An Aspect of the Genoese Network and its Colonial World in the Middle Ages

Yoko Kamenaga-Anzai

Caractéristiques du réseau génois et son monde colonial au Moyen Age

Les Génois au Moyen Age sont célèbres pour leurs activités commerciales. Ils possédaient de nombreux comptoirs commerciaux et coloniaux en Méditerranée, mer Noire, et dans le monde atlantique. , l’île grecque de la mer Egée, est l’une des colonies génoises principales. Ce comptoir colonial occupait une place importante aux yeux des Génois, parce qu’il constituait un centre principal pour le négoce de l’alun produit en Focea et du mastic en provenance de Chios. Les génois ont dominé l’île à travers une definitif concession privée accordée par l’empereur byzantin au négociant, amiral et mercenaire génois Benedetto Zaccaria qui le avait occupé et ses descendants au cours de la première moitié du 14ème siècle, ainsi que à travers de la «», une structure coloniale spécifique aux génois, et ce aux alentours de la moitié du 14ème siècle jusqu’à la première moitié du 16ème siècle. J’évoque dans cet article certains aspects du réseau génois à travers l’analyse d’actes notariés établis par le notaire génois Giuliano Canella à Chios au cours de la seconde moitié du 14ème siècle, période de crise de l’histoire génoise. Tout d’abord, je déduis le nom du lieu d’après le nom patronymique du contractant et par la même occasion la base commerciale. Ensuite, j’entame un examen concret de la communication génoise avec des non-génois résidant à Chios, et ce en me référant à l’utilisation d’interprètes. Grâce à cette recherche, nous pouvons conclure que, même en période de crise et de dépression, la vitalité génoise à l’époque médiévale n’a pas diminué. Nous devons aussi noter le caractère international et multiculturel de la population de Chios à l’ère de la domination génoise, leur système de réseau étendu et minutieux et les implications qu’il comporte, ainsi que la scène de communication dans un contexte pratique. 138 Y. KAMENAGA-ANZAI

I. Introduction

Genoese merchant is famous for their wide commercial activity in the middle ages. They had many commercial and colonial bases in the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, and the Atlantic world. In this paper, I show you some examples of their commercial network and the communication, analyzing the main sources in the second half of the 14th century1. The main sources contains 76 notarial acts stipulated by Genoese notary Giuliano Canella from 2 November 1380 to 31 March 1381, mainly in Chios2, a Greek island in the , and well-known Genoese colony in this period3. This period was that of the financial and political crisis for the Commune of and also that of the depression for the merchant4. But as we will see soon, their ways of activities do not change also in the crisis. In this paper, I analyze some aspects of the Genoese network and communication in their activities. First, I pay attention to the place name in the contractors’ name and as commercial base. Next, I notice concretely the Genoese communication with non-Genoese in Chios from the viewpoint of the use of interpreter. Through this research, we would understand some aspects of the international and multi-cultural character of Chios, the Genoese wider activity area, their wider and detailed network system and its meanings, and the scene of the communication in practice. As the results, this paper will show not only the Genoese activities but also the Genoese colonial world including non-Genoese.

II. The one’s native place in the sources

Here we guess the native places of each contractor or of their ancestor in the sources from the place in their surname or from their title5.

1 A cura di E. Basso, Notai genovesi in oltremare: atti rogati a Chio da Giuliano de Canella (2 Novembre 1380 – 31 Marzo 1381), Atene, 1993. 2 In the main sources, n. 1, 2 are stipulated in Zara, and n.3 in Cefalonia. 3 Chios is one of the most valuable colonies for the Genoese, because it is their important trading base for the alum produced in Focea and for the mastic produced in Chios. The Genoese began to dominate the island through the private privilege by Byzantine Emperor to the Genoese merchant-admiral-piracy Benedetto Zaccaria and its descendents in the first half of the 14th century. And through the “maona”, the Genoese special colonial body, this island is dominated by the Genoese from about the half of the 14th to about the first half of the 16th century. The number of historical studies in relation to the Genoese Chios is enormous. For example, Ph. Argenti, The Occupation of Chios by the Genoese and Their Administration of the Island 1346-1566, 3 vols, Cambridge, 1958; G. Pistarino, Chio dei Genovesi nel tempo di Cristoforo Colombo, Roma, 1995. 4 The period of the main sources that are between the battle at Chioggia against (1379) and the treaty in Torino (1381) is at the end of the long conflict against Venice. But the treaty of Torino does not result in the change of the situation between the advantages of each two Italian sea power. In addition, Chios is far from the area of the conflict and its situation is relatively peaceful (Ibid., p. 98: A cura di E. Basso, Op. cit., p. 24). About the Genoese situation in those days, for example, see S. A . Epstein, Genoa and the Genoese: 958-1528, Chapel Hill and London, 1996, pp. 87-97. 5 Of course the place name in each persons’ surname does not exactly mean the native place. But at least it has the higher possibility that it should be his or his ancestor’s native place. AN ASPECT OF THE GENOESE NETWORK AND ITS COLONIAL WORLD IN THE MIDDLE AGES 139

About Genoa and Chios, the titles Genoese citizen (cives janue), immigrant to Chios (habitator syi), and habitants in Chios (burgensis syi) often appear in the main sources. And the fields of the place in the contractors’ surname spread very widely. See the table 1. In regard to the northern and central , the list of the county that contains the place name in the sources are the followings: where Genoa belongs to, Piemonte, Emilia-Romagna, Toscana, Veneto, Umbria, Lazio, and Marche. In addition, the places in Southern Italy appear in the sources: Ischia and Tarlanto. And it contains the many names of place outside Italy: eastern Mediterranean, the Black Sea, Dalmatia, Iberian Peninsula, Flanders, and Maghreb. We can certify that the range of Genoese activities is not reduced even in the age of political crisis. Here we pay attention to Liguria. There are many places through from western to eastern Liguria. Historically, the commune of Genoa dominated many Ligurian cities or area since comparatively early period, about the half of the 12th century. But there are some cities that kept the independent tendency such as Savona, the biggest rival city against Genoa, and such as Ventimiglia, whose history repeated both the period controlled by Genoese dominant and by the count who had its fief. This phenomenon suggests that, the movement to Chios was not only limited to the Genoese and the people in the territory with friendship. But also spread all the Ligurian costal people. We now contrast this phenomenon to the former famous study by Michel Balard, who analyzed the Genoese enormous notarial acts in 1395-1408. His analysis is the followings: The number of all people in the main sources is 926. In this 926, the origin of 42 is unknown. The 406 of 926 are the people that have the Genoese origin. And he indicated that 161 are Ligurian in Chios. In this 161, the people from the coast of eastern Liguria are 61, and 47 are from that of western Liguria6. In the main sources, the number of people from both eastern Liguria and western one is not different largely. But Michel Balard stresses on the tendency that the immigrants from eastern Liguria are more than those from western Liguria and that this tendency is certified also in Pera (the suburb in ) and Caffa (a city in the Crimean peninsula), that are other well- known Genoese colonial area. He also explains its reason from the views of political relationship with Genoa. According to Michel Balard, The most part of eastern Liguria is dominated by Genoese Commune directly, while in western Liguria, many territories are dominated dividedly by each commune or feudal prince that are often opposed to Genoa, as Savona or Ventimiglia that I have already refered to. As Michel Balard insists, Eastern Liguria has more friendship than western one. But I would stress that political or territorial factor is less important for the Ligurian immigrants. In spite of a little local political situation, Genoese colonial world was

6 About the Genoese and Ligurian population in Romania, see M. Balard, La romaine génoise: XIIe- début du XV siècle, vol. 1, pp. 233-254. 140 Y. KAMENAGA-ANZAI open and generous one.

III. The network in the place for the settlement of account

Now we pay attention to the place or area for the settlement of account in the main sources. Some place names are connected with Genoese commercial activities. In particular, we can find the system of settlement of account from them. See the contents (according to the numbering in the main sources): (n. 6)7 This is the contract between Genoese citizen Giacomo Torsello and Genoese citizen Paolo Gentile; Giacomo promised to buy wool from Paolo, to receive it in Chios, and to pay its price in Pera by the change of 504 ducati d’ oro. In this contract, in addition, as the place of its solicitation, there appear Pera, Famagusta, Genoa, and Chios. (n. 19)8 This is the contract between Cristoforo de Costa, immigrant to Chios (habitator syi), and the Giacomo de Lucca, Genoese citizen and procurator of Anna, widow and guardian of the children of late Vicus de Pubio . Giacomo lends 150 ducati d’ oro to Cristoforo. Cristoforo is obliged to pay in Romania (the Costal area in the Black Sea in medieval sources), Constantinople, Rhodes, Cyprus, or Ephesus. (n. 20)9 This is the contract between Giacomo de Lucca (the same person and same role as procurator as n.19) and Bartolomeo. Giustiniani. Giacomo lends 200 ducati d’ oro to Bartolomeo. Bartolomeo is obliged to pay in Pera, Romania, Smyrna (Ismil). Rhodes, Finale Ligure, Savona, or Genoa. (n. 39)10 This is the contract between Giorgio di Via, Genoese citizen and notary, and Giacomo Celestriano. Giorgio lends 137 libra (its half is composed of libra Genoese) to Giacomo. The obliged places for its payment are Genoa, Savona, Finale Ligure, Nice or Romania. (n. 45)11 This is the contract between two groups. One is the group that contain Giovanni Giustiniani, treasurer and gubernator in Chios and shareholder of Maona and Francesco Giustiniani, and the other is that of Jew Calo, a doctor, and Elia. The Giustiniani borrowed 2669 ducati d’ oro in the name of maona. As the places to guarantee the content of the act, there appear Romania, Toscana, or Lombardia.

7 A cura di E. Basso, Op. cit., pp. 46-47. 8 Ibid., pp. 65-66. 9 Ibid., pp. 66-67. 10 Ibid., p. 94. 11 Ibid., pp. 101-103. AN ASPECT OF THE GENOESE NETWORK AND ITS COLONIAL WORLD IN THE MIDDLE AGES 141

(n. 46)12 This is the contract between Giacomo de Lucca (see n. 19, 20, as procurator) and Geraldo di Valditaro, habitants in Chios (burgensis Syi). Giacomo lends 100 ducati d’ oro to Geraldo. Geraldo is obliged to pay in Romania, Ismir, Rhodes, Ephesus, Genoa or Savona. (n. 47)13 This is the contract between Giacomo de Lucca (see n. 19. 20. 46 as procurator) and Giorgio Virmilia, habitants in Chios (burgensis Syi). Giacomo lends 50 ducati d’ oro. The obliged place for its payment are Savona, Finale-Ligure, Romania, Cyprus, Rhodes, or Smyrna. (n. 54)14 This is the contract between Niccolo Embriaco, Genoese citizen, and Giovanni Macia, Genoese citizen. Niccolo lends 23 libra 12 solidus (the half of it should be composed of libra Genoese) to Giovanni. The obliged places for the payments are Pisa, Savona, Romania, or Constantinople. (n. 56)15 This is the contract between Quilico de Thadeis,Genoese citizen and notary, and Niccolo de Orto, Genoese citizen. Niccolo is obliged to return 550 libra Genoese after its change within one month in Genoa. In addition, there appear Romania, Cyprus, Pisa and Savona as the obliged place for the payment. (n. 73)16 This is the contract between Giovanni Logius de and Cristoforo Logius de Arenzano. Giovanni lends Cristoforo 55 libra Genoese. The obliged places for the payment are Romania, Constantinople, Pisa, or Savona. Table 2-1, and 2-2 arranged these contents clearly. Through these tables, we can find some features. Feature 1: Except several places, many places for the payment seem to have good relationship with Genoa. For example, About Romania, after the treaty of Ninfeo (1261) between Genoa and future Byzantine Emperor Michael the 8th, the Genoese had the advantage in the Black Sea area and many bases, as Caffa. About Smyrna, after the treaty of Ninfeo, the Genoese got the privilege to construct their autonomous region, and after the crusade of Smyrna (1344), it became one of the principal bases for Latin17. About Ephesus, the Genoese sent their consul from 1351 to 139418. In Rhodes, the Venetian had the advantage since the end of the 11th century, but the Genoese

12 Ibid., pp. 103-104. 13 Ibid., pp. 104-105. 14 Ibid., pp. 114-115. 15 Ibid., pp. 117-118. 16 Ibid., pp. 139-140. 17 P. Stringa, Genova e la Liguria nel mediterraneo: insediamenti e culture urbane, Genova, 1982, p. 300. 18 Ibid., p. 289. 142 Y. KAMENAGA-ANZAI took their place about the middle of the 13th century. And then, some Genoese family as the Moresco and the Vignolo got this region from as fief. The Vignolo also aided the occupation of this island by the order of the Knights of Saint John and got the fief. This island is dominated by the order since 136019. About Cyprus, Famagusta has long relationship with the Genoese. The Genoese stayed there as the place to stop to arrive at the crusade state since the 12th century. They got the privilege of the establishment of consul and of autonomy, and of exemption of custom. After the collapse of the crusade state at Accon, the importance of this island increased for the Genoese. They would begin to dominate Famagusta by the form as maona since 137220. Feature 2: almost all the contractors in table 2-2, refer, as possible payment place, to both Liguria and easterner area as the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, and eastern Mediterranean world. Feature 3: In regard to these each two ranges, the contractors mention to the plural places, as, in n. 46, there appear Genoa and Savona in Liguria, and Romania, Smyrna, Rhodes Ephesus in easterner area. Feature 4: In the table, 2, as for 19, 20, 46, 47, the same creditor, Giacomo de Lucca, contracts. And each contract has mutual place names there as Savona, Rhodes etc. Through these features, I propose some suggestion. Each contractor has many bases in Liguria and easterner area. They have their own trustable network and it is not fixed or limited only to the Genoese political dominant territory. Unfortunately we cannot find their way of getting information through main sources. At least, however, we can reconfirm the validity of notarial acts in various fields. The expression of wider area as Romania, Lombardia, Tuscan etc. also would signify the diffusion of the same validity, because it does not need the mention to the name of the specific city. In addition, we notice the mention to both Genoa and Savona. As I have already pointed out, these two cities have always-political tension, but it is less important in Ligurian merchant world. They have bases in both cities. This phenomenon reminds us of famous F. Braudel who valued the economic factor more than the political one. Through the examples of the case of Giacomo de Lucca in the feature 4, I would propose the hypothesis. The mutual place revoke us the creditor’s base. But how should we think about the not-mutual place name? For example, in the cases of Giacomo de Lucca, why do some differences in relation to the place for the payment exist? I supposed that when contractors decide the place for payment, the contractors would take into consideration the convenient place not only for creditor, but also for the debtor.

19 Ibid., p. 300. 20 Ibid., pp. 307-310. AN ASPECT OF THE GENOESE NETWORK AND ITS COLONIAL WORLD IN THE MIDDLE AGES 143

IV. Linguistic communication

As we have already seen, there are many people other than the Genoese in Chios in the main sources. This is a multi-linguistic world. Finally, I suggest the situation of the linguistic communication in Genoese network. In the main sources, there appear two official (that means appointed by Genoese colonial government) interpretor. One, Antonio de Torre, has the title of immigrant to and habitant of Chios (habitator et Burgensis syi). The other, Niccolo Moscambario, has that of immigrants to Chios (habitator syi). Antonio de Torre appears with the role as interpretor in the contracts of certification for payments between a person (probably Greek from his name) and a Greek in Chios, This Greek use Antonio de Torre. Perhaps Antonio translates a language to Greek.21 In regard to Niccolo Moscambalio, one of his activity as interpretor is seen in the contract among the people from Cyprus, from Albenga (western Liguria), and a Greek woman. A person from Cyprus, Teofilatto di Cipro, bakery, used Niccolo as translator. Perhaps Niccolo Moscambario would treat Italian (Latin) and Greek22. These two official interpretors are often seen in the list of witness in each contract. The translator would be an adequate role for testifying. Other than official interpretors, people used private one. The uses of private interpreter have some tendency in the sources. Feature 1: the contractors who need interpretor are women, in particular, widow or wife whose husband is absent.23 Feature 2: These women perhaps would request the interpreter from Latin to Greek24, and also from Greek to Latin.25 Feature 3: The necessity of interpreter is divided into two types. One is the interpretation about understanding of the former contract,26 the other is that for the contract making now.

21 A cura di E. Basso, Op. cit, n. 36 p. 90. Other than this, he appears as witness in the main sources. The contents of the acts where he was one of the witness are various. Ibid., n. 5 (pp. 44-45), n. 7 (pp. 47- 49), n. 8 (pp. 49-50), n. 9 (pp. 50-51), n. 11 (pp. 52-54), n. 17 (pp. 62-63), n. 26 (pp. 74-76), n. 36 (p. 90), n. 44 (pp, 100-101), n. 51 (pp. 109-111), n. 52 (pp. 111-112), n. 56 (pp. 117-118). In some acts the Greek appear. In others the podesta appears. And several acts contain very complicated affairs. Even if his role as interpreter was not mentioned in the act, it would be possible that his linguistic ability was needed. 22 Ibid., n. 15, pp. 60-61. Other than this, He appears as witness in n. 28 (pp. 78-79). In n. 28 it is mentioned in the source that the Greek contractor is capable of Latin very well. Perhaps Niccolo Moscambario would be there not for the earnest necessity of interpreter but for the supervision. 23 Ibid., n. 10, pp. 51-52; The case of Maria de Lixa, whose late father Francesco Marini has Genoese surname and wife of Michil Carcogi Sergia who is absent. The interpreter is Vatacis de Focea; Ibid., n. 16, pp. 61-62; The same case of Maria de Lixa (see n. 10). Her husband is also absent. The interpreter is Martino de Clarentia. Ibid., n. 37, pp. 91-92; The same case of Maria de Lixa (see n. 10 and n. 16) whose husband is absent. The interpreter is master Micael. Ibid., n. 50, pp. 107-109; The case of Anna Vestarchisa widow of Cheseni Canavucci. The interpreter is Sidero Criti Scharamanga, the Greek. 24 Ibid., n. 10, n. 16 25 Ibid., n. 50. 26 Ibid., n. 37. 144 Y. KAMENAGA-ANZAI

Feature 4: The private interpreter for women often also have a role as called counselor, (consiliator in Latin). The use is a Genoese custom in case that women would do something legal and contractive and they are often her or her husband’s relatives or neighbors.27 Through these features, we can suggest the demand of private interpreter. The linguistic demand for this role is the translation between mutual Latin and Greek. The most demand for this role is in the women whose husband does not exist or is not absent. And then, the interpreter is tied with the Genoese counselors system for women in the colonial world. In the colonial world, people act and express themselves with more multiple roles.

V. A little conclusion

Through this paper, we notice some tendencies of Genoese network. In spite of the depression and the crisis for the Genoese world, people’ s private energy has also continued in Genoese system. The aspects that I treated now are those most of whom have not refered to yet in the research about the medieval Genoese colonial world and their society. In this paper I analyzed through only a little example. I hope further progress about these aspects through more contracts in the Genoese colonial world.

Table 1 the place name in the family name of contractor (other than Genoa and Chios)

(the name of county Southern Eastern Mediterranean Western Liguria Eastern Liguria Northern and Central Italy others in Italy) Italy or Romania Nice Salza di Pinerolo (Piemonte) Ischia Geras bay Ragusa Ventimiglia Portofino Rivarola Canavese (Piemonte) Tarlanto Izmir Zara San Remo Solio (Piemonte) Caffa Barcelona Albenga Cesena (Emilia-Romania) Pera Cadiz PietraLligure Portovenere Piacenza (Emilia-Romania) Cyprus Finale Ligure Runi Varsi (Emilia-Romania) Alexandria Franders Noli Sarzana Pisa (Tuscan) Jubail Larache Savona Calcinaia (Tuscan) Arenzano Firenze (Tuscan) Voltri Siena (Tuscan) Sanpierdarena Padova (Veneto) Umbria (Umbria) Gaeta (Lazio) Roma (Lazio) Poggio (Marche)

27 Ibid., in n.10, the consiliatores are Michali Carvogni scrigni and Vatacis de Focea, above-mentioned interpreter. They are the relatives and neighbors of Maria de Lixa’ s husband; in n. 16, the consiliatores are Teodrus Cavogni Scrigni and Nichiforus Coresi Cavali, notary. They are Maria de Lixa’s relatives and the neighbors of her husband; In n. 37, the consiliatores are above-mentioned master Michiel, notary and interpreter, and Iane Francopolo Damala. The are Maria de Lixa’s relatives and the nibors of her husband. In n. 50, the consiliatores are Michilis Critis Triandusilis and Siderus Critis Scharamanga, above- mentioned interpreter. They are the relatives of Anna Vestarchisa and their outstanding Latin ability are mentioned in the act. AN ASPECT OF THE GENOESE NETWORK AND ITS COLONIAL WORLD IN THE MIDDLE AGES 145

Table 2-1 creditor, debtor, amount, and place name where is obliged to pay, to guarantee to pay, or for solictation

source N. creditor debtor amount unit of amount content place 6 Genoese citizen Genoese citizen 504 ducati d’ oro solictation Pera, Famagusta, Chios, Genoa Romania, Constantinople, Rhodes, 19 Genoese citizen burgensis in Chios 150 ducati d’ oro payment Cyprus, Pera, Romania, Smyrna (Ismil). 20 Genoese citizen Giustiniani family 200 ducati d’ oro payment Rhodes, Finale Ligure, Savona, or Genoa. Genoese citizen Genoa, Sacona, Finale Ligure, 39 Noli 137 libra genoese payment (notary) Nice or Romania (half of amount) 45 2 Jew 2 Giustiniani 2669 ducati d’ oro guarantee Romania, Toscana, Lombardia Romania, Smyrna, Rhodes, 46 Genoese citizen burgensis in Chios 100 ducati d’ oro payment Efessos, Genoa, Savona Savona, Finale Ligure, Romania, 47 Genoese citizen burgensis in Chios 50 ducati d’ oro payment Cyprus, Rhodes, Smyrna Pisa, Savona, Romania, 54 Genoese citizen Genoese citizen 23lib.12 sol. libra genoese payment Constantinople (half of amount) Genoese citizen Genoa (within 1 month), 56 Genoese citizen 550 libra genoese payment (notary) Romania, Cyprus, Pisa, Savona Arenzano (suburb Arenzano (suburb Romaia, Constantinople, Pisa, 73 55 libra genoese payment of Genoa) of Genoa) Savona, Genoa #about n. 6, Chios (receive), Pera (pay, change), payment for wool #about n. 19, 20, 46, 47, the same creditor (procurator of a widow) #about 2. 20, The Giustiniani are dominant family in maona in Chios. 146 Y. KAMENAGA-ANZAI

Table 2-2 The area in the place name in Table 2-1

source N. Black Sea, Aegean Sea Eastern mediterranean Liguria 6 Pera Genoa Famagusta Chios 19 Romania Finale Ligure Constantinople Savona Rhodes Genoa cyprus 20 Pera Finale Ligure Romania Savona Smyrna Genoa Rhodes 39 Romania Genoa Savona Finale Ligure Nice 45 Romania Tuscan Lombardy 46 Romania Genoa Smyrna Savona Rhodes Ephesus 47 Romania Savona Cyprus Finale Ligure Rhodes Smyrna 54 Romania Savona Pisa Constantinople 56 Romania Savona Pisa Cyprus Genoa 73 Romania Genoa Pisa Constantinople Savona