate in biological sciences from the jeffreys database, or that someone may University of Edinburgh where, as hack into the database and change Web reference a member of the Gene Jury team, he information. compiled a variety of DNA database w1 – The Gene Jury project located and forensic teaching resources. Ken- · Criminals themselves might be in Edinburgh, UK, aims to engage neth is currently studying law and concerned, as if they re-offend, children aged 7-14 with bioethi- they might be caught more easily. economics in Vienna, Austria. cal issues surrounding the use of · Many people are worried about modern genetic technology, via privacy, as DNA can reveal per- interactive workshops and teaching sonal information. Although the activities. DNA profile itself is fairly unin- For more information and to down- formative, the original cell sam- load materials visit the Gene Jury ple or DNA may also be stored; website: www.biology.ed.ac.uk/ although unlikely, it is possible that projects/GeneJury Image courtesy of dtimiraos / iStockphoto the DNA could be sequenced from To download the materials for the that sample. detective game, visit: www.biology.ed.ac.uk/projects/ · An answer which might not be GeneJury/ databaseDNAdetectives. raised by the class is proportional- html ity – this is the term used to ask the question: is putting everybody’s For more details of DNA profiling, DNA onto a criminal DNA data- see: www.biology.ed.ac.uk/ base going to solve or cause more projects/GeneJury/database To learn how to problems? These may be financial TeachersResources.html use this code, see or administrative, as well as ethical For a list of more materials about page 1. and moral. DNA on the Gene Jury website, see: www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 35 Amber: an introduction to Public domain image; image source: Wikimedia Commons

Blue Dominican amber, organic chemistry 25-40 million years old

Did you know that the electron and electricity are named after amber, the ‘gold’ of the Baltic Sea? Bernhard Sturm’s teaching unit based on this fossilised resin introduces not only conductivity but also many other characteristics Image courtesy of Steev Selby; image source: Wikimedia Commons of solid organic compounds.

Introduction An amber inclusion Amber has been used as jewellery, as an ingredient in perfumes and in folk medicine for thousands of years – but it also has its place in science. It was the first substance on which electrostatic phenomena were observed, by the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus, 600 BC, and it gave electricity sediment, which can be misleading The heterogeneous yellow to red its name: in 1601, the English physicist because the amber may have origi- organic macromolecule fossilises from William Gilbert, the first to distin- nated far from the location in which two types of soft, sticky plant resin: guish between magnetic and electrical it was discovered. Although amber terpenoid resins or phenolic resins. attraction, coined the term ‘electricus’ is found all over the world, includ- Terpenoid resins, produced by both for the property of attracting small ing in the Dominican Republic where conifers and angiosperms (flower- objects after being rubbed, derived rare blue amber is mined, possibly its ing plants), consist of ring structures from amber’s Greek name elektron most famous deposits in Europe are formed from isoprene (C5H8) units. (meaning shiny). in the Baltic Sea, where large quanti- Phenolic resins are found only in Amber is plant resin that fossilised ties are found. Yet amber is also found angiosperms, and include lignins, either inside the plant, or after oozing in eastern Europe, the North Sea, the flavonoids and certain pigments. out from it. Pieces of amber can be 20 Alps, northern Spain and Sicily. Pieces Resins protect injured plants from to 320 million years old, but it is dif- of amber torn from the sea floor are further damage, oozing out and ficult to be certain: radiocarbon dating cast up by the waves and collected by hardening to form a defence against can only be used for specimens up to hand, dredging or diving. Elsewhere, invading fungi and insects. The 50 000 years of age. So you have to amber is mined, both in open works volatile fractions of resins are scented determine the age of the surrounding and in underground galleries. (think of the typical scent of pine

36 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Teaching activities Image courtesy of Johannes Richter; image source: Wikimedia Commons Image courtesy of Bernhard Sturm

Amber sources in Europe. Amber discovery locations in red, historical amber routes in black and red, rivers in blue Amber ‘baby chains’ like this one are very useful for the experiments

resin), but it is the sticky, non-volatile, and cyclisation may occur, forming a pounds, such as being combustible,

di- (C20) and tri-terpenoid (C30) frac- mixture of substances with the general not conducting electricity and being

tions that fossilise into amber via formula C10H16O. A small amount electrostatically chargeable, it is a free-radical polymerisation. During of sulphur (up to 1%) may also be good model substance to introduce this maturation process, which takes included. these compounds in general, despite place over millions of years, polym- Since amber has many classical its varied and complex composition. erisation, isomerisation, cross-linking properties of solid organic com- It offers the added value of putting

Chemistry For those interested in interdisciplinary links, the choice Organic chemistry is also wide: arts and crafts (making jewellery), history (the Amber Road, the Amber Room) or economy (am- Physics ber mining and commerce), just to mention some. Biology Finally, a teacher only needs to get some pieces of Earth science the ‘gold of the Baltic Sea’ (which is – luckily – much Environmental science cheaper than true gold) to follow Bernhard Sturm in the footsteps of Thales of Miletus, William Gilbert and Arts and crafts others. Ages 16+ The article might provide valuable background reading Bernhard Sturm, who has already published another for a visit to a natural history or science museum and enjoyable article in Science in School (Sturm, 2009), can also be used as a comprehension exercise. Possi- is a model of creativity in the field of science teaching. ble questions include: Those who think that chemistry and physics are boring 1. To assess the age of a piece of amber: subjects should try the activities based on amber pro- a) radiocarbon can normally be used posed by the author. Starting from this ancient material b) it is necessary to date the surrounding and following the suggested links, a science teacher sediments can explore many different topics related to amber and c) different methods are used depending on the discover unexpected relationships with arts and hu- circumstances. manities. 2. Which of the following materials is most different The different core activities, in fact, provide the oppor- in density compared to amber? tunity to address organic chemistry (natural and man- a) polyethylene made polymers), earth science (sedimentary rocks, fos- b) polyvinylchloride sils, fossil fuels), physics (density, separation methods, conductivity and charge separation), environmental c) oak wood science (combustion, pollution) and biology (plant res- d) colophony.

REVIEW ins, amber inclusions). Giulia Realdon, Italy

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 37 chemistry into a broader context, thus utes. In a large class, it may be useful online shops. One 30-35cm-long ‘baby appealing to students who are not to provide two of each station. In the chain’ for teething babies to chew on, normally interested in the subject, final lesson, the students present their available for about €8-20, will suffice because there are links to arts, biology, results in class. to perform all core activities with earth science and physics. It is possible to extend the teaching about 30 students. Often, students are This five-lesson teaching unit is unit with additional optional activities also keen to take family jewellery into suitable for students aged 16+ who (see below), which may involve col- class. The only experiment that will already know about density, conduc- leagues from other subjects. Alterna- actually use up or damage the amber tivity and the electric circuit. You may tively, you may perform all or part of is combustion. want to provide textbooks from earlier the activities as demonstration experi- grades for the students to refresh their ments or by the entire class simultane- Core activities knowledge. The teaching unit consists ously. The methods used in the differ- For those students who are espe- of six core activities: over four lessons ent activities are quite varied, and the cially fast, you may want to provide of 45 minutes each, groups of students results tend to be easily remembered further organic compounds on which rotate through the stations, so that by the students. they can perform the same experi- each group performs all the activities. The amber required for these activi- ments and compare to amber. These Each activity will take about 20 min- ties can easily be obtained through can be: for Experiment 2, other non-

Table 1: Geological origin of crude oil, coal and amber

Crude oil Coal Amber

Source Time of Formation Time of Formation Time of origin Formation origin origin

dtv-Lexikon, Creta- Small organisms Carbonifer- Dead tropical Devonian to Resin oozed from trees Munich, 1966 ceous, sank to the bot- ous, 360- plants sank Triassic, 400-40 to the ground, sank 145-65 tom of the sea, 300 million into the mud million years below the sea level after million forming sapropel years ago where they ago the climate changed, years ago (organic sludge); were covered and polymerised under they were by sand and anaerobic conditions digested in the clay; high sediment under pressure and anaerobic condi- anaerobic tions and high conditions pressure led to carbon- isation

http://en. Millions Large quantities Carbonifer- Layers of Upper Carbonif- Resin that was either wikipedia.org of years of prehistoric ous (359- plant matter erous (320 mil- still in the plant or had accessed on ago zooplankton 299 million accumulated lion years ago) oozed out and dropped 31/03/2011 and algae settled years ago) at the bottom and earlier to the ground, often on the bottom of a body of acquiring impurities; of a water body water; mud or high temperatures and under anoxic acidic water pressures due to overly- conditions; the protected ing sediments first led organic mat- them from to formation of copal ter mixed with biodegrada- (an intermediate stage mud and was tion and oxi- of polymerisation and buried under disation; they hardening, between sediment; heat were covered ‘gummier’ resins and and pressure led by sediment amber); sustained heat to formation of and metamor- and pressure drove off crude oil phosed into terpenes, resulting in coal amber formation

38 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Teaching activities

Images courtesy of Bernhard Sturm Methane Butane Petroleum Paraffin Amber

Comparing the flames of burning organic compounds saturated organic compounds such sen burner by opening and closing the which by measuring their densities. as alkanes, e.g. in the form of a gas draft, and discuss how to avoid soot You will need a piece of amber, a burner (with a yellow flame) and a production. measuring cylinder, water (containing lighter; for Experiments 3 to 6, plastics Safety note: wear safety goggles a small drop of washing-up liquid to such as polyvinylchloride and poly- and do not overheat the glass, as it reduce the surface tension and im- ethylene, as well as different types may explode. Do not burn polyvi- prove the accuracy of measurements) of wood (for example pine and oak, nylchloride (available as optional and a balance. e.g. from a set of density cubes) and material for Experiments 3 to 6), Weigh the piece of amber. Partly colophony (violin rosin, used to rub which would result in the production fill the cylinder with water and note the hairs of the bow). of harmful dioxins. See also the gen- down the volume of water. Add the eral safety note on the Science in School amber and note the difference in vol- 1) Geological origin website (www.scienceinschool.org/ ume. Calculate the density of amber as: The students should compare the safety) and on page 73. Density of amber [g/ml] = weight of date and process of formation for amber [g] / (volume with amber [ml] natural deposits of amber, crude 3) Density – volume without amber [ml]) oil and coal by performing Internet The students should determine the Many organic compounds have and literature searches. They should density of amber (1.050–1.096 g/ml), densities similar to water (0.8–1.2 g/ critically evaluate the reliability of dif- which is only slightly higher than that ml). Polyvinylchloride is atypical, ferent sources of information and note of water (about 0.998 g/ml at room with a density of 1.4 g/ml, due to its down the dates and processes given temperature). For this experiment, heavier chloride atoms. in the different sources. For websites, more accurate results will be achieved they should note down the date at using a larger piece of amber with no 4) Separating amber from a mix- which they were accessed. See Table 1 hole in it. I own a large piece of amber ture of organic and inorganic for an example of what they may find. and a piece of flint of comparable size compounds and like to give both to the students, The students will learn how to sepa- 2) Combustion asking them to determine which is rate amber from rocks and sand, an

Remind your students that high Image courtesy of Bernhard Sturm experiment with practical relevance levels of carbon in a burning organic for amber mining. substance will lead to a sooty flame. 1. Weigh an empty beaker. The students should then hold a piece 2. Add a defined volume of water of amber (German Bernstein = Börn- and weigh it again to determine steen = burning stone) with a pair of the mass of the water. crucible tongs below a glass test tube, 3. Next add a mixture of sand, rocks then burn the amber with a match and and amber, and weigh the beaker watch the soot collecting on the test again. Also note down the volume tube. contained. To link the activity to the topic of 4. Gradually add salt and mix until Amber (in front) and flint (on the particulate matter pollution by com- balance) can be distinguished by the amber floats. Weigh the full bustion engines, the students can vary determining their density beaker again and note down the the combustion conditions of a Bun- volume contained. www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 39 What is the density of the salt water? Calculate it as: Density of salt water [g/l] = [(mass Classification of amber of beaker at the end (step 4) – mass of beaker before salt is added (step 3)) Plant resins are so diverse that their distinct chemical compo- + (mass of beaker with water (step sition is used to identify from which plant species a piece of 2) – mass of empty beaker (step 1))] / amber formed. This does not mean that similar resins must origi- [volume of water + (volume of beaker nate from similar plants, however: recent research has revealed at the end (step 4) – volume of beaker that resins of extremely similar molecular composition can be wihout salt (step 3))] produced by entirely unrelated plants (Bray & Anderson, 2009) This should of course be higher (>1.1 – the distinctions can be quite small. On the basis of their chemi- g/ml) than the density of amber deter- cal constituents, five classes of amber are roughly defined: mined in Experiment 3, otherwise the amber would not float. · Class I: by far the most abundant, comprising The students should illustrate their labdatriene carboxylic acids; three subclasses ideas of how this technique could be developed into a technology for con- 8(17),12,14-Labdatriene-19-oic acid, tinuously mining amber (see image on also known as communic acid page 41). 5) Conductivity The students will learn that solid · Class II: formed from resins with a sesquiterpenoid base, organic compounds do not conduct such as cadinene electricity, by building an electric circuit Cadinenes, such as +-(α)- cadinene, using a power supply, three cables and are found in a variety of essential-oil- a light bulb to test the conductivity of producing plants including the Cade amber. If they are not familiar with the juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus) experimental setup, you could supply a physics textbook for them to look it up. · Class III: natural polystyrenes Image courtesy of Bernhard Sturm

Polystyrene forms Polymerisation by polymerisation U = 6 V (DC) of styrene units

Styrene Polystyrene

Amber sample · Class IV: a collection of non-polymerised ambers which consist mainly of cedrane-based sesquiterpenoids

Cedrol, a common cedrane 6) Charge separation found in cedar oil The students will learn about electrostatic induction and charge separation, performing Gilbert’s electrostatic experiment: they rub a piece of amber · Class V: considered to be produced by a with wool and see that it attracts small pine or pine relative; a mixture of diterpenoid pieces of paper or, for example, the resins and n-alkyl compounds (R-NH-CH3) dried pith from the centre of an elder Labdane, a diterpene originally (Sambucus spp.) twig. This also works obtained from labdanum, a resin well with the small pieces of amber derived from rockroses (Cistaceae) from a baby chain.

BACKGROUND The experiment will not work well if the air is humid, because water in the

40 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Teaching activities

A possible solution for seperating

Image courtesy of Bernhard Sturm and Nicola Graf amber from amixture of organic and inorganic compounds Sludge (amber, sand, rocks and water) amber pieces of at least 15 mm in di- From opencast ameter. Sand the piece of amber with Stirrers (moving fast) mining wet fine sandpaper (Coated Abrasive Net for scooping Manufacturers Institute grit size amber from surface Salt water (highly 120–1000), then polish it with tooth- concentrated) paste. Rinse with water and dry with kitchen roll, then rub in some cook- Salt water (density g > 1.1 g/ml) ing oil using a cloth. Pierce the amber with a hot needle (this should be done by the teacher) or drill a small 1-2 mm To the sea hole. Thread the amber onto a nylon or leather string to make a necklace or Conveyor belt (moving slowly) Salty sludge bracelet. Links to biology Optional activities air will conduct electricity and reduce For a link to biology, the students the electrostatic charge on the amber. Making jewellery can look at inclusions in amber and Damp fingers will do the same; for To link art and chemistry and foster discuss tree resins in depth – what is better results, the students could use your students’ technical skills, you their composition, where do they oc- insulated (plastic) tweezers to hold could get them to produce their own cur, what is their function and what is the amber. amber jewellery. You will need raw the structure of wood?

Image courtesy of V Girard / D Néraudeau, UMR CNRS 6118

Amber research at ESRF

Image courtesy of M Lak, P Tafforeau, D Néraudeau (ESRF Grenoble and UMR CNRS 6188 Rennes) Opaque amber Pieces of amber are a rich source of fossil evidence. At the European Syn- chrotron Radiation Faciliy (ESRF)w1 in Grenoble, France, powerful X-rays are used to study inclusions in amber. This is especially useful for opaque amber pieces, which are inaccessible to pal- 3D reconstruction of a aeontologists with classical microsco- hymenopteran insect of py techniques. Several hundred animal the Falciformicidae family, embedded in 100-million- inclusions from the mid-Cretaceous, year-old opaque amber 100 million years ago, have been identified. In another study at ESRF, researchers

used the same technique to obtain Image courtesy of Paul Tafforeau / ESRF detailed three-dimensional images of feathers enclosed in translucent amber, which may have belonged to a feath- ered dinosaur – an intermediate in the 3D reconstruction of evolution to modern birds. a feather intermediate For more information, read the online between dinosaurs reportw2 from ESRF, one of the members and modern birds, of EIROforum, the publisher of Science enclosed in amber in School. BACKGROUND 200 mm

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 41 References w2 – Scientists at ESRF used powerful Bray PS, Anderson KB (2009) Identifi- X-rays to study amber inclusions. Bernhard Sturm obtained his PhD in cation of carboniferous (320 million See: www.esrf.eu/news/general/ chemistry at the GKSS Research Cen- years old) class Ic amber. Science amber tre Geesthacht, Germany. He teaches 326(5949): 132-134. doi: 10.1126/ Resources chemistry and physics at the Neues Gymnasium, a secondary school in science.1177539 To download charts of Earth’s history, Oldenburg, Germany. His main inter- The free full-text article is available see: www.stratigraphy.org/upload/ est is interdisciplinary work linking online. ISChart2009.pdf or www.chronos. science and humanities. His students For drama activities in the chemistry org/downloads/timetowerparis_ have won a number of science com- and physics classroom, including highres.png petitions on geoscientific and climate one about the radical polymerisa- To learn about research into topics. This led to Bernhard winning tion of ethene to polyethylene in biodegradable plastics, see: the Lower Saxony Teacher’s Award class, see: Bradley D (2007) Plastics, naturally. for STEM subjects in 2010. Sturm B (2009) The drama of sci- Science in School 5: 66-69. ence. Science in School 13: 29-33. www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ www.scienceinschool.org/2009/ issue5/plastics issue13/drama If you enjoyed reading this article, Web references why not take a look at the full collection of articles on chemistry To learn how to w1 – For more information on ESRF, published in Science in School? See: use this code, see page 1. see: www.esrf.eu www.scienceinschool.org/chemistry

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D&T, Science and much more: teaching resources to inspire and make learning fun

Visit our website to see our fantastic range of smart materials, science and design & technology products www.mindsetsonline.co.uk 0044 (0)1992 716052 42 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Mindsets reinvests all surplus funds into education Science education projects Image courtesy of NASA

Artist’s concept of possible colonies on Building a space habitat future Mars missions in the classroom

What does it take to live on the Moon or even Mars? Erin Tranfield suggests an interdisciplinary teaching activity to get your students thinking about this – and learning a lot of science along the way.

All sciences The activity could be used either in integrated science Ages 7-19 lessons or to combine different science topics. If not all of the students were studying all sciences, students Two challenges that science teachers sometimes en- with different science backgrounds could be grouped counter are making science relevant to students’ lives in teams. Although the main topic of the activity is the and approaching science in an integrated way. This ac- basic needs for living, it can also be used to discuss the tivity provides a feasible solution to both of these chal- cultural and behavioural aspects of living together in a lenges. confined space. To build the space habitat, students will have to re- The activity could be extended into a long-term project flect on their daily needs and requirements, evaluate beyond the classroom. Perhaps it could be a competi- their importance, and then find possible solutions (rel- tion between teams that have to abide by criteria such evance) by drawing on their knowledge of different ar- as maximum weight and size of the habitat, as well as eas of science (integrated approach). Given the novelty the number of people, and the duration of the mission. of the activity, I believe it would generate a lot of interest and excitement among students. This is of course Other students could judge the habitat that best meets an advantage but means it would need to be carefully the criteria. managed to be finished in a reasonable time. Paul Xuereb, Malta REVIEW

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 43

Image courtesy of NASA The flow of recyclable resources Processed air lanet Earth is able to meet the on board the ISS Tem- perature & Air basic living requirements for humidity trillions of organisms, includ- control CO Cabin air 2 CO ing humans. The oxygen we need is removal 2 P Condensate Waste Cabin return in the air around us, the atmosphere manage- CO ment 2 protects us from radiation, drink- Fire detection & reduction Waste supression ing water can be found in rivers and products lakes, and food can be readily found Urine Oxygen Urine H in most places. On Earth, cycles exist recovery 2 O / N Oxygen where one species’ waste products 2 2 generation Processed control are used by another species, so that urine Nitrogen the waste products do not build up to high levels: an example of this is the Potable Product water Product water w1 Crew system water process- complex carbon cycle in which oxy- ing gen and carbon dioxide are alternately Water produced and used by plant species Waste and animal species. Portable Hand Shower water water dis- wash / However, in space, none of these penser shaving requirements for human survival are met. Therefore, to live and work in space, we have to take with us every- cost of 450 million USD and shuttles the primary system fails and a backup thing we need, and we need to devise carrying an average of 26 000 kg of system is needed. ways to recycle or dispose of the cargo plus astronauts). It will cost Getting your students thinking waste we produce. We must do this much more to take 1 kg to the Moon about habitat design on the Moon or while limiting the weight of material or to Mars. At such a great expense Mars can be a good way to consider taken to space and building in backup and with the inherent difficulty of the challenges of living and working safety equipment (redundancy). each mission to space, every kilogram in space as well as illustrating the Weight must be minimised as trans- needs to be justified. Furthermore, critical role that the cycles on Earth port into space is extremely expensive. backup equipment is required for play in the survival of all organisms. It currently costs about 17 000 USD to every life-support system in space. It is an activity suitable for students of lift 1 kg to the International Space Sta- Currently, on the ISS, there are three all ages (see the suggestions for differ- tion (ISS) (based on an average launch levels of this redundancy, just in case ent age groups, below). The introduction to the activity will Image courtesy of ESA take about 2 hours, with at least a further 2 hours to design the habitat, depending on its complexity. To build the habitat could take 5-15 hours, depending on how many students are involved and how complex a habitat they are building. If the students are really enthusiastic about the idea, they might want to invest even more time. When you have finished, send a photo of your completed space habitat to [email protected] and we will publish a selection of the photos on the Science in School website.

A photo of the Earth taken by ESA astronaut André Kuipers out of the window of the Soyuz capsule

44 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Science education projects

Image courtesy of NASA

An inflatable habitat such as the one depicted here, 16 m in diameter, could accommodate the needs of a dozen astronauts living and working on the surface of the Moon. Depicted are astronauts exercising, a base operations centre, a pressurised lunar rover, a small clean room, a fully equipped life sciences lab, a lunar lander, selenological (lunar geology) work, hydroponic gardens, a wardroom, private crew quarters, dust- removing devices for lunar surface work and an airlock

Designing a space habitat bear in mind that the Moon has needs to provide (listed in the box Begin by asking your students to greater temperature changes and no on page 46) and include them in consider what humans need to stay atmosphere for protection but is closer the design of a planetary habitat alive and work efficiently on Earth. to Earth. Mars has more moderate for at least two people. How could we meet these needs in temperature changes and an atmos- 3. Build a model habitat out of space? And how can we build space phere, but it is much further away cardboard and strong sticky tape. facilities with the highest efficiency, from Earth, thus a Mars habitat will The habitat can be room-sized lightest weight and longest durabil- need to be much more independent. or tabletop-sized. You may find ity? See the box on page 46 for many the Worldflower Garden Domew5 ideas, together with links to more Activity for students aged 7-10 and Geo-Domew6 websites help- resources, including many from the 1. Begin by discussing what humans ful for your design. Decorate the European Space Agencyw2. Further need to survive on Earth and habitat to make it a liveable place, background information can be then extrapolate the list to what for example by adding colour or downloaded from the Science in School humans need in space. What is windows. websitew3. essential for survival in space 4. Discuss with the group what each Now the students can begin to de- and what can be removed to save student would take with them sign and even build their own space weight and money? if they could only choose one habitat. First, they will need to decide 2. Discuss how the requirements are personal item (e.g. a family photo, whether to build their habitat on Mars important during the design and music recording or book). or the Moon, because the design reconstruction process. Pick two of quirements will differw4. They should the requirements that a habitat www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 45 Image courtesy of janrysavy / iStockphoto

Considerations for designing a space habitat

Earth requirements · Medical facilities for minor problems such as cuts, What do we expect for our everyday life on Earth? rashes, infections, toothache and motion sickness, and for more serious problems such as broken · Shelter from weather – a home and clothing bones, kidney stones and heart attacks · Clean drinking water and a sanitary living Sleeping quarters environment · Exercise facilities addressing cardiovascular, mus- · Breathable air · cle and skeleton maintenance · Nutritious food · Temperature regulation systems to compensate for · Medical care the temperature extremes. Surface temperatures · Adequate sleep and leisure time on the Moon can be as low as -270 °C in perma- · Physical well-being. nently shadowed craters at the poles, and higher than 121 °C in the full sun at the lunar equatorw12 Requirements for a planetary space habitat · Communication systems (contact with mission Many of our requirements in a space habitat would be control as well as family and friends on Earth) similar to those on Earth, but some would be specific · Recycling or disposal of liquid waste (urine) and to the new environment. solid waste (general garbage, faeces)w10, w11, w13. This · Shelter from radiation, micro-meteorites, dust, the needs to be done under the guidelines of planetary surrounding vacuum and the extreme temperature protectionw14 environments · Monitoring systems for the life-support systems · Significant reduction in standard water use, (air- and water-quality monitoring, radiation dose increased water recovery and recyclingw10. This measurements) includes hygiene facilities that use very little wa- · A food preparation and eating area ter – for the astronauts to wash their clothes and · Work areas for exploration experiments (geology, bodies, and a toilet biology, chemistry, etc.). This is a requirement to · Breathable air – a way to either recycle old air justify long-duration space exploration. (oxygen provision, carbon dioxide and contami- Many of these considerations were also important in w11 nant removal) or supply new air the design of the ISS. For more details, see Hartevelt- · Nutritious food – to be either brought and stored Velani & Walker (2008). or produced in the habitat

use computer modelling soft- Activity for students aged 10-14 3. In the design, incorporate features w7 1. As for the previous group, but pick ware to create their vision of a to support a sense of well-being four to six of the requirements of a habitat. Take into consideration at such as windows, paint colour or space habitat (see box above) and least eight of the requirements for leisure areas. include them in a design for at a space habitat (see box above) for 4. Compare what the teams did and least four people. four people. see if everyone likes the designs. 2. Give more consideration to the 2. Include a description of the dif- There will probably be differences weight of the habitat and the ferent technologies needed for in what individuals consider ap- associated costs. the habitat, e.g. an electrolyser to pealing. Discuss how to design one produce oxygen from water, or Activity for students aged 14-19 habitat for many cultures. a Sabatier reactor to split carbon 1. As for the first group, but instead dioxide into methane and waterw8, References of building a cardboard model, technology that is being tested on Hartevelt-Velani S, Walker C (2008) small groups of students should the ISSw9. The International Space Station: a 46 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Science education projects

Possible extension: psychology · Safe – this is the most important consideration Any crew on a long mission, for example to Mars, will · Robust – strong, reliable, durable, requiring minimal Image courtesy of Luc Viatour; image source: Wikimedia Commons be isolated from their loved ones and confined in a small maintenance space with other crew members. Training in conflict Lightweight – the average fridge weighs 100 kg and is management is crucial, as is enhancing our understanding · clearly not an option in a space habitat of how humans respond under stress, in a confined space over long durationsw15. · Launchable – the different elements have to fit an available rocket in terms of weight, shape and power The mental state of each individual is extremely important, requirements as it will affect the group mental state and ultimately even the overall mission success. It is therefore important to · Effective – it must do what it was designed to do ensure good mental support for the crew. · Affordable – space exploration is expensive, so all steps On Earth, humans need a sense of mental well-being to reduce costs without compromising performance and including interactions between people to be happy and safety must be taken. productive. To achieve this, in addition to the points listed above, a space habitat needs to provide: Designing an effective habitat · Privacy for each crew member, even if the space is How can we meet the requirements of a space habitat un- small der the constraints that are imposed? This is done by: · A common area for interaction and leisure · Using a modular construction system, beginning with the essential features and adding ‘rooms’ as needed Colour in the habitat, selected by each crew prior to · for particular purposes (e.g. research or space for more launch crew) Living things, e.g. plants or fish. Might there be ethical · Developing technology to utilise the resources on issues? · the Moon or Mars, e.g. making lunar bricks or lunar · Windows. Being able to look outside is a very important cement, or using the underground caves on Mars for psychological factor. From Mars, this will be harder habitats than from the Moon, since Earth will look like just an- Recycling (air, water, waste, parts of the landing space- other small star in the sky. · craft for construction, the oxygen and hydrogen in extra To learn about life on board the ISS, for which these con- rocket fuel for water production) siderations are important, see also Hartevelt-Velani et al. Miniaturising as many things as possible, standardising (2008). · all tools, power connections, etc. Design constraints · Making areas multipurpose, e.g. a dining table that When a space habitat is designed, it is important that it folds away so that the space can also be used for other should be: purposes.

foothold in space. Science in School w2 - The European Space Agency w5 – The Worldflower Garden Domes 9: 62-65. www.scienceinschool. (ESA) is Europe’s gateway to space. website offers instructions for org/2008/issue9/iss It is a member of EIROforum, the building a paper dome based on a Hartevelt-Velani S, Walker C, publisher of Science in School. For buckyball. See: www.gardendome. Elmann-Larsen B (2008) The Inter- more information, see: www.esa.int com/GD1.htm national Space Station: life in w3 – Background information to w6 – Further instructions for build- space. Science in School 10: 76-81. support teachers in this activity ing a geodesic dome are avail- www.scienceinschool.org/2008/ can be downloaded from the able on the Geo-Dome website: issue10/iss Science in School website: www.geo-dome.co.uk/article. Web references www.scienceinschool.org/2011/ asp?uname=modelbuild w1 – Learn more about the carbon cy- issue19/habitat#resources cle on the Windows to the Universe w4 – For detailed information about w7 – For a list of free computer-aided website: www.windows2universe. our Solar System, see: design (CAD) software, see org/earth/Water/co2_cycle.html http:// solarsystem.nasa.gov www.freebyte.com/cad/cad.htm www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 47 Artist’s impression of a lunar mining facility Image courtesy of NASA / Pat Rawlings (SAIC) harvesting oxygen from the resource-rich volcanic soil of the eastern Mare Serenitatis (Sea of Serenity) on the Moon w16 – The report Luna Gaia – a closed loop habitat for the moon can be downloaded from www.isunet. w17 w8 – To learn more about the Sabatier the ISS, especially air, see: http:// edu or using the direct link: reaction for use on Mars missions, science.nasa.gov/science-news/ http://tinyurl.com/69bjugb see: science-at-nasa/2000/ast13nov_1 w17 – To find out more about the Richardson JT (2000) Improved International Space University, see: w12 – For fact sheets on the planets Sabatier reactors for in situ resource www.isunet.edu and their satellites, see: http:// utilization on Mars. In Institute nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/ for Space Systems Operations - Resources planetfact.html 1999-2000 Annual Report. pp 84-86. NASA has developed a problem- Houston, Texas, USA: University w13 – For more information on ESA’s based learning module on space of Houston. www.isso.uh.edu/ life support and recycling systems habitats. Starting from a ‘sealed room’ publications/A9900/ for space, including French educa- introductory activity, four content mini-richardson.htm tional materials on the MELISSA areas are offered, on ‘life in a sealed container’, ‘healthy choices’, ‘air and w9 – In 2010, a Sabatier system was project, see: http://ecls.esa.int/ecls water’, and ‘trash or treasure’, explor- delivered to the ISS for testing. w14 – For more information on how ing ecosystems, human nutrition and See the NASA press release on NASA, the US National Aeronautics fitness, recycling of air and water, and www.nasaspaceflight.com or and Space Administration, waste removal. See: www.nasa.gov/ use the direct link: reduces the risk of biological audience/foreducators/son/habitat http://tinyurl.com/3su8p26 cross-contamination, see http:// The EU-funded CoReflect project planetaryprotection.nasa.gov w10 – For an interactive online has developed a teaching unit on model of the water recycling circuit w15 – For information about Mars500, designing a Moon habitat for 10- to on board the ISS, see: http:// a study done to understand key 12-year-olds, available in English esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/ physiology and psychology effects and Dutch. See: www.coreflect.org/ issedukit/en/html/t030505t1.html of long duration isolation and crew nqcontent.cfm?a_id=15089 w11 – To find out more about the flow dynamics, see: www.esa.int/esaMI/ To learn more about a potential of recyclable resources on board Mars500 manned mission to Mars, see: 48 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Image courtesy of NASA / JPL-Caltech Science education projects

http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ box like the one used for experi- www.scienceinschool.org/2008/ planetary/mars/mars_crew.html ments on board the ISS. See: issue8/bernardopatti www.esa.int/SPECIALS/ ESA’s ISS education kits are freely Williams A (2008) The Automated Education/SEMTBS4KXMF_0.html available for primary- or lower- Transfer Vehicle – supporting secondary-school students (ages 8-10 Educational DVDs about the ISS for Europe in space. Science in School and 12-15) in all ESA member state students aged 12-18, explaining 8: 14-20. www.scienceinschool. languages. They offer teaching activi- basic concepts such as the effects of org/2008/issue8/atv ties, background notes for teachers weightlessness on the human body For a complete list of ESA-related and students, and much more. with simple demonstrations, were articles, see: www.scienceinschool. The primary-school ISS educa- produced with the help of European org/esa astronauts during their missions on tion kit includes activities such as To browse all space-related articles board the ISS. The free materials can building a model of the ISS from in Science in School, see: be downloaded online or ordered recycled household materials, www.scienceinschool.org/space on DVD. See: www.esa.int/esaHS/ planning the amount of water and SEMZTFYO4HD_education_0.html Acknowledgement weight of other materials to be taken onto a space mission, or creat- ESA’s teaching materials on the ISS The author would like to thank Scott ing an astronaut menu. See: www. also include the 3D teaching tool Hovland from the European Space esa.int/SPECIALS/Education/ ‘Spaceflight challenge I’ for second- Agency for valuable comments and advice. SEMN3A5KXMF_0.html ary-school students, which can be used either as a role-playing adventure game or as a set of interactive Erin Tranfield completed her PhD An outpost on the Moon could produce exercises. It features science topics lunar oxygen, conduct long-term surface in May 2007 in the Department of from across the European curricula, operations, and reveal issues before humans Pathology and Laboratory Medicine begin the journey to explore Mars. The with scientific explanations and at the University of British Columbia, Moon’s proximity, only several days from background information. To down- in Vancouver, Canada. She then spent Earth, allows the testing of systems that will load the software or order your free two years at NASA Ames Research enable months-long round trips to Mars copy, see: www.esa.int/esaHS/ Center in Moffett Field, California, SEM3TFYO4HD_education_0.html USA, investigating the effects of ESA’s ‘lessons online’ for primary- lunar dust on human physiology and and secondary-school students and pathology. Erin is currently at the Eu- their teachers include text, short ropean Molecular Biology Laboratory videos and graphics. Topics covered in Heidelberg, Germany, working on the three-dimensional reconstruction include ‘life in space’, ‘radiation’, of the mitotic spindle using high-reso- ‘gravitation and weightlessness’ and lution electron tomography. ‘bugs in space’. See: www.esa.int/ Erin was an author of Luna Gaia – a SPECIALS/Lessons_online closed loop habitat for the moonw16, a Simulate flying over the surface of student research report of the Inter- Mars with Google Mars: national Space University (ISU)w17 in Image courtesy of Pat Rawlings and Faisal Ali / SAIC www.google.com/mars 2006. She is now adjunct faculty at the ISU and will be the chair of the space Here is a selection of space-related life science department at the ISU The lower-secondary-school ISS articles previously published in two-month space studies programme education kit offers videos, back- Science in School: ground reading and interactive in summer 2011 in Graz, Austria. Warmbein B (2007) Down to online materials about building Earth: interview with Thomas the ISS, life and work on board, as Reiter. Science in School 5: 19-23. well as classroom activities such www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ as investigating and filtering your issue5/thomasreiter local fresh water, designing a space station bathroom, studying how the Wegener A-L (2008) Laboratory To learn how to environment affects materials, or in space: interview with Bernardo use this code, see page 1. designing and constructing a glove Patti. Science in School 8: 8-12. www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 49 Moja Island: learning about renewable energy sources Renewable energy is not only important in the developed world; in developing countries, it may be a prerequisite to overcoming poverty. Marlene Rau introduces a teaching activity from Practical Action.

lectricity is an important factor in overcoming poverty, as the United Nations Develop- In Sri Lanka – these children ment Programmew1 states. In commu- are looking forward to having E nities without electricity, children are light in their home generated often unable to attend school because by a small wind turbine they are needed to help collect biomass for fuel – but education is a crucial contributor to escaping poverty. In addition, without access to radios, Image courtesy of Practical Action / Zul Mukhida computers or the Internet, communities have no access to vital information about farming techniques, or to flood warnings or local news. Lack of energy also means that people struggle to start a simple business that could help them out of poverty. Practical Action (previously known as the Intermediate Technology Devel- opment Group) is a UK-based development charity that has been working with the world’s poorest communities for more than four decades, focusing on energy and technology as a catalyst for change. The education section of the charity’s websitew2 provides a range of educational resources and teaching materials on sustainable engineering, climate change and renewable energy. This article presents one of the classroom activities: Moja Island, in which students consider the options available to the four communities living on a fictitious island and select the most appropriate technologies to meet their

50 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Science education projects

Biology The materials for the teaching activity can be freely Physics downloaded. The students assume the role of scientific experts and in small groups decide which kind of re- Chemistry newable energy sources would be most appropriate to Earth science use in a specific fictitious environment. Interdisciplinary The article could trigger discussions on whether any renewable energy source is suitable to be used in par- Ages 11-16 ticular environment. As the answer would most likely be negative, discussions could then focus on specify- The article and teaching activity can be used in any sci- ing which criteria a specific environment would have ence classroom anywhere in the world, in any subject to fulfil to be a good candidate for a given renewable that includes renewable energy sources in its curricu- energy source. lum. In fact, since the topic requires knowledge from many disciplines, including biology, physics, chemis- Teachers may also use the method presented to study try, geography, geology, meteorology, and even eco- different topics. nomics and mathematics, this teaching activity could Michalis Hadjimarcou, Cyprus be an ideal case for studying and learning through

REVIEW interdisciplinary projects. Image courtesy of Gatsenko Alexander / iStockphoto.com needs. Aimed at students aged 11-16, than diesel-based power generators. this 1-2 hour activity reinforces their A successful example is a small- understanding of renewable energy scale wind power project run by sources. Practical Action in Sri Lanka. You can find background information and The Moja Island activity watch a video about the project on- Did you know that one fifth of all linew3. Small-scale renewable energy people in the world have no access to technologies are now reasonably well electricity? Of these, 85% live in rural developed, but access to the technol- areas (International Energy Agency, ogy and funding is often difficult. 2010). Furthermore, most people who In Practical Action’s experience, the In the developed world we tend to take for granted the availability of electricity do have access in remote areas – es- most successful small-scale renewable pecially in developing countries – are energy projects are those that involve not connected to a national grid, but the people who are affected: in the providing them with training so that have to find other ways to generate planning and decision making, and by they can carry out installation and power. The main reason is that grid maintenance. extension is often not cost-effective: Image courtesy of Practical Action / Warwick Franklin the cost per MWh delivered through An example of Practical Action an established grid is lower than in Kenya through off-grid systems, but the cost of extending the grid to only a few In Kenya, 96% of people have no people in remote regions can be very access to grid electricityw4. A commu- high. Long-distance transmission nity from Mbuiri, a village north of systems also lose more energy, for Nairobi, has channelled part of a river instance due to long wires. Therefore, to generate electricity in small-scale governments are often reluctant to in- hydroelectric power schemes. A video vest in extending their national grids Here in Peru, this family home is connect- about micro-hydro energy in Kenya to these remote areas. Small-scale reed to a micro-hydro scheme that generates and other background material about newable energy technologies are often electricity to enable the family to listen to this Practical Action project can be the radio, watch TV and have lighting a viable alternative, and are cheaper found onlinew5. www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 51 Part of a river is channelled to generate electricity from small-scale hydroelectric power schemes Image courtesy of Practical Action / Zul Mukhida

Moja Island Community Cards

O O Moja Island Community Cards

ANDAND The Ericas M The Sandis A Map of Moja Island Location: The Ericas The Sandis The Ericas inhabit the South of the island. The Sandis S4 inhabit the NE of the island Geography: mountainous area. Location: (including the largeLocation: island off the coast). TheLocation: Ericas inhabit the South of the island. The Sandisinhabit the NE of the island S2 inhabitTotal the population: South of the island. (including the large island off the coast). Location: Location: S1 300. inhabit the NE of the island Geography: mountainous area. Geography: partly mountainous, partly H1 H2 No of villages: (including the large island off the coast). fertile. Geography: partly mountainous, partly Geography: mountainous area. 5. fertile. Location: inhabitTotal the Southpopulation: of the island. Location: inhabit the NE of the island Homes:300. 300. Geography: 450. partly mountainous, partly Total population: Each village has 20 dwellings. (includingTotal population:the large island off the coast). H5 S5 Totalfertile. population: H3 Geography: mountainousNo of villages: area. Livelihoods: 5. Ericas 5. are livestock farmers. 5. 450. No of villages: Geography:No of villages: partlyTotal mountainous, population: partly M1 They keep goats and cattle. No of villages: 450. H4 S3 Total population:Homes: 300. fertile. Each village has 20 dwellings. each village has 405. dwellings. Homes: Each village has 20 dwellings. Homes: Homes:No of villages: 5. No of villages: 5. Total population: 450. each village has 40 dwellings. M3 Livelihoods: Ericas are livestock farmers. Livelihoods: Sandis are livestock farmers. Livelihoods:They Ericas keep are goats livestock and cattle. farmers. Livelihoods:Homes: each Sandis village are haslivestock 40 dwellings. farmers. E1 Homes: Each village has 20 dwellings. No ofThe villages: goats and5. cattle are kept in the They keep goats and cattle. The goats and cattle are kept in the M5 E5 mountainous areas. Crops, including sugar mountainousLivelihoods: areas. Sandis Crops, are including livestock sugar farmers. Livelihoods: Ericas are livestock farmers. Homes:cane, each are village grown has on 40fertile dwellings. land. M4 cane,The are goats grown and on cattle fertile are land. kept in the They keepkeep goats and cattle. mountainous areas. Crops, including sugar Livelihoods: Sandiscane, areare grownlivestock on farmers.fertile land. Moja Island Community Cards The goats and cattle are kept in the E3 E4 mountainous areas. Crops, including sugar

Images courtesy of Revellation design cane, are grown on fertile land. N The Hankis H2 The Moodis Location: H2 The Sandis inhabit the NW area of theH3 island Key (including the smaller island off the coast). H2 The Moodis The Hankis H4 H3 The Hankis inhabit the central and northern WaterWater Mountains The Ericas Location: Geography: area is fertile and flat. H3 Location: The Moodis H4 part of the inhabit island the surrounding central and the northern estuary. TropicalTropical Location: inhabit the NW area of the island part of the islandinhabit surrounding the NE of the the estuary. island Highland inhabit the NW areaH2 of the islandH4 Location:One village is situated on the island in the RainforestRainforest TotalLocation: population:(including the smaller island off the coast). Location: The Hankis One(including villageThe is Moodis situatedthe inhabitlarge on island thethe central islandoff the in andcoast). the northern Geothermal Community (including the smaller island off the coast). estuary. Lowland 300. H3 estuary.part of the island surrounding the estuary. RRegionegion Borders inhabit the South of the island. No ofLocation: villages:Geography: area is fertile and flat. One village is situated on the island in the H4 Geography: partlyland is mountainous, mostly low lying, partly flat Location:. Geography:inhabit the 5. NW area area is fertileof the andisland flat. Location: inhabitestuary. the central and northern Geography:fertile. land is mostly low lying, flat E1-E5 villages (including theGeography:Total smaller population: island mountainous off the coast). area. part of the andisland fertile. surrounding At the southern the estuary. end of their Moja Island The Ericas Homes: 300.300. and fertile. At the southern end of their each village has 20 dwellings. territory is an area of450. geothermal springs. Total population: 300. One territoryvillage isGeography: issituated an area on of thelandgeothermal island is mostly in springs.the low lying, flat The Hankis H1-H5 villages Geography:Total area population: is fertile and flat. estuary. Total population: community Livelihoods:No of Hankis villages: grow 5. a variety of and fertile. At the southern end of their 5. Total population: 400. crops (thoughNo. of mainlyvillages: sugar cane) on both territory is an area5. of geothermal springs. The Moodis M1-M5 villages 5. Total population:No of villages: 400. Totalthe population:mainlandNo.Homes: of and villages: 300. oneach the village smaller has island. 20 dwellings. Geography: land is mostly low 5. lying, flat cards each village has 20 dwellings. No of villages: The Sandis Sea fishingHomes: is the main industry. andNo fertile. of villages: AtTotal the southernpopulation: end 400.of their S1-S5S1-S5 villages Each village has 20 dwellings. Homes: each village has 40 dwellings. No of villages:Livelihoods:Homes: 5. Hankis grow a variety of territory is an area of5. geothermal springs. Homes: each village has 25 dwellings. . cropsLivelihoods: (though mainlyHankis sugargrow acane) variety on ofboth Homes: No of villages: eachLivelihoods: village has Sandis 255. dwellings. are livestock farmers. Homes: eachtheLivelihoods:crops village mainland (though has and20 Ericas mainly dwellings. on theare sugar smallerlivestock cane) island. farmers. on both Total population: 400. TheLivelihoods: goats and Moodiscattle are grow kept a widein the variety of SeaTheythe fishing mainland keep is goats the and main and on cattle.theindustry. smaller island. Livelihoods:Homes: Moodis grow a wide variety of mountainouscrops andeach they village areas. fish has inCrops, the 25 riverdwellings. including estuary. sugar Livelihoods: SeaHankis fishing grow is athe variety main ofindustry. Nocrops of villages:and they fish5. in the river estuary. cane, are grown on fertile land. Moja Island crops (though mainly sugar cane) on both Livelihoods: Moodis grow a wide variety of the mainland and on the smaller island. Homes: eachcrops village and theyhas 25 fish dwellings. in the river estuary. Sea fishing is the main industry. Livelihoods: Moodis grow a wide variety of crops and they fish in the river estuary. This sets the scene for the Moja able via the Science in School is little chance of the majority of peo-

w7 The Moodis Island activity. website ) H2 ple without access to mains electricity

H3 A set of renewable energyThe Hankisfact being connected inhabit the in central the and northernnear future. · Location: H4 part of the island surrounding the estuary. Materials inhabit the NW area of the island cards that provideLocation: background · MojaOne Island village is situated is ona thesmall island in thecountry situ- estuary. All materials required to run the information, including(including the the smaller advan- island off the coast). ated off the east African coast in Geography: area is fertile and flat. Geography: land is mostly low lying, flat and fertile. At the southern end of their activity can be for the downloaded tages and disadvantages of 300.eight the Indian Ocean. Total population: territory is an area of geothermal springs. w6 5. from the Practical Action website , renewable energy Nosources of villages: · It hasTotal no population: mains 400. electricity. . 5. including video clips showing renew- · One of the four MojaHomes: Island each village com- has 20 dwellings. · The 1450No of villages: islanders mainly use each village has 25 dwellings. able energy in action. You will need munity cards that giveLivelihoods: background Hankis grow a variety of keroseneHomes: lamps and candles for crops (though mainly sugar cane) on both the mainland and on the smaller island. Livelihoods: Moodis grow a wide variety of the file entitled ‘Powerpoint presenta- information on the Seacommunities fishing is the main industry. light andcrops and wood they fish in forthe river cooking estuary. food. tion introducing activity’. living on Moja Island The activity is designed for four · A renewable energy choices The task groups of up to four students each. worksheet. 1. The Moja Island government has A large class could be split into eight decided to invest money in gen- groups, with two groups working on Introduction to the activity erating electricity through small- each of the Moja communities. For Introduce Moja Island, using the scale renewable energy technolo- each group of students, you will need: downloadable PowerPoint® presen- gies. As scientists, your students · A map of Moja Island (the origi- tation to explain the main issues of have been asked to identify the nal map on the Practical Action meeting energy requirements in rural most appropriate renewable website will work in colour. A communities, and set the scene for the energy options for the village com- black and white version is avail- classroom activity. Discuss why there munities on the island.

52 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Science education projects

Table 1: Renewable energy facts

Energy Generation Advantages Disadvantages Environmental impact provided

Geothermal Underground water is heated It is free and Only available in Some impact from the instal- One geothermal energy by hot rocks below Earth’s available day certain parts of the lation of the equipment that power plant surface. The resulting steam and night. world. Sometimes is needed to direct steam provides enough can be used to turn turbines poisonous gases to turbines. For example, electricity for 20 that then power generators to are given off. infrastructure such as roads dwellings. produce electricity. will be needed to transport the building materials to the site, and the equipment itself takes up a lot of space.

Solar energy Uses the Sun’s energy in two The Sun’s energy Solar panels Some minor impact as a A single pho- main ways: is freely available require continuous large area may be needed tovoltaic cell 1) To heat solar panels which whenever the sunshine, unless for solar cells (about 2 m2 provides enough can be used to heat water Sun is shining. the energy can be per cell). electricity for 5 2) In solar cells which can stored in batter- dwellings. transform light energy into ies. Solar cells are electricity. expensive to buy.

Wind energy The wind turns blades, which Whenever the Large numbers Some impact from installing Two wind drive a turbine; this in turn wind blows of turbines are wind turbines, such as noise turbines provide drives the generator to pro- electricity is needed to produce and danger to birds. Bats are enough electric- duce electricity. generated. a large amount of particularly affected by the ity for 15 dwell- energy. Only works changes in pressure caused ings. well in windy by the turbines. places (hills or offshore).

Hydroelectric Running water is diverted If there is a good Only suitable for Some impact from diverting A single hydro- energy from a river to turn a water- supply of rain, hilly areas with rivers. This may upset the electric plant wheel or turbine, which in there will always rivers. ecology of the area or the provides enough turn drives the generator to be water to pro- fertility of surrounding land. electricity for 40 produce electricity. duce electricity. dwellings.

Tidal energy A barrage is placed across Wherever Barrages are ex- Some impact through barrier A single barrage the mouth of an estuary. Tidal there are tides, pensive to build. installation, which can dis- provides enough water passes through holes in electricity is rupt the tidal flow to shore electricity for 25 the barrage, driving a turbine generated. and hence the movement dwellings. which in turn drives the gen- of nutrients and organisms, erator to produce electricity. including migrating fish.

Wave energy Buoys (floats) are placed in Whenever there A large number of Minimal impact is caused, Ten buoys the sea, and convert wave are waves, buoys are needed and only when there are provide enough movement into vertical electricity is to generate enough many floats in the water. electricity for 10 movement inside the buoy. generated. electricity for a dwellings. This drives a turbine which in town. The technol- turn drives the generator to ogy only works produce electricity. where there are big waves.

Biomass Solid organic materials (wood, Plants are renew- Combustion Pollution caused by com- A single gen- dung, sugar cane) are com- able; they can be produces carbon bustion. erating plant busted and the heat released grown continu- dioxide and other provides enough is used to produce steam, ously. pollutants. electricity for 25 which drives a generator to dwellings. produce electricity.

Biogas Plants and animal manure are Uses natural Combustion Pollution caused by com- A single gen- decomposed (allowed to rot) waste products. produces carbon bustion. erating plant in a tank. The resultant meth- dioxide and other provides enough ane gas is combusted and pollutants. electricity for 20 the heat released is used to dwellings. produce steam, which in turn drives a generator to produce electricity.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 53 2. Can the students think of some this stage, without giving reasons. w4 – To read the United Nations renewable energy options that 7. Summarise the activity by count- Development Programme 2003 might be suitable for Moja Island? ing the number of groups that report on the Mbuiri hydropower Discuss briefly in class. Students chose to use each renewable en- project, see: http://sgp.undp.org/ may suggest options that they are ergy source using Table 2. Which download/SGP_Kenya1.pdf already aware of, such as wind were the most popular renewable w5 – To find out more about Practical and solar power. energy options for Moja Island? Action’s micro-hydro power project 3. Discuss the location of the island, 8. Finally, ask the students to explain in Kenya, including a video, see: providing the relevant background their energy choices. There are no http://practicalaction.org/ information: what is the climate right or wrong answers – the most our-work/ourwork_energy (sunshine, wind and rain)? Are important point is that students ?id=microhydro there tides? Are there waves? are able to justify their decisions. w6 – You will find all materials re- 4. Split the class into four groups quired for the activity here: Acknowledgement and distribute the materials. Each www.practicalaction.org/ group will represent one of the The Moja Island activity was devel- moja-island-1 four communities on Moja Island oped by the Practical Actionw2 team w7 – You can download the black and – the Ericas, Hankis, Moodis and (Bren Hellier, education officer, and white version of the Moja Island Sandis, with five villages each. Peter Crowther, freelance education map from www.scienceinschool. 5. Allow approximately 40 minutes consultant). org/2011/issue19/moja#resources for each group to read through the Reference cards with information on their Resources International Energy Agency (2010) community and the renewable For further activities and free down- World Energy Outlook 2010. energy sources, and to decide on loadable material on renewable Paris, France: OECD / IEA. ISBN: the most appropriate energy solu- energy, visit: www.practicalaction. 9789264086241 tions for the five villages within org/education/ their community. They are given a Web references renewable-energy-resources choice of geothermal, solar, wind, w1 – The United Nations Develop- If you enjoyed reading this article, hydroelectric, tidal or wave en- ment Programme works with 166 have a look at the full collection ergy, biomass or biogas (see Table countries to improve their inhabit- of earth science articles published 1 on page 53). From the cards, ants’ lives. See: www.undp.org in Science in School. See: the students may, for example, www.scienceinschool.org/ decide that some communities w2 – For more information on Practical Action, see: earthscience may be more confident sourcing their energy either on land or at www.practicalaction.org sea. Although cost is certainly an w3 – Read more about Practical important factor, this is a separate Action’s small-scale wind Dr Marlene Rau was born in Germa- issue and not part of this activity. power project in Sri Lanka and ny and grew up in Spain. After obtain- Each group should record their watch a video about it here: ing a PhD in developmental biology results in the worksheet provided. http://practicalaction.org/ at the European Molecular Biology 6. Ask the students to present their energy-advocacy/ Laboratory in Heidelberg, Germany, decisions to the whole class – at access-wind-sri-lanka she studied journalism and went into science communication. Since 2008, Table 2: The most popular energy choices she has been one of the editors of Energy sources Number of groups Science in School.

Wind

Solar

Water (hydroelectric, wave, tidal)

Geothermal To learn how to use this code, see Biological (biomass, biogas) page 1.

54 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics

Neutrinos: Physics

Earth science Image courtesy of Kamioka Observatory, ICRR (Institute for Cosmic Ray Research), The University of Tokyo Particle physics an introduction Astrophysics Ages 14+

What do continental drift, nuclear power Neutrinos are strange particles – small but fascinat- stations and supernovae have in common? ing. This article describes Neutrinos, as Susana Cebrián explains. their origin, properties and detection in an accessible way and with sound facts. It makes good background What are neutrinos? Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli reading for physics teach- Neutrinos, meaning ‘little neutral in 1930 to explain observations of ers, but can also be a start- ones’, are everywhere, all around us. radioactive beta decay. It was not until ing point for students do- These tiny elementary particles travel the first nuclear power stations were ing a presentation project through space at close to the speed of built, though, that a sufficiently high on the topic or to stimu- light and have no charge. They were flux of neutrinos (actually their anti- late further discussions, once thought to have no mass either, particles, antineutrinos; see Landua e.g. about particle physics but scientists now suggest that they & Rau, 2008, for more information on in general, the standard do have a mass; it is estimated to be antiparticles) from decaying fission model, detector physics, less than a billionth of the mass of fragments was available to confirm CERN, astrophysics or ra- a hydrogen atom, but the research their existence. In 1956, Clyde Cowan diation. continuesw1. and Frederick Reines built two large The article is mainly use- The existence of neutrinos, among water-filled tanks underground, mere ful for physics lessons, but the most abundant particles in the metres away from the nuclear power it contains links to earth Universe, was first postulated by plant at Savannah River near Aiken, science. To make the topic accessible to younger students (about the age of 14) as well, I would suggest The Super-Kamiokande the teacher selects parts of detector tank is filled the article to discuss. with water

REVIEW Gerd Vogt, Austria

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 55 Image courtesy of PBS NOVA; image source: Wikimedia Commons

South Carolina, USA, in which the Three generations of matter Bosons The standard model of particle physics. antineutrinos interacted with the (forces) Matter particles come in two different water’s protons (see diagram below). Mass types, leptons and quarks, forming a set of Frederick Reines was awarded the Charge Spin 12 particles, divided into three genera- Nobel Prize in Physics in 1995w2 for Name strong force tions, each consisting of two leptons (one this experiment. Clyde Cowan could of which is a neutrino) and two quarks. not share the prize, because he had Matter particles can ‘communicate’ with each other in different ways by exchang- passed away in 1974. electromagnetic Quarks force ing different types of messenger particles Neutrinos come in three types or named bosons (a different boson for each flavours , according to the standard of the fundamental interactions), which model of particle physics (see im- can be imagined as little packets of en- age, right): the electron neutrino, muon ergy with specific properties. The masses

neutrino, and tau neutrino, which have Leptons of certain particles are still being investi- all been confirmed experimentally. For gated by the scientific community; these the detection of the muon neutrino, are values from 2008 Leon M Lederman, Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1988w2. Super-Kamiokande experimentw4, always found many fewer electron A fourth, ‘sterile’ type has been in which muon neutrinos gener- neutrinos arriving from the Sun than proposed, which is immune to the ated in the atmosphere were found expected. In 2001, the Solar Neutrino weak force of the standard model, and to ‘disappear’, presumably into tau Observatoryw7 in Canada demonstrat- recent data including a refined calcu- neutrinos. A recent experiment has ed that they changed into neutrinos of lation of measurements performed at now successfully observed such an other flavours on their way to Earth the Institut Laue-Langevinw3 in Greno- event from the other perspective – as (Bahcall, 2004). Further experiments ble, France, in the 1980s support this an appearing tau neutrino rather than to analyse neutrino oscillations are idea (Hand, 2010; Reich, 2011). Were a disappearing muon neutrino: after underway, for example in France and sterile neutrinos to be found, a new three years in which a beam of muon Japan, where accelerators and nuclear realm of physics beyond the standard neutrinos was released at CERNw5 in power stations provide large numbers model would open up. Geneva, Switzerland, a tau neutrino of antineutrinos for observationw8. Even the three confirmed types of was detected in 2010 by the OPERA neutrinos are special: they oscillate detector at the Gran Sasso National Where do neutrinos come from? from one flavour to another – electron, Laboratoryw6 in Italy, 730 km away Neutrinos first originated some muon and tau neutrinos change from (see images on page 57). The detec- 14 billion years ago, 10-43 seconds after one to another. This phenomenon was tioin of the oscillations also solved a the Big Bang. A mere second later, first observed in 1998 by the Japanese 40-year-old mystery: scientists had they were already rapidly moving

Scintillator coupled to photomultipliers The Reines and Cowan experiment: electron

antineutrinos (ne) interact with the water’s protons (p+) in a big tank filled with water Positron e+ Flux of 0 and cadmium chloride (CdCl ); as a result, n Neutron n Electron e- 2 antineutrons e positrons (e+, the antiparticles of electrons) from nuclear Cd + g ray photons 0 power plant Proton p and neutrons (n ) are produced. Positrons g ray photon from e+ annihilation are annihilated when they encounter elec- from - n0 capture trons from the medium (e ) and neutrons are absorbed by the cadmium (Cd) nuclei.

Water with CdCl2 Both these reactions result in the release of gamma ray photons (g) which are detected Scintillator coupled to photomultipliers by means of scintillators. These transform the signal into flashes of visible light, which can then be detected and processed by photom- n + p+ → e++ n0 e ultiplier tubes n0 +113Cd → 114Cd* → 114Cd + g e+ + e-→2g Image courtesy of Susana Cebrián

56 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics

Image courtesy of CERN Image courtesy of Kamioka Observatory, ICRR (Institute for Cosmic Ray Research), The University of Tokyo

The OPERA detector at the Gran Sasso The Super-Kamiokande tank, nearly full of water, seen from above National Laboratory in Italy

away from the rest of the hot and rying information about these areas. heavier ones (see image on page 58, dense primary particle soup; scientists In this sense, neutrinos are cosmic and to learn more, see Westra, 2006, are still seeking to detect neutrinos messengers, and neutrino astronomy and Boffin & Pierce-Price, 2007); more that survive from the Big Bang. is becoming increasingly important. than 1010 solar neutrinos hit a square It is neutrinos’ weak interaction So far, only two sources of extrater- centimetre of Earth every second. with matter that makes them al- restrial neutrinos have been observed: Unlike photons, which take about most impossible to detect, but it is the Sun and supernovae. Raymond 100 000 years to travel from the core also what makes them of interest to Davis Jr and Masatoshi Koshiba won of the Sun to its outer photosphere scientists. Unlike most other particles, the third neutrino Nobel Prize in before speedily travelling to Earth, neutrinos are able to escape from Physics in 2002w2 for their detection of neutrinos released in the same fusion dense regions such as the core of the solar and supernova neutrinos. Like process do the entire trip in a mere Sun or the Milky Way, and they can other stars, the Sun emits electron 8 minutes. This is why solar neutri- travel long distances from far-away neutrinos at several steps of the proc- nos are useful messengers carrying galaxies without being absorbed, car- ess by which light nuclei fuse into information about the current fusion

On their way from CERN in Geneva, Image courtesy of CERN Switzerland, to Gran Sasso, Italy, some of the muon neutrinos in a dedicated beam turn into tau neutrinos, and are detected by OPERA Monte-Prato Monte-Giovo Monte-Maggiorasca Tuscany Emilia-Romagna Florence Alessandria Piedmont Monte-Emilius Arezzo Mont-Blanc Perugia Umbria Laboratory of Gran Sasso of Gran Laboratory Geneva 11.4 km CERN

Neutrino beam 732 km 5 km www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 57 0 50 km Hydrogen Neutrino

Deuterium

Positron Helium-3

Hydrogen Electron

Gamma ray Helium-4 Fusion reaction Electron Positron Proton Neutrino Neutron Gamma ray

Image courtesy of Mark Tiele Westra

processes inside the Sun, such as only scientists interested in neutrino neutrinos’), who are interested in neu- the chemical composition of its corew9. detectors. On Earth, both natural and trinos that originate in outer space, Supernova neutrinos are the result artificial neutrino sources exist: ra- but it provides neutrino physicists of the violent end of some stars, which dioactive materials from inside Earth with another means of studying their explode and produce even more can undergo beta decay, producing favourite particles. neutrinos than photons (see Székely geo-neutrinos. In addition, nuclear & Benedekfi, 2007): in 1987, several fission reactors produce neutrinos, How to detect neutrinos detectors registered an unusually and dedicated particle accelerators Neutrinos are very useful for study- strong signal (several events within a are being used as neutrino sources ing astronomical and cosmological few seconds, as opposed to the usual for research. These are interesting to phenomena, and neutrino detectors frequency of about one per day), at- particle physicists, of course, to fur- are being built worldwide, deep tributed to neutrinos from supernova ther characterise neutrinos, but also underground to filter out the ‘noise’ of SN1987A in the Large Magellanic to earth scientists and maybe even other particles. The recently finished Cloud. To allow astronomers to pre- politicians (see ‘Neutrinos as nuclear IceCubew11 is the largest detector yet: pare to observe these events, several police’ and ‘Powering Earth’). a cubic kilometre of ice at the South neutrino detectors are now linked Finally, when cosmic rays hit Earth’s Pole, acting as a telescope to search together as the Supernova Early atmosphere, atmospheric neutrinos for neutrinos from astrophysical Warning Systemw10, because during are emitted as decay products of pions sources (see images below). When a these stellar explosions, the neutrinos and muons. This most abundant neutrino hits a proton of Antarctic ice, are released before the photons that source of naturally occurring neutri- a muon is released. Like any charged the astronomers seek to detect. nos on Earth is a nuisance to neutrino particle travelling at more than the Astronomers, however, are not the astronomers (see ‘How to detect speed of light in a specific medium

The IceCube neutrino telescope array A B Images courtesy of NSF is located at the South Pole (A; South Pole Station to the left of the runway, IceCube to the right). It consists of thousands of autonomous digital optical modules (B), which record the arrival time of each neutrino. They are deployed in deep holes in the ice, drilled with hot water (C). When a neutrino hits a proton of Antarctic ice, a Cherenkov cone of blue light is generated (D), and the path of light is reconstructed from the times of neutrino detection

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Fusion in the Sun: two hydrogen nuclei fuse to form a deuterium nucleus, a positron and a neutrino. The positron quickly encounters an electron, they annihilate each other, and only energy remains. The deuterium nucleus goes on to fuse with another hydrogen nucleus to form helium-3. In the final step, two helium-3 nuclei fuse to form helium-4 and two hydrogen nuclei

(though less than the speed of light come from underground. Neutrinos metre antineutrino detectors could be in vacuum), the muon will generate a are the only particles able to penetrate used to non-intrusively monitor and conical trail of blue light – Cherenkov the Earth unhindered, so any muon safeguard nuclear reactorsw12. radiation, the photonic equivalent of coming from that direction must have At present, reactors are monitored a supersonic boom, which can also be been newly generated in the detector indirectly (for example using satel- seen in some nuclear reactors. from a cosmic neutrino. lites, gas and dust emissions, and Thousands of optical sensors, in Other detectors use different ma- seismic and infrasound signatures for a three-dimensional grid 1.5-2.5 terials and strategies – but all put as weapons testing), which can result in km deep in the ice, detect this light; much material in the neutrinos’ way misleading data. Neutrino detectors combined, the data can be used to as possible, trying to make them inter- would provide real-time informa- determine the energy of the neutrino act and reveal themselves. tion about the reactor core power and and the direction it came from. To possibly even its isotopic composition. distinguish muons that are generated Neutrinos as nuclear police An array of about 500 such detectors from cosmic neutrinos from the mil- Detection of nuclear weapons worldwide would be able to calculate lions more muons that are produced and material is important for many the power output of individual reac- by cosmic rays in the atmosphere reasons, including the prevention of tors, allowing the detection of clan- above the detector, IceCube uses Earth nuclear proliferation and terrorism. destine nuclear weapons testing. as a filter, only looking at muons that Scientists now propose that cubic-

Ice top IceCube lab 81 stations, each with An artist’s impression of the mate- 2 ice top Cherenkov detector tanks 2 optical sensors per tank rial around supernova SN1987A: 50 m 324 optical sensors two outer rings, one inner ring and IceCube array the deformed, innermost expelled 86 strings including 8 DeepCore strings

material Image courtesy of ESO / L Calçada 60 optical sensors on each string D 5160 optical sensors December, 2010: project completed, 86 strings

1450 m DeepCore 8 strings-spacing optimised for lower energies 480 optical sensors Eiffel Tower 324 m 2450 m 2820 m

Bedrock www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 59 Image courtesy of Karlsruhe Institute Technology (KIT)

The KATRIN spectrometer in Karlsruhe, Germany, is one of the experiments aims to ‘weigh’ neutrinos

Powering Earth 10 000 000 000 000 000 neutrinos have subscribe to Nature today: www.nature.com/subscribe Neutrinos are also detected in passed through you without your geophysics. Natural radioactive decay noticing. Tiny, yet with the power to Landua R, Rau M (2008) The LHC: of uranium, thorium and potassium confirm or overthrow a number of a step closer to the Big Bang. in Earth’s crust and mantle sustains scientific theories. Science in School 10: 26-33. the flow of molten material in convec- www.scienceinschool.org/2008/ tive currents, which drive continental Acknowledgement issue10/lhcwhy drift, seafloor spreading, volcano The editors would like to thank Dr Reich ES (2011) The amazing disap- eruptions and earthquakes. Christian Buck, neutrino physicist pearing antineutrino. Nature. doi: There are several models for this from the Max-Planck-Institut für Kern- 10.1038/news.2011.202 decay, depending on the composition physik (Max Planck Institute for Nu- Székely P, Benedekfi O (2007) Fu- of Earth’s crust. Geo-neutrinos pro- clear Physics), Heidelberg, Germany, sion in the Universe: when a giant duced during decay may help answer for advice in developing the article. star dies... Science in School 6: 64-68. the question of crust composition. www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ Geo-neutrinos were first detected in References issue6/fusion w13 2005 by the KamLAND experiment Bahcall J (2004) Solving the mystery of Westra MT (2006) Fusion in the in Japan, although an abundance of the missing neutrinos. Nobelprize. Universe: the power of the Sun. nuclear power stations limited the org. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_ Science in School 3: 60-62. studies, because the antineutrinos prizes/physics/articles/bahcall www.scienceinschool.org/2006/ they release have similar energetic Boffin H, Pierce-Price D (2007) Fusion issue3/fusion signatures to those of geo-neutrinos. in the Universe: we are all stardust. Web references In 2009, an international team from Science in School 4: 61-63. www. w6, w14 the Borexino project was more scienceinschool.org/2007/issue4/ w1 – Scientists from the University successful because there are fewer nu- fusion College of London have estimated the mass of the neutrino: clear power stations nearby, so even- Hand E (2010) Hunt for the sterile www.ucl.ac.uk/news/ tually, statistically significant numbers neutrino heats up. Nature 464: 334- news-articles/1006/10062204 of geo-neutrinos should be collected 335. doi: 10.1038/464334a to determine the relative amounts of Hopes for the most accurate meas- Download the article free of charge uranium, thorium and potassium. urements yet lie with the KATRIN from the Science in School website In the time that you have experiment, which is in Karlsruhe, (www.scienceinschool.org/2011/ been reading this article, about Germany: www-ik.fzk.de/~katrin issue19/neutrinos#resources), or 60 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics

w2 – Read about the Cowan and http://arxiv.org/pdf/0811.2424 duced good overview brochures on Reines experiments here: For more information about fusion neutrinos, freely available online. http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/ See: www-boone.fnal.gov/about/ in the Sun and elsewhere in the getfile?00326606.pdf nusmatter (Neutrinos Matter) Universe, see the Science in School and www.interactions.org/pdf/ To find out more about the Nobel article series: www.scienceinschool. neutrino_pamphlet.pdf (Neutrino Prizes in Physics 1988, 1995 and org/fusion Odyssey) 2002, see: http://nobelprize.org/ w10 – The Supernova Early Warning nobel_prizes/ physics/laureates The IceCube project website hosts System website can be found here: a wonderful teaching activity on w3 – The Institut Laue-Langevin oper- http://snews.bnl.gov ‘popcorn neutrinos’, in which ates one of the most intense neutron w11 – For more information about on- students can investigate the sources in the world. It is a member concepts behind beta decay. See: going research projects at IceCube, of EIROforum, the publisher of www.icecube.wisc.edu see: http://icecube.wisc.edu Science in School. See: www.ill.eu or use the direct link: Olivier Hainaut from the European w4 – For more information on the http:// tinyurl.com/45ytuq7 Southern Observatory (ESO), the Japanese Super-Kamiokande ex- For slides of three talks on neutrino world’s most productive astronomi- periment, see: www-sk.icrr.u-tokyo. research for school students, avail- ac.jp/sk/index-e.html cal observatory, which is a mem- able in German, see: www.mpi-hd. ber of EIROforum, talked to the mpg.de/hfm/wh/pams/PamS0708. w5 – To find out more about CERN, IceCube scientists during the 24-h htm the world’s largest particle phys- live webcast ‘Around the world in Particle Adventure is a fun interac- ics laboratory and one of the eight 80 telescopes’ during the Interna- tive online tour of particle physics: members of EIROforum, see: tional Year of Astronomy 2009. Start http://particleadventure.org www.cern.ch watching the online video from The Contemporary Physics Educa- To read more about the successful minute 1:27: www.eso.org/public/ tion Project offers student and detection of a muon neutrino turned videos/10msouthpole teacher worksheets in English and into a tau neutrino in CERN’s press For the ESO website, see: Spanish for classroom activities on release, see http://public.web. www.eso.org particle physics, including one on cern.ch/press or use the direct link: conservation laws, following http://tinyurl.com/64crhr5 For further astronomy Pauli’s footsteps in postulating Or watch a video on the resources, see: the neutrino (Activity 5). See: topic: www.youtube.com/ Starr C, Harwood R (2009) Educa- www.cpepweb.org/Class_act.html watch?v=M3aB_zUZ1c8 tion resources for the International The UK Science and Technology w6 – The Gran Sasso National Labora- Year of Astronomy. Science in School Council has compiled a resource tory in Abruzzo near L’Aquila, Italy, 13. www.scienceinschool.org/2009/ guide for teaching particle physics. is the largest underground labora- issue13/iya See: www.stfc.ac.uk/Public and Schools/2563.aspx tory in the world for experiments w12 – To learn more about the in particle physics, particle astro- idea of detecting secret fission physics and nuclear astrophysics, reactors using neutrinos, see: Susana Cebrián is a professor at the including the OPERA and Borexino http://physicsworld.com/cws/ University of Zaragoza, Spain, work- experiments. To learn more, see: article/news/44411 ing on several experiments in the field www.lngs.infn.it of astroparticle physics at the Spanish w13 – If you would like to find w7 – For more information about Canfranc Underground Laboratory. out more about the KamLAND the Canadian Solar Neutrino experiment in Japan, see: Observatory experiment, http://kamland.lbl.gov see: www.sno.phy.queensu.ca w14 – Find out the latest about w8 – In France and Japan, detec- the Borexino experiment: tors have been installed to further http://borex.lngs.infn.it analyse neutrino oscillations. See: http://doublechooz.in2p3.fr and Resources http://jnusrv01.kek.jp The Booster Neutrino Experiment To learn how to use this code, see w9 – To find out more about current and Interactions.org have pro- page 1. solar neutrino research, see: www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 61 Image courtesy of Terry Priest; image source: Flickr Image courtesy of David Muehlheimer; image source: Wikimedia Commons

Chemiluminescence of luminol in the A firefly glowing laboratory

What is chemiluminescence?

Glowing jellyfish, flickering fireflies, fun glow sticks; Emma Welsh introduces the beautiful and mysterious world of chemiluminescence.

ireflies, jellyfish and glow sticks – one flies, one lives deep in the ocean and one providesF entertainment in night clubs. What is the link? The answer is some intriguing chemical reactions that Image courtesy of Erik Solheim; image source: Wikimedia Commons produce light. Chemiluminescence is the production of light from a chemical reaction. Two chemicals react to form an excited (high-energy) intermediate, which breaks down releasing some Glow sticks of its energy as photons of light (see glossary for all terms in bold) to reach its ground state (see Figure 1 on page 64). A + B –> AB* –> Products + Light Excited intermediate

Chemiluminescent reactions do not usually release much heat, because energy is released as light instead. Luminol produces a light when it reacts with an oxidising agent; the chemistry of this reaction is shown in Box 1 (page 66).

62 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics Image courtesy of Terry Priest; image source: Flickr

therefore only a tiny amount of blood Image courtesy of How Stuff Works Using luminol at the is required to produce a positive scene of a crime result. This means that blood can be detected even when it is not visible to the naked eye. One of the drawbacks of using luminol is that the reaction can be catalysed by other chemicals that may be present at the crime scene, for example, copper-containing alloys, some cleaning fluids such as bleach, and even horseradish. Clever criminals can clean up the blood with bleach, Chemiluminescence in forensics The room must be dark and if blood which destroys the evidence of the Forensic scientists use the reaction is present, a blue glow, lasting for blood, but bleaching the carpet may of luminol to detect blood at crime about 30 seconds, will be observed. alert people to the crime sooner. Urine scenes. A mixture of luminol in a The forensic investigators can record also contains small amounts of blood, dilute solution of hydrogen peroxide this glow by using photographic film, which can be enough to catalyse the is sprayed onto the area where the which can be used as evidence in court reaction of luminol. Once luminol has forensic scientists suspect that there for the presence of blood at the scene. been applied to the area, it may pre- is blood. The iron present in the haem (For a teaching activity about forensic vent other tests from being performed unit of haemoglobin (Figure 3, page science, see Wallace-Müller, 2011.) there. However, despite these draw- 66) in the blood acts as a catalyst Because the iron acts as a catalyst, backs, luminol is still used by forensic in the reaction described in Box 1. it is only required in trace amounts, scientists as a tool to solve crime.

Chemistry The article can be adapted for different age ranges Biology and for different subjects and topics. For students aged 14-15, it could be used to teach chemistry (atomic Physics structure and movement of electrons between shells, Interdisciplinary introduction to chemical reactions) or biology (biolu- Chemical bonds minescence). For this age group, the teacher would Chemical reactions need to simplify the information in the article and omit the details of the reactions. For students aged Atomic structure 16-18, the article could be used to teach chemistry Electromagnetic spectrum (redox reactions, catalysts, the influence of tempera- Light ture on reaction speed, the effect of pH on a reaction, and covalent bonds), physics (the electromagnetic Energy spectrum and photons) or genetics (genetic engineer- Genetics ing). Suitable comprehension questions include: Ages 14-18 · What is chemiluminescence? What do forensic scientists use This article offers a way to motivate students to under- · chemiluminescence for? stand chemical reactions. Even if they are not keen to know why a glow stick glows in the dark, they will · Explain some biological functions of surely be eager to find out how fireflies or jellyfish bioluminescence. produce light, or to discover how blood is detected · Why should you keep your glow stick in the at crime scenes. The article can serve either as an in- freezer when you are not using it? troduction to chemical reactions or to give attractive · How could you make a self-illuminated Christmas examples of redox reactions and also to illustrate the tree? levels of energy in the shell of an atom. Ana Gil, Spain REVIEW

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 63 Image courtesy of Chemistry Review

Light energy

n=1 n=1 n=1 n=2 n=2 n=2 n=3 Nucleus of n=3 n=3 hydrogen atom

A hydrogen atom in its ground The electron has been promoted up The electron falls back down to its original state. A single electron is in to a higher energy level (shell n=2) position in the ground state (shell n=1) shell n=1. so the atom is in an excited (high In the process, energy (in the form of a energy) state. photon of light) is emitted.

Figure 1: Movement between electron shells The electron falls back down to its original position in the A hydrogen atom in its ground state. A single electron is in shell ground state (shell n = 1). In the process, a packet of energy (a n = 1. Each shell has its own energy level. photon) is released in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The When the hydrogen atom absorbs a quantum (defined amount) wavelength depends on the amount of energy. If the wavelength of energy, it is promoted to a higher energy level (shell n = 2) is within the range of visible light, the electron transition will be and is now in an excited (high-energy) state. We draw an aster- perceived as light of a particular colour. The wavelength deter- isk (*) next to the molecule to indicate this. mines the colour (see Figure 2 below) Image courtesy of NASA

Penetrates Earth’s atmosphere? Figure 2: The electromagnetic Wavelength Radio Microwave Infrared Visible Ultraviolet X-ray Gamma ray spectrum (metres)

Buildings Humans a honey bee A pinpoint Protozoans Molecules Atoms Atomic nuclei

Frequency (Hz)

Temperature of bodies emitting the wavelength (K)

In the nightclub hydrogen peroxide. When the outer ture-dependent. The reaction speeds When you snap a glow stick and plastic tube is bent, the inner glass up as the temperature rises – snap- it begins to glow, the light produced tube snaps, releasing the hydrogen ping your glow stick in hot water will is an example of chemiluminescence peroxide and starting a chemical produce a fantastic glow, but it will (Figure 4, page 67). Glow sticks reaction that produces light (see Box not last as long as it would at room comprise a plastic tube containing a 2, page 67). The colour of light that a temperature. Conversely, the reaction mixture including diphenyl oxalate glow stick produces is determined by rate slows down at low temperature; and a dye (which gives the glow the dye used (see Box 3, page 68). this is why keeping your glow stick in stick its colour). Inside the plastic Chemiluminescence reactions, such the freezer for several hours can allow tube is a smaller glass tube containing as those in glow sticks, are tempera- the stick to glow brightly again when

64 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics

Glossary

Anion: an atom (or group of atoms) that bears a nega- The atoms in a conjugated system are held together by tive charge. covalent bonds and have alternating single and multiple bonds (mainly double bonds, but triple bonds are ATP: adenosine tri- also capable of being in conjugation). Alkenes are flat; phosphate occurs in conjugated systems must always be planar to allow de- all known life forms. It localisation of the electrons throughout the system. The is the primary energy dye molecules in Box 3 are all examples of conjugated currency in cells. ATP compounds. is formed from ADP (adenosine diphos- Covalent bonds: Bonds between two atoms where a phate) and phosphate pair of electrons are shared between them. during energy-yielding Delocalised: When molecules have conjugated bonds, reactions (such as the the electrons are free to move around throughout the oxidation of glucose), entire conjugated system. These are referred to as de- and is broken down (to localised electrons. The electrons in a benzene ring ADP and phosphate) are delocalised, and this is why all the carbon-carbon to release this energy bonds are the same length. in order to drive unfa- Image courtesy of Chemistry Review vourable reactions. Bioluminescence: The production of light by living organisms. Bioluminescence may result from the absorp- Image courtesy of Chemistry Review tion of light (fluorescence or phosphorescence, e.g. The electrons in benzene are delocalised in a conju- in many deep-sea fish) or from a chemical reaction gated system. (chemiluminescence, e.g. in fireflies). Fluorescence: A type of luminescence in which the Catalyst: A substance that makes a reaction occur fast- electrons are excited by light, e.g. in the security marker, but that does not undergo a permanent chemical ings on banknotes. change during the reaction (i.e. is not used up in the re- Luminescence: The production of light, usually at low action). Catalysts work by providing an alternative route temperatures, for example by chemical reactions or for the reaction that is lower in energy. electrical energy. Incandescence, in contrast, is light Chemiluminescence: A type of luminescence in which generated by high temperatures. the electrons are excited by a chemical reaction, for ex- Phosphorescence: As fluorescence, but the glow lasts ample the reaction of luminol described in Box 1. for longer (according to some definitions, over 10 nano- seconds), for example glow-in-the-dark stickers. Conjugated: Conjugated systems mainly arise in chem-

BACKGROUND istry when there are double bonds next to each other. Photon: A quantum (packet) of light energy.

it is removed and warmed up, long light around your feet? Or been in the tial mates. Some bacteria even use after it would otherwise have stopped countryside at night and seen fireflies bioluminescence to communicate. The glowing. The reaction does not stop flitting about? These are examples of term ‘glow worm’ describes the larvae completely in the freezer, but it does bioluminescence and around 90% of of several species of insect, including slow down so that the glow is barely deep-sea life also exhibits this strange fireflies; some of them glow to scare detectable. phenomenon. These organisms have off predators, whereas other species evolved to produce light because it use their glow to attract prey. There Living glow sticks has many useful functions. Glowing are species of squid and crustacean Have you ever walked along a can be used as a lure to catch prey, that can release clouds of biolumines- beach at night and seen sparks of as camouflage, or to attract poten- cent liquid to confuse predators while www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 65 Box 1: Luminol, a glow-in-the-dark chemical

The release of a photon of light from a molecule of lu- atoms from the hydrogen peroxide are oxidised from minol is a fairly complex, multi-stage process. In a basic oxidation state -1 to 0: (alkaline) solution, luminol exists in equilibrium with its reduction oxidation anion, which bears a charge of -2. The anion can exist in 2K [Fe(CN) ] + 2KOH + H O à 2K [Fe(CN) ] + 2H O + O two forms (or tautomers), with the two negative charges 3 6 2 2 4 6 2 2 delocalised on either the oxygens (the enol-form) or on the nitrogens (the ketol-form; see Figure 5, below). The cyclic peroxide then decomposes to give 3-aminophthalate (3-amino-1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid) Molecular oxygen (O2) combines with the enol-form of the luminol anion, oxidising it to a cyclic peroxide. in an excited state, along with a molecule of nitrogen The required oxygen is produced in a redox reaction (N2) – see Figure 5, below. This decomposition reac- (i.e. one in which both reduction and oxidation occur) tion is favoured because the cyclic peroxide molecule is highly unstable, and the reaction involves breaking involving hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), potassium hydrox- ide and (for example) potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) some weak bonds. It is also favoured because of the increase in entropy (disorder) due to the liberation of (K3[Fe(CN)6], also known as potassium ferricyanide). 3- a gas molecule. When the excited 3-aminophthalate The hexacyanoferrate(III) ion ([Fe(CN)6] ) is reduced to 4- the hexacyanoferrate(II) ion ([Fe(CN)6] , giving potas- drops down to the ground state, a photon of blue light

sium ferrocyanide, K4[Fe(CN)6]), while the two oxygen is released.

Image courtesy of Chemistry Review

Figure 5: Reactions leading to the emission of light from luminol Tautomers are molecules with the same molecular formula, but different arrangements of atoms or bonds. The two tautomers can be interconverted; the curly arrows show the movement of electrons that brings about the change between the two forms BACKGROUND

Image courtesy of Chemistry Review Figure 3: Haem group in they make their escape. Creatures living deep in the ocean haemoglobin have evolved to produce mainly blue or green light because The iron atom (Fe) in the it transmits well through seawater. This is because blue light centre of the porphyrin has a shorter wavelength than red light, which means it is ring catalyses the absorbed less readily by particles in the water. reaction of luminol Bioluminescent reactions use ATP (adenosine triphos- phate) as a source of energy. The structure of the light- producing molecules varies from species to species, but they are all given the generic name luciferin. The structure

66 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics Image courtesy of Typoform / the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (RSAS) Aequorin was first discovered in the of firefly luciferin is shown in Figure Luciferase Aequorea victoria Luciferin + O2 ––––––> Oxyluciferin + Light jellyfish 6, to the right. When fireflies glow, the luciferin is oxidised to produce Image courtesy of Chemistry Review an excited complex, which falls back down to the ground state, releasing a photon of light, just like the chemiluminescent reaction of luminol described in Box 1. However, fireflies do not use hydrogen peroxide and Figure 6: The structure of firefly luciferin potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) to oxidise luciferin; instead they use There have been a number of molecular oxygen and an enzyme experiments investigating aequorin, called luciferase (this is also a generic a protein found in certain jellyfish, name – luciferases vary from species which produces blue light in the pres- to species). ence of calcium (see Shaw, 2002, and

Box 2: Chemistry of glow sticks

When diphenyl oxalate reacts with hydrogen per- Image courtesy of Chemistry Review

oxide (H2O2), it is oxidised to give phenol and a cyclic peroxide. The peroxide reacts with a molecule of dye to give two molecules of carbon dioxide

(CO2) and in the process, an electron in the dye molecule is promoted to an excited state. When the excited (high-energy) dye molecule returns to its ground state, a photon of light is released. The reaction is pH-dependent. When the solution is slightly alkaline, the reaction produces a brighter light.

Safety note: phenol is toxic, so if your glow stick leaks, take care not to get the liquid on your hands; if you do, wash them with soapy water straight away. See also the general safety note on page 73 and on the Science in School website: www.sciencein-

BACKGROUND school.org/safety Image courtesy of Chemistry Review Figure 4: How a glow stick works

Before After

Phenyl oxalate ester and flourescent dye solution Plastic casing Hydrogen peroxide Glass vial solution

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 67 Image courtesy of Chemistry Review

Box 3: What makes glow sticks different colours?

The dyes used in glow sticks are conjugated aromatic an electron drops down from the excited state to the compounds (arenes). The degree of conjugation is re- ground state. flected in the different colour of the light emitted when BACKGROUND

Image courtesy of James Jordan; image source: Flickr A firefly glowing 19: 30-35. www.scienceinschool. org/2011/issue19/detective

Resources For some experiments with luminol, see Declan Fleming’s website for older school students, all about the chemiluminescence of luminol: www.chm.bris.ac.uk/ webprojects2002/fleming/ experimental.htm To learn about other types of light in chemistry, see: Douglas P, Garley M (2010) Chemis- try and light. Science in School 14: 63- 68. www.scienceinschool.org/2010/ Furtado, 2009) and can thus be used in journal aimed at school chemistry issue14/chemlight molecular biology to measure calcium students aged 16-19, visit: levels in cells. Some scientists have www.philipallan.co.uk/ come up with other ideas for utilis- chemistryreview Emma Welsh is a freelance science ing bioluminescence in the future, for communicator with a PhD in synthetic example self-illuminated Christmas References organic chemistry and postdoctoral trees. Can you think of any other ex- Furtado S (2009) Painting life green: experience of medicinal chemistry, citing potential uses for this amazing GFP. Science in School 12: 19-23. making drugs that inhibit enzymes natural phenomenon? www.scienceinschool.org/2009/ which are involved in cancer biology. issue12/gfp Acknowledgement Shaw A (2002) Genetic chess by the The original version of this article light of a jellyfish. Chemistry Review was published in Chemistry Review 12(1): 2-5 and is reproduced with kind permis- Wallace-Müller K (2011) The DNA To learn how to sion by the publisher, Philip Allan. use this code, see To subscribe to Chemistry Review, a detective game. Science in School page 1.

68 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Teacher profile

CERN@school students

Image courtesy of the Langton Star Centre Schoolhouse scientists

Sarah Stanley explains how Becky Parker gets her students involved in particle physics at CERN. Why not get your students to join in too?

lthough we are all curious in the UK, travelled 10 hours by coach tors we had seen at CERN to measure about the world we live in, with 50 of her students on an annual cosmic radiation.” research is a pursuit usually school visit to CERNw1, the world’s The particle detectors, known as Areserved for full-time scientists and largest particle physics laboratory, in TimePix chips, were developed by university students. Laboratory space Geneva, Switzerland. That trip would the international, multi-institutional and equipment are costly, and experi- prove to be a pivotal point in her career. MediPix collaborationw3. Each ments take lots of time and patience. “When we returned from our visit MediPix and TimePix chip consists But, every so often, a lucky school to CERN, we heard about the Space of a grid of pixels. The Medipix chip student is given a unique chance to Experiment Competition, run by the counts each light particle (photon); step into the shoes – or lab coat – of a British National Space Centre – now its important advantage compared scientist. Such opportunities are now UK Space Agencyw2 – and Surrey to conventional techniques is that no becoming more accessible, thanks to Satellite Technology Limited,” Becky signal whatsoever is measured if no teachers like Becky Parker. says. “My students thought it would photon enters. This means that there In 2007, Becky, who teaches physics be a good idea to use particle detec- is no noise irrespective of the period www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 69 Image courtesy of Maximilien Brice, CERN

Image courtesy of the Medipix collaborations of exposure. Unlike a MediPix chip, LUCID will yield valuable insights which just detects incoming particles, about the cosmic ray environment.” a TimePix chip uses an external clock Chip surface Wishing to share the excitement with a frequency of up to 100 MHz as of LUCID, Becky has founded the a time reference. Silicon layer CERN@school programme, in which “Michael Campbell, the spokesper- smaller versions of LUCID are distrib- son for the MediPix collaboration, had Detectors uted to other schools. Students gather already thought the TimePix chips Base cosmic ray data, which is collected could be used in schools,” Becky says. Trace of a particle detector and made available to all the schools “For the competition, my students de- through the CERN@school websitew4. signed the Langton Ultimate Cosmic Ten UK schools are currently involved How Medipix functions ray Intensity Detector (LUCID), which in the programme, which will soon uses four TimePix chips around the expand to other schools in Europe and sides of a cube and one in its bottom the USA. to collect cosmic ray data.” “CERN@school students experience Cosmic rays are subatomic parti- “We entered LUCID into the compe- the excitement of being involved in cles produced by a variety of events tition and ended up in second place! real scientific research,” Becky says. in outer space. They originate in the We were awarded with the opportu- “They collaborate with an inter- Sun, other stars, and in unidenti- nity to fly LUCID on board the Tech- national body of students and are fied sources at the edge of the visible DemoSat satellite, planned to launch encouraged to consider careers in Universe. Cosmic rays travel unim- in 2012,” Becky says. “The initial physics and engineering. The project peded through vast stretches of empty LUCID team was three boys and three also allows teachers to act as practic- space, and scientists can detect those girls, but now we have 30 to 40 stu- ing scientists, and researchers are that cross paths with Earth, revealing dents involved at any given time. The given opportunities to work in school a wealth of information about the Uni- students are working on protocols for settings.” verse. Becky’s students hoped to make sending commands when the experi- Enthusiasm about scientific research their own contribution to cosmic ray ment is in space – effectively setting is nothing new for Becky. After enjoy- detection. up a mission control. The results from ing science and maths at school, she

70 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Teacher profile

The MediPix card

A cosmic ray shower Image courtesy of CERN completed a physics degree at the University of Sussex, UK, and a mas- ter’s degree in conceptual foundations Primary cosmic rays of science at the University of Chica- go, USA. She returned to the Univer- sity of Sussex for a teaching degree, choosing to teach physics because she “loved the subject and wanted people to be excited and inspired by physics”. Becky Parker has now been a teacher for 18 years and has long taught at Balloon the Simon Langton Grammar School 15000 m Concorde for Boys, which also enrolls girls in 15000 m their last two years before university. She first visited CERN in 1993 and began an annual school trip to the institution in 1995, leading ultimately to the fateful 2007 trip that inspired LUCID. Mount Blanc Driven by the successes of LUCID 4807 m and CERN@school, Becky recently founded the Langton Star Centrew5, which encourages students to perform research beyond the realm of particle physics. The centre offers students from many schools a chance to work with experts in plasma physics, astronomy and molecular biology. One of the centre’s plasma physics students has even published his work in a peer-reviewed journal (Hatfield, 2010). “Students love getting involved in experimental work when the answers cannot be looked up on the next page,” Becky says. “They work with

Image courtesy of Surrey Satellite Technology Limited

the very best scientists and engineers, and a high proportion of its female and are treated as responsible scien- students continue in physics and tists themselves. They work hard, yet engineering. have fantastic experiences, and they So what will Becky Parker do next? are far more likely to continue in sci- “We hope to expand the CERN@ ence and engineering.” school project,” she says. “With detec- Indeed, since the initiation of the tors in schools across Europe, we have LUCID project, Simon Langton Gram- the potential to do really exciting new mar School has come to contribute physics. We are working out a way 0.05% to 1% of all physics students at to store more data from LUCID and The LUCID detector designed by UK universities, more than doubling CERN@school by linking the schools the Langton school its previous numbers. The school also together with the help of GridPP, produces more engineers these days, which is a collaboration of particle www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 71 Image courtesy of the Langton Star Centre Image courtesy of the Langton Star Centre

The CERN@school kit

Becky’s students visiting CERN

w2 – To find out more about the edu- physicists and computer scientists If you enjoyed reading this article, cational support by the UK from the UK and CERN, forming the why not take a look at the full list of Space Agency, visit www.bis.gov. UK distributed computing network teacher profiles published in Science uk/ukspaceagency and click on the that is part of the wider CERN Grid. in School? See: www.scienceinschool. ‘Discover and learn’ tab. This grid will provide superior data org/teachers analysis, taking the project to a new w3 – More details of the MediPix level of sophistication and potential.” collaboration can be found here: Teachers interested in getting their http://medipix.web.cern.ch/ Sarah Stanley graduated in biology students involved in the CERN@ medipix from the University of California, San- school programme or the Langton w4 – To learn more about the CERN@ ta Barbara, USA. At the time of writ- Star Centre are encouraged to email school project, or even get involved, ing this article, she was a science-writ- Becky Parker at bparker@thelangton. see: http://194.81.239.119 ing intern at the European Molecular kent.sch.uk Biology Laboratory. She is currently w5 – For more information on the an intern at Discover Magazine. Reference Langton Star Centre, see: www.thelangtonstarcentre.org Hatfield P (2010) Using line intensity ratios to determine the geometry of Resources plasma in stars via their apparent Becky Parker is one of the teachers areas. High Energy Density Physics who participated in the ‘Why is sci- 6(3): 301-304. doi: 10.1016/ ence important?’ online project. See j.hedp.2009.10.001 her video response to this question here: http://whyscience.co.uk/ Web references contributors/becky-parker w1 – CERN is the world’s largest For a review of the project website, particle physics laboratory, based in see: Geneva, Switzerland. It is a member Rüth C (2009) Review of the Why is of EIROforum, the collaboration science important? website. Science of inter-governmental scientific in School 13. www.scienceinschool. research organisations that publish org/2009/issue13/whyscience To learn how to use Science in School. To learn more this code, about CERN, see: www.cern.ch see page 73.

72 I Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Publisher: EIROforum, Safety note Copyright www.eiroforum.org For all of the activities published in Sci- With very few exceptions, articles in ence in School, we have tried to check Science in School are published under Editor-in-chief: Dr Eleanor Hayes, that all recognised hazards have been Creative Commons copyright licences European Molecular Biology identified and that suitable precautions that allow the text to be reused non- Laboratory, Germany are suggested. Users should be aware, commercially. Note that the copyright Image courtesy of the Langton Star Centre however, that errors and omissions can agreements refer to the text of the articles Editor: Dr Marlene Rau, be made, and safety standards vary and not to the images. 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We are, however, unable relevant copyright logos or other copy- www.colordruck.com to check the individual translations and right notice. cannot accept responsibility for their Webmaster: Alexander Kubias accuracy. Email: [email protected] ISSN: Print version: 1818-0353 At the end of each article in this issue, you may notice a square black and white pattern. With the aid of a smart phone, this QR code will lead Online version: 1818-0361 you straight to the online version of the article. All you need to do is Cover images: download a free QR code reader app (such as BeeTagg or i-Nigma) for your smart phone and scan the code with your phone’s camera. To find a Peacock: Image courtesy of suitable one for your phone, see: http://tinyurl.com/byk4wg Marlene Rau Hint: the apps works better in good light conditions, and with a steady Flames on stage: Image courtesy of hand. You may also want to try holding your camera at different distances from the code. 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www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 I 73 Exploring the Mystery of Matter: The ATLAS Experiment

By Kerry-Jane Lowery, Kenway Smith and Claudia Marcelloni

Reviewed by Eric Demoncheaux, Battle Abbey School, UK

xploring the Mystery of Matter: impact of any resulting technological Details The ATLAS Experiment is an spin-offs, such as the World Wide Web Publisher: Papadakis, UK engaging and beautifully and the use of anti-matter in medical Publication year: 2008 Epresented photo book that provides a imaging. The final chapters describe ISBN: 9781901092950 captivating tour of the marvels of the the installation of the detectors, in a large-scale particle detector experi- tunnel 23 km long and 100 m under- Resources ments of the Large Hadron Collider ground. Also covered is the work A preview of Exploring the Mystery of (LHC) at CERN, the world’s largest involved in designing the grid of Matter: The ATLAS Experiment can particle physics laboratory. The book computers that process and analyse be found at www.atlasbook.ch focuses on just one of the LHC experi- the data from the LHC experiments. To find out about the LHC, see: ments: ATLAS, an experiment of epic The book ends with extracts of inter- proportions, involving an interna- views with CERN’s leading physicists, Landua R, Rau M (2008) The LHC: tional collaboration of more than 2000 including Lisa Randall, John Ellis and a step closer to the Big Bang. individuals from 170 institutions. Peter Higgs. Science in School 10: 26-33. The book traces the history and key Exploring the Mystery of Matter lays www.scienceinschool.org/2008/ moments of the construction of the bare this extraordinary feat of engi- issue10/lhcwhy LHC. The authors balance technical neering in a highly readable and visu- Landua R (2010) The LHC: a look details with an account of the people ally appealing way. The book is writ- inside. Science in School 10: 34-45. at CERN: the physicists, engineers ten in concise and coherent language, www.scienceinschool.org/2008/ and others who built the detector. which will be accessible to non-native issue10/lhchow The first chapter puts the work English speakers and to readers To browse all the other reviews of done at ATLAS into perspective and from various scientific backgrounds. resources published in Science in explains its goals. The second chap- The carefully chosen images help to School, see: www.scienceinschool. ter is about the human and capital explain the text and add interest to the org/reviews resources invested in the project, book. while the next four chapters cover the Physics is not always popular at designs, simulations, and inventions school, because it can be hard for that were required to get it off the students to relate to. However, this ground. The authors also comment on book might just capture their imagina- the project’s personal, transportational tion and show them what an exciting and logistical challenges, and describe subject physics can be. the piecing together of the finished ATLAS detector from its separate components. Exploring the Mystery of Matter goes on to explain how other ground- breaking inventions at CERN have To learn how to use this code, see changed our world and the global www.scienceinschool.org/help#QR

Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 www.scienceinschool.org Reviews

Ask a Biologist website

Reviewed by Tim Harrison, University of Bristol, UK

he Ask a Biologist website direct contact between the public and is dedicated to answering scientists. questions on all aspects of Teachers should make their students Tbiology. Although aimed primarily at aware that Ask a Biologist does not school students of all ages, questions answer homework questions. How- are accepted from anyone, whatever ever, the site should prove a great oc- their age, including teachers. The site casional resource to teachers and stu- can be used free of charge and is de- dents alike. The site has attracted an voted to providing the highest-quality estimated half a million visitors from scientific information. It is staffed by across the world and so appears to be academics and scientific experts from becoming very successful indeed. a variety of organisations from around the world. Details The site is divided into 13 cat- URL: www.askabiologist.org.uk egories, which cover all aspects of biology: mammals; birds; reptiles and Resources amphibians; fishes; invertebrates; To learn about many more ‘ask a sci- plants and fungi; micro-organisms; entist’ websites that you could use fossils; genes, genetics and DNA; hu- at school, see: man biology and evolution; ecology, Stanley H (2007) ‘Ask a scientist’ biodiversity and behaviour; evolution; websites. Science in School 6: 88-90. and general biology. There is also a www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ special category dedicated to careers issue6/web and training in biology. Ask a Biologist has been operating for four years and has provided more than 10 000 answers to around 3700 questions from the general public. Contributions have come from more than 80 researchers, the majority of whom are from Europe and the USA. Visitors to the site post questions, which are answered by one or more of the registered academic experts. The answers are then available for everyone to see and can be browsed by category. The system is simple To learn how to use this code, see and is an excellent way of enabling www.scienceinschool.org/help#QR www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 19 : Summer 2011 2010-2011 State of the Wild: A Global Portrait

By the Wildlife Conservation Society

Reviewed by Michalis Hadjimarcou, Cyprus

010-2011 State of the Wild: A First, the planet is changing rapidly Details Global Portrait describes the and we have to consider this as we Publisher: Island Press, USA present state of wildlife and plan, develop and execute conserva- Publication year: 2010 wild2 places, detailing developments tion programmes. Second, we need ISBN: 9781597266789 in conservation and examining envi- to consider our planet as an intercon- ronmental issues around the world. nected system: damage to one part As experts in the field, the authors can have cascading effects in distant provide a reliable account of what has areas. happened in the past, what is happen- With such a variety of issues cov- ing now and what should happen in ered, everyone can find something the future to conserve precious places, of interest in State of the Wild and it from the wild oceans to urban green would be a valuable addition to a spaces. One section of the book is de- school library. If they have a good voted to the challenges facing wildlife standard of English, teachers from conservation, such as those that occur any science discipline and from any at times of conflict. Another section level of secondary education will find highlights both new species and new the book extremely useful. It would populations of known species that be suitable for teaching, discussions, have been discovered recently. debates and comprehension exercises. Some of the information about The book would also be an excellent efforts to conserve wildlife, in both source of information for case studies terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and class projects. Some issues that is rather predictable and dishearten- students could investigate, either indi- ing. By contrast, there are also some vidually or in groups, include: surprising success stories, giving us 1. How do oil spills affect aquatic reason to be more optimistic. ecosystems? The book discusses how the increased pressure on land and natural 2. In conflict zones, how can wildlife resources, mostly due to the growth conservation organisations help of human populations and chang- local people make a living in envi- ing global economic forces, threatens ronmentally stressed areas, while wildlife conservation. The effects of at the same time protecting the climate change and the degradation of environment? ecosystems are also discussed. 3. How does human conflict affect The authors highlight two impor- wildlife; do all species suffer or can tant issues that have implications for some use it as an opportunity to To learn how to use this code, see the future conservation of the wild. thrive? www.scienceinschool.org/help#QR

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How many schools Summer 2011 Issue19 and teachers do you reach – worldwide? In this issue: A planet from another galaxy

Also: Science teachers taketo thestage

Published by EIROforum: SN 1818-0353 ISSN:

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