Summer 2012 Issue 23 How many schools and teachers do you reach – worldwide? The European journal for science teachers

In this issue:

Build your own radio telescope Advertising in Science in School · Choose between advertising in the quarterly print journal or on our website. Also: · Website: reach over 30 000 science educators worldwide – every month. · In print: target over 5000 European science educators every quarter, including NOW ON FACEBOOK: over 3500 named subscribers. Intersex: www.facebook.com/scienceinschool · Distribute your flyers, brochures, CD-ROMs or other materials to the recipients of the print copies. For more details, see www.scienceinschool.org/advertising

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Subscribe (free in Europe): www.scienceinschool.org Published and funded by EIROforum Editorial About Science in School The European journal for science teachers Science in School is the only teaching journal to cover all sciences and target the whole of hat makes diamonds strong or a tiger stripy? Europe and beyond. Contents include cutting- Why is music uplifting or the Alhambra pal- edge science, teaching materials and much Wace beautiful? The answer: . As more. mathematician Marcus du Sautoy explains in our feature Brought to you by Europe’s top scientific article, mathematics is all around us – and this can be the research institutes key to exciting lessons. Science in School is published and funded by EIROforum (www.eiroforum.org), a partnership X and Y – algebra or sex chromosomes? We used to think between eight of Europe’s largest intergovern- the ‘equation’ was simple – XX = female, XY = male – but mental scientific research organisations. then why do some people fall in between, exhibiting fea- Inspiring science teachers worldwide tures of both sexes? As two scientists who work on the intersex condition explain, The Science in School website offers articles the answer involves anatomy, genetics and hormones (page 48). Genetics may also in 25+ languages and is read worldwide. The lie at the heart of another condition: cancer. As scientists at EMBL have discovered, free quarterly journal is printed in English and some cancers may be triggered when one of our chromosomes explodes (page 12). distributed across Europe. Damage on a much larger scale occurs when tectonic plates collide in an earth- quake. Did you know that you can monitor earthquakes in your classroom, using Advertising: tailored to your needs a homemade seismograph (page 25)? And if you like making your own apparatus, Choose between advertising in our print you’ll probably also enjoy building a radio telescope from a satellite dish, then ­journals or ­e-newsletter, or on our website. For maximum impact, reach our entire readership using it to study the Sun and other radiating bodies (page 38). with an advertorial (online and in print). On- In this, the international year of sustainable energy for all, we stay with the subject line and in print, we have a total of 100 000 of solar radiation to learn what happens inside a solar panel when the Sun shines readers per quarter. (page 43). The Sun often disappears behind the clouds, but – less frequently – it · The majority of our readers are secondary- also disappears for another reason: a solar eclipse. On page 20, learn how to repli- school science teachers. cate both solar and lunar eclipses in the classroom. · Our readership also includes many primary- Although more than 40 years have passed since the first human landed on the school teachers, teacher trainers, head Moon, more distant space travel still poses enormous challenges. To reach Mars, ­teachers and others involved in science education. for example, astronauts would need to spend about a year and a half exposed to extreme conditions, far from help and packed together in cramped quarters. · The journal reaches significant numbers of key decision-makers: at the European Spending the winter on the Concordia research station in Antarctica is similar in ­Commission, the European Parliament and in many ways: enduring eight months of cold and darkness, isolated from the outside European national ministries. world. For this reason, the sends a researcher to observe For more information, see the overwintering crew, to help predict the effects of space travel on physical and www.scienceinschool.org/advertising or mental health (page 53). ­contact [email protected] We all know that exercise is important for health, but did you know that regular exercise causes your body to build more mitochondria, the ‘power plants’ of the Subscribing cell that transform digested food into usable energy (page 16)? Instead of using Register free online to: food as an energy source, primary-school teacher David Lewis has used it as a · Subscribe to the e-newsletter source of inspiration: he developed a series of bread-based activities, covering · Request a free print subscription microbes, fermentation, migration, nutrition – and, of course, baking (page 33). (limited availability) For older students, physics teacher Günter Bachmann produced teaching resources · Post your comments. to communicate the joy and interest of particle physics, during an inspiring two- How can I get involved? month visit to CERN. Adrian Mancuso, in contrast, spends every working day at Science in School relies on the involvement of the cutting edge of experimental physics – developing an X-ray instrument to help teachers, scientists and other experts in science us understand the structure of biomolecules, viruses, small cells and other particu- education. late material. · Submit articles or reviews These last two articles can be read only on our website – where you can · Join the referee panel also browse the complete archive of articles, many of which are avail- · Translate articles for publication online · Tell your colleagues about Science in School able in other European languages. And to keep up-to-date with Science · Make a donation to support the journal. in School and other great resources for science teachers, why not ‘like’ our newly See www.scienceinschool.org or contact us. launched Facebook page? See: www.facebook.com/scienceinschool Contact us Eleanor Hayes Dr Eleanor Hayes / Dr Marlene Rau Editor-in-Chief of Science in School Science in School [email protected] European Molecular Biology Laboratory Meyerhofstrasse 1 www.scienceinschool.org To learn how to use this code, see 69117 Heidelberg page 65. i I Science in School I Issue 23: Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Contents Image courtesy of Toni Matés Urtós; image source: Flickr

Image courtesy of justus.thane; image source: Flickr i Editorial News from the EIROs 2 A voyage through space, arts and the seven seas Feature article 6 Finding maths where you least expect it: 6 interview with Marcus du Sautoy Cutting-edge science Image courtesy of OskarN; image source: Flickr 12 Exploding chromosomes: how cancer begins 16 On your bike: how muscles respond to exercise Teaching activity 20 Creating eclipses in the classroom Science education projects 25 Building a seismograph from scrap 16 33 Bread making: teaching science in primary school 38 Build your own radio telescope Image courtesy of Jeffreyw / iStockphoto Science topics 43 Solar energy: silicon solar cells 48 Intersex: falling outside the norm 53 The white continent as a stepping stone to the red planet Teacher profile 57 Nuclear options: a teacher at CERN 25 Scientist profile Image courtesy of foonus; image source: Flickr 61 High-powered research: physicist Adrian Mancuso

Additional online material Event Science on Stage: a Slovak-British relationship 33 Reviews The Phet website Image courtesy of skynesher / iStockphoto The Wonders of Genetics Inflight science

Forthcoming events for schools: www.scienceinschool.org/events To read the whole issue, see: www.scienceinschool.org/2012/issue23

To learn how to use this code, see page 65. 48 www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 1 Dust specialist Anna Widdowson and remote A voyage through space, handling engineer Justin Thomas discuss the nitty- gritty of the virtual-reality vacuuming interface at arts and the seven seas the Joint European Torus

CERN: And the winner is… FameLab comes to CERN

On 4 February 2012, 22 young scientists aged 18 to 35 convened at CERN’s Globe of Science and Innovation for the regional FameLab semi-finals of the French-speaking

part of . This UK-based international science Image courtesy of EFDA-JET communication competition has become a truly global EFDA-JET: event: in 2012, more than 20 countries are participating, Robots do the dirty work among them for the first time Switzerland. However, FameLab is not just a competition. The idea is also to create The Joint European Torus (JET) is a doughnut-shaped a group of young scientists committed to their research and vessel, 6 metres from side to side, in which fusion experi- to . ments ten times hotter than the Sun are carried out. These Five winners impressed a panel of experts with a three- experiments produce neutrons, which make the walls minute presentation on a science topic of their choice. radioactive, making it unsafe for humans to carry out Among them is first-prize winner Boris Lemmer, a PhD stu- maintenance inside the vessel. Instead, a versatile pair of dent from the University of Göttingen, Germany, currently 6-metre-long robotic arms has been developed, which can working at CERN, who acted out a conversation between perform all kinds of maintenance using a virtual-reality his father and himself with a dry sense of humour that won remote-handling interface. The system is so versatile that over the judges and audience. As Boris explains, “It ad- scientists have even got it doing the vacuuming. dressed the day that every student fears, when the parents Anna Widdowson is one of these scientists: she studies want to know what you’re actually doing.” dust. But the dust she collects is not just last week’s biscuit On 30 March in Zürich, Swiss representative Bechara crumbs and dog hairs, it is residue left in JET by the fusion Saab, a postdoctoral student at the University of Zürich’s plasma pulses, formed from fuel combined with material Brain Research Institute, was chosen from among the five burnt off the walls. “We need to balance the books to see regional finalists to take part in the international FameLab where all the fuel has gone,” she says. Every trace of fuel, event at Cheltenham Science Festival, UK, in June. which includes radioactive tritium, is accounted for, and if To find out more about the competition, all participants and win- possible reused. ners, see http://famelab.org for the international competition Anna thinks the multi-million euro investment in the and www.famelab.ch for the Swiss competition. system is worthwhile. “I hate vacuuming!” she laughs.

Based in , Switzerland, CERN is the world’s largest particle Image courtesy of CERN “The robotic arm’s total vacuuming time was over 24 physics laboratory. To learn more, see: www..ch hours in the last shutdown. Imagine that!” For a list of CERN-related articles in Science in School, see: To find out more about the JET vessel, see: www.scienceinschool.org/cern Rüth C (2012) Harnessing the power of the Sun: fusion reactors. Science in School 22: 42-48. www.scienceinschool. FameLab finalist Boris Lemmer org/2012/issue22/fusion with his proton prop Situated in Culham, UK, JET is Europe’s fusion device. Scientific exploitation of JET is undertaken through the European Fusion Development Agreement (EFDA). To learn more, see: www.efda.org For a list of EFDA-JET-related articles in Science in School, see: www.scienceinschool.org/efdajet

2 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Biology Physics General science Primary 3

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, see: Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I News from the EIROs the from News YouTube Space Lab competition, meet YouTube Science in School Science in School the winners, and join the Universe’s largest science lesson in the winners, and join the Universe’s largest see: www.youtube.com/SpaceLab September, information, see: www.esa.int . For more www.scienceinschool.org/esa Having your science experiment performed on board on board Having your science experiment performed the world were around Students aged 14 to 18 from Chen and Sara Ma from The global winners, Dorothy the Europe, winners from In addition, the regional To learn more about the learn more To gateway to space, with its headquarters in Paris, is Europe’s ESA articles in Science in School For a list of ESA-related ESA: Lab – the Space YouTube lesson largest science ­Universe’s the International Space Station (ISS) with the whole world the International Space Station (ISS) with this exciting experi- live stream: YouTube watching via a Space YouTube ence awaits the two winning teams of and other space by ESA Lab, a campaign co-sponsored agencies. to be performed challenged to design a science experiment selected from in September 2012. Six finalist teams were Laura Calvo and among them 2000 proposals, than more of who wanted to test the effect from María Vilas types of liquid interact on how different microgravity when mixed with compounds that lower their surface tension. Egypt, will get to Amr Mohammed from the USA, and choose a unique space experience: either a trip to Japan bound for the in a rocket to watch their experiment lift off - years old, a one-of-a-kind astro 18 once they are ISS, or, Russia, the training naut training experience in Star City, for Russian cosmonauts. centre guided tour Africa will join a hands-on Middle East and training facilities in Centre Astronaut European of ESA’s Cologne, Germany.

Image courtesy of ESA / NASA Photo taken by ESA Photo taken by astronaut Paolo Nespoli from the Russian Soyuz shortly spacecraft after its release from the Space Station - -

The Tara Oceans schooner Oceans Tara The School, see: www.scienceinschool.org/embl lar biology, with its headquarters in Heidelberg, Germany. To To Germany. with its headquarters in Heidelberg, lar biology, see: www.embl.org learn more, interviews, videos, films, blogs, DVDs, books and more, in interviews, videos, films, blogs, DVDs, books and more, Spanish and Portuguese, see: http:// English, French, oceans.taraexpeditions.org See: and teachers, in English and French. ­children http://tarajunior.org taraoceans And the project will continue – the first scientific results will continue – the first scientific results And the project The expedition’s success was celebrated in Lorient by The expedition’s success was celebrated After two and a half years of sailing the world’s oceans, After two and a half years of sailing the For a list of EMBL-related articles in Science in For a list of EMBL-related The Tara Junior website also offers a wealth of material for Junior website also offers The Tara Oceans, visit www.embl.de/ listen to a podcast about Tara To in molecu leading laboratory for basic research is Europe’s EMBL Tara Oceans expedition, including information about the Tara For more All shipshape – TARA Oceans’ TARA All shipshape – successful return are about to be published, but the analysis of the samples about are and the project will still take several years to complete, 2012, for example at the throughout will be presented Earth Summit in Rio, Brazil. two full days of workshops, exhibitions, lectures and lectures two full days of workshops, exhibitions, by a week of activities for local schools, followed more, and met the crew, during which students visited the boat, the school the work they had done throughout presented year on the subject of Tara. tory analysis at 150 sites worldwide, to study the effects of study the effects tory analysis at 150 sites worldwide, to ecosystems reef global warming on planktonic and coral marine life. and their consequences on food webs and the schooner of the Tara Oceans expedition returned to its Oceans expedition returned the schooner of the Tara 2012. France, on 31 March home port, Lorient in Brittany, by Eric Karsenti, senior scientist at CNRS Co-directed of the Tara president and EMBL, and Etienne Bourgouis, for labora Foundation, the vessel has sampled material EMBL: latest news from the EIROforum members (EIROs). from the EIROforum latest news research organisations. This article reviews some of the article reviews This organisations. research between eight of Europe’s largest inter-governmental scientific scientific inter-governmental largest of Europe’s between eight is published by EIROforum, a collaboration a collaboration EIROforum, by is published in School Science www.scienceinschool.org

Image courtesy of J Girardot / Tara Oceans Image courtesy of ESRF / I Petmezakis

ESO: Carina unveiled by infrared imaging ESO’s Very Large Telescope (VLT) has delivered the most detailed infrared image of the Carina Nebula stellar nursery taken so far. Many previously hidden features, scattered across a spectacular celestial landscape of gas, dust and young stars, have emerged. The Nebula is about 7500 light-years away in the constel- lation of Carina (The Keel) in the part of the Milky Way that is best seen from the southern hemisphere. This cloud Artist Nina Grúňová’s painting was inspired by a 3D model of of glowing gas and dust is one of the closest incubators a fossil wasp. The 16 layers of enamel represent the 720 layers of very massive stars to the Earth and includes several of that comprise the original 3D model the brightest and heaviest stars known. One of them, the mysterious and highly unstable star Eta Carinae, was the second brightest star in the entire night sky for several years in the 1840s and is likely to explode as a supernova in the near future by astronomical standards (the next mil- lion years). The Carina Nebula is a perfect laboratory for astronomers studying the violent births and early lives of ESRF: stars. Picasso meets Einstein – For more information, see the press release: www.eso.org/public/ news/eso1208 a contest for young people ESO is the world’s most productive astronomical observatory, Three-dimensional X-ray images turned into an oil with its headquarters in Garching near Munich, Germany, and painting, molecules inspiring the shape of a sculpture, a its telescopes in Chile. For more information, see: www.eso.org time-lapse mosaic of what scientists see at work – ESRF For a list of ESO-related articles in Science in School, see: and the have joined forces with 15 www.scienceinschool.org/eso other partners under the co-ordination of the Marche Poly- technic University in Ancona, , to shed light on the common roots of creativity in science and the arts. This broad panorama of the Carina In July 2011, four young artists visited ESRF during one Nebula, a region of massive star week, and their creations are on display at an exhibition formation in the southern skies, that began travelling across Europe in February 2012. This was taken in infrared light using the is one of the showcasing events of Immersion into the HAWK-I camera on ESO’s VLT Science Worlds through Arts (ISWA), a project with the ibisch SO / T Pre s of E urte objective to inspire young people across Europe to create co age Im works of art about science. ISWA is organised in five artistic areas: modern dance, cinema, contemporary art, imaging and literature. Stu- dents aged 15 to 19 were invited to take part in a pan- European competition by developing their own creations in these categories to win one of 35 attractive prizes. The final event for all winners will take place at ESRF in Febru- ary 2013. For more information, see: www.iswaproject.eu Situated in Grenoble, France, ESRF operates the most powerful synchrotron radiation source in Europe. To learn more, see: www.esrf.eu For a list of ESRF-related articles in Science in School, see: www.scienceinschool.org/esrf

4 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org News from the EIROs Biology Image courtesy of Benjaminet / Fotolia.com European XFEL: The data challenge The X-ray laser facility European XFEL will produce an incredible amount of data – all of which needs to be stored and made available for analysis. Its instruments will gener- ate 10 million gigabytes of data per year for the first few years, increasing to more than 50 million gigabytes per year as a result of detector upgrades. To picture the storage of 50 million gigabytes of data, imagine 10 million DVDs stacked on top of one another – they would reach 12 kilometres high. “The extremely large data volumes generated at X-ray ILL: free-electron lasers require a new way of thinking about DNA is as stretchy as nylon

how data is managed and analysed,” says Christopher Physics Youngman, leader of the European XFEL group ‘Data Ac- Neutron scientists at ILL have measured how fast quisition and Controls’. At the European XFEL, data will be sound travels along DNA to determine its structural stored securely in a large disk system, exploiting technolo- elasticity or ‘stiffness’, and account for the wide variety gies similar to those used by companies such as Google. of values obtained from previous measurements.

Image courtesy of European XFEL To provide enough computer power when the X-ray laser The double-helix structure of DNA is constantly being facility becomes operational, the group has begun to look mechanically twisted, bent and stretched inside the cell into capabilities of processors used in graphic cards to do through interactions with proteins. “Quantifying the

calculations. General science molecular elasticity of DNA is fundamental to our under- To find out more, see: www.xfel.eu/news/2012/ standing of its biological functions,” says Mark Johnson, a the_data_challenge physicist at ILL. European XFEL is a research facility currently under construction The team used the brand new IN5 spectrometer at ILL in the Hamburg area in Germany. It will generate extremely – and its exceptionally high neutron flux – to measure the intense X-ray flashes for use by researchers from all over the structural flexibility of the molecule. On DNA samples world. To learn more, see: www.xfel.eu placed inside the instrument, the team measured how sound waves travel along the double-helix structure. By measuring frequencies and force constants, they were able to determine the DNA’s stiffness as being 83 N/m, which is stiffer than predicted by classical measurements. This value is roughly equivalent to that of nylon, commonly used in textiles. For more information, see the press release on the ILL web- site (www.ill.eu) or using the direct link (http://tinyurl. com/7wo5sjn), or the research paper: Van Eijck L et al. (2011) Direct determination of the base-pair force constant of DNA from the acoustic phonon dispersion of the double helix. Physical Review Letters 107, 8: 1-5. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.088102 ILL is an international research centre at the leading edge of neu- tron science and technology, based in Grenoble, France. EIROforum To learn more, see: www.ill.eu EIROforum combines the resources, facilities and ex- For a list of ILL-related articles in Science in School, see: pertise of its member organisations to support European www.scienceinschool.org/ill science in reaching its full potential. To learn more, see: www.eiroforum.org For a list of EIROforum-related articles in Science in To learn how to use this School, see: www.scienceinschool.org/eiroforum code, see page 65. To browse the other EIRO news articles, see: www.scienceinschool.org/eironews

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 5 Image courtesy of fdecomite; image source: Flickr

Finding maths where you least expect it: interview with Marcus du Sautoy

What makes viruses so virulent? Why do we enjoy music? Why is the Alhambra so beautiful? The answer? Mathematics!

By Eleanor Hayes Music Festival. And yesterday he was agrees Marcus. “In mathematics, you at a circus school, filming a pro- can prove things with 100 % certainty. gramme about artificial intelligence The ancient Greeks proved that there ’ve got very sore feet this morn- and how the human brain learns new are infinitely many prime numbers, “ ing from walking the tight- skills. Hence the sore feet. and that’s as true today as it was 2000 wire.” Somehow, that doesn’t Marcus clearly relishes being the years ago. Personally, I’ve discovered fit myI stereotype of a mathematician professor for the public understand- new symmetrical objects that I know – but then I am talking to Professor ing of science at University, won’t be overturned by future discov- Marcus du Sautoy. As he says, “I’m UK. “It’s a hugely varied job – mak- eries. So mathematics can give you a keen to break down the stereotype ing television programmes, doing little bit of immortality. of a mathematician: a social recluse radio interviews, giving lectures – and “In the other sciences, in contrast, a hiding behind a beard. I haven’t got that’s what I find so exciting about it. new theory emerges which knocks the a beard, or glasses, and I’m keen to Another thing I enjoy is working with old theory off the pedestal. Newton’s get out there and show people that a team, because mathematics can be physics had to give way to relativity, mathematicians aren’t weird.” quite a lonely pursuit: you spend a lot and perhaps relativity will give way And he certainly does get out there of it on your own at your desk in your to a new theory. So the other sciences – I feel honoured that Marcus found own little mathematical world.” are a much more evolutionary process time for Science in School. While we’re Isn’t a mathematician an odd choice – only the fittest theories survive. on the phone, he’s being driven from for the job, though? After all, maths “However, the other sciences often the BBC World Service offices in isn’t always even considered a sci- rely on mathematics to articulate , where he’s been discussing ence. their discoveries and predictions. As CERN’s Large Hadron Collider, to a “There are definitely differences be- we speak, everyone’s getting excited planning meeting for the Wiltshire tween maths and the other sciences,” about the announcement of poten-

6 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Feature article

Mathematics General science Technology Ages 16+

Image courtesy of Richard Marshall Marcus du Sautoy’s enthu- siasm for mathematics is infectious as he describes the multifaceted dimen- sions of his subject. Teach- ers and students alike will be inspired to look beyond the equations, entering a world of patterns that help to make sense of the living and man-made world. Du Sautoy is keen to improve pedagogical practices in mathematics, by encour- Detail of the bombe, a device used by aging teachers to contex- British cryptologists to decipher encrypted tualise their lessons and to

signals during the Second World War. It was Image courtesy of Leo Reynolds; image source: Flickr teach through games.

designed by mathematician Alan Turing General science The interview reveals a mathematician who is clearly managing to break Marcus du Sautoy free from the stereotype that confines him to the solitary world of the Nobel laureate John Nash, as de- tial evidence for the Higgs boson at picted in the brilliant 2001 CERN, but the Higgs boson couldn’t film A Beautiful Mind. Du have been predicted without math- Sautoy constantly switches ematics. Maths is the language of references from learner science, so in some ways having a His predecessor in the post, ­Richard to teacher, showing that mathematician as the professor for Dawkins, edited The Oxford Book the learning of mathemat- the public understanding for science of Modern Science Writing, select- ics in schools should be is the best of all possible worlds.” ing pieces by scientists Stephen Jay an exciting discovery in He then adds, “but I would say that, Gould, JBS Haldane, Rachel Carson, which teacher and student wouldn’t I?” Stephen Hawking and Primo Levi. If are partners in their quest for answers to scientific Image courtesy of Chris Ruggles; image source: Flickr questions. Marcus du Sau- toy would certainly be a How the tiger got its stripes: the patterns of some welcome speaker at any animals can be explained school, acting as a bridge by equations between everyday life and the too-often unreachable mountain called math- ematics. Angela Charles, REVIEW

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 7 Image courtesy of Teacher Traveler; image source: Flickr

A decorative carved wall at the Alhambra. The sym- metry of the design is very special. First, each piece can be lifted and moved up, down, left or right so that it eventually fits perfectly on a copy of itself. Second, a copy of the whole design can be lifted and moved horizontally or vertically to lie over a copy of itself. Third, if a copy of the design is rotated by 90° about the centre of one of the eight-pointed stars, the design fits perfectly over the original

Marcus were to make a similar collec- tion, whom would he include? “Obviously, I would probably include more mathematicians than Richard did. , for example, who really changed the way we look at geometry. It’s thanks to him that we can talk about relativ-

ity – without Riemann’s world, we Image courtesy of Caroline Ingram; Image courtesy of Teacher Traveler; wouldn’t have Einstein. I would love image source: Flickr image source: Flickr to take several scientific topics and show that at their hearts are great Can you spot the pieces of mathematics. For example, different types of Alan Turing, who is famous for crack- symmetry in these ing German codes at Bletchley Park, tiles at the Alham- UK, during the Second World War, bra palace? also made extraordinary contributions to the theory of artificial intelligence, to computing, and even to biology. The equations that he was studying towards the end of his life explain Patio de los Arrayanes: one of the highly decorated why animals have certain patterns; it’s courtyards at the Alhambra mathematics that controls why a leop- in Granada, Spain ard has spots and a tiger has stripes.” Marcus believes that maths even affects how we perceive the world. “Most people think that maths is about long division to lots of decimal places. Really, though, a mathemati- cian is someone who looks at struc- ture and pattern – and in a sense that’s how everyone reads the world: we’re all mathematicians at heart. Part of my mission is to reveal to people that if, for example, they love listening to music, they are probably listening to

it in a very mathematical way, spot- Image courtesy of magro_kr; image source: Flickr ting patterns and structures, bits that are similar but changed – perhaps in a “The palace is full of symmetry, for loved the Alhambra, but after I read symmetrical way, having been turned example in the tiles on the walls; most your chapter I saw it in a completely upside down.” people appreciate the Alhambra but different way’.” In his book about symmetry, Finding haven’t got the language to articu- The hero of Finding Moonshine is the Moonshine, Marcus includes a chap- late what makes it so special. Lots 19th century mathematician Évariste ter about the Alhambra in Spainw1. of people have told me, ‘I’ve always Galoisw2. “He died in a duel at the age

8 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Feature article

The symmetrical arrangement of carbon atoms in diamond is of 20, perhaps over a lover,” says Mar- what makes it so strong cus, “but he’d already discovered so Image courtesy of BlackJack3D / iStockphoto many extraordinary things, including a way of looking at symmetry very al- gebraically and linguistically. I’d love to go back in time and warn him not these great works, but in language les- to fight that morning, and then spend sons we’re not frightened of exposing that time with him discussing how he our students to difficult things – in came to create the language we use to mathematics, I sometimes think we’re understand symmetry – a language a bit timid.” that I use every day as a practicing get beamed around the world. Often, Marcus continues: “I don’t blame scientist.” there’s a lot of corruption on the line, teachers for the state of our science Unsurprisingly, perhaps, symmetry which changes some 0s to 1s and and maths education, because they are is the focus of Marcus du Sautoy’s some 1s to 0s. Using symmetry, we very constrained by the curriculum. research. “Basically, I’m trying to encode your voice before it is sent. But I think any opportunity to give understand what symmetrical objects Any corruption destroys that sym- the story behind the maths, to put exist in mathematics and in nature metry, but by using symmetry at the things in context, can really help to – not just in three dimensions but in other end, you can often recover what motivate a student. For example, the

Public domain image; image source: Wikimedia Commons the original message was.” volume of a pyramid: you can teach This is all very different from the the formula as a third of the height maths I learned at school. Marcus ex- times the area of the base – and that’s plains: “It’s because the maths taught quite boring. Or you can put it in con- at school is like the grammar and vo- text, explaining that it was discovered

cabulary of the language, rather than in ancient Egypt and showing them General science the stories or the great literature. Chil- a copy of the Rhind Papyrus, which dren leave school not realising that includes the formula. Why were the there are fantastic stories about prime Egyptians interested? They wanted to numbersw3, about topology, geometry, know what volume of the stones they and symmetry – they just know about needed for their pyramids. Behind the sines and cosines and percentages. formula is a beautiful storyw4.” In English lessons, my son is reading There’s also a touching story behind Othello and Animal Farm. He doesn’t how Marcus became interested in Mathematician Évariste Galois, killed in a duel at the age of 20 understand the full complexity of maths. “When I was 13, I went to the

Image courtesy of William Hook; image source: Flickr higher dimensions as well. Symmetry is incredibly important across all of What have cicadas got to do with prime numbers? the sciences. Crystal structures, for Some species of these insects have life cycles last- example, are all to do with symmetry; ing 13 or 17 years, with the adults almost absent in the intervening years. The long life cycles, the reason that diamond is so strong synchronous emergence and the fact that 13 and is because of its underlying symme- Image courtesy of JanetandPhil; image source: Flickr 17 are prime numbers all help the adult cicadas try – the way that the carbon atoms to escape parasites and predators. If the cicada are bound together. Symmetry is very has a life cycle of 17 years and its parasite has a important in biology too – viruses are life cycle of five years, how frequently will the very often symmetrical in shape and two coincide? that’s key to why they’re virulent and so strong. In physics, understanding the fundamental particles depends on symmetry.” Symmetry is important in modern technology, too. “For example, your mobile phone changes your voice Symmetry can help sort out into a series of 0s and 1s which then signal from noise during mobile phone transmission www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 9 The story behind the maths. Why did the ancient Egyptians need to know how to Royal Institution Christmas lecture some of the production team got quite calculate the volume of a pyramid? seriesw5, when they were given by tearful too.” . I was thrilled Inspiring school students is impor- to see one of the best mathematicians tant to Marcus, but he receives many in the world trying to communicate more invitations than he has time to kids the excitement of maths. I to accept. His public communica- thought ‘I’d love to be him when I tion work also limits the amount of grow up’. When I got the chance to university teaching he can do – disap- give the Christmas lectures in 2006, it pointing for those students who chose was a wonderful way to pay back that Oxford for his sake. In an attempt to inspiration. In the last of the lectures, do justice to both groups, he trained a I told the audience ‘I was sitting in team of enthusiastic students to give your place in 1978, and it was watch- some of his public presentationsw6. ing these lectures that inspired me “It’s a win-win situation,” he enthus- to become a mathematician. I hope es. “I get the material into schools, Image courtesy of Dennis Jarvis; image source: Flickr that one day, one of you will stand up and the students get to do some out- here saying the same thing’. It was an reach, go to science festivals – some of extraordinarily emotional moment – them have even worked with me on Reference television projects.” Du Sautoy M (2008) Finding Moon­ In his continuing quest to bring shine: A Mathematician’s Journey maths to life for young people, Mar- Through Symmetry. New York, The Giant’s Causeway in Northern Ire- cus and a friend also dreamed up an NY, USA: Harper Collins. ISBN: land. Many of the basalt columns from ambitious project: to take the entire 9780007214617 which this geological structure is made maths curriculum and turn it into are hexagonal and reflect the symmetri- online gamesw7. “It was an interest- Web references cal structure of honeycomb ing challenge,” he laughs. “How do w1 – On the Page 69 blog, Marcus du you turn quadratic equations into Sautoy discusses page 69 of his book a game? We’re really pleased with Finding Moonshine – about rotational the result, though. Kids love playing symmetry in the Alhambra palace. these games, which the teachers say See http://page69test.blogspot.de actually deliver the curriculum. They or use the direct link: http://tinyurl. can set particular games as homework com/ctejj2r and know that the children can’t score w2 – In his TED lecture, Marcus du the necessary points without having Sautoy tells the story of Évariste understood the maths.” Galois and demonstrates why sym- Research, university teaching, metry is so important – such as in public lectures, broadcasting, popu- sexual attraction, in disease and in lar science writing…. With such a beauty. See: www.youtube.com/ multitude of activities, it can’t be an watch?v=415VX3QX4cU easy question, but when he looks back in 30 years, what would Marcus du w3 – Why did footballer David Sautoy like to feel he has achieved? Beckham choose the number 23 “When someone tells me that one of shirt? How is 17 the key to the my lectures inspired them to study evolutionary survival of a strange maths, it’s a great feeling. But it’s my species of cicada? In this video, mathematical work that I’m most Marcus du Sautoy discusses the proud of – forging into the unknown mystery of prime numbers, the and discovering something new and history behind the Riemann useful. And there are still a few more ­hypothesis and the ongoing quest conjectures I’d like to prove, to look to solve it. See: www.youtube.com/ back on and think ‘wow, I contributed watch?v=PgqEaUT8Qo0 to that extraordinary edifice we call w4 – To help you fill in the story mathematics’.” behind the maths, NRICH offers Image courtesy of Überraschungsbilder; image source: Flickr stimulating and relevant resources

10 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Feature article

Image courtesy of Toni Matés Urtós; image source: Flickr Image courtesy of Lisa Sorensen; image source: Flickr One of nature’s most beautiful sym- metrical creations: the honeycomb

Starfish, sea urchins and their relatives have five-fold symmetry Image courtesy of justus.thane; image source: Flickr

to explore the ways in which cians, offers workshops, activities To find out more about CERN’s Large mathematics, science and technol- and talks about maths to a wide Hadron Collider, see: ogy are linked, roughly aimed at range of audiences. To find out Landua R, Rau M (2008) The 11- to 16-year-old students and their more, visit www.maths.ox.ac.uk or LHC: a step closer to the Big teachers. See: http://nrich.maths. use the direct link: http://tinyurl. Bang. Science in School 10: 26-33. org/stemnrich com/7ybv99m www.scienceinschool.org/2008/ w5 – Started by Michael Faraday w7 – The Manga High website offers issue10/lhcwhy General science in 1825, the Christmas lectures free, short versions of maths games Landua R (2008) The LHC: a look at the UK’s Royal Institution are for different ages and topics. To ac- inside. Science in School 10: 34-45. ­demonstration-packed, fun-filled cess the full-length games, you need www.scienceinschool.org/2008/ science events for young people. to subscribe. See: www.mangahigh. issue10/lhchow Many of them are available online. com If you enjoyed this article, why not Visit: http://richannel.org/­ browse the other feature articles christmas-lectures Resources in Science in School? See: w6 – A group of maths students www.scienceinschool.org/features trained by Marcus du Sautoy, In the Brief History of Mathematics Marcus’ Marvellous Mathemagi- podcasts, Marcus du Sautoy intro- duces the mathematicians behind Dr Eleanor Hayes is the editor-in- the calculations – from Newton chief of Science in School. She studied to the present day. See: www.bbc. zoology at the , co.uk/podcasts/series/maths UK, and completed a PhD in insect Du Sautoy M (2004) The Music of the ecology. She then spent some time

Image courtesy of Rasbak; image source: Wikimedia Commons Primes: Why an Unsolved Problem working in university administration in Mathematics Matters. New York, before moving to Germany and into NY, USA: Harper Collins. ISBN: science publishing in 2001. In 2005, 9781841155807 she moved to the European Molecular Du Sautoy M (2011) The Number Biology Laboratory to launch Science Mysteries: A Mathematical Odys­ in School. sey through Everyday Life. Lon- don, UK: Harper Collins. ISBN: 9780007309863 To learn how to use this The German research centre Matheon code, see page 65. offers school visits, lectures, teacher Cut open an apple and ad- training and other up-to-date mire the five-fold symmetry and fun maths activities. See: www.matheon.de www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 11 Exploding chromosomes: how cancer begins Brain tumours are one of the most common causes of death in children – and may begin when chromosomes are torn apart during cell division. An inherited mutation in the TP53 gene appears to

cause chromosomal ‘ex- Image courtesy of EMBL / P Riedinger By Sonia Furtado Neves, EMBL plosions’ linked to cancer

t’s a scene that has played out collected, a kind adult threads them them back in the right order can be a in many a household: the whole onto a new cord, and the crisis is over. tricky business. family on hands and knees, chas- Unless, of course, the child won’t be At Heidelberg University Hospital, ingI coloured beads, as a distraught satisfied with anything less than an Germany, Andreas Kulozik encoun- child stands wide-eyed, holding the exact replica of the original necklace: tered a family with a much more remnants of a favourite necklace. finding all the beads – including the serious problem: a little girl and her Once most of the beads have been ones that rolled under the sofa or brother had developed highly aggres- behind the cupboard – and threading sive tumours. In initial genetic tests,

Medicine tions, this article can be used as a comprehension Biology exercise with plenty of opportunity for further web- Genetics based investigations­ into mutations, oncogenes, types of cancers, cancer treatments and telomeres. Mutation Inheritance Suitable comprehension questions include: Cancer 1. If a mutation is found in all cells, is it more likely to be a random mutation or one inherited from Ages 16+ parents? Explain your answer. The article is written in a clear and concise manner 2. What is a medulloblastoma? Explain why it is so with an interesting hook to set the scenario. The anal- malignant. ogy of exploding chromosomes and broken necklaces 3. Draw a series of diagrams to show what is very apt; it can help students understand the difficult chromothripsis is. job of putting an exploded chromosome back together 4. What are two roles of the TP53 gene? again in its original form. It is feasible to carry out a 5. What are two possible mechanisms by which a demonstration of this at school, since beads are fairly TP53 mutation causes cancer? standard pieces found in a school biology laboratory. 6. What are oncogenes? This article can be used as an extension activity to the 7. How does the TP53 mutation affect cancer teaching of genetic mutations or to extend discussion treatments? of the role of genes in cancer. It can also be used as a 8. What is the role of telomeres in chromosomes? basis for further research into TP53 mutations, or the role of genes in cancer and childhood medullablas- Students could also use the article to construct a tomas for students who are interested in becoming glossary of uncommon words and concepts.

REVIEW medics. Used in conjunction with appropriate ques- Shaista Shirazi, UK

12 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Cutting-edge-science Reproduced and simplified from Rausch T et al. (2012), with permission from Elsevier

The scientists realised they too were Biology Normal chromosome seeing chromothripsis, the cellular equivalent of the broken necklace sce- nario: a chromosome (sometimes two) had somehow exploded into countless small pieces, and had then been put back together with some pieces miss- ing and others in the wrong order. Catastrophic chromosomal breakage As they analysed more samples, the scientists realised that this happened in the cancerous tissues of all medul- loblastoma patients who carried any inherited TP53 mutation, but in none of the patients with normal TP53 or in the healthy tissue of the medulloblas- Rearranged chromosome toma patients. “This makes us suspect that these three events are connected,” says Jan. “We believe that a TP53 mutation may cause chromosomes to explode, or possibly prevent the cell from reacting properly when they do. This somehow then leads to highly Tumour development aggressive forms of cancer.” So how could a mutation in TP53 cause chromosomes to explode, and Andreas found that the siblings had girl’s genome that we couldn’t really how would that lead to cancer? Sci- the same mutation in the gene TP53. explain at first,” says Tobias Rausch, entists know that TP53 helps prevent They had this mutation in all their from Jan’s research group, who led the chromosomes from fraying at the cells, not just the cancerous ones, data analysis. “Then we saw a paper ends, by protecting telomeres – the which meant it was inherited from by another group, describing a newly caps that keep the ends of chromo- their parents, rather than acquired discovered phenomenon they called somes together. If TP53 is faulty, Jan later by the cells that formed the chromothripsis, and it clicked,” adds and colleagues speculate, telomeres tumour. When Jan Korbel from the fellow group member Adrian Stütz. could be compromised, and chro- European Molecular Biology Labora- toryw1 teamed up with Stefan Pfister and Peter Lichter from the German Cancer Research Centerw2 to look at the genetics of childhood brain More about EMBL tumours, this family connection seemed a good place to start. As part of the International Cancer Genome Consortium, Jan, Stefan and Peter were sequencing the whole genome of The European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL)w1 is one of the world’s cells from a childhood tumour for the top research institutions, dedicated to basic research in the life sciences. first time. Called medulloblastoma, it EMBL is international, innovative and interdisciplinary. Its employees from is the most common of all malignant 60 nations have backgrounds including biology, physics, chemistry and paediatric brain cancers, which are the computer science, and collaborate on research that covers the full spectrum most fatal cancers in children and the of molecular biology. second most common cause of child- EMBL is a member of EIROforumw3, the publisher of Science in School. hood deaths in developed countries after car accidents. To see all EMBL-related articles in Science in School, see: “When we got the DNA sequence www.scienceinschool.org/embl data back, we saw a chaos in the

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 13 Image courtesy of faith goble; image source: Flickr

person’s immediate family should be tested, too. If any healthy family members carry the mutation, it should be seen as a signal for regular screen- ing, as they are very likely to develop tumours at some point in their lives. “And the best chances of fighting can- cer – especially the aggressive, early- onset types of cancer that seem to be associated with chromothripsis – are if it is diagnosed early,” Jan points out. In fact, scientists think that 2-3 % of all cancers are probably caused by chromothripsis, so Jan’s group are now investigating whether TP53 mutations play a role in similar chro- mosomes could stick to each other. TP53 may combine to lead to cancer in mosome explosions in other tumours In such a scenario, when that cell these patients, and would now like to besides medulloblastoma. They have came to divide, chromosomes that investigate exactly how this is hap- already found evidence for the same were stuck together could run into pening at each step. link between chromothripsis and problems. They would be pulled in In the meantime, their findings inherited TP53 mutations in acute opposite directions. At some point the already have immediate repercussions myeloid leukaemia. In this aggressive strain would be too much, and, like for clinicians like Andreas and Stefan, type of blood cancer in adults, Jan and the bead necklace that’s pulled too and for their patients. “If a patient’s colleagues discovered that patients hard, one or both of the chromosomes tumour cells show signs of chromoth- with both a non-inherited TP53 muta- would shatter, sending fragments of ripsis, we now know that we should tion (i.e. a TP53 mutation only in their DNA flying. As the cell’s machinery look for an inherited TP53 mutation,” tumour cells) and evidence of chromo- raced to put the chromosome(s) back Stefan says. And this is important, thripsis tended to be elderly. The sci- together, bits of genetic material might because having an inherited TP53 mu- entists point out that this makes sense be left out and others re-assembled in tation could make the most commonly in light of TP53’s role in telomere the wrong order – or even from the used cancer treatments backfire. Many integrity. Our chromosome caps natu-

wrong chromosome. chemo- and radiotherapy treatments rally get shorter as we age, making Image courtesy of Evan-Amos; image source: Wikimedia Commons On the other hand, TP53 also plays kill cancer cells by damaging their chromosome ends even more likely a key role in inspecting our DNA DNA, but they also affect other cells to get stuck to each other if TP53 goes for damage. If this guardian of the in the body. In most patients, although awry. This in turn makes chromoth- genome finds too many mistakes, it this can lead to painful side effects, ripsis – and the ensuing cancer – more can push the cell into a programmed it does little long-term harm. Not so likely, the scientists suspect. suicide (apoptosis) or into the cellular for someone with an inherited TP53 Jan’s group is continuing to ex- equivalent of old age (senescence), mutation. Because of that mutation, plore these issues in brain, blood to prevent the cell from dividing and all of that person’s cells, including the and other cancers, to unravel how passing on those genetic defects. But healthy ones, will have trouble react- faulty versions of TP53 are linked to if TP53 is mutated, extensive damage ing to DNA damage. So treatments chromosomes exploding like broken to DNA could go unnoticed – damage that target DNA could actually make such as a badly reassembled chromo- healthy cells turn cancerous, caus- some after chromothripsis, regardless ing so-called secondary and tertiary of whether TP53 was involved in tumours – “something we often see in causing the chromosome explosion patients with inherited TP53 muta- or not. As a result, oncogenes – genes tions”, says Stefan. For such patients, that lead to cancer – could be activat- it may be preferable to prescribe less ed, and the cell could start dividing intensive treatments using agents that and dividing, unchecked, thereby cre- do less damage to DNA. And, if a ating a tumour. Jan, Stefan and Peter patient has an inherited TP53 muta- speculate that these effects of a faulty tion, this tells the doctor that that

14 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Cutting-edge-science Biology

Image courtesy of francisblack / iStockphoto Image courtesy of Reytan; image source: Wikimedia Commons necklaces, as well as what other as- For a classroom activity about pects of cells’ housekeeping efforts are knowing what your genes have in involved in cancer. store for you, including the pos- sibility of cancer, see: Reference Strieth L et al. (2008) Meet the The research results were published Gene Machine: stimulating in: bioethical discussions at school. Rausch T et al. (2012) Genome Science in School 9: 34-38. www. sequencing of pediatric medullo- scienceinschool.org/2008/issue9/ blastoma links catastrophic DNA genemachine rearrangements with TP53 muta- If you found this article interesting, tions in cancer. Cell 148(1-2): 59-71. why not browse the other cutting- doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2011.12.013 edge science articles in Science in CT (computed tomography) scan School? See: www.scienceinschool. Web references showing a medulloblastoma (see arrow) in the brain of a six-year-old girl org/cuttingedge w1 – To learn more about the Euro- For other medicine-related articles, pean Molecular Biology Laboratory, see: www.scienceinschool.org/ Resources visit: www.embl.org medicine w2 – The German Cancer Research For a teaching activity about how ge- Center (Deutsches Krebsforschungs­ neticists identify cancerous cells, see:

zentrum) is the largest biomedical re- Communication and Public Engage- Sonia Furtado Neves was born in search institute in Germany, where ment Team (2010) Can you spot a London, UK, and moved to Por- over 1000 scientists investigate the cancer mutation? Science in School tugal at the age of three. While mechanisms of cancer, identify 16: 39-44. www.scienceinschool. studying for a degree in zoology cancer risk factors and try to find org/2010/issue16/cancer at the University of Lisbon, she strategies to prevent people from To learn how cancer stem cells may worked at Lisbon Zoo’s education getting cancer. To learn more, visit: revolutionise the treatment of can- department; there, she discovered www.dkfz.de cer, see: that what she really enjoys is telling w3 – EIROforum is a collaboration Mazza M (2011) Cancer stem cells – people about science. She went on between eight of Europe’s largest hope for the future? Science in School to do a master’s degree in science ­inter-governmental scientific re- 21: 18-22. www.scienceinschool. communication at Imperial College search organisations, which com- org/2011/issue21/cscs London, and is now the press officer bine their resources, facilities and at the European Molecular Biology For more information on how genetic expertise to support European sci- Laboratory in Heidelberg, Germany. ence in reaching its full potential. As mutations cause diseases, see: part of its education and outreach Patterson L (2009) Getting a grip on To learn how to use this activities, EIROforum publishes genetic diseases. Science in School code, see page 65. Science in School. To learn more, see: 13: 53-58. www.scienceinschool. www.eiroforum.org org/2009/issue13/insight www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 15 Image courtesy of Let Ideas Compete; image source: Flickr

On your bike: how muscles respond to exercise We all know that exercise makes us fitter and healthier – but what changes take place in our cells to make this happen?

By Maléne Lindholm and Image courtesy of Maléne Lindholm and Susanna Wallman Appel Susanna Wallman Appel

Figure 1: A biopsy needle is ext time you are working used to take a fragment of out in the gym, or pounding muscle from the leg of a study the streets running or jog- participant. This tissue can Nging, ponder this: the idea of ‘muscle reveal what changes occur in memory’ – that today’s exercise has muscle fibres in response to effects on our muscles years from now different types of exercise – has never been demonstrated scien- tifically. Does it really exist, and if so, how does it work? These are some of the questions we hope to answer in our on-going research, which aims to Image courtesy of Maléne Lindholm and Susanna Wallman Appel pin down the changes that occur in muscles when we exercise, and how Figure 2: Prior to the exercise our muscles ‘know’ to respond dif- studies, participants perform a ferently to, say, endurance training as test in which all their exhaled air is collected and the amount opposed to strength training. of oxygen taken up by the body Helping us to investigate these is measured. This provides questions is a large team of volun- information on the fitness level teers. Not only must they cycle to of each participant’s heart and exhaustion in our gym, but before working muscles and after a strenuous exercise regime lasting several weeks, we take a tiny sample of their leg muscle under local Image courtesy of Maléne Lindholm and Susanna Wallman Appel anaesthetic (figure 1). The aim of our research is to help people optimise Figure 3: A microscope is used their training programmes for maxi- to visualise changes that occur within the muscle fibres in mal fitness, and potentially to help response to exercise. Differ- develop new treatments for people ent types of staining can reveal who cannot exercise because they are different structures within the paralysed or have joint diseases. cell. Here, one specific histone We assess the fitness of our volun- modification is stained in red, teers before and after participation in with the nuclei in blue and the the studies by measuring their maxi- cell membrane in green. To find mal oxygen uptake. They cycle on an out if a change has occurred, we would compare it with an image exercise bike against increasing resist- taken before training ance until exhausted, while wearing a

16 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Cutting-edge-science

Image courtesy of Mariana Ruiz Villarreal; image source: Wikimedia Commons Biology Biology Genetics Ages 16+ Artist’s impression Exercising is an activity of a cross-section of a that relates (or should re- ­mitochondrion, showing its inner folded membrane late) to every human on structure the planet; as such, it has received a lot of attention for decades. Although the mask to analyse their oxygen consumption potential benefits of exer- (figure 2). This gives us information about cise are well known, the the pumping capacity of the heart and cause of these benefits is metabolism of the working muscles – both largely unknown. This ar- factors associated with a person’s fitness ticle gives an overview of level. some of the genetic factors Then we study the muscle tissue from that might be involved in the biopsies either by slicing and staining the positive outcomes ob- the tissue, then viewing it under a micro- served in the physical state scope (figure 3), or by breaking up the tis- of an individual who exer- sue and measuring the levels of particular cises. molecules. Biologists and other per- Of course, we already know that regular sons with at least a modest exercise produces health benefits. Physi- understanding of genet- cally active individuals have a lower risk of ics, including advanced developing cardiovascular diseases, type II ­secondary-school biology diabetes and certain types of cancer. Even a students, will probably moderate amount of daily physical activity, find the information pro- for example 30 minutes of brisk walking, vided in this article highly is enough to confer many of the benefits. interesting. They might And the more exercise we take, the greater the benefits. It’s not just a question of how even be motivated to think much exercise we take, though, but also of alternative ways in what sort and how intense it is: different which exercising can lead types of exercise produce different effects to health benefits. on the body. Heavy resistance training, Michalis Hadjimarcou,

such as weight lifting, causes skeletal mus- REVIEW cles to grow, providing enhanced strength, whereas regular endurance exercise, for example long-distance running, cycling or aerobics, improves fitness and reduces The more mitochondria the muscles fatigue. have, the more fat and sugar they can How does regular endurance exercise metabolise and the more energy they lead to these effects? Over time, the heart can release. gains the ability to pump larger strokes and But what we don’t yet understand after a couple of months of training, new is exactly how exercise causes such tiny blood vessels (capillaries) form around changes. We are pursuing this ques- muscle cells to ensure a good oxygen sup- tion along two lines: first, how does ply. Also, the number of mitochondria – the exercise lead to more mitochondria in cell’s ‘power plants’ – increases. Inside the skeletal muscle cells? And second, mitochondria, enzymes use oxygen to turn how does exercise change the way in digested sugar and fat into usable energy. which the cell’s DNA is used? www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 17 Image courtesy of Susanne Mükusch

Figure 4: PGC-1α is one factor known to regulate the number of mitochondria in skeletal muscle fibres, thereby affect- ing endurance. Changes occurring during exercise stimulate the production of this pro- tein, which acts in concert with specialised transcription factors (PPAR and NRF-1) to produce mitochondrial components

Building mitochondria effects of exercise training on health. later period of training. Based on the Mitochondria are constructed from We are now investigating possible results of these experiments, we will protein molecules, so factors that protein modulators of PGC-1α, which be able to investigate whether ‘muscle boost the production of mitochondrial may attach to this protein to increase memory’ truly exists and, if so, how it proteins can increase the number of or decrease its activity in boosting works. mitochondria in a cell. One factor that mitochondrial protein production. acts as a key regulator of the produc- Resources tion of mitochondrial proteins is a Epigenetic factors To learn more about the role of exer- molecule called PGC-1α (figure 4). We are also exploring the possi- cise in the prevention and treatment For a gene to be expressed – that is, ble impact of exercise on epigenetics. of different diseases, see: used to make a protein – the DNA Epigenetic changes affect how the Henriksson J, Sundberg CJ (2008) information held in the nucleus must DNA is used, without affecting the General effects of physical activity. first be copied, or transcribed, onto an genetic information encoded within it. In Ståhle A (ed) Physical Activity in mRNA molecule. The mRNA mol- In our cells, DNA is wrapped around the Prevention and Treatment of Dis­ ecules then move out of the nucleus to coin-shaped proteins called histones. ease pp 11-37. Stockholm, : sites in the cell where protein mol- Attaching small chemical molecules to Professional Associations for Physi- ecules are constructed. the DNA strand or to histones affects cal Activity. ISBN: 9789172577152. The transcription process is con- the ability of transcription factors to www.fyss.se/wp-content/up- trolled by DNA-binding molecules reach their target genes. For example, loads/2011/02/fyss_2010_english. called transcription factors. These at- adding a methyl (CH ) molecule to 3 pdf tach to the DNA strand at very specif- DNA generally makes the adjacent ic points, either blocking or promoting genes less accessible and thus less WHO (2010) Global recommenda- the transcription process. PGC-1α acts active, whereas attaching an acetyl tions on physical activity for health. ISBN: 9789241599979. www.who. in concert with transcription factors to (COCH3) group to histones usually promote the expression of many genes relaxes that part of the DNA strand, int/dietphysicalactivity/factsheet_ coding for mitochondrial proteins. making it more accessible for tran- recommendations We have recently discovered that scription (figure 5). The publication is currently avail- one variant of PGC-1α is not present Using the biopsy material from able in English, Chinese, French, at all before exercise, but high levels our volunteers, we aim to see if such Russian and Spanish. of it can be found after only one hour epigenetic effects remain after a For more information about the physi- of cycling. This suggests that certain prolonged period without physical ological effects of exercise, see: genes are turned on exclusively by training, and whether they influence Wilmore JH, Costill DL, Kenney exercise, and this may be a clue to the how an individual responds to a WL (2007) Physiology of Sport and

18 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Cutting-edge-science

Image adapted with permission from the NIH Common Fund (for original, see: http://commonfund.nih.gov/Epigenomics/epigeneticmechanisms.aspx)

Biology

Acetyl group Chromatin

CH3 Methyl group Chromosome

COCH3 B: DNA acetylation

DNA

A: DNA methylation

Histone tail

Gene Histone tail

DNA accessible, gene active

Histone Figure 5: Adding a methyl (CH3) mol- DNA inaccessible, gene inactive ecule to DNA generally makes the adja- cent genes less accessible and thus less active (A), whereas attaching an acetyl

(COCH3) group to histones usually re- laxes that part of the DNA strand, making

th it more accessible for transcription (B) Exercise 4 edition. Champaign, prevention through exercise biology. IL, USA: Human Kinetics. ISBN: Journal of Applied Physiology 88(2): 9780736055833 774-787 Information aimed at 14- to 16-year- Gollnick PD et al. (1973) Effect of Acknowledgement old school students, with an training on enzyme activity and The authors would like to thank As- online activity. See the BBC’s GCSE fiber composition of human skeletal sociate Professor Carl Johan Sundberg Bitesize website (www.bbc.co.uk/ muscle. Journal of Applied Physiology for providing us with the opportunity schools/gcsebitesize; search for 34(1): 107-111 to work in his lab and for valuable ‘effects of training and exercise’) or Norrbom J et al. (2011) Alternative input on this article. use the direct link: http://tinyurl. splice variant PGC-1a-b is strongly com/8xfksl6 induced by exercise in human ‘How the body responds to exercise’ skeletal muscle. American Journal Maléne Lindholm and Susanna Wall- video on the US Teachers’ Domain of Physiology – Endocrinology and man Appel are carrying out doctoral Image coutesy of cszar; image source: Flickr website (www.teachersdomain.org) Metabolism 301(6): E1092-1098. doi: research on the effects of exercise on or via the direct link: http://tinyurl. 10.1152/ajpendo.00119.2011 human skeletal muscle function and the concurrent health benefits. They com/chvndus Norrbom J et al. (2010) Train- both hold masters degrees in biomedi- ‘Where do you get your energy’ ing response of mitochondrial cine from the Karolinska Institutet in video on the US Teachers’ Domain transcription factors in human Stockholm, Sweden, where they also website (www.teachersdomain.org) skeletal muscle. Acta Physiologica teach physiology. or via the direct link: http://tinyurl. 198(1): 71-79. doi: 10.1111/j.1748- com/cfwct6g 1716.2009.02030.x The following research articles pro- If you enjoyed this article, you may vide more information about the To learn how to use this like to browse the other cutting- code, see page 65. scientific details: edge science articles in Science in Booth FW, Gordon SE, Carlson CJ, School. See www.scienceinschool. Hamilton MT (2000) Waging war on org/cuttingedge modern chronic diseases: primary

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 19 Creating eclipses Image courtesy of Dylan O’Donnell / deography.com in the classroom

During an eclipse, the Sun or the Moon seems to disappear. What is happening? Why not explore this fascinating phenomenon in the classroom, with an easy to build model?

Successive pictures (bottom right to top left) of the Moon as it slowly crosses into the shadow of Earth

By Marissa Rosenberg from Moon and Earth. To consolidate and to a full circle again; these stages are EU Universe Awareness expand on what they have learned, called the phases of the Moon the UNAWE projectw1 – an astronomy (figure 1). To learn more, see Mitchell programme that fosters universe et al., 2008. olar and lunar eclipses are awareness – then enables the students Usually, when the Moon is on the astronomical phenomena that to work with other schoolchildren far side of Earth from the Sun (fig- have been shrouded in myth around the globe. What time of day ure 1B), the three bodies do not lie Sand legend throughout history. The is it for them? What season? What in a straight line; instead, the Moon ancient Chinese, for example, believed can they see in the sky at a particular is slightly above Earth and is still that solar eclipses occurred when a ce- moment? illuminated, so we see a full moon. lestial dragon devoured the Sun. The Occasionally, however, Earth passes Chinese word for an eclipse, ‘chih’, Lunar eclipses directly between the Sun and Moon, even means ‘to eat’. Although the Moon appears and the Moon is completely in the Because eclipses are frequent and brightly in the night sky, it does not in Earth’s shadow – we call this a lunar can be observed without a telescope, fact shine but simply reflects the light eclipse. You can see it with the naked they are an excellent topic for intro- from the Sun. The shape of the Moon eye, as the Moon enters the Earth’s ducing astronomy at school. This that you see depends on both where shadow (the umbra) and travels across article describes a simple activity to you are on Earth and where the Moon it, taking on a beautiful dim red help students aged 6-14 to understand is in its orbit around Earth. Every gloww2. As the Moon crosses in or out eclipses, our Solar System and the month the Moon completes a cycle, of the umbra, you can even see the motion of Earth and the Moon within starting as a complete circle (at full curve of Earth partially shadowing it. The students begin by building and moon), shrinking to become almost the Moon (see image above). This par- using their own model of the Sun, invisible (at new moon), then swelling tial shadow is called the penumbra.

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Images courtesy of Marissa Rosenberg (diagrams) and NASA (Moon images) Creating eclipses Physics Astronomy Earth and space in the classroom Art Earth Earth Languages Ages 8-14 Sun Sun Eclipses provide an excellent opportunity for students to under- Moon Moon stand how day, night and the seasons are af- fected by our position on Earth relative to the

positions of the Sun Physics and Moon. This article describes hands-on activities in which the students build a model of Earth, the Moon and the Sun to show lunar and solar eclipses. Models of heavenly objects serve to bring A: At this stage of the Moon’s orbit B: At this stage of the Moon’s orbit around Earth, if it is night-time for you fascinating phenome- around Earth, if it is night-time for you on Earth, you can see only half of the on Earth, you can see the whole of the na closer to the learner illuminated (day) side of the Moon. illuminated (day) side of the Moon. and enable students to Thus the Moon appears as a semi- Thus the Moon appears as a complete make sense of an oth- circle circle (full moon) erwise mysterious sky. The article also rais- es the possibility for Figure 1: The phases of the Moon. The circles represent the orbits of Earth around students in different the Sun and the Moon around Earth. The shaded areas represent darkness: at any countries to link via one time, one-half of Earth and one-half of the Moon are illuminated by the Sun video conferencing with other classes around the world and Solar eclipses pletely covered. Your eyes are in the thus better understand Unlike lunar eclipses, solar eclipses shadow of your thumb, but it does not how what we see in the are very rare. Most people will never affect the person standing next to you, sky at any one point is see one because solar eclipses are only as they are not in the same shadow. affected by where we visible from relatively small areas of They see the Sun as normal. Once the are on Earth. Students Earth at any one time. Solar and lunar Moon moves directly between Earth learn best when they eclipses have somewhat different and the Sunw3, the sky takes on a feel that they own the causes: during a solar eclipse, we are spooky twilight, which causes animals experience. In this in shadow. When the Moon passes to become confused. The air cools way both the receiver exactly in front of the Sun, it casts a and, during a total eclipse, the Moon and transmitter expe- shadow on Earth. Because the appar- appears as a black disk in the sky sur- rience the learning in ent size of the Moon is so much less rounded by a crown of fire. That fire context. than that of the Sun, this shadow will is actually the Sun behind the Moon; Angela Charles, Malta only be seen in a small area of Earth. as the Moon passes, the full burning REVIEW To understand this, hold your thumb light of the Sun returns. in front of the Sun so that it is com-

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 21 Image courtesy of Marissa Rosenberg Image courtesy of Marissa Rosenberg Eclipses in the classroom Building the Sun-Earth-Moon system described below will allow your class to discover how and why eclipses happen. They will be able to understand exactly what they are seeing if ever they see a real eclipse. Building the model, which is not to scale, takes about 45 minutes.

Materials Step 3: making the base to support Earth For each model, you will need: · Adhesive tape · Glue · Two cardboard tubes (e.g. empty toilet rolls) Step 5: Placing Torch · Earth on its base · Scissors (suitable for cutting cardboard) Image courtesy of Bill Livingston, NSO / AURA / NSF · Aluminium foil 5. Using tape or glue, attach the · Sturdy but bendable wire (35-50 cm larger ball to the open flower of long) the tube. This ball is Earth. · Styrofoam ball the size of a large 6. Cover the smaller ball with orange aluminium foil, shiny side out. · Ping pong ball (or a Styrofoam ball This is the Moon. of a similar size) 7. Insert one end of the wire into the · Large strip of cardboard (about 60 top of Earth, so that the wire is cm in length and no less than 20 cm vertical. in width) 8. Measure a finger’s length along Three-quarter solar eclipse observed · Stack of books or magazines the wire. Bend the wire at a right at the Kitt Peak Vacuum Telescope on angle to give a horizontal arm. 10 June 2002 Method 9. Insert the other end of the wire 1. Divide the class into groups of into the Moon. three or four. Give each group 10. About halfway between Earth and

Image courtesy of Bill Livingston, NSO / AURA / NSF their own materials to make the the far end of the cardboard strip, model. measure a finger’s length along the 2. Take one cardboard tube and wire and bend it downwards at a make a series of small (2 cm) right angle, toward the cardboard even, vertical cuts around the base. The Moon’s equator should circumference of each end. be at the same height as Earth’s 3. At each end, bend the cut pieces equator. out, then stand the tube upright. 11. Balance the torch on a stack of At the top, the cut edges should books or magazines at the other fan out like a flower (see image). end of the cardboard strip from 4. Using adhesive tape, fasten one Earth. Make sure the height is The ‘diamond ring’ effect occurs end of the cardboard tube to the correct: the middle of the torch when only a tiny sliver of the Sun is strip of cardboard; this is the base beam should hit Earth’s equator. visible around the Moon during a of the model. The tube should be If the beam is too diffuse, attach total solar eclipse at least 30 cm from one end of the the second cardboard tube to the cardboard strip. end of the torch to direct the light

22 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Teaching activity

Images courtesy of Marissa Rosenberg Step 10: Bending the wire so that the equators of the Moon and Earth are Image courtesy of NSO / AURA / NSF at the same height

The delicately structured glow of the solar corona, as seen during the total eclipse of the Sun on 7 March 1970. The corona is visible to the naked eye only during an eclipse Physics

Creating a solar eclipse

Step 11: Adjusting the Moon and Sun so that the light from the Sun hits Earth’s equator and the Moon can directly block the Sun’s rays Creating a lunar eclipse from reaching Earth

horizontally. Ensure the beam hits today they will be lucky enough to You can show how the shadow the nearest half of Earth and the see both. moves by slowly rotating the wire. Moon directly. If the beam is not 2. Create a solar eclipse. Stand 3. Now create a lunar eclipse. Stand bright enough, move the stack of facing the torch and swing the facing the torch and swing the books closer. wire around until the Moon casts wire so that the Moon is behind a shadow on Earth; if necessary, Using the model Earth. No light should be hitting dim the lights. The Moon is now the Moon: Earth is between the Duration: 30-45 minutes. between Earth and the Sun and Sun and the Moon, casting a 1. Ask your students if they have is blocking the sunshine for some shadow over the entire Moon. ever seen an eclipse. Was it a solar people on Earth. Point out that Explain that unlike during the w4 or a lunar eclipse ? Explain that only people directly in the shadow solar eclipse, the entire ‘night side’ solar eclipses are much rarer but see a complete eclipse of the Sun. of Earth can see the lunar eclipse.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 23 International collaboration for ‘fruit loops’) or use the direct · Draw a picture showing the posi- Collaborating with other schools tions of the Moon, Earth and Sun link: http://tinyurl.com/cz8xxmu worldwide can help your students to during a lunar and a solar eclipse. Lunar Eclipse 2105 is a fun, scien- understand the subject even better. (Use the model to help.) tifically accurate story of an eclipse w1 1. Contact UNAWE to facilitate · Do you see lunar eclipses at night being viewed from our Moon by a Skype session with a school or during the day? What about a young boy. It could be a good class in another part of the world. solar eclipses? starting point for other lunar eclipse UNAWE will strive to connect · Why are solar eclipses so much activities. See the website of NASA schools that speak the same rarer than lunar eclipses? Science (www.science.nasa.gov) or language. Ages 10-14: use the direct link: http://tinyurl. 2. Put the students in your class in · During a solar eclipse, what would com/2ctfkct pairs; they will speak to a pair of you see if you stood on the Moon For photographs and information students from the partner class. and looked at Earth? about the lunar eclipse of 15 June 3. Ask each pair of students to make · What is the phase of the moon dur- 2011, which could be seen all over a list of five relevant questions to ing a solar eclipse? And during a Europe, see: http://eaae-astronomy. ask their international partners. lunar eclipse? org/blog/?cat=38 The first two questions could be: · Why don’t we see a lunar eclipse To find out how two school students Ages 6-10: during every full moon? investigated and observed an · What does the sky look like to · Do other planets have eclipses? eclipse in a prize-winning project, you right now? What time is it? Reference see: Do you know any stories or · Pathmanathan P (2007) Students ­legends about why eclipses Mitchell WA et al. (2008) Science for Catch a Star: researching and ­happen? the Next Generation: activities for observing a solar eclipse. Ages 10-14: primary school. Science in School Science in School 7: 39-44. Are there any superstitions in 10: 64-69. www.scienceinschool. · www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ your culture about eclipses? org/2008/issue10/nextgeneration issue7/catchastar If there was a lunar eclipse, · Web references If you found this article useful, you could we both see it at the may like to browse the other as- same time? What about a solar w1 – UNAWE is an astronomy tronomy articles in Science in School. eclipse? [The answers will de- programme to educate and inspire See: www.scienceinschool.org/ pend on the location of the two young children around the world. astronomy countries involved.] To learn more and get in touch, visit: 4. During the Skype session, the www.unawe.org pairs of students can take turns to w2 – For a video explanation of why Marissa Rosenberg graduated in ask each other their questions and the Moon looks red during a lunar astrophysics from the University of record the answers. eclipse, see www.bbc.co.uk/news/ California, Los Angeles (UCLA), USA, 5. After the Skype session, your science-environment-13787011 or then completed a master’s degree at students can present their use the shorter link: http://tinyurl. the International Space University in international partners and their com/7v6vxxy Strasbourg, France. She is currently answers to the rest of the class. w3 – For more information about how working on her PhD in astrophysics solar eclipses occur, see: www.­ at Leiden Observatory in the Nether- Discussion mreclipse.com/Special/SEprimer. lands. Ages 6-10: html Marissa is involved with EU Uni- During a lunar eclipse: w4 – For a comparison of lunar verse Awareness, writing astronomy · Which bright object is in shadow? and solar eclipses, see: articles for children. She has also com- Which object is casting the shadow? www.­moonconnection.com/ pleted three years of science teacher training through the California Teach · Does everyone in the world see it? lunar_vs_­solar.phtml Who can’t see a lunar eclipse? programme at UCLA. Resources During a solar eclipse: · Which bright object is covered up? For another classroom activity to To learn how to use this Which object is blocking the sunlight? model an eclipse, using fruit, see the code, see page 65. · Does everyone in the world see it? website of the Lunar and Planetary Who can’t see a solar eclipse? Institute (www.lpi.usra.edu; search

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Science in School Science in School Science educationScience projects Figure 1: Earthquakes in Figure during the first 2011. week of November Due to its position at the African boundary of the and European tectonic earthquakes plates, several day occur in Greece every - arthquakes occur around the the arthquakes occur around the world all the time. In 2011, earthquakes that caused the

Earthquakes are a daily occurrence in a daily occurrence Earthquakes are Some earthquakes may be so slight as Some earthquakes may be so slight as severe earthquake of quakes. In 1886, a severe Greece (figure 1), sitting as it does at the 1), (figure Greece boundary of two tectonic plates. The our school district of Messinia, where is located, has a history of major earth Monitoring local earthquakes classroom? Here’s how. classroom? Here’s E earthquake experiments in the earthquake experiments Bazanos By Panteleimon And also carry out some simple And also carry out some hi-fi speakers to detect earthquakes? to detect earthquakes? hi-fi speakers Did you know that you can use old can use old that you know Did you from scrap from Building a seismograph a seismograph Building - Fukushima disaster in Japan, killed thou and devastated New sands in Turkey Zealand’s capital city made the head- also lines. But did you know that 2011 saw earthquakes in , and the ? to be practically unnoticeable, but they - pro Each tremor can still be recorded. types of vibration, or seis- duces different Earth’s mic waves, which travel through velocities. These interior with different by waves can be detected and recorded called seismographs, which instruments distances from often sited at great are the earthquake. By measuring the time that the seismic waves take to arrive at the seismographs, as well as recording amplitude and duration of the waves, we can calculate the magnitude of the earth- quake and determine its epicentre. www.scienceinschool.org Im Image courtesy of Panteleimon Bazanos; data source: the automated alert system of the Institute of Geodynamics at the National Observatory of Athens age co ur tes y o f N i 3 co la G ra f

Figure 2: The 1886 earth- quake ruined Filiatra, while the 1986 earthquake dam- Filiatra Sparta aged Kalamata. Sparta is Kalimata likely to be another victim within the next 100 years

magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale struck by an earthquakew3 of at least the General Lyceum of Filiatra. The struck Filiatraw1 (figure 2). A century magnitude 7.0. seismograph is based on an array later, Kalamata was hit by another To encourage my students to learn of three geophones – devices that strong earthquakew2, this time of mag- about earthquakes, I acquired and set respond to the seismic waves and con- nitude 6.0. Within the next 100 years, up a commercial, educational seismo- vert them to electrical signals. Each of it is predicted that Sparta will be graph in our school (figures 3 and 4), the three geophones monitors waves

Earth science also be used in IT lessons (analysing the audio signal Physics and how audio software works; using database soft- ware to build a earthquake database). IT If you have too little seismic activity in your region Electrical engineering to make it worth building your own seismograph, Acoustics you could visit the suggested websites to download Seismology earthquake data to analyse with your students. And Ages 16-19 of course you could still carry out the earthquake-­ simulation experiments that the author describes. In 2011, an earthquake caused an environmental dis- The article stimulates questions like: aster by damaging the nuclear power plants in Fuku- · What is an earthquake? What can you find out shima, Japan. This article briefly describes the mecha- about severe earthquakes in your area? nism of earthquakes and especially the propagation of · How do earthquake waves travel through Earth? the different waves running through Earth. These waves can be measured with seismographs. · What is a seismograph and how does it work? The author describes how you and your students can · How do loudspeakers work, and why and how can build your own seismograph using an adapted loud- they be used for earthquake detection? speaker and audio software. This would be an interest- · What are the basic electrical laws to consider ing project in physics (acoustics, acoustic-converter, when using a loudspeaker as a microphone or induction, the mechanical properties of springs), earth geophone? How do you get a voltage out of them? science (earthquakes and their classification), or elec- Gerd Vogt, Higher Secondary School for Environment

REVIEW trical engineering (practical work) lessons. It could and Economics, Yspertal,

26 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Science education projects

P S C signal into the relative movement of a coil and a magnet, which causes the cone to move in and out, thus generat- ing vibrations: sound waves (figure 5). By making them operate the other way round – turning vibrations into electrical signals – they can be made to function as geophones. To make our geophone, we used a ‘woofer’ – a speaker for low-pitched sounds – because woofers are de- signed to work well for low frequen- cies, and seismic waves are of course low-frequency vibrations. To minimise Image courtesy of Panteleimon Bazanos; image source: Seismic Logger, Helicorder and Dataviewer software, Seismology Laboratory of the University of Patras interference from sound vibrations, we removed the cone of the loud- Physics Figure 3: A three-channel seismogram from our commercial seismograph, speaker. showing the start times of the primary (P) and secondary (S) waves and the To complete our geophone (figure vibration end time (C). 6), we also used a weight, a spring w4 Primary waves are compressional longitudinal waves that are the first to arrive and the lid of a spray can. The weight at the seismograph. They can travel through solids or fluids – in air they take the serves to increase the inertia, as the form of sound waves, travelling therefore at the speed of sound (340 m/s). In water they travel at about 1450 m/s and in granite at about 5000 m/s. Second- loudspeaker coil itself is very light. ary waves are shear transverse waves, arriving at the seismograph after the Placing a weight directly onto the primary waves and displacing the ground in a direction perpendicular to the coil would damage it, so we used the direction of propagation. They do not travel through liquids or gases, travelling through solids at speeds of about 60% of those of primary waves. The epicentre distance (in km) and the earthquake magnitude (measured on the Richter scale) are calculated according to the formulae

distance = p1·(ts – tp) and

magnitude = p2·log10 (tc - tp) + p3·distance – p4

where p1, p2, p3, p4 are constants that depend on the types of rock that the

earthquake passed through. Default values are p1 = 7.6, p2 = 2.31, p3 = 0.0012,

p4 = 1.0. Three time measurements (in seconds) are needed: the time that P

waves arrive (tp), the time that S waves arrive (ts) and the time that vibrations

end (tc)

in the up-down, east-west or north- own seismograph, with which we south directions. The three signals are can detect local earthquakes – up to then processed by computer, allowing 100-200 km away, depending on their the magnitude of the earthquake and magnitude. the distance from the epicentre to be At the heart of any seismograph calculated (figure 3). are the geophones. They convert the ground vibrations into electri- Image courtesy of Panteleimon Bazanos Building a seismograph cal signals using a coil that moves I also wanted to encourage the relative to a magnet, producing an Figure 4: How a geophone works. When the ground vibrates, the mass students to think about the technol- electrical voltage at the end of the coil with the coil attached to it moves ogy that is used to detect and meas- (Faraday’s law; figure 4). To build relative to the magnet. The potential ure earthquakes and to understand our seismograph, we used every- difference produced in the connec- what each component does, rather day technology as the geophone: a tors depends on the way the ground than viewing a seismograph as a loudspeaker. Normally, loudspeakers vibrates ‘black box’. To this end, we build our operate by converting an electrical www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 27 Image courtesy of Iain Fergusson; image source: Wikimedia Commons up the seismograph somewhere quiet and free from vibrations, perhaps in the school cellar. However, to encour- age student participation, I set mine up in the classroom. Once you have set up your seis- mograph, let it record continuously for one or two days, then save the data in a file. Before you can search for earthquakes in the data, you will need to do some processing. The exact details of the processing will depend on the software you use, but it should be fairly straightforward. Figure 5: How a loudspeaker works. As the function of loudspeakers is based on 1. Remove any DC offset, to remove the relative movement of coil and magnet, we can use them to detect ground the contribution of any DC current vibrations. These vibrations move the coil relative to the magnet, producing a po- to the signal. tential difference between the coil’s connectors. This electrical signal is recorded by the computer via the sound card, in the same way as input from a microphone 2. Amplify the low frequencies (below would bew5 100 Hz). This is the range in which you will detect earthquakes. 3. Remove background ‘noise’ (ther- mal noise, electronic noise, etc.) to Image courtesy of Panteleimon Bazanos 1. Monitor and analyse data from ex- make the signal clearer. isting seismographic stationsw7,w8. 4. After that, you can search the data 2. Use a commercial, educational seis- for patterns that indicate an earth- mograph. quake. 3. Construct your own seismograph, Not all signals recorded by seismo- using the downloadable instruc- graphs are earthquakes. Other, more tions on the Science in School local sources, including traffic, wind, ­websitew6. explosions and opening and closing 4. Carry out some simple experiments doors, can cause confusion. Earth- to simulate and investigate the quakes often have a characteristic pat- physics of earthquakes (see below). tern: a small waveform followed by a large one (see figure 3). Because this To record earthquakes with ei- Figure 6: Our homemade geophone is not always the case, however, you ther a commercial or a homemade and your students may sometimes seismograph, you will need to be be unsure if what you have detected spring to hold the weight over the relatively close to their epicentres. really is an earthquake. The only way coil, allowing it to oscillate. The lid Our homemade seismograph de- to be certain is to do what profes- protected the coil. We then plugged tected earthquakes up to 100-200 km sional seismologists do and compare w9 our woofer geophone into the sound- away , depending on magnitude. your data with the recordings made at w10 card port of a computer, and recorded With our commercial seismograph , other seismographic stationsw7,w8. the signals using sound-editing we detected earthquakes of 4.0 on the When you are confident that you software, creating a working seismo- Richter scale from 500 km away. have detected an earthquake, you can graph. Options 1 and 4 have the advantage calculate its magnitude (on the Richter Detailed instructions for building of being feasible even in regions with scale) and your distance (in km) from our seismograph can be downloaded very little seismic activity. the epicentre (figure 7). For that, you from the Science in School websitew6. need only three measurements: the Looking for earthquakes arrival time (in seconds) of the P and Now it’s your turn The coil of the homemade seismo- S waves, and the time at which the vi- If you are interested in monitoring graph is very sensitive, so the geo- brations stop (see figure 3). For more and investigating seismic activity in phone must be handled with great details, download the instructions the classroom, you could: care. For the best measurements, set from the Science in School websitew6.

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Image courtesy of Panteleimon Bazanos

Figure 7: Earthquake signals recorded with our homemade seismograph. The values in the yellow boxes were calculated from the homemade seismo- graph data, while the values under the signals are from the reports of the Institute of Geodynamics of National Observatory of Athens. ML stands for local magnitude (ML) on the Richter scale

Image courtesy of |Chris|; image source: Flickr heights, recording the signal am-

Vibration experiments using plitude (figure 10) in table 1. It is Physics ­computer speakers not important exactly what dis- I also devised some experiments to tance from the speaker you drop simulate some aspects of earthquakes the ball, but make sure you drop it and the signals they produce – for onto the same spot each time. example, how the energy of the earth- 3. Plot a graph of amplitude against quake decreases as it passes through height. different materials. 4. Discuss the graph. Your students To do this, we used speakers and should conclude that the more a computer equipped with a sound energy is released, the more the card and audio processing software, ground vibrates. as before. But in place of geophones Experiment 2: Energy attenuation you can use old computer speakers and ground movement. We caused This activity demonstrates the en- (again with the cone removed), which vibrations on a piece of marble (or ergy attenuation (decrease) as seismic can be moved around as needed in wood, plastic or even the ground) by waves travel through Earth’s crust. the experiments (figure 8). You can dropping a mouse ball (from a com- We produced vibrations by dropping use 100W / 8Ω woofers, as in the puter mouse) from different heights, a 4 kg shot put (metal ball) on the construction of our seismograph, or producing different ground-shaking ground from the same height but at 3W / 8Ω computer speakers, plus the powers. The amplitude of the signal w11 different distances from the woofer sound-editing software Audacity . depends on the power of the shake. For more details, see steps 1, 8 and 9 geophone or loudspeaker. As the 1. Set up the equipment as shown in in the downloadable instructionsw6. waves travel, they lose energy and the figure 9A. The experiments involved dropping ground vibrates less. This is reflected 2. Drop the ball from different balls from different heights (repre- in the amplitude of the signals. senting different energies) at differ- Image courtesy of Panteleimon Bazanos ent distances from the detectors (the Figure 8: A pair of computer speakers speakers), onto surfaces made from and cable modified for use in the various solid materials. When the ball experiments. The plugs on the strikes the hard surface, it produces cable have been replaced by vibrations that travel through the crocodile clips, and the cones solid – just as an earthquake produces have been removed from waves that travel through Earth. the speakers to reduce interference from Experiment 1: The power of sounds travelling a shake through the air This activity demonstrates the rela- tionship between earthquake power www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 29 1. Set up the equipment as shown in Image courtesy of Panteleimon Bazanos figure 9A. 2. Mark 5 distances of 1 m intervals from the woofer geophone or A loudspeaker along the ground. 3. Let the ball fall from the same height (e.g. 1 m) onto the ground at each marked distance, recording the results (figure 11) in table 2. 4. Plot a graph of amplitude against B distance. 5. Discuss the graph. Your students should conclude that the farther Figure 9: Two set-ups for the experiments, using one (A) or two (B) speakers away the ‘earthquake’ is, the less the ground vibrates. Experiment 3: Wave velocity in

Image courtesy of Panteleimon Bazanos ­different media In this activity, we investigate Figure 10: The wave velocities in different media. As signals recorded in seismic waves travel through Earth, experiment 1. The their velocity differs depending on signals were ampli- the composition of the rocks they are fied by a factor of travelling through. This gives seis- 10 mologists and geologists important information about Earth’s interior. Here, we investigate how fast vibra- tions travel through different solid Table 1: Enter your results for experiment 1 materials. We used wood, iron and marble as Height (cm) 10 15 20 25 30 the materials, but any hard solid can be used. Just make sure you have the Signal amplitude various materials available in a size suitable for the activity. 1. Set up the equipment as shown in figure 9B. We used a distance (x) Image courtesy of Panteleimon Bazanos of 80 cm between the speakers. 2. Drop a mouse ball (or other suit- Figure 11: The able object) onto the first solid signals recorded in experiment 2. The material, close to one speaker, but signals were ampli- not between the speakers. Record fied by a factor of 4 for the signal to reach

each speaker (t1, t2). 3. Repeat with the other materials, entering each result in table 3. Work out the wave velocities us- ing the formula: v = x / (t -t ) Table 2: Enter your results for experiment 2 2 1 4. Discuss the results. In which ma- terial do the waves travel fastest? Distance from geophone (m) 1 2 3 4 5 Web references

Signal amplitude w1 – To learn more about the 1886 earthquake in Filiatra, see: www.

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Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I

energy will be in the frequency frequency will be in the energy should still band 1-50 Hz, but there to detect vibra be enough energy distant For more tions of 50-100 Hz. content earthquakes, the energy the energy will be much lower: originating in the earthquakes from in the frequency Pacific rim will be - the time it reach range 0.05-1 Hz by computer Unfortunately, es Europe. have filters that limit soundcards to above detected the frequencies 40-60 Hz, thus limiting the ability of your homemade seismograph to detect distant earthquakes. a One alternative is to construct simple mechanical seismometer and then interface it with a spe- cially designed (but relatively For digitiser. seismic affordable) ­ details, see: www.bgs.ac.uk/ more schoolSeismology/seismometers. html the Industrial from model GES-24A Systems Institute (ISI), cost around 1000 €; ISI will shortly launch a 600 €. newer model costing around schools ISI also has a website where can exchange their data. See: www.isi.gr/modseism The Seismographs in Schools web site has a useful list of other educa- tional seismographs. See: www.iris. edu/hq/sis seismograph, w10 – Our commercial Science in School Science in School ) 1 Science educationScience projects - - -t

2 v = x / (t x 1 -t 2 t tries or regions. The website also The website tries or regions. own your includes tools to share classroom seismic data in real-time, activities. See: www.iris.edu/hq/sis 0-100 km), the vast majority of the mographic data collected by other - the world, search schools around ing for specific earthquakes, or for schools or data in particular coun be downloaded from the Science be downloaded from in School website: www. scienceinschool.org/2012/ issue23/earthquakes#resources website see the activity in Greece, of the Institute of Geodynamics: http://bbnet.gein.noa.gr/NOA_HL an aims to create programme international educational seismic 400 schools nearly network; already you the website, have joined. From can view and (if you have .sac file- ) download seis viewing software w9 – For local earthquakes (within w7 – To monitor the current seismic monitor the current w7 – To w8 – The Seismographs in Schools 2 t 1 t oasp.gr/node/666 (in Greek, with (in Greek, oasp.gr/node/666 automated translation into English) 1986 earthquake in Kalamata, see: (in Greek, www.oasp.gr/node/672 with automated translation into English) of Dimitrios Papanikolaou Professor in which Athens, the University of he discusses the expected earth- quake in Sparta, see: www.youtube. com/watch?v=ukP4KKiblhA wave simulation, showing primary, secondary and surface waves, website: www. see the ForgeFX or (select ‘showcase’) forgefx.com link: http://tinyurl. use the direct com/6l6n3gm see: http:// act as microphones, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphone ing your own seismograph can Material Marble Iron Wood w2 – For more information about the information w2 – For more with w3 – For an interview (in Greek) w4 – For an interactive 3D seismic learn how loudspeakers can w5 – To for build- w6 – Detailed instructions Fires and destruction caused by the 1906 San and destruction caused by Fires earthquake. It is estimated that this Francisco famous earthquake killed more than 3000 people Enter your results for experiment 3 results for 3: Enter your Table www.scienceinschool.org

Image courtesy of Durova; image source: Wikimedia Commons Image courtesy of Shazster; image source: Flickr Image courtesy of Mistman123; image source: Wikimedia Commons Image courtesy of Tubbi; image source: Wikimedia Commons

Damage caused by the 2011 earthquake Map showing the epicentre of the 2008 Earthquake damage to a pavement in Christchurch, New Zealand earthquake in China’s Sichuan province. The earthquake killed an estimated 68 000 people w11 – To download Audacity and UK’s National STEM Centre Increasing numbers of schools are be- learn the basics of digital process- (www.nationalstemcentre.org.uk) or coming involved in recording seis- ing, see: http://audacity. use the direct link: http://tinyurl. mic data themselves. To strengthen sourceforge.net com/ccbbnvm the links between such schools The materials are free but you need in Europe, teachers are invited to Resources to register on the website to down- apply for the second European sum- On the website of Natural Resources load them. mer school in school seismology. To Canada, there is a brief introduc- To learn how to use geographical be held in Summer 2013 in France, tion to seismographs and how they information systems to analyse it is funded by EU Comenius grants function. See: http://earthquakes- earthquakes, see: to teachers. To find out more, visit canada.nrcan.gc.ca/info-gen/ Kerski J (2010) GIS: analysing the www.bgs.ac.uk/schoolseismology/ smeters-smetres/seismograph-eng. world in 3D. Science in School 15: 34- EUworkshop.html php or use the shorter link http:// 38. www.scienceinschool.org/2010/ If you found this article inspiring, tinyurl.com/74ql2f7 issue15/gis why not browse all the science edu- To learn about earthquake-measuring Marazzi F, Tirelli T (2010) Combating cation projects in Science in School. scales, see About.com (www.about. earthquakes: designing and See: www.scienceinschool.org/ com; search for ‘earthquake magni- testing anti-seismic buildings. projects tudes’) or use the direct link Science in School 15: 55-59. http://tinyurl.com/cvwpj9q www.scienceinschool.org/2010/ For a compact and comprehensive issue15/earthquakes Panteleimon Bazanos has a de- guide for budding seismologists, see gree in chemistry and has taught For more teaching ideas about the website of Michigan Technologi- ­secondary-school science in the earthquakes, see the education web cal University: www.geo.mtu.edu/ private and public education sectors pages of the Incorporated Research UPSeis in Greece for around 25 years. For the Institutes for Seismology (www.iris. past five years, he has taught chemis- For a visual representation of recent washington.edu; search for ‘educa- try and physics at the General Lyceum earthquakes, see the world seismic tion outreach’) or use the direct link: of Filiatra. He has been involved in monitor: www.iris.edu/seismon/ http://tinyurl.com/y6lq9s4 many school projects on environmen- For another seismograph to build at For further ideas, see ‘How to teach tal education. school, this one based on an ancient natural hazards in school: raising Chinese design, see: awareness on earthquake hazard’ Kirschbaum T, Janzen U (2006) Trac- from the EU-funded Eduseis project. ing earthquakes: seismology in the The PDF can be downloaded from classroom. Science in School 1: 41-43. the European Commission website To learn how to use this www.scienceinschool.org/2006/ (http://ec.europa.eu/research/ code, see page 65. issue1/earthquakes environment/pdf/how_natural_ For a collection of teaching ideas for hazards.pdf) or via the shorter link seismology, see the website of the http://tinyurl.com/bqvkpnz

32 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Science education projects

rce: Wikim age sou edia Co la; im mmo hul ns ella H of sy te ur co e ag m I

A

block of fresh

yeast

Image courtesy of Lilly_M; image source: Wikimedia Commons

Colonies

of yeast grow-

ing on agar

Image courtesy of madlyinlovewithlife; image source: Flickr

General science

Chemistry Domestic science History Bread-making: Ages 10-15*

This article proposes inter- Primary esting and novel activities teaching science for primary school, combin- ing chemistry, history and cooking – teaching about in primary school microbes within the frame- work of bread-­making. Al- Something as everyday as bread can though the author recom- mends the activity for 9- to offer a surprising spectrum of 11-year-olds, I am sure that younger secondary-school interdisciplinary teaching opportunities. students would also love to play the game, experiment with yeast and go one step By David Lewis further to prepare their own bread. Christiana Nicolaou, Cyprus illennia ago, humans the dough hours later, found it was mixed flour and water strangely lighter and fluffier. Thus the *Note that the author suggested together to make bread. foundations of leavened bread – bread carrying out the project with At some point, a bread-maker was raised using yeast, a widespread,

REVIEW M students aged 9-11 distracted, possibly by a passing naturally occurring microbe – were sabre-toothed tiger, and returning to laidw1. www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 33

Image courtesy of seniwati; image source: Flickr

A mouldy developing fruiting bodies that we those in the bread. orange call mould. Ask the children some more ques- Safety note: Make sure none of the tions: children has allergies to mould, and · What happens to the bubbles on the remind them not to eat the food or fermenting yeast? (They eventually to get too close to the moulds in case pop.) they breathe in the spores. · Why doesn’t that happen to the We can watch a faster example of bubbles in the bread? (Because microbes feeding, using baker’s yeast they’re ‘inside’ the bread.) – a cluster of yeast microbes that can What is it about the bread that be seen, smelled and felt. Ask the class · keeps the bubbles in? (Flour mixed to mix a teaspoon of fresh or dried with water.) baker’s yeast with about 100 ml warm Now for a little activity. Ask the water and sugar and leave it some- children to imagine they are the yeast, where warm but ventilated. After a blowing carbon dioxide into the air. short time, the children should be Where does it go? Next, give them able to observe froth forming on the mixture and to detect a pungent smell. balloons and ask them to blow into These effects are caused by the pro- them. What is the difference in terms In this series of activities for chil- duction of carbon dioxide and alcohol of where the air goes? (It’s held within dren aged 9-11, we look at the science in a process known as fermentation. the balloons.) Help the children to of bread making and at the helpful Many children will know that yeast understand the difference by putting microbes involved. Activities 1-4 can is used to make bread, but how is all the inflated balloons in a box to be squeezed into an hour but bread- fermentation involved? simulate the carbon dioxide in a loaf making needs at least half a day, built Cut open a loaf of bread or a roll of bread, held in place by tiny ‘bal- around activities whilst the bread is and ask the children to describe what loons’ of dough. proving. they see. Hopefully they’ll say that Activity 2: the story of ­ they see bubbles and that the bread Activity 1: looking at natural looks like a sponge. Ask them if they bread-making microbes can make a link between the bubbles In activity 1, the children will have There are many microbes in the they saw on the fermenting yeast and learned that yeast, sugar and water world around us, invisible to the naked eye. Like us, they are pro- Image courtesy of seniwati; image source: Flickr Mouldy grammed to survive and reproduce; to strawberries do so they feed off natural sugars and proteins wherever they find them and, in the process, cause them to decay. Have you ever reached for an orange and found a ring of white mould with blue-green mould in the centre, or taken cheese out of the fridge to find that a greenish-black mould got there first? It’s easy to go ‘fishing for microbes’ almost anywhere and you can take your class on a ‘fishing trip’ by getting them to leave plates of bread, cheese or fruit exposed to the air, in a safe place, and waiting for a few days or weeks. What the students will see is the result of the microbes in the air settling on the food and feeding off sugars and proteins in it, eventually

34 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Science education projects

Image courtesy of duncan1890 / iStockphoto Vikings produce the trapped gas that makes sailing their the bread rise. They’ll also have longships learned that flour, when mixed with yeast and water, forms a ‘balloon’ to hold the gas bubbles in a loaf. As an introduction to the wider aspects of bread-making, you can read the story of The Little Red Hen. If you don’t have a copy, use the online Project Gutenberg versionw2. The story illus- trates clearly the main aspects of the bread-making process from field to plate. After reading the story, ask the class to illustrate and label each stage of the process and display it around the classroom. Can the students use the ideas from the book together with what they learned in activity 1 to write instructions for bread-making? There may be gaps but they can fill them in later after completing the rest of the activities. Activity 3: invaders and settlers General science Like many other regions, the British Isles have a history of invasion and of settlement: the Romans, Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Vikings all came to the British Isles as invaders and eventually settled. Similarly, mainland Europe has seen waves of invaders

and settlers over the centuries. The Primary newcomers brought some food with them but would soon have needed to eat local food. You can integrate the The Gokstad subjects of bread-making and bread Viking longship consumption into history lessons us- was excavated from ing the topic of invaders and settlers. a Norwegian burial We’ll begin with a role-play. the children to enter the area at dif- mound in In an area in the school hall or ferent seasons of the year as invaders 1880 Image courtesy of Karamell; image source: Wikimedia Commons playground, label cones or chairs with who won’t be there for long. Which signs listing individual food types foods can they eat and which will be such as berries, fruit, wheat, meat, unavailable to them? Can they sug- dairy products and vegetables. Ask gest why? What would the invaders the children to sit down in the area as do if they decided to settle there? if they were settlers, look at the named The activity should teach the foodstuffs around them, and decide children that some foodstuffs such which they would be likely to eat as as bread or vegetables have to be settlers. You may need to remind them cultivated and processed using tools, of the times of year that the different so are appropriate foods for a settler, food types are available and also the whereas others such as meat or ber- time taken to grow them or process ries can be taken straight away and them into edible food. processed easily, and are thus suitable Now repeat the role-play by asking foods for an invader. www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 35 of Anonymous frie urtesy nd o co f Elin age orD Im ; i ma ge so ur ce : W ik Activity 4: different types of Kneading im e d ia bread the dough C o m m For this activity, ask the children o n to bring in different types of bread. s Amongst others, you may get whole- meal, granary (with added bran and wheatgerm), oatmeal, rye, soda and flat breads. Set up an observation and taste test. Ask the children to suggest features for comparison such as what the bread looks like, its texture, the Image courtesy of Dawn Endico; image source: Flickr size of its holes / bubbles, its taste and French bread dough after prov- whether they like or dislike it. ing. The air bubbles are Safety note: before starting, make formed from the carbon sure none of the children suffers dioxide produced by from coeliac disease, an autoimmune the yeast during disease triggered by the wheat protein fermentation gluten.

Image courtesy of foonus; image source: Flickr

type of bread that makes it healthy vigorously – you can download the or unhealthy. Which has the highest recipe from the Science in School web- amount of fibre, for example, or the sitew5. You’ll need to add more warm lowest salt level? water until the dough becomes one ball that leaves the sides of the bowl Activity 5: making your own cleanly, at which point the children

bread should begin kneading it on a clean, Loaf of bread with Now for making the bread! Chil- floured desktop. What do they notice large air dren love this and it’s easy and almost happening to the dough as they knead bubbles always successful. Take it right back it? The gluten in the flour is being re- to the basics and get some whole leased and making the dough stretchy. If the bread is pre-packed, you can wheat grains for them to ‘mill’ using Once the dough is smooth, you’ll need check the bag for information on its a mortar and pestle. The children will to leave it in a warm place to prove ingredients and how it was baked. see the flour appear from the crushed (‘ripen’). Otherwise, you can find nutritional grains and can sieve it to get pure An hour later, ask the children what information about different types flour. I wouldn’t recommend making they observe and what they think has of bread on the Internetw3. If you’ve all your flour this way as it will take happened to the dough to make it already covered the topic of healthy forever. Instead, mix your product rise. Carefully cut a piece off using a eating, the children will understand with commercial bread flour to make sharp knife and show the children the the basics of the nutritional informa- up the required quantity. As a simul- bubbles in the dough. Remind them tion chart on the bag. If the children taneous activity, you could sow some of the balloon experiment to reinforce haven’t covered the topic yet, a quick wheat seeds and watch them grow – why the air stays in the dough. The online investigation of the categories perhaps producing the wheat for next bread dough requires a second knead- in a nutritional information chart will year’s class! This links neatly to the ing before it is left to prove again; this soon tell them what is healthy and story of The Little Red Hen. helps to spread the yeast and the air what is notw4. You could then discuss Remember those helpful microbes throughout the dough. Finally it’ll be healthiness by looking at the nutri- in the first activity? Begin with some ready for baking. Make a loaf of your tional information on each bag and of the yeast mixture that the children own and you can use it as an example, ranking the breads in order of healthi- made in activity 1. As soon as it froths, cutting it open once baked to smell ness, deciding what it is about each mix it with the flour and salt and stir the yeast and see the bubbles.

36 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Image courtesy of djwtwo; image source: Flickr Science education projects

Acknowledgement This activity was first published on Freedom to Teach, the Collins Educa- tion blogw6.

Web references w1 – For more information about the history of bread, see: www. breadinfo.com/history.shtml w2 – The complete illustrated story of The Little Red Hen is freely available online on the Gutenberg Project website (www.gutenberg.org) or via the direct link: http://tinyurl. com/727ukyv w3 – For basic nutritional informa- tion about different types of bread, see: www.dailymail.co.uk/health/­ To read the original version of the bread-making activity, search the article-104785/How-good-loaf.html With a teaching degree specialis- blog or use the direct link: http:// or use the shorter link: ing in science, David Lewis has tinyurl.com/7qf2zp5 http://tinyurl.com/c2vpmzc been a primary-school teacher for 20 w4 – To learn about food labels, see: Resources years in the UK and now teaches at

The Teens Health website (www. an international school in Cyprus. General science Norwegian chemist Erik Fooladi kidshealth.org/teen; search for In 2006, David and his pupils made offers a set of experiments compar- ‘food labels’) or use the direct link: it to the finals of the Rolls Royce ing the chemistry of baking soda, http://tinyurl.com/cpn4xbf Science Prize, awarded for innova- horn salts and baking powder in tive approaches to science in the w5 – A simple recipe for baking Christmas cakes on his website of curriculum. He has been involved in bread can be downloaded from gastronomic science activities (in teacher training and curriculum de- the Science in School website: www. Norwegian). See www.naturfag. scienceinschool.org/2012/issue23/ velopment, and in his spare time, he

no or follow the direct link: http:// Primary writes for Teach Primary magazine, bread#resources tinyurl.com/3spkkwm Collins Education and an education w6 – Collins Education publishes If you found this article inspiring, blog in Cyprus. teaching and learning resources for you might enjoy the other primary- children of all ages. Supported by school articles in Science in School. Collins Education, the Freedom to See www.scienceinschool.org/ To learn how to use this Teach blog offers articles and infor- primary code, see page 65. mation for teachers by teachers. See: http://freedomtoteach.blogspot. Image courtesy of Claudio.Ar; image source: Flickr Image courtesy of Claudio.Ar; image source: com

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 37 Build your own Physics Biology Astronomy radio telescope Ages 11-19 If you would like your stu- Astronomers use giant radio telescopes to dents to discover that the Sun or a hotplate emits a observe black holes and distant galaxies. lot more than just visible light, that visible light is Why not build your own small-scale blocked by the clouds but radio waves are not, or that radio telescope and observe objects the electromagnetic spec- closer to home? trum consists of a variety of very interesting radiation; if you want your students to be able to find the position By Bogusław Malański and Szymon Malański of the Sun on a cloudy day or to locate geostationary satellites; if you would like hen astronomers study of modern technology. Arecibo Ob- them to distinguish polar- the sky, they don’t just servatory, so big it was built into a ised radiation from non- look at starlight. Stars, bowl-shaped valley in Puerto Rico, is polarised radiation; if you planetsW and nebulae shine across the instantly recognisable from the James want to use a radio tele- whole electromagnetic spectrum, and Bond movie GoldenEye, while Jodrell scope in your lessons, con- the light that human eyes can see is Bank has dominated the skyline of structed by your students only a narrow part of it. Manchester, UK, for half a century. and capable of helping you Radio telescopes observe the sky The resolution of a telescope’s im- to teach all these topics for radiation at wavelengths that are ages depends both on the wavelength and much more, then you thousands to millions of times longer at which it operates and on the diam- will definitely be interested than visible light. The huge antennas eter of its dish. The longer the wave- in the ideas presented in that scientists have built to observe length, the worse the resolution; and this article. these wavelengths have become icons the larger the diameter, the better the Using cheap materials and

easy-to-follow instructions, Image courtesy of Iztok Bon č ina / ALMA (ESO / NAOJ / NRAO) you can build a simple but functional small-scale ra- Detecting radio waves – one of the giant anten- dio telescope. The activities nas of ALMA, the largest suggested in this article are ground-based astronomy both interesting and appli- project in existence cable to a range of scientif- ic topics (e.g. orbits, light, radiation and its effects on the body, and the electro- magnetic spectrum), which can be covered in physics, astronomy and biology les- sons. Vangelis Koltsakis, Greece REVIEW

38 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Physics Primary Images courtesy of Szymon Malański

General science 39 I

Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I

Attaching the LNB to the Attaching 4: Figure antenna arm the BNC connectors Attaching 5: Figure to the coaxial cable A satellite signal meter 2: Figure for your source A power 3: Figure telescope radio

Image courtesy of Szymon Malański Science in School - Science educationScience projects - A Satellite signal meter (figure 2) Satellite signal meter (figure This tells us whether the LNB is a signal, and if so, how receiving to get one that it is. Be sure strong emits a sound when the antenna signal; this makes a strong receives it easier to demonstrate the device of students since groups to large everyone will be able to hear the the meter Additionally, signal. needs to be equipped with a dial or display that will allow you to of the signal, the strength measure precise so that you can make more differ and compare measurements these Apart from ent observations. considerations, get the simplest or LNB sat- an essential part of LNBs are sit at the and ellite TV receivers, in the dish focuses point where coming rays. When we watch TV, coming rays. When we watch TV, and amplifies the LNB receives the signal, strips out unwanted the and then converts frequencies In your signal to a lower frequency. radio telescope, the LNB will be the radio that detects the receiver Any by the dish. waves reflected brand or model will work fine, even the cheapest. The price of a - new downconverter is approxi mately 40 zł (€10), but they can be bought second-hand for a fraction of the price. Remove the mount (A) the mount (A) 1: Remove Figure of the satellite dish at the back

low noise block downconverter, A low noise block downconverter, · ·

- - When you watch TV, the satellite When you watch TV, dish focuses the transmissions from In the satellite onto the receiver. your radio telescope, the dish will - serve a similar purpose: it will re faint radio waves flect the relatively one I recommend onto the receiver. with a diameter of at least 1 m. The or parabolic dish can be of offset - new dish costs approxi A type. used dish A mately 100 zł (€24). than 12-20 zł should cost no more at scrap search can also You (€3-5). I found – this is where metal yards mine. If the satellite dish has a mount, 1), as it just adds it (figure remove to weight and makes it harder move. The employee at the shop or be happy will probably scrap yard it for you. Leave the arm to remove attached, though. A satellite receiver dish receiver satellite A I called my radio telescope design

· Local scrapyards, shops selling shops selling Local scrapyards, second-hand TV equipment and online auction sites such as eBay are to buy the parts you need. places good Materials resolution. Radio waves have a much waves have a much Radio resolution. than visible light, longer wavelength why professional which is one reason enormous. Their radio telescopes are them to capture huge size also helps dim and dis from the faint radiation tant objects. Nonetheless, the basic tant objects. Nonetheless, radio telescopes technology behind with some cheap is quite simple and tools, it’s quite equipment and simple but functional easy to build a simple one of your own. (a girl’s name), or RadiowyY RYSIA – Śliczny Instrument Astronomiczny Polish for ‘beautiful radio astronomy you can carry RYSIA, device’. With out simple observations of objects that radiate brightly in the radio spectrum. This includes the Sun, our own planet, and man-made communications sat Astra and ellites such as Hot Bird, Sirius.

www.scienceinschool.org Images courtesy of Szymon Malański

and cheapest one you can find – the If you wish to build a mounted de- cost of this part is approximately vice, you will need to attach it to an 20 zł (€5). object (such as a heavy tripod) that · 3 m of coaxial cable – 5-10 zł (€1-2) allows you to adjust both the azimuth · 3 BNC (Bayonet Neill-Concelman) (the horizontal direction that the tel- connectors for the coaxial cable – escope is pointing in) and the altitude 60-120 gr (15-30 ¢) each. If possible, (how high or low it is angled). choose ‘twist-off’ connectors, as Figure 6: Attaching the LNB to the they do not need soldering. Activities using your radio satellite signal meter · A power source that provides 12 V telescope to 18 V DC You now have a radio telescope that I used a 12V lead-acid car battery works on some of the same principles (figure 3). You can also use standard as the gigantic radio telescopes that AA batteries connected in series. are used to investigate the earliest days of the Universe, capturing radia- Building your radio telescope tion from very distant galaxies (see Once you have your materials, it is Mignone & Pierce-Price, 2010). Al- Figure 7: The woven shield can be mostly a matter of fitting or plugging though your much smaller telescope seen folded back along the cable. The them together. cannot detect distant stars, you can metal core projects from the cable 1. Mount the low noise block use it to demonstrate to your students downconverter on the arm of the that the Sun and other objects radiate antenna, using the attachments not only visible light but also radio provided (figure 4). waves. Furthermore, you can find the 2. Cut the coaxial cable in half. position of the Sun on a cloudy day, Attach a BNC connector to each demonstrate that the surface of Earth end of one piece of cable, and to emits radio waves, and locate satel- one end of the other (figure 5). lites. 3. Take the coaxial cable that has two If you used a parabolic antenna to connectors and plug one end into build your radio telescope, you will the LNB and the other into the need to point its axis directly at the socket labelled ‘LNB’ or ‘satellite’ object you are observing. If you used on the satellite signal meter an offset antenna, however, you must Figure 8: Powering the satellite meter (figure 6). take into account the angle by which and receiving the signal from the LNB 4. Take the coaxial cable with only it is offset. Most manufacturers do one connector, and strip the other not provide this parameter but it end of the cable to reveal the metal can easily be calculated (this can be core and the woven copper shield an additional task for the students). (figure 7). In practice, the arm of the satellite 5. Plug the connector on that coaxial dish on which the LNB is mounted cable into the satellite meter’s indicates the direction from which the second socket (labelled ‘power’ or signal is received (figure 10). ‘receiver’; figure 8). 6. The other end of the cable now Observing the Sun needs to be connected to your The Sun emits radiation across power source. Connect the woven much of the electromagnetic spec- copper shield to the battery’s trum. On a clear day, try pointing negative terminal and the core your radio telescope at the Sun and to the battery’s positive terminal at a patch of empty sky. Compare the (figure 9). readings. Repeat the experiment on a You have now built a basic, mobile cloudy day; the Sun’s location can eas- radio telescope that is light and ma- ily be determined, despite the clouds. Figure 9: Connecting the power source noeuvrable enough to transport and Ask your students why they think point at different objects by hand. that visible light is blocked by the

40 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Science education projects

Image courtesy of Szymon Malański

a) b) Figure 10: a) A front view of the two types 2 of satellite dish: parabolic (1) and offset (2) dishes, showing the position of the LNB (3)

3 b) Cross-sections of an offset 4 ­satellite dish (left) and a parabolic satellite dish (right), showing the 1 angle of elevation (4)

clouds but radio waves can penetrate. come from the Sun itself, make sure which allows it to detect spacecraft You could also ask your students you carry out these experiments by too. Professional radio telescopes how they can distinguish the Sun’s ra- pointing the dish away from the Sun. do this too sometimes – Australia’s diation from a satellite signal, particu- Parkes Telescope was used to commu- Physics larly as they sometimes appear close Detecting heat nicate with Apollo 11 during its mis- together in the sky. The answer: the Most astronomical phenomena sion to the Moonw1. satellite signal is polarised (horizon- produce electromagnetic radiation The best-known communications tally or vertically) whereas radiation because they are hot. The higher their satellites (e.g. Hot Bird, Astra and from the Sun is not. So if you rotate temperature, the shorter the wave- Sirius) are in geosynchronous orbits the radio telescope dish and the signal length they can produce. At around around Earth, which means they do strength is unchanged, the signal is 5500 ºC, the Sun produces plenty of not move in the sky, and orbit above coming from the Sun. visible light as well as infrared and the equator. This makes them easy to radio waves. Colder objects have to find. The Wolfram Alphaw2 database Observing Earth be detected using infrared or radio provides the location of many satel- Objects around us, including build- telescopes. You can demonstrate this lites. ings, plants, people and even the by pointing your radio telescope at Be aware that during the spring and ground under our feet, emit radio a hotplate as it heats up. It will only autumn equinoxes, the Sun shines waves, reflected from the Sun or ­begin to emit visible light at around above the equator and can interfere Earth. Try comparing readings for 700 ºC, but your telescope will detect with satellite reception when the Sun different objects. Thanks to the audi- the radio waves emitted well before and the satellite are in the same area tory signal from the satellite signal that. meter, you should be able to detect the Image courtesy of Szymon Mala ski location of buildings and trees around Satellites ń you easily, even when blindfolded. We have built this simple radio tel- To make sure that the signal does not escope using satellite TV technology,

Image courtesy of Szymon Malański

Connecting your radio telescope. A: the LNB, on which the radio C waves will be A focused; B: the satellite signal meter; C: the power supply

B Using RYSIA on a cloudy day to locate the Sun

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 41 Image courtesy of Szymon Malański

Figure 11: In summer, the Sun is above the line representing the location of geostationary satellites. In winter, it is below this line

of sky (figure 11). Wolfram Alpha has w4 – To find out more about the ESO is a member of EIROforum, the a map of the Sun’s location relative to course that inspired this article, see: publisher of Science in School. See: a satellite, so this is easy to avoid. http://ec.europa.eu/education/ www.eiroforum.org trainingdatabase/index.cfm?fuseac Feedback If you enjoyed this article, you might tion=DisplayCourse&cid=29914 or like to browse the other Science in If you have suggestions for improv- use the shorter link: http://tinyurl. School articles about astronomy ing the telescope or for further activi- com/blekkgk and space science. See www. ties, please leave a comment at the w5 – To learn more about Boguslaw’s scienceinschool.org/astronomy and end of the online articlew3. planetarium (in Polish), see: www. www.scienceinschool.org/space Acknowledgement mnc.pl/~malanski/lab/start.htm Our radio telescope was inspired Resources Boguslaw Malański is a physics by a working model built by Peter For an activity to investigate radio and astronomy teacher. He gained a Kalberla, an astronomer at the Univer- physics degree and a PhD from the sity of Bonn, Germany, and demon- transmission and the propagation of electromagnetic waves in air, see: University of Łódź, , after strated at his 2011 course ‘Hands-On which he spent nine years as a physics Iscra A, Quaglini MT, Rossi G Universe: Connecting classrooms to lecturer at the University of the North- w4 (2006) Introducing radio transmis- the Milky Way’ in nearby Bad Mün- West in South Africa. He was also sion with a simple experiment. stereifel. involved there in performing science Science in School 3: 39-42. www. Reference experiments for local schools together scienceinschool.org/2006/issue3/ with Pastor Bernd-Peter Jensen. Bo- Mignone C, Pierce-Price D (2010) The radio guslaw is currently employed at the ALMA Observatory: the sky is only To find out more about electromag- local planetarium and astronomical one step away. Science in School netic radiation and how it is used in observatory in Łódź, where he teaches 15: 44-49. www.scienceinschool. astronomy, see: astronomy and physics. He also runs a org/2010/issue15/alma Mignone C, Barnes R (2011) More small, non-profit experimentarium for Web references than meets the eye: the electromag- local schoolsw5. netic spectrum. Science in School Szymon Malański, Boguslaw’s son, w1 – To learn more about how the 20: 51-59. www.scienceinschool. is a 5th-year student studying telecom- Parkes Observatory supported the org/2011/issue20/em munications and computer science Apollo 11 mission, see the Parkes The European Southern Observatory at the Technical University of Łódź, Observatory website (www.parkes. (ESO) is one of the partners in the Poland. He enjoys experimenting and atnf.csiro.au) or use the direct link: radio observatory ALMA, the Ataca- is keen on classical-analogue photog- http://tinyurl.com/d7lmjau ma Large Millimeter/submillimeter raphy. w2 – To locate satellites in the sky, Array, an ensemble of huge, high- search the Wolfram Alpha database: precision antennas on the Chajnan- www.wolframalpha.com tor plateau in Chile’s Atacama w3 – Leave your suggestions for ­region. Also on Chajnantor plateau To learn how to use this code, see page 65. improvement and activities on the is ESO’s radio telescope APEX. To Science in School website: www. find out more about ALMA and scienceinschool.org/2012/issue23/ APEX, visit the ESO website: telescope www.eso.org

42 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Chemistry Physics Image courtesy of ESA / D Ducros 43 I

J/s 1.8 17 Science topics Science J. If we assume that Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 20

J/s, of which about 1.3 x 10 17 To put this into perspective, the total To our planet is a perfect sphere with a our planet is a perfect sphere ­ radius of 6370 km, Earth receives x 10 energy consumed globally in 2010 was consumed globally energy 5 x 10 around Science in School Science in School not all of this actually reaches us not all of this actually reaches reflects because Earth’s atmosphere and absorbs about 30 % of this energy. of metre Nonetheless, every square average of an Earth’s surface receives nearly 1000 Joules per second from the Sun.

(1 W= 1 J·s) from the Sun, but (1 W= 1 J·s) from 2

ndirectly, the Sun is the source the Sun is the source ndirectly, we use of most of the energy on Earth: not only of fossil fuels

A relatively old, medium-sized star relatively A

Artist’s impression of the International Artist’s has solar panels Space Station, which in span to the size of a comparable an impressive generating football pitch, 92 kW of power I By Enrique García-García, Yahya Moubarak Meziani, Jesús Enrique Velázquez-Pérez Velázquez-Pérez Enrique Meziani, Jesús Moubarak Yahya By Enrique García-García, Calvo-Gallego and Jaime can we exploit their full potential? can we exploit alternative source of energy. How do they work and how and how work do they How of energy. source alternative With oil reserves running out, silicon solar cells offer an out, silicon solar cells running oil reserves With Solar energy: silicon solar cells solar energy: silicon Solar made of hot plasma, the Sun radiates made of hot plasma, the Sun radiates radiation as electromagnetic energy At a distance over a wide spectrum. planet our of 150 million kilometres, 1366 an irradiance of around receives W/m and biomass, but also wind and tidal and biomass, but also wind and tidal - Increas to mention just a few. energy, in capturing the is interest there ingly, directly, Sun more the from energy using photovoltaic cells. www.scienceinschool.org Chemistry 2. Explain why semiconductors such as silicon are Physics used in photovoltaic cells. Solar energy 3. The conductivity of a semiconductor can be in- Photovoltaic cells creased by doping the material. Explain how this Semiconductors process produces p-type and n-type semiconduc- Conductivity tors. Renewable energy sources 4. How are these doped semiconductors used in Environmental science ­photovoltaic cells to capture solar energy? Ages 13+ 5. How efficient are these photovoltaic cells and in The harnessing of solar energy is a topic that is current- practice, how much of Europe’s energy is obtained ly widespread amongst various countries worldwide, using photovoltaic technology? especially in view of the rising awareness of climate 6. What are the factors that limit the efficiency of change and the depletion of non-renewable sources solar energy collection? of energy. Countries are becoming more conscious of This article is ideal for linking the topics of renewable the need to reduce their reliance on non-renewable energy (such as solar) to environmental issues. The sources of energy and, at the same time, to adopt poli- positive impact of using solar photovoltaic cells or so- cies favouring renewable sources of energy. lar heaters to generate energy has been amply docu- This article provides a very good example of how semi- mented. However, we could also prompt our students conductors are used in photovoltaic cells and gives a to research and reflect on the impact that these devices general idea of the energy radiated by the Sun and how much of it is actually collected through solar devices. will have on our planet in future years. Which mate- The article’s main concepts can be included as part rials are used to construct solar heaters, solar panels of broader topics such as photoelectric effect, conduc- and photovoltaic cells? Is the manufacturing process tors, insulators, intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, harmful to the environment in any way? What is the energy band theory and electric current. lifespan of this equipment, and how is it disposed of Comprehension and extension questions could in- upon reaching its end of life? Are these materials man- clude: ufactured from non-renewable materials? If yes, how long will the materials last? In view of the efficiency of 1. The Sun is a very powerful source of renewable energy. Why is it then that the energy generated these devices, are they economically viable to produce from solar energy is just a small percentage of what and maintain?

REVIEW we actually consume annually? Catherine Cutajar, Malta

can promote electrons in the material reaches Earth’s surface. Thus in one What happens inside a into a higher energy state (the conduc- hour, the Sun provides Earth with all ­photovoltaic cell? tion band), potentially enhancing the the energy we need for a whole year. The foundations for modern solar material’s conductivity. It isn’t quite that simple, however. energy collection were laid in 1839, Semiconductors, such as silicon, Due to meteorological factors, the when the French physicist Edmond are photovoltaic because a photon’s Sun’s declination and Earth’s rotation, Becquerel observed an increase in the energy matches that required to move the irradiance is actually closer to 230 electrical conductivity of some materi- 2 one of the semiconductor’s electrons W/m . If we repeat the last calcula- als when they were exposed to light; up into the conduction band. How- tion using that figure, the time needed this became known as the photovol- to power Earth with energy from the taic effect. It was not until quantum ever, semiconductors themselves have Sun for a year is about five and a half mechanics was developed, though, few free electrons and, therefore, low hours – still an impressively short that the phenomenon was explained. conductivity. To increase their electri- time. Electromagnetic radiation can be de- cal conductivity, tiny amounts of other Solar radiation is therefore a prom- scribed as a stream of quantum objects materials (impurities) can be added, a ising energy reservoir, but how can called photons. When these photons process called doping. we collect it and use it? are absorbed by some materials, they Doped silicon is the most frequently

44 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics

Image courtesy of Enrique García-García Image courtesy of ESA

- e h+

n-side p-side

Electric field x Depletion region Chemistry

Photon e--h+ pair

n-side p-side Physics x Solar panel inspection during final testing of ESA’s GOCE satel- Depletion region lite, which maps Earth’s gravity. The spacecraft is equipped with Holes four body-mounted and two wing-mounted solar panels. In orbit, Electrons the same side of the satellite remains facing the Sun. Due to this configuration, the solar panels will experience extreme tempera- An electric current is generated at the ture variations, so materials have been used that will tolerate interface of the n-p junction temperatures as high as 160 ºC and as low as -170 ºC

Image courtesy of Aomorikuma; image source: Wikimedia Commons used material in electronics. Pure sili- These phenomena can be exploited con has four valence electrons that it in solar cells to collect energy from the shares with four neighbouring atoms. Sun and transform it into electrical en- Adding impurities with more or fewer ergy. The simplest solar cell is formed valence electrons (such as phosphorus by the junction of two semiconduc- or boron) modifies the conductivity tors, one p-doped and one n-doped, properties of the material. Phosphorus called a p-n junction. At this junction, has five valence electrons and, when the electrons in the n-type silicon ‘see’ a phosphorus atom is surrounded by the holes in the p-type silicon and silicon atoms, the fifth electron is only travel to fill them – creating electron- loosely bound. This means it can eas- hole pairs. When a photon strikes one ily reach the conduction band, helping of these pairs, however, it breaks apart to increase the material’s conductivity. and the flow through the material Phosphorus-doped silicon is called of these newly freed charge carriers, n-type (negative type) since doping both positive and negative, generates increases the number of negative free an electric current. charges (electrons). In contrast, boron Not all the freed charge carriers has only three valence electrons, generated by this process will contrib- and the lack of one electron in the ute to the current, however. Instead, a silicon lattice creates a ‘hole’. As free significant proportion of the electrons electrons move through the lattice, and holes will pair up again, gener- from one hole to another, the posi- ating heat. This reduces the energy tively charged holes appear to move conversion efficiency of a photovoltaic through the material. Boron-doped Mobile-phone base station material: the percentage of the incom- silicon is known as p-type (positive- powered by photovoltaics ing solar energy that is converted type) silicon. into electrical energy. This is one of www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 45 the most important parameters of a solar cell’s quality. Currently, com- @ EIROforum mercially available silicon solar cells are approximately 20 % efficient, but extensive efforts are being made to Organic photovoltaics improve this value. Photovoltaic panels based on crystalline semicon- Photovoltaics in practice ductors – as described in this article – are relatively ex- pensive to produce and process. An alternative is offered We now know what is happening by organic photovoltaic materials, which allow large solar inside a solar cell, but what are the panels on flexible substrates to be produced using low-cost practicalities of using solar cells to processes such as inkjet printing. However, much more re- capture energy from the Sun? A stand- search is necessary to improve their efficiency. ard solar module is approximately 2 Most organic photovoltaic devices are based on thin films comprising an 1.3 m and consists of an array of electron-accepting component (such as a fullerene derivative) and an elec- around 50 single solar cells. Depend- tron-donating component (usually a conjugated polymer) between two elec- ing on the technology, one module trodes. An important requirement is to mix these two components to obtain a will deliver about 200 W, so an assem- continuous network of donor and acceptor paths for the carriers (electrons or bly of five modules can supply the en- holes) to reach the appropriate electrode (see image). Analysis with synchro- ergy needs of an average household – tron X-rays at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) is a good about 1 kW. In theory, the total energy way to examine these materials closely, enabling their characteristics to be demand of Europe could be satisfied improved. by covering just 1 % of the continent with solar cells. Realistically, however, To learn more, see the ESRF websitew2. solar power is only going to be part of Image courtesy of ESRF the solution to our energy needs. In Europe in 2010, about 7 % of This plastic film is made of a blend energy was obtained using photovol- comprising a continuous network taic technology, but optimistic esti- of donors (pale brown) and ac- mates of what proportion of Europe’s ceptors (dark brown), which allow charge transfer between the two energy needs could, realistically, be electrodes (grey and magenta bands met by solar power range from 30 to at the top and bottom, respectively) 50 %. More precise figures are not yet possible because the necessary tech- nological innovations are still being ESRF is a member of EIROforumw3, the publisher of Science in School. developed. One of the limitations of solar energy is that the amount of electric- scale where the electricity produced missions, download the European ity generated by solar cells is strongly may be used on-site – in people’s Space Agency’s booklet Satellite dependent on environmental factors houses, for roadside telephones, at in- Power Systems: Solar Energy Used including cloudy weather; the angle at dustrial plants, and on boats, cars and in Space from www.esa.int or use which the sunlight strikes the panel; even the International Space Stationw1. the direct link: http://tinyurl. snow, rain, leaves and other debris on So while we are still unreachably far com/7vz3vh7 the surface; and, of course, night time. from meeting our annual global ener- w2 – Situated in Grenoble, France, One way to address these issues is by ESRF operates the most powerful incorporating solar energy into a smart gy needs from five hours of sunshine, synchrotron radiation source in grid, a new concept of a power grid photovoltaic technology is increas- that co-ordinates electricity produc- ingly a feasible source of energy. Next Europe. To learn more, see: www. tion from several sources – including time you switch on the kettle or the esrf.eu solar cells, thermal generators and television, think of the sunlight that To find out more about organic pho- nuclear plants – to meet consumer de- helped to power it. tovoltaics at ESRF, see: www.esrf. mand. In this kind of power distribu- eu/news/spotlight/spotlight132 Web references tion, solar cells are playing an increas- w3 – EIROforum is a collaboration ingly important role. They are also w1 – To learn more about how solar between eight of Europe’s largest in- becoming more popular on a smaller energy is used to power space ter-governmental scientific research

46 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics

Image courtesy of Túrelio; image source: Wikimedia Commons Image courtesy of Magnus Manske; image source: Wikimedia Commons Image courtesy of Hans Weingartz; image source: Wikimedia Commons Chemistry

A solar-powered racing car Photovoltaic array on a timber- Solar-powered boat on the Rhine, framed house near Bonn, Germany Germany

organisations, which combine their The European Photovoltaic Industry resources, facilities and expertise to Association’s website has a list of

All four authors work at the Univer- Physics support European science in reach- frequently asked questions and sity of Salamanca, Spain. ing its full potential. As part of its answers concerning photovoltaic Enrique García-García has a degree education and outreach activities, materials. See: www.epia.org/ in physics and a master’s degree in EIROforum publishes Science in s­olar-pv/faq.html the physics and technology of lasers.

Image courtesy of US Air Force photo / Airman 1st Class Nadine Y Barclay; image source: Wikimedia Commons School. To learn more, see: For an electronic book on photovoltaic His research interests include the www.eiroforum.org materials produced by the Univer- electrical characterisation of solar cells Resources sity of New South Wales, Australia, and electromagnetic waves at frequen- To learn more about how the Sun’s see: http://pveducation.org/ cies in the terahertz range (terahertz energy is absorbed by Earth’s at- pvcdrom radiation). mosphere, see: The website of the US Department of Dr Yahya Moubarak Meziani has a PhD in semiconductor physics from Shallcross D, Harrison T (2008) Energy’s National Renewable Ener- Montpellier 2 University, France. Since Climate change modelling in the gy Laboratory provides information 2008, he has led a research group classroom. Science in School 9: 28-33. on photovoltaics and solar energy. working on terahertz radiation. www.scienceinschool.org/2008/ See: www.nrel.gov/solar Professor Jesús Enrique Velázquez- issue9/climate The EU-MENA project is investigat- Pérez has a PhD from the Université ing using deserts in the Middle East To learn how to build your own solar Paris-Sud, France, in the simulation and North Africa to generate solar cell, see: and development of high-frequency energy for the region, and also for Shallcross D, Harrison T, Henshaw S, electronics components. He has been Europe. For more details, see: Sellou L (2009) Looking to the heav- based at the University of Salamanca www.desertec.org/global-mission/ ens: climate change experiments. since the early 1990s. focus-region-eu-mena or use the Science in School 12: 34-39. www. Dr Jaime Calvo-Gallego’s research shorter link: http://tinyurl.com/ scienceinschool.org/2009/issue12/ interests include Monte Carlo comput- cv48z98 climate er simulations of electronic devices, Tatalovic M (2010) Solar cars: If you found this article interesting, heat transport and terahertz devices. the future of road transport? Science you might enjoy the other articles in School 16: 50-53. www.sciencein- in the Science in School energy series: www.scienceinschool.org/energy school.org/2010/issue16/solarcars To learn how to use this code, see page 65.

On 57 hectares of unused land on Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, USA, this solar photovoltaic array will generate 15 MW of solar power for the base

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 47 Image courtesy of skynesher / iStockphoto Image courtesy of AnonMoos; image source: Wikimedia Commons

Intersex: falling outside the norm By Nina Notman

s it a boy or a girl?” It is often “ the first question asked when Male or female? What are the issues a child is born, and it is widely assumedI to be easy to answer. XY sex surrounding children for whom the chromosomes = testicles and penis = boy; XX sex chromosomes = ovaries answer is not clear? Researchers Eric and vagina = girl. But it isn’t always that simple. Some children are born Vilain and Melissa Hines hope to intersex, neither fully male nor fully provide some of the answers. female, but somewhere in between. For example, they may appear female on the outside but have an internal anatomy more typical of males. Or

48 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics

they may have ambiguous genitalia: a Biology girl may have a noticeably large clito- Biology ris, or lack a vaginal opening, or a boy may be born with a noticeably small Sex education penis, or with a scrotum that is di- Human reproduction vided so that it looks more like labia. Ages 16-19 Furthermore, some children are born with mosaic genetics, so that some of Intersex or ambiguous sexual phenotypes are not a common their cells have XX chromosomes and topic for discussion, at school or more generally, as an aura some have XY. of embarrassment or shame often prohibits any mention of Why? Well, there are many differ- sexual pathology. ent types of intersex and we don’t This article, based on interviews with two researchers in the fully understand everything yet, but field, introduces the reader to this tricky topic in clear lan- genetics and hormone levels in the guage, highlighting some of the scientific and social aspects. I mother’s womb during pregnancy are particularly appreciated the consideration of the psychological two known influences. impact of the intersex condition and of the issues surrounding To study the role that genetics plays the treatment and rearing of intersex children. in determining our sex, genes that are As described in the article, the status and the management of thought to be involved are modified the intersex condition is a highly controversial issue, so it can and the outcome observed to see if the be profitably used for classroom discussion, especially with expected change occurred. For ethical upper secondary-school students. It would be particularly reasons, this type of experiment can- applicable for biology (e.g. human reproduction), or in sex not be conducted on humans, and so education or citizenship lessons. The discussion could involve animals are used instead. Professor many social, cultural, bio-ethical and legal aspects, including Eric Vilainw1, a physician and geneti- sex and gender identity, the rights and obligations of parents of cist at the University of California, an intersex child, the principle of autonomy of patients about Los Angeles (UCLA) in the USA, is a medical treatments, and the social acceptance of intersex per- researcher working in this area. sons. Potential comprehension questions include: 1. Which of the following factors is not cited in the article as affecting sexual development in humans? a) X and Y chromosomes b) Pro-male and pro-female genes c) Alcohol exposure during pregnancy d) Hormone levels during pregnancy 2. The topic of Melissa Hines’ research is: In Greek mythology, Hermaphroditus, the a) The play behaviour of CAH boys son of Hermes and b) The play behaviour of CAH girls Aphrodite, possessed physical traits of c) The role of genes in sexual development both sexes Village, Wirral, UK; public domain image Image courtesy of Lady Lever Art Gallery, Port Sunlight d) The play behaviour of pregnant women Moreover, the web resources offer not only information and materials suitable for secondary-school students, but also fur- ther information about the study and management of intersex conditions. I recommend this article to science teachers and upper sec- ondary-school students who are keen to understand this com- monly hidden condition and motivated to promote a better social acceptance of intersex people.

REVIEW Giulia Realdon, Italy

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 49 Image courtesy of NEUROtiker; image source: Wikimedia Commons It used to be believed that if you University of Cambridge in the UK, had a Y chromosome, certain genes on explains: “The testosterone causes it (known as pro-male genes) would the clitoris to grow larger so it looks ensure you were male; if you didn’t somewhere between a clitoris and a have a Y chromosome, you would not penis, and it causes the labia to begin be male, and therefore – by default to fuse, so they look somewhere – female. Eric and his colleagues, between labia and a scrotum.” This however, overturned this theory when condition is identified at birth and they found pro-female genes – genes treated, and the children are raised as that actually code for female charac- girls. Treatment involves normalising Chemical structure of testosterone, teristics (Jordan, 2003). “We showed the principal male sex hormone the hormone levels, often followed by that sex determination is much more surgery for cosmetic reasons or to cor- about a delicate balance between male rect problems with the urethra and the genes and female genes,” says Eric. vaginal opening. It is now thought that a disturbance adrenal gland of the fetus to pro- of this balance may have occurred in duce very high levels of testosterone Psychological impact some types of intersex. and other male hormones. This is Although there are clinical treat- Another common cause of inter- called congenital adrenal hyperplasia ments available for most types of in- sex in girls is a hormonal imbalance, (CAH). Professor Melissa Hinesw2, tersex conditions, the matter is fraught where a genetic defect causes the who researches the condition at the with psychological and ethical issues. Eric is one researcher keen to find a better way to manage intersex and its perception in society. @EIROforum “Parents are extremely stressed over the birth of a baby with ambiguous genitals,” he explains. An eagerness to ‘fix’ the child can lead to genital Sex determination in mice surgery very early in life – often in the Scientists at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory first year. But whether this is the best (EMBL)w4 and the UK’s National Institute for Medical Re- thing for the child is unclear. As well search have discovered that if the Foxl2 gene located on as feeling that they would not have a non-sex chromosome is turned off, cells in the ovaries of adult female mice chosen to have the treatment them- turn into cells typically found in testes. selves, children born intersex can have issues with shame and secrecy when It has traditionally been assumed that the female pathway – the development they grow up. “A lot of patients I see of ovaries and all the other traits that make a female – was a default: if an em- with intersex conditions were not told bryo had a gene called Sry, located on the Y chromosome, it would develop what happened to them until very into a male; if not, then the result would be a female. But in adult animals it late in their adolescence, and they are is the male pathway that needs to be actively suppressed, as Mathias Treier often very angry at their family for and his team at EMBL discovered. having shielded them.” Early opera- “We were surprised by the results,” said Mathias. “When we switched off the tions can also have a negative impact Foxl2 gene in the ovaries of female mice, we expected the mice to stop pro- on sexual function later in life. ducing oocytes, but what happened was much more dramatic: somatic cells So, would it be better not to inter- that support the developing egg took on the characteristics of the cells that fere with nature? “We really don’t usually support developing sperm, and the gender-specific hormone-produc- know,” says Eric. “There are a very ing cells also switched from a female to a male cell type.” small number of patients who have These findings will have wide-ranging implications for reproductive medicine not been operated on, so we don’t and may be used in the treatment of intersex children. know what life would be like living For further details, see the online interview with Mathias Treierw5 and the re- with ambiguous genitals, and maybe search paper (Uhlenhaut et al., 2009). it’s also problematic psychologically.” But how about gender identity: do EMBL is a member of EIROforumw6, the publisher of Science in School. children born intersex have problems feeling they truly belong to one sex

50 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics

Image courtesy of Mike_tn; image source: Flickr Image courtesy of *pinkpooch*; image source: Flickr Biology

or another? No, answers Eric. “Most “Why do girls and boys like different approach. Eric is hopeful that his, and intersex people I know are actually toys? Why do children group together other scientists’, research into intersex fine within a certain gender.” to play with others of the same sex? conditions will eventually lead to an Why are boys, say, more rough and easier life for those that fall outside so- Behavioural matters tumble than girls are?” are just some ciety’s accepted parameters of normal. Meanwhile, Melissa is keen to figure of the questions she is trying to an- “I’ll feel happy if I achieved the goal of out what impact CAH has on gender swer. And comparing play behaviour communicating to the general public behaviour – how the behaviour of and maternal hormone levels during that all those variants of sexual devel- intersex children compares to that pregnancy is her tool of choice. opment, sexual orientation and gender of typical girls or boys – later in life. Male fetuses produce a surge of identity are natural variants, and if, “We, and others, have found that the testosterone between weeks 8 and 24 because we understand that they are play behaviour of girls with CAH is of pregnancy. This then tapers off, and natural variants, they become accepted different to that of other girls,” she apart from a small surge after birth, in society.” explains. Her team assesses the toy the testosterone levels in boys and choices made by three- to eight-year- girls remain approximately the same Acknowledgements old girls who had been treated for until puberty. In a study of 14 000 chil- This article is based on interviews CAH immediately after birth. “Most dren, Melissa has found that mothers given by Professor Eric Vilain and girls tend to select dolls more than with higher testosterone levels during Professor Melissa Hines to the editors they would select vehicles or guns. pregnancy were more likely to have of Science in School, Dr Eleanor Hayes Boys tend to grab the vehicles or the girls who were more masculine within and Dr Marlene Rau. Some material weapons. But girls with CAH are in the normal range, and that mothers was also taken from Melissa Hines’ between. They show more interest in with lower testosterone levels were lecturew3. The lecture and interviews the boy-typical toys and less interest more likely to have girls who were took place during the conference ‘The in the girl-typical toys.” less masculine. Difference between the Sexes – from This CAH behaviour research is part Melissa’s observational studies allow Biology to Behaviour’, at the Euro- of a wider study led by Melissa, into the direct study of humans, in contrast pean Molecular Biology Laboratory gender development in all children. to and complementing Eric’s genetic (EMBL) in Heidelberg, Germany. www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 51 Image courtesy of ddpool; image source: Flickr Image courtesy of James F Clay; image source: Flickr

References w5 – To listen to Mathias Treier dis- use the direct link: http://tinyurl. Jordan BK (2003) Wnt4 overexpression cussing his study of sex determina- com/hhmisexdetermination disrupts normal testicular vascula- tion in mice, visit: www.youtube. The website also includes down- com/watch?v=-oL7RKUNchY ture and inhibits testosterone syn- loadable animations to accompany thesis by repressing steroidogenic w6 – EIROforum is a collaboration the lectures. factor 1/b-catenin synergy. Proceed­ between eight of Europe’s largest in- For the transcript of another interview ings of the National Academy of Sci­ ter-governmental scientific research with Eric Vilain, see the Anneberg ences of the United States of America organisations, which combine their Learner website (www.learner.org; 100(19): 10866–10871. doi: 10.1073/ resources, facilities and expertise to search for ‘vilain’), which provides pnas.1834480100 support European science in reach- resources for school teachers, or use ing its full potential. As part of its the direct link: http://tinyurl.com/ Uhlenhaut NH et al. (2009) Somatic education and outreach activities, c3uszbw sex reprogramming of adult ovaries EIROforum publishes Science in to testes by FOXL2 ablation. Cell If you found this article interesting, School. To learn more, see: 139:6, 1130-1142. doi: 10.1016/j. you may like to browse the rest www.eiroforum.org cell.2009.11.021 of the medicine-related articles Resources in Science in School. See: Web resources www.scienceinschool.org/medicine w1 – To find out more about the To learn more about intersex and its ethical and physiological implica- research of Eric Vilain and his team, tions, see the website of the Intersex see the Gender Center website: Society of North America: www. Dr Nina Notman is a science writer www.genetics.ucla.edu/ isna.org and editor. After her PhD in synthetic gendercenter organic chemistry at the University The Howard Hughes Medical In- w2 – To learn more about Melissa of Bristol, UK, she started a career in stitute (HHMI) website offers an Hine’s research, see the Univer- publishing, managing the peer-review interactive online activity to inves- sity of Cambridge website (www. process of a number of the UK’s Royal tigate sex and gender within the neuroscience.cam.ac.uk) or use the Society of Chemistry journals. She context of testing female athletes. direct link: http://tinyurl.com/ then moved into science journalism, See the HHMI website (www.hhmi. melissahines working on the society’s flagship org, search for ‘gender test’) or use magazine, Chemistry World. In early w3 – For a video of Melissa Hine’s the direct link http://tinyurl.com/ 2012, Nina left the magazine and went talk , see: www.embl.de/ hhmigender freelance. melissahines For a series of HHMI holiday lec- w4 – EMBL is Europe’s leading labo- tures on sex determination, given ratory for basic research in molecu- by specialists in the field and aimed To learn how to use this code, see page 65. lar biology, with its headquarters at secondary-school students, see in Heidelberg, Germany. To learn the HHMI Biointeractive website more, see: www.embl.org (www.hhmi.org/biointeractive) or

52 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org tesy of NAS cour A ge ma I

Science topics

Mars Biology Medicine

Physics Biology Chemistry Human biology The white Physiology Space Antarctica Ages 11+ continent as a This article explains how an investigation of daily life for the crew living at the Concor- stepping stone to dia research station, on an ice plateau deep in the Antarctic, has enabled scientists to gain the red planet a deeper understanding of the implications of long space missions on astronauts’ physi- cal and mental health. For scientists at the European Space There is a great interdiscipli- Agency, a mission to Mars means going nary potential in this article. At lower secondary-school to Antarctica first. level it can be used as a start- Copyright Programma Nazionale di Ricerche in Antartide – Istituto Polare Emile Victor. All rights reserved ing point for a group discus- sion around the relationship By Oli Usher between science, technol- ogy and society. Alternatively, students could list the major hree kilometres above sea leaves in late February, Concordia is health challenges facing as- level, 1000 km inland and cut off from the world. For the next tronauts during a space trip, -60 °C, Dome C, an ice pla- eight months, the skeleton crew of which are referred to in the Tteau deep in the Antarctic interior, is 12-14 scientists, engineers and sup- article, and discuss the solu- one of the most remote and inhospi- port staff are on their own. tions presented based on re- table places on Earth. Since 2005, it This combination of isolation and search findings. has also been home to the staff of the extreme conditions makes Concordia For upper secondary-school French-Italian Concordia research an interesting place for the European level, I believe the most ap- stationw1. Space Agency (ESA; see box on page propriate subject would be The tough environment is a con- 54): it’s about as close to a space mis- biology, using the article as stant challenge to the team that lives sion as you can get without leaving a starting point to reflect on there year round. Concordia is busy Earth. So while Concordia’s scientists homeostatic mechanisms for the short Antarctic summer, when study astrophysics, glaciology, seis- and on how the body is in- fluenced by external fac- up to 50 staff call the base home. mology and the hole in the ozone tors (such as light). Students But after the last plane of the season layer, an ESA-sponsored researcher could also discuss astronauts’ lives among them, observing the health challenges. This can station’s crew for clues about how a be extended by investigating long space mission might affect the and reflecting on other ma- physical and mental health of astro- jor challenges that will have nauts. to be considered in future space missions, which are not referred to in the article. Students should suggest pos- sible ways of investigating the impact of those factors.

REVIEW Betina da Silva Lopes,

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 53 Images courtesy of ESA unteers were sealed in a spaceship Crew training for simulator for 520 days, the expected Marswalk at the simulated duration of a round trip to the red Martian terrain of the Mars500 experiment planet. In some ways, such as the very close confinement and the selection of the crew, the Mars500 simulation was more similar to a space mission than the Concordia scenario. The crew of Mars500, however, were exposed to no real dangers and were carrying out a scientific programme well be- yond what would ever be reasonable in a space mission. In those respects, Concordia provides a more realistic analogue of space travel. “When re- searching space travel, we need both simulations and analogues; they are complementary, as their advantages and disadvantages essentially mirror each other,” explains Oliver. The small group that lives at Con- cordia over the Antarctic winter is a typically also have a very small crew little bigger than the crew of a space size, even smaller than the crew of mission, but the pressure on their Concordia: most scenarios have four mental and physical health is simi- to six crew members. And those peo- larly intense. For this reason, nobody ple are also in a confined space, in a lives on the base permanently – the very harsh environment – of course, staff members are exchanged every the vacuum of space; where the nor- summer. This goes for the ESA-spon- mal day and night cycles are absent, sored researcher too – the latest arrival Mars500’s ‘one year in isolation’ photo where you have very limited resourc- is Alexander Kumarw3, a British doctor es, where you have to deal with any who arrived at Concordia in January “If you look at the expected charac- emergency that comes up with the 2012. teristics of a future mission to Mars, resources that you have at hand.” This regular turnover has allowed for example,” says Oliver Angerer, ESA’s interest in this kind of sce- for interesting comparisons between ESA’s co-ordinator for research at nario also underpinned the recent different crews. Research on the very Concordia station, “those scenarios Mars500 experimentw2, in which vol- first group to spend winter on the base, in 2005, revealed that they gen- erally coped better than those that came after them, perhaps because More about ESA they had to work together on the big task of finishing the construction and commissioning of the station. This The European Space Agency kind of shared objective is an impor- (ESA)w6 is Europe’s gateway to space. Its tant way of keeping morale up. mission is to shape the development of Eu- Sitting down together to share rope’s space capability and ensure that investment in space continues to meals also helps, Oliver says, particu- deliver benefits to the citizens of Europe and the world. larly in the three months in the middle of winter when the Sun does not rise ESA is a member of EIROforumw7, the publisher of Science in School. above the horizon. “It’s something To see all ESA-related articles in Science in School, see: that gives a bit of a structure,” he says, www.scienceinschool.org/esa “especially because there is no obvi- ous day or night.” Shared meals aren’t

54 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics

Copyright Prog ramm © Y Frenot / Institut polaire français IPEV a N az ion ale d i R i Biology ce rc h e

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always possible, though – life at Con- of the Concordia, and would face the the brain that control our circadian cordia is busy. A lot of the research crew of a Mars mission, too. rhythm.”w5 there is astronomy, and the astrono- There are some surprisingly sim- It turns out that standard indoor mers are often on a different schedule ple things that can be done about it lighting, even though it looks white to the rest of the crew. though. One of the experiments at to us, is missing a lot of the blue part

Istituto Polare Emile Victor. All rights reserved Copyright Programma Nazionale di Ricerche in Antartide – Under normal conditions, a surpris- Concordia, for example, involved sub- of the spectrum that our brains expect ing amount of our physiology and tly changing the colours of the lights during daylight hours, so our bodies behaviour follows a circadian (daily) inside the station’s buildings. “Tests don’t perceive the subtle clues that rhythm – not only our sleeping and have shown that we don’t only have keep our body clock ticking normally. eating patterns, but also our core body rods [the cells that detect light and The solution? Install bluer lighting in temperature, blood pressure, meta- dark] and cones [which give us colour the working areas of the station, and bolic rate, brain-wave activity and vision] in our eyes as light receptors; redder (less blue) lights in the sleep- hormone levels. Our circadian rhythm there is also a third receptor that is ing quarters. Result? A better night’s responds to the regular cycles of light especially sensitive to blue light,” sleep. and dark. The lack of an apparent Oliver explainsw4. “And that is not Living in a small group in confined night and day for part of the year, only used for vision, if at all, but also spaces also has an effect on the physi- therefore, is a big issue facing the crew more directly linked to the sensors in cal health of the station’s crew. The isolation means they get no infections Image courtesy of StephenHudson; image source: Wikimedia Commons from outside, leading to their immune The Concordia systems weakening. But at the same research station time, living at such close quarters means that any infections that are pre- sent in the station are soon shared by everyone. One more way in which life at Concordia is similar to life in space. “If you’re there, you really get the impression that you are as close to being on a different planet as you could be while staying on Earth,” says Oliver. With the last flight of the Ant- arctic summer having left, Alexander Kumar will be finding out just how true that is.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 55 Image courtesy o f ES A – A K Image courtesy of Gussisaurio; image source: Wikimedia Commons um a r

Concordia enjoying its last sunset for four months

Guardian website (www.guardian. co.uk; search for ‘circadian blue’) or use the direct link: http://tinyurl. com/6xafcr3 To listen to or download a podcast interview (‘The science of sleep and circadian rhythms’) with Professor Russell Foster, visit website (www.guardian.co.uk) or use the direct link: http://tinyurl. com/c2a7m9s w6 – For more information about ESA, see: www.esa.int w7 – EIROforum is a collaboration between eight of Europe’s largest in-

ge source: Fli ter-governmental scientific research ; ima ckr agic e-m of organisations, which combine their y es rt u resources, facilities and expertise o ge cou c Ima rtes e y o g f t a ea to support European science in m ch I e rn z reaching its full potential. As part of ;

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k r eiroforum.org Resources To read the blog of Alexander Ku- mar’s predecessor, Eoin Macdonald- Blue light helps control Nethercott, see: http:// our circadian rhythm eoin-at-antarctica.blogspot.com If you found this article interesting, why not take a look at the full list of N articles on science topics published CER of sy Acknowledgement w4 – For more information on how in Science in School? See: www. rte ou e c the human eye perceives colour, see ag This article is based on an interview scienceinschool.org/sciencetopics Im given by Dr Oliver Angerer to the the ‘Neuroscience for kids’ pages on editor-in-chief of Science in School, Dr the University of Washington web- Eleanor Hayes. site (www.washington.edu; search Oli Usher is a science writer. He has for ‘retina kids’) or use the direct a postgraduate degree in the history Web references link: http://tinyurl.com/c3sl9c5 and philosophy of science, and has Some of the ‘Neuroscience for kids’ worked in journalism and science w1 – To find out more about the pages are available in Belarusian, communication. He is currently the Concordia Base and the scientific re- Chinese, Dutch, German, Italian, public information officer for the search carried out there, visit: www. Japanese, Korean, Portuguese, NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope. concordiabase.eu Russian, Serbian, Slovene, Spanish, w2 – To learn more about the Mars500 Telugu and Turkish. project, see: www.esa.int/mars500 w5 – To learn more about the link w3 – Alexander Kumar’s website between blue light and the circadian To learn how to use this code, see page 65. includes a blog and details of his rhythm, see the article ‘Bring back work. See: www.alexanderkumar. the night – your health and wellbe- com ing depend on it’ by neuroscientist Professor Russell Foster on the

56 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Physics m aija n H y of Christia si tes n L as r e f Y u is o co tn 57 e sy e r e I g t a r u m o I c Visiting e the LHC g the ATLAS a

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experiment a H accelerator at accelerator n CERN’s LINAC2 LINAC2 CERN’s i n s

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Experimenting

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in red Aerial the LHC marked “It’s widened my understanding Günt- in 2011, During his residency view of CERN with of modern physics and international he science management enormously,” says. “It’s also given me the chance to questions and students in new interest developments.” er worked with Rolf Landua, the head of education at CERN, to develop a

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a teacher at CERN a teacher Nuclear options: options: Nuclear of Saxony, enrolled on a one-week enrolled of Saxony, training course at CERN, the world’s (see particle physics laboratory largest box), he had high expectations of the course – but he wasn’t expecting to be asked back as a teacher in residence. that’s exactly what hap However, pened. As a teacher of physics for As a teacher of pened. some 30 years, Günter knew how to and make the most of the opportunity, - now views it as the most exciting mo so far. ment of his career inspired both him and his students. inspired both him and explains how his CERN residency has CERN residency his explains how Physics teacher Günter Bachmann Bachmann Günter teacher Physics www.scienceinschool.org Computer- generated collection of teaching materials for representations students aged 14 to 16 on the topic of of the results cosmic radiation. The resource was of particle collisions designed with clear ideas about what was needed: it should add “joy and interest” to the study of physics, and – as far as possible – avoid mathemati- cal and specialist terminology. Since then, Günter has been busy

passing on the benefits of his experi- Images courtesy of CERN ence to his students. “I’ve tested the materials with a class of students and received remarkably positive feedback – especially considering that this class is not among the highest achieving at the school,” he says. The material will soon be available on the CERN web- site, in both English and Germanw1. His time at CERN also emphasised “As some time has passed since my 10 %, teachers must choose between for Günter the importance of current graduation from university, I would set topics – which means they have research results being covered in the like to see a course of lectures – per- very little chance to introduce their school physics curriculum, to show haps online – about the discoveries own ideas,” Günter says. He would the true, open-ended nature of scien- and developments in physics during especially like to see more coverage of tific enquiry. “The methods of work- the past 40 years,” he says. particle physics, including the stand­ ing [at CERN], which were open to He firmly believes that modern ard model – the established theory of many different conclusions, were very physics should have a stronger pres- fundamental forces and particles that unfamiliar to me, since they represent ence in his classes – but this is easier was developed in the 1970s. quite the opposite of the totally organ- said than done. “In Saxony, more Günter himself graduated from the ised life at school,” he explains. than 90 % of the physics curriculum University of Leipzig, Germany, as a Initially, it took a while for Günter is predetermined. For the remaining mathematics and physics teacher in to settle in to life at CERN. “I had Imag e courtes y of Ben some problems in finding my way -nb; ima ge s around the large CERN grounds, and ou rce : W ik also getting used to speaking Eng- im ed More about CERN ia C lish, which is the standard working om m o language there,” he says. But this ns gave him another educational insight. “Students should be educated in The European Organization for Nuclear w4 both science subjects and the English Research (CERN) is one of the world’s most pres- language,” he argues. “One cannot tigious research centres. Its main mission is fundamen- work properly without the other.” He tal physics – finding out what makes our Universe work, believes that learning English is a sig- where it came from, and where it is going. nificant advantage for talented science CERN’s mission also covers education. As part of its education activities, students, as they will need it if they go CERN offers courses for physics teachers in English or in their mother tongue, on to study at an advanced level. lasting between three days and three weeks. Participants experience the at- Günter now feels that such opportu- mosphere of frontier research at the Large Hadron Collider, meet scientists nities of practical training at research and teaching colleagues, and find new ideas for bringing modern physics into institutions should be available to the classroom. more science teachers (see Furtado CERN is a member of EIROforumw5, the publisher of Science in School. w2 Neves, 2012, and box) . He would To see all CERN-related articles in Science in School, also like to see more support given to see: www.scienceinschool.org/cern physics teachers to help them keep up with developments in their subject.

58 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Teacher profile

1980, and has worked in this capacity Early in 2012, Günter returned to Furtado Neves S (2012) Diving into since then, initially in East Germany CERN with 20 of his keenest students, research at the EIROforum teacher and since 1990 in the unified Germa- for a packed three-day programmew3. school. Science in School 22. www. ny. His love of science was inspired by While there, the group constructed scienceinschool.org/2012/issue22/ activities at home in his early years, their own cloud chamber for detect- efschool as he explains: “As a child, I often ing particles (see Barradas-Solas & Landua, R (2008) The LHC: a look built wooden water wheels with my Alameda-Meléndez, 2010) and ana- inside. Science in School 10: 34-45. grandfather, and tested them on small lysed data from CERN’s giant particle www.scienceinschool.org/2008/ creeks. Sometimes we used the water accelerator, the Large Hadron Collider issue10/lhchow wheels to power small-scale wooden (LHC; see Landua & Rau, 2008, and Landua R, Rau M (2008) The LHC: a hammer mills. I think my interest in Landua, 2008). step closer to the Big Bang. Science the forces of nature and how they can Now back at his school, what other in School 10: 26-33. www. be used by people developed during changes would Günter like to see in scienceinschool.org/2008/issue10/ that time.” physics teaching in his region? “There lhcwhy But his choice of physics was due should be more freedom for teachers not only to such inspirational experi- in designing the curriculum,” he says, Web references Physics Physics ences, but also to the political situa- “and an additional hour of physics w1 – The teaching materials that tion at the time. “I chose science as my each week would give sufficient time Günter developed while at CERN field of study because, in former East to reinforce fundamental knowledge can be downloaded (in both English Germany, I wanted to be able to teach and conduct experiments.” All good and German) from the CERN web- subjects that were independent of any training for the aspiring scientists of site: http://education.web.cern.ch/ ideology or political propaganda,” he Saxony. education says. References w2 – The Science on Stage interna- tional science teaching festivals offer Barradas-Solas F, Alameda-Meléndez participating teachers the chance not

P (2010) Bringing particle physics to The only to exchange inspiring teach- wall in 1989, shortly life: build your own cloud chamber. ing ideas, but also to attend lectures before it was torn Science in School 14: 36-40. www. and presentations on cutting-edge down. The Brandenburg scienceinschool.org/2010/issue14/ scientific topics. Gate can be seen in the cloud

background Imag e courtes y of Ben One of the -nb; ima ge s ou few remaining rce : W ik stretches of the im ed ia C Berlin wall in 2010 om m o n s I m ag e c o u r te s y o f A n d r e w

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Cross-section of one of a series of LHC magnets, used to keep particles on the circular path through the tunnel. CERN scientists are interested in what happened when two streams of particles collide

Im a g e c o u to support European science in r t e s y reaching its full potential. As part of o f

C E its education and outreach activi- R N ties, EIROforum publishes Science in School. To learn more, see: www. eiroforum.org Resources If you enjoyed this article, you might like to browse the other teacher profiles in Science in School. See: www. scienceinschool.org/teachers

Aerial Susan Watt is a freelance science view of CERN’s writer and editor. She studied natural main site sciences at the University of Cam- bridge, UK, after which she did a master’s degree in the philosophy of science. After several years spent The next festival, in April 2013, Science on Stage was launched in producing science exhibitions for the will take place in Słubice-Frankfurt 1999 by EIROforumw5, the publisher Science Museum (London) and for the (Oder) on the Polish-German bor- of Science in School. British Council, she moved into pub- der. Each country will be repre- w3 – The students’ report (in German) lishing. Currently, Susan is a school sented by a delegation of teachers of their trip to CERN is available on governor. selected in national events. Partici- the school website: www. pation is free for the delegates. To be graupnergym.de/8Schulleben/ considered for your national delega- studienfahrt.html or via the shorter tion, contact your national organis- link: http://tinyurl.com/7c7yr9r ers as soon as possible, because the w4 – To learn more about CERN, visit: selection events are already begin- www.cern.ch ning in some countries. There will w5 – EIROforum is a collaboration To learn how to use this also be a limited number of places code, see page 65. for non-delegates, who will be between eight of Europe’s largest in- charged a registration fee. See the ter-governmental scientific research Science on Stage Europe website: organisations, which combine their www.scienceonstage.eu resources, facilities and expertise 60 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Image courtesy of European XFEL Scientist profile

High-powered research: physicist Adrian Mancuso Physics

Adrian Mancuso

Physicist Adrian Mancuso works at the cutting edge of 3D imaging, at what will be Europe’s newest and brightest X-ray facility.

By Susan Watt

he use of 3D imagery has position as a leading scientist at the right knowledge to design an instru- gone beyond the gimmickry European XFEL, a giant X-ray laser ment for X-ray diffractive imaging at of monsters leaping out to that is currently under construction. the European XFEL.” scareT you in the cinema. Today, using “What we’re trying to do is make Which is exactly what he is now ultrahigh-powered X-rays instead of high-resolution 3D images of bio- doing. Adrian says: “Right now I’m light, it’s being used to yield precise logical molecules, as well as of other building an instrument to do a kind knowledge of the shape of molecules. materials, so we can better understand of X-ray imaging called single-particle At the European X-ray Free Electron how they work,” says Adrian. “In imaging. These single particles can Laser (European XFEL)w1 in Hamburg, particular, we’re trying to image the be anything from tiny crystals to Germany, this knowledge could, in kinds of molecules that can possibly biomolecules to novel materials that a few years, enable new drugs to be only been seen with an X-ray laser.” we want to understand the structure tailor-made to control diseases. So how did a physicist like Adrian of. This work is fascinating, because Working at the forefront of X-ray 3D find himself working on biological it combines new ideas in physics and imaging is physicist Adrian Mancuso, molecules? He says: “I took a physics mathematics with state-of-the-art a scientist with a life-long curios- PhD that focused on how to use laser- technology to produce practical, ap- ity about all aspects of the physical like X-rays for imaging – really explor- plied research that just might change world. As a child, Adrian was an avid ing the methods of X-ray imaging. the world around us for the better.” observer of the natural world and a That background, and my subsequent Adrian clearly enjoys his job, en- keen reader of science books, which experience of performing this kind thusing that “every day is different, started him on the path to his current of experiment, provided me with the fun and challenging”. His enthusiasm www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 61 An artist’s impression of how the central building of European XFEL will look. The tunnels from which the laser-like X-ray flashes are led to the experiment stations will end in the un- derground experiment hall beneath the main building. This will house laboratories and offices, seminar rooms, an auditorium and a library

Image courtesy of European XFEL for research and physics goes back to to learn about different parts of the his early years, as he recalls: “I was world from colleagues is a “wonder- always naturally curious. I wanted ful bonus to the top-class work we get to understand how things worked, to do each day”. He explains: “People how the Universe works. My parents from different places sometimes see helped feed that curiosity when I was the world around us in different ways. young by giving me mountains of These different perspectives can have science books to read. I guess it kept Visualisation of the 3D simulated a positive influence by diversifying me out of trouble!” Adrian’s curiosity ­diffraction pattern of a 3-phospho- how we think about things – which became focused on physics when he glycerate kinase molecule. This is a can be essential for solving scientific found one of his father’s physics text- representation of what ‘perfect’ dif- problems.” books. “I read it from cover to cover. fraction data collected at European As well as being passionate about XFEL may look like I just found it so interesting that there his research, Adrian feels it is impor- was so much to understand about the tant to convey the joys of science to physical world around us.” Image courtesy of Z Jurek and B. Ziaja (CFEL), and AP a wider audience – and he has had Mancuso (European XFEL) Adrian’s interests were encouraged plenty of fun in the process. From at school too. “I was fortunate to have helping to put on a science show for enthusiastic science teachers, who al- “There are very few places in the junior students while he was at high lowed and even encouraged me to use world where one can hope to image school – which was so popular he be- the physics lab out of hours, design non-crystalline biomolecules well came known as “the guy from the sci- experiments, test ideas – and occa- enough that the imaged structure may ence show” – to inviting high-school sionally break stuff.” be useful for drug design, or practical students to see how science is done in After he left school, Adrian studied applications,” he says. “The European universities and laboratories and what for a science degree at the University XFEL is at the forefront of single-parti- it’s really like to work in them, Adrian of Melbourne in Australia, with a cle imaging research worldwide.” has been involved in sharing his en- major in physics, followed by a PhD Adrian also thrives in the interna- thusiasm for science at every stage of at the same institution. So although he tional team environment at European his career. He says he found the activi- has come halfway around the world, XFEL, where the staff come from six ties with students “very rewarding, from Australia to Hamburg, to work continents and more than 18 coun- as the students got a clearer picture of at the European XFEL, he clearly feels tries. He believes that the cross-cul- ‘doing’ science in practice, not just in it’s been a good move. tural interactions and opportunities the classroom”.

62 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Scientist profile

Image courtesy of European XFEL

Adrian Mancuso (second from the left) and his colleagues in the ex- periment hall of the free-electron laser FLASH at DESY (the German Electron Synchrotron) in Ham- burg, Germany

The building site that will Adrian Mancuso in front of the be the experiment hall of coherent X-ray imaging (CXI) European XFEL instrument at the SLAC Na- tional Accelerator Laboratory in ­Stanford, California, USA Physics

Image courtesy of European XFEL Image courtesy of European XFEL

So what advice would Adrian give to a student wanting to follow in his Image courtesy of DESY footsteps? “A good start would be to Adrian Mancuso in the X-ray study physics. If you want to make tunnel that connects the near images of things, it helps to have some and far experimental halls of the knowledge of optics – in our case, Linac Coherent Light Source at the SLAC National Accelerator especially the strange but fun world Laboratory in Stanford, Califor- of X-ray optics,” he says. “This is an nia, USA increasingly popular field of research, as there is rapid progress in the use of bright, laser-like X-ray sources across the world.” And he would have no hesitation in recommending the intellectual pleasures to be gained from a career talk he gave at the recent EIROfo- Susan Watt is a freelance science writ- in research. Adrian says: “That mo- rum teacher workshop (‘Finding er and editor. She studied natural sci- ment when you realise that you and the structure of biomolecules using ences at the University of Cambridge, your colleagues in the room are the ultrabright, ultrashort pulses of UK, after which she did a master’s only people on the planet that, at that X-rays’): www.epn-campus.eu/ degree in the philosophy of science. moment, have observed something eiro-teachers-school/programme/ After several years spent producing unique – that’s something that one lectures science exhibitions for the Science Mu- always remembers.” To learn more about the EIROforum seum (London, UK) and for the British teacher workshop, see: Council, she moved into publishing. Web reference Furtado Neves S (2012) Diving into Currently, she is a school governor. w1 – To learn more about European research at the EIROforum teacher XFEL, see: www.xfel.eu/overview/ school. Science in School 22. www. in_brief scienceinschool.org/2012/issue22/ To learn how to use this efschool code, see page 65. Resources To browse the other scientist To find out more about Adrian Man- profiles in Science in School, see: cuso’s work, read the abstract of a www.scienceinschool.org/scientists www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 63 The European Learning Laboratory for the Life Sciences (ELLS) at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory Free Teacher Training

“Biology 2.0 - making sense of biological data” EMBL-EBI Hinxton UK, 26 - 27 November 2012

"Alleskönner Antikörper – Einsatz in Wissenschaft Diagnostik und Therapie", EMBL & Explo Heidelberg, 15 - 16 November 2012

"Log in to Science - Forschern auf der Spur" EMBL & experimenta Heilbronn, 04 - 05 October 2012

The European Learning Laboratory for the Life Sciences is EMBL’s education facility which works with teachers and scientists to provide secondary-school teachers with interactive experiences in the life sciences – helping to bridge the gap between research and schools.

64 I Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org European Learning Laboratory for the Life Sciences Publisher: EIROforum, Safety note EIROforum www.eiroforum.org For all of the activities published in Science in Science in School is published and funded by Editor-in-chief: Dr Eleanor Hayes, School, we have tried to check that all recognised EIROforum, a collaboration between eight of European Molecular Biology Laboratory, hazards have been identified and that suitable ­Europe’s largest inter-governmental scientific precautions are suggested. Readers should be aware, Germany research ­organisations, which combines the re- however, that errors and omissions can be made, sources, facilities and expertise of its member or- Editor: Dr Marlene Rau, and safety standards vary across Europe and even ganisations to support European science in reaching European Molecular Biology Laboratory, within individual countries. its full potential. See: www.eiroforum.org Germany Therefore, before undertaking any activity, readers CERN Editorial board: should always carry out their own risk assessment. The European Organization for Nuclear Research Dr Giovanna Cicognani, In particular, any local rules issued by employers or (CERN) is one of the world’s most prestigious Institut Laue-Langevin,­ France education authorities MUST be obeyed, whatever is research centres. Its main mission is fundamental suggested in the ­Science in School articles. physics – finding out what makes our Universe work, Dr Dominique Cornuéjols, European Unless the context dictates otherwise, it is assumed that: where it came from, and where it is going. See: Synchrotron Radiation Facility, France · Practical work is carried out in a properly www.cern.ch Monica Talevi, European Space Agency, equipped and maintained science ­laboratory EFDA-JET the · Any electrical equipment is properly ­maintained The Joint European Torus (JET) investigates the Russ Hodge, Max Delbrück Zentrum, · Care is taken with normal laboratory ­operations potential of fusion as a safe, clean, and virtually Germany such as heating limitless energy source for future generations. It can create the conditions (100-200 million °C) in the Dr Rolf Landua, European Organization for · Good laboratory practice is observed when plasma sufficient for fusion of deuterium and tritium chemicals or living organisms are used Nuclear Research (CERN), Switzerland nuclei to occur – and it has observed fusion power Dr Dean Madden, National Centre for · Eye protection is worn whenever there is any to a maximum of 16 MW. As a joint venture, JET is Biotechnology Education, University of recognised risk to the eyes collectively used by more than 40 European fusion Reading, UK · Pupils and / or students are taught safe techniques laboratories. The European Fusion Development for activities such as handling living organisms, Agreement (EFDA) provides the platform to exploit Dr Petra Nieckchen, European Fusion hazardous materials and equipment. JET, with more than 350 scientists and engineers Development Agreement, UK Credits from all over Europe currently contributing to the JET Dr Douglas Pierce-Price, European Southern Science in School is a non-profit activity. Initially programme. See: www.efda.org/jet Observatory, Germany supported by the European Commission, it is now EMBL Lena Raditsch, European Molecular Biology funded by EIROforum. The European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Laboratory, Germany Disclaimer is one of the world’s top research institutions, dedi- Dr Fernand Wagner, European Association for Views and opinions expressed by authors and cated to basic research in the life sciences. EMBL is international, innovative and interdisciplinary. Astronomy Education, ­advertisers are not necessarily those of the ­editors or publisher. Its employees from 60 nations have backgrounds Copy editor: Dr Caroline Hadley including biology, physics, chemistry and computer We are grateful to all those who volunteer to trans- Composition: Nicola Graf, science, and collaborate on research that covers the late articles for the Science in School website (see full spectrum of molecular biology. [email protected] the guidelines on our website). We are, however, un- See: www.embl.org Printers: ColorDruckLeimen, Germany able to check the individual translations and cannot www.colordruck.com accept responsibility for their accuracy. ESA The European Space Agency (ESA) is Europe’s gate- Copyright Web developer: Alexander Kubias, Alperion way to space. Its mission is to shape the develop- With very few exceptions, articles in ­Science in GmbH, Germany, www.alperion.de ment of Europe’s space capability and ensure that School are published under Creative Commons ISSN: investment in space continues to deliver benefits copyright licences that allow the text to be reused Print version: 1818-0353 to the citizens of Europe and the world. non-commercially. Note that the copyright licenses See: www.esa.int Online version: 1818-0361 refer to the text of the articles and not to the images. Cover images: You may republish the text according to the follow- ESO The European Southern Observatory (ESO) is the Starfish: Image courtesy of Toni Matés Urtós; ing licences, but you may not reproduce the images without the consent of the copyright holder. foremost inter-governmental astronomy organisation image source: Flickr in Europe and the world’s most productive astro- Gender symbols: Image courtesy of Most Science in School articles carry one of two nomical observatory. It operates telescopes at three AnonMoos; image source: Wikimedia copyright licences: sites in Chile – La Silla, Paranal and Chajnantor – on Commons 1) Attribution Non-commercial Share Alike behalf of its 15 member states. At Paranal, ESO’s No Endorsement (by-nc-sa-ne): Very Large Telescope is the world’s most advanced visible-light astronomical observatory. ESO is the

At the end of each European partner of the revolutionary astronomical telescope ALMA, and is planning a 40-metre-class article in this issue, This license lets you remix, tweak, and build upon the author’s work non-commercially, as long as you European Extremely Large optical / near-infrared you may notice a credit the author and license their new creations Telescope, the E-ELT. See: www.eso.org square black and under the identical terms. You can download and ESRF white pattern. redistribute the author’s work, but you can also The European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) With the aid of a translate or produce new articles based on the work. is one of the most intense sources of X-rays in the smart phone, this All new work based on the author’s work will carry world. Thousands of scientists come every year to QR code will lead the same license, so any derivatives will also be non- ESRF to carry out experiments in materials science, you straight to the online version of the commercial in nature. biology, medicine, physics, chemistry, environmental article. All you need to do is download a Furthermore, you may not imply that the derivative science, and even palaeontology and cultural herit- age. See: www.esrf.eu free QR code reader app (such as BeeTagg work is endorsed or approved by the author of the original work or by Science in School. or i-Nigma) for your smart phone and scan European XFEL the code with your phone’s camera. To find The European XFEL is a research facility currently 2) Attribution Non-commercial under construction in the Hamburg area of Ger- a suitable one for your phone, see: http:// No Derivatives (by-nc-nd) many. It will generate extremely intense X-ray flashes tinyurl.com/byk4wg to be used by researchers from all over the world. Hint: the apps works better in good light See: www.xfel.eu conditions, and with a steady hand. You This license is often called the ’free advertising’ ILL may also want to try holding your camera license because it allows you to download the The Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL) is an international author’s works and share them with others as long at different distances from the code. research centre operating the most intense steady as you mention and link back to the author, but neutron source in the world. Every year, more than You can then use all the live links to the you cannot change them in any way or use them 800 experiments are performed by about 2000 references and resources, download the ­commercially. scientists coming from all over the world. Research PDF, send the article to your friends, leave For further details, see: http://creativecommons.org focuses on science in a variety of fields: condensed comments, and much more. All articles in Science in School carry the relevant matter physics, chemistry, biology, nuclear physics copyright logos or other copyright notice. and materials science. See: www.ill.eu www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 I 65 Image courtesy of Zscout370; image source: Wikimedia Commons

Science on Stage: a Slovak-British relationship

Image courtesy of Anomie; image source: Wikimedia Commons

For two science teachers from opposite ends of Europe – David Featonby and Zuzana Ješková – Science on Stage was the beginning of an inspiring and enjoyable collaboration.

ur collaboration began in simple experiments that have unusual 2009, when David ran a outcomes (Featonby, 2007). Zuzana workshop entitled ‘What was particularly intrigued by one ex- Happens Next?’ at the Science on periment – the ‘two balloons surprise’ O w1 Stage teaching festival in Berlin, (figure 1) and decided to investigate it Germany. There, he challenged the further with her students back home participants to predict the results of in Košice, . Correspondence

Pressure (kPa) Figure 1: The ‘two balloons sur- prise’. What happens when the tap is 3.5 opened? The small balloon blows up 3.0

the bigger one, but why? The graph Images courtesy of David Featonby gives a clue: the air in the smaller bal- 2.5 loon – which has a radius of 3-4 cm – 2.0 is (counter-intuitively) at a higher pres- sure than that in the larger one, which 1.5 has a radius of 6-8 cm. To equalise the 1.0 pressure, the air rushes from one bal- loon to another. It is also possible for 0.5 a larger balloon that has been inflated Radius (cm) to near its maximum size to inflate a 0.0 smaller balloon (Featonby, 2009; Ješková 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 et al., in press)

Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Event f Zuzana Je rtesy o skova cou age Im

David and Zuzana presenting their work- shop at Science on Stage 2011 in Physics

flowed between the UK and Slovakia and stimulating ideas, experiments Balanced spoon as we modified the experiments and and projects in teaching. Through Balance a wooden spoon at its cen- explored more ideas (Ješková et al., in lectures and workshops, excursions tre of mass. Then cut the spoon at press). to research sites and independent ac- that point and weigh the two halves. General science As a result of our correspondence, tivities, the participants develop their Which is heavier, or do the pieces General science we developed and led a joint ‘What own ideas for motivating and attract- weigh the same? Happens Next?’ workshop at the 2011 ing students to science. After 40 hours Science on Stage international science of direct learning and 25 hours of teaching festival in Copenhagen, Den- distance learning spread over the aca- mark, sharing our new experiments demic year, each participant develops General science General and results with teachers from 27 Eu- a project to trial at his or her school. ropean countries. The course is planned to be run each Science on Stage festivals offer a year in Košice. The best ideas will be unique opportunity for teachers from selected for the Slovakian national Sci- w2 across Europe to share their experi- ence on Stage festival . There, some Image courtesy of David Featonby ences and develop new ideas, and it of them may even be chosen to be a doesn’t have to stop when the partici- part of the international festival. pants return home – as we demon- During the workshop in March, strated. To encourage even more ef- we challenged participants to pre- fective exchange of ideas, participants dict ‘What Happens Next?’. The The centre of mass of the head is from the 2011 festival could apply for experiments, which use everyday nearer to the pivot than that of the travel scholarships so that teachers equipment, were chosen to highlight spoon´s handle. Applying the prin- ciple of moments in equilibrium, from one country could share their misconceptions and to develop think- the head must weigh more ideas and skills with larger groups of ing skills. In many ways, this put the teachers elsewhere. We successfully teachers in the position that students applied, and in March 2012, David often find themselves in – that of be- flew to the University of PJ Šafárik in ing unsure of the answers. Puzzling Košice to run a workshop with Zu- outcomes were then discussed; many zana for Slovakian physics teachers. of the Slovak teachers spoke English, The workshop was part of a Slova- but Zuzana was on hand to translate kian teacher-training course, ‘Inquiry if necessary. Some of the experiments activities in physics education’, which are detailed below, others can be was inspired by Science on Stage found in Featonby (2007). and encourages the use of interesting www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 Backwards clock Floating orange Finger in water What happens to a backwards clock On a balance, place an orange with Place a glass of water on a balance when we look at its reflection in the a glass of water beside it. What is the and note its mass. Lower your finger mirror? See images at the bottom. reading? Next place the orange in the into the water without touching the glass, so it floats without touching the sides. What happens to the mass this sides. Does the reading on the balance time? See images below. stay the same, increase, or decrease? Our Slovak-British exchange was See images below. beneficial not just to the participants on the course. Both of us learned from

Images courtesy of David Featonby Images courtesy of David Featonby

The mass stays the same, regardless of whether the orange is inside or outside the glass, so the reading does not change. This is because the same material is on the balance. The apparent loss in mass of the orange is compensated by the weight of water it displaces: the upthrust on the orange has a consequent down- thrust on the water Images courtesy of David Featonby

The mass increases due to the Backwards clock (left) and its reflection in the mirror (right). When viewed in reaction force acting on the water, the mirror, the anticlockwise rotation of the hands of the backwards clock be- itself the result of buoyant force comes clockwise and the figures’ positions change to that of a normal clock acting on your finger

Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Event

our collaboration, developing further teaching festival. The next interna- to support European science in ideas for experiments and co-opera- tional festival will be held on 25-28 reaching its full potential. As part of tion, and also discovering different April 2013, in Słubice-Frankfurt its education and outreach activi- national approaches to teaching and (Oder) on the Polish-German bor- ties, EIROforum publishes Science teacher training. And to our surprise, der. During the festival, 350 teachers in School. To learn more, see: www. we realised that the challenge of ex- from 27 countries will share their eiroforum.org plaining ideas in a foreign language most innovative teaching ideas in can actually help make the explana- workshops, on-stage performances Resources tions clearer. We found that interna- and the teaching fair. If you found this article inspiring, you tional co-operation between science Participation is free for delegates. might like to browse the rest of the teachers can greatly enrich the quality For other science teachers, there Science on Stage articles in Science of teaching – and also form the basis will be a limited number of places in School. See: www.scienceinschool. of long-lasting friendships. for which a registration fee will be org/sons charged. See the Science on Stage References Europe website for details: www. science-on-stage.eu David Featonby is a recently retired

Featonby D (2007) What happens Physics next? A teaching strategy to get Science on Stage was launched in physics teacher from Newcastle, students of all ages talking. 1999 by EIROforumw4, the publisher UK, with 35 years experience in the Science in School 7: 24-27. of Science in School. classroom. He now works as a teacher network co-ordinator for the UK’s www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ w2 – For more information (in Slovak) Institute of Physicsw3, and has recently issue7/whathappens about Science on Stage Slovakia, become a member of the executive Featonby D (2009) Balloons hold the see: http://ufv.science.upjs.sk/ committee of Science on Stage Europe. key to inflation. Physics Education 44: _projekty/science-on-stage General science Zuzana Ješková is an assistant General science 344. doi: 10.1088/0031-9120/44/4/F05 w3 – The Institute of Physics is a UK- professor of physics at Faculty of Sci- Ješková Z, Featonby D and Feková V based society that promotes phys- ence, PS Šafárik University, in Košice, (in press) Balloons revisited. Physics ics. The society provides resources Slovakia. She works in physics educa- Education for schools, including professional tion, dealing with pre-service and Web references development courses for teach- in-service teacher training. ers, student careers resources and science General w1 – Science on Stage is a network high-quality teaching materials. See: of local, national and interna- www.iop.org/education/teacher/ tional events for teachers, initially resources launched in 1999 by EIROforum, the publisher of Science in School. w4 – EIROforum is a collaboration At each national Science on Stage between eight of Europe’s largest in- event, a delegation of teachers is ter-governmental scientific research selected to represent their country organisations, which combine their at the Science on Stage international resources, facilities and expertise To learn how to use this code, see www.scienceinschool.org/help#QR

Featonby avid of D sy rte David in the physics lab with a group ou e c of enthusiastic Slovak teachers ag Im

www.scienceinschool.org ScienceScience in School in School I Issue I Issue 23 : Summer23 : Summer 2012 2012 I 69 The PhET website

Reviewed by Eric Deeson, UK

hysics Education Technology to the simulation in question, such as perform the calculations as the (PhET to its friends) is the student worksheets. These resources applied voltage is changed. An slick but not very meaning- have been written by teachers and extended version of this simula- Pful title of a site that offers a wide those that I have seen are of a very tion on a separate tab allows the range of excellent interactive physics high quality. These are four of my students to combine two or three simulations for secondary-school and favourites. capacitors in various ways and Physics university students. Based at the Uni- · The ‘States of matter: basics’ simu- observe the effects. versity of Colorado, PhET includes lation, aimed at about Year 7 (ages You must visit this site if you are simulations not only of pure physics, 11-12), allows students to investi- involved in teaching science or phys- but also of physical phenomena in gate the three main states of matter, ics – preferably when you have an biology, chemistry and earth science. exploring how raising and lower- hour or two to spare. PhET is the best There is also a category of mathemat- ing the temperature affects samples source of free and effective interac- ics simulations. The fact that the site of neon, argon, oxygen and water tive simulations in physics that I have is US-based is not a problem, even in at the particle level. come across! terms of units – which are metric. · Students in Year 9 and above (ages The PhET simulations have been 13+) can use the ‘Gas properties’ Details specially designed so that they can simulation to investigate the effects URL: http://phet.colorado.edu be easily translated. As a result, most of volume, pressure, temperature of the simulations are available in and gravity on a gas, and discover Resources an astonishing variety of languages how these properties vary in rela- If you found this review interesting, – from German, Hebrew, Czech and tion to each other. why not browse all the reviews Vietnamese, to Finnish, Greek and · The ‘Electric field hockey’ simula- in Science in School? See: Serbian. You can use all of the simula- tion, suitable for students in Year www.scienceinschool.org/reviews tions either by running them live on 6 and above (ages 10+) is a more the website or by downloading them. serious game. You have to try to PhET is a great resource and is control the path of a charged par- regularly updated (you can follow ticle (the ‘ball’) through a complex the latest developments on Facebook space in which you place almost and Twitter), so do not be put off by any number of fixed particles of the the fact that the site looks rather dated same and opposite charge. You can and is difficult to navigate. Checking determine the charge and positions what is new is a danger in itself, as of the fixed particles, the mass of you can easily lose several hours in the ball, and the degree of diffi- play… I mean exploration. At the time culty, and choose whether or not to of this review, examples of simula- display the field lines and the ball’s tions in the ‘new sims’ section of the trajectory. website include ‘isotopes and atomic · Using the ‘Capacitor lab’ simu- mass’, ‘states of matter’, ‘membrane lation, good Year 10 and more channels’, ‘gravity and orbits’ and advanced students (ages 14+) can ‘build a molecule’. explore the workings of a parallel After selecting a simulation, you plate capacitor, altering the plate are presented with a list of sample separation, area and dielectric to To learn how to use this code, learning goals in addition to down- observe the resulting charge, field, see www.scienceinschool.org/help#QR loadable teaching resources related voltage and stored energy and to Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Reviews

The Wonder of Genetics: The Biology Creepy, the Curious, and the Commonplace

By Richard V. Kowles Reviewed by Michalis Hadjimarcou, Cyprus

he Wonder of Genetics is a modified organisms and foods, gene topics are nature versus nurture, evo- user-friendly guide through therapy, DNA fingerprinting and lution versus creationism, the use of the wonderful – and, to cloning. stem cells, and the creation of geneti- Tsome, scary – world of genetics. But The Wonder of Genetics is more cally modified organisms. Everyone can benefit from reading it: than a collection of issues affected by lay readers will have the opportunity genetics. Instead, the author goes a Details to learn, in the first few chapters, the step further, discussing the implica- Publisher: Prometheus Books basic principles of genetics, whereas tions of genetics and genetic discov- Publication year: 2010 more knowledgeable readers will eries for important areas, such as ISBN: 9781616142148 appreciate the more complicated economics, politics, ethics, religion, material that follows (with the help racism, the media and even the movie Resources of accompanying diagrams and the industry. If you found this review interesting, extensive glossary). Readers who are A secondary-school biology teacher why not browse all the reviews reasonably fluent in English will have can find an endless supply of good in Science in School? See: no problem with the level of language quality instructive material in this www.scienceinschool.org/reviews used in the book. book, including diagrams, descrip- Although they might be tempted to tions of molecular genetic techniques skip a few introductory pages, biolo- and examples of genetically influ- gists and even geneticists will have enced diseases, their frequency in the a lot to learn from The Wonder of Genet­ population and current developments ics. The book contains the most recent in the efforts made to cure them. facts and figures on well-known Students in advanced secondary- topics, clarifications of misconceptions school biology classes (aged 16-18) can about common applications of genet- use The Wonder of Genetics to enhance ics, and the latest discoveries and their understanding of genetics and its advances in the field. many applications. They can also find Every aspect of genetics, from the excellent case-study material suitable most common and well known that for small projects, for example to look affect our daily lives and decisions at the pattern of inheritance of various to the most bizarre and unfamiliar, is genetic traits. Furthermore, the book’s explained in this book. The reader can coverage of issues that have provoked learn how genetics might be respon- debates all over the world could be sible for, or at least involved in, a useful for interdisciplinary studies long list of traits and processes such that encompass subjects from biology as alcoholism, criminality, IQ, schizo- and sociology to religion and econom- To learn how to use this code, phrenia, ageing, evolution, genetically ics. Examples of such controversial see www.scienceinschool.org/help#QR www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 Reviews

Inflight Science: A guide to the world from your airplane window

By Brian Clegg Reviewed by Friedel Krotscheck, Austria

olding this book in my ber. Understanding the principles of Details hands as I boarded what relativity or grasping the function of Publisher: Icon Books Ltd would be an eight-hour the human eye has never been easier. Publication year: 2011 Hflight, I planned to read the modest And reading the book while actually ISBN: 9781848312418 204 pages whilst airborne. When we on a flight makes the learning experi- To date, only a translation into landed, I had managed just 70, thanks ence even better – you can understand German (Warum Tee im Flugzeug to all the observation, thinking and events as they happen. nicht schmeckt und Wolken nicht vom

General science note-taking that Inflight Science: A Younger students (aged 12-16) Himmel fallen) is available. guide to the world from your airplane could use Inflight Science as the basis window inspired. of a project that simulates a flight, Resources Inflight Science uses science to performing experiments and building If you found this review interest- explain every technical detail of a models detailed by the author (some ing, why not browse all the reviews commercial aeroplane flight and of these are even suitable to be carried in Science in School? See: www.scien- helps address many of our preconcep- out during a flight!). Such a project ceinschool.org/reviews tions about flying. The book is best could be carried out over a whole described as a science encyclopaedia school year, by the end of which written like a novel. It grabs you and students could become very literate will not let you go; every other page in the relevant areas of science. With introduces a new flight-related sci- older students (aged 17-18), the book entific topic, connected to the next in could be used more like a textbook. logical sequence. I highly recommend Inflight Science The author, Brian Clegg, keeps the to all science teachers who have been reader entertained by covering a most airborne at least once. Its use in the interesting combination of unex- classroom will enrich the learning pected topics, including archaeology, of numerous students through their Newton’s laws, the taste of aeroplane teachers’ new approach to familiar food, Maxwell’s equations and brain science. For this reason, it would be function. Despite their broad range of fair to change the last sentence of subject matter, the chapters are neatly the book from “With science as your categorised, following the progress of guide, the everyday will never appear a normal flight and covering topics quite so ordinary again” to “With this that feature in the science curriculum book as your guide, everyday science of students aged 12-18. will never appear quite so ordinary The scientific information is not again”. only presented in an unusual context, I have only one wish: that the book but also often explained in a very be translated into all languages so it To learn how to use this code, funny way, making it easy to remem- can be available on every aeroplane. see www.scienceinschool.org/help#QR

Science in School I Issue 23 : Summer 2012 www.scienceinschool.org Summer 2012 Issue 23 How many schools and teachers do you reach – worldwide? The European journal for science teachers

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