明道學術論壇3(2)：91-102(2007) MINGDAO JOURNAL 3(2)：91-102(2007) Copyright©2007 MINGDAO UNIVERSITY

The Significance of Pragmatics

Grace Hui Chin Lin Assistant Professor of Department of Applied English Studies, MingDao University

Abstract The education of pragmatics is necessary and important in our globalized world. The reason is that English is currently used by people in the world for interaction and communi- cation with each other in order to do international trade or participate in the academic con- ferences (McKay, 2002). For avoiding miscommunication caused by cultural difference, being familiar with diverse cultures and pragmatics is essential. Studies of Pragmatics em- phasize the appropriateness in inter-cultural discourses. Through learning pragmatics, the English speakers’ intercultural communication competence should be raised. Their Prag- matic Competence would be better because of knowing cultural differences and being aware of the significance in appropriate languages. In other words, the teaching and learning of pragmatics would release the difficulties of international communications for both native and non-native speakers.

Keyword: Pragmatic Competence, Mutual Comprehension, Linguistic Competence, Glob- alized World, Speech Acts

通訊作者. Tel.：04 728 3321 Fax：04 722 6123 E-mail：[email protected]

91 The Significance of Pragmatics／Grace Hui Chin Lin

globalized world. INTRODUTION PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE: Kasper (1997) argues that a further as- A SIGNIFICANT COMPO- pect of students' pragmatic competence is NENT IN COMMUNICATIVE their awareness of what is, and is not appro- COMPATENCES priate in the given contexts. About this point he has mentioned, pragmatics is a field of Many scholars explore the close rela- knowledge that makes people know how to tion between pragmatics competence and appropriately achieve the mutual compre- English proficiency in their researches and hension, and politely face the challenges, studies. For example, Crystal (1997) empha- that are caused by the miscommunication sizes that the pragmatics knowledge is nec- and misunderstanding in international situa- essary and useful in second language learn- tions. ing. He proposes that pragmatics is the study Truly, people in different cultures have of language form and the point of view of a need of accomplishing the appropriateness users, especially of the choices they make, and politeness in English as an International/ the constraints they encounter in using lan- English as a Foreign Language (EIL/EFL) guage in social interaction, and the effects communication. Therefore, in order to speak their use of language has on other partici- to people from different areas around the pants in the act of communication. world effectively and politely, English na- I think another way the pragmatics tive and non-native speakers have to be should be interpreted, is that pragmatics is a trained with pragmatics that involves diverse field of knowledge that can be recognized as cultures and languages. a socio-cultural context study in intercultural I believe that English speakers need to communication. I mean that the pragmatics be not only proficient in linguistic compe- knowledge indicates that English native and tence, but also in pragmatics knowledge. non-native speakers need to have a broader They need to be informed with issues of focuses in their English interactions, includ- cultural disagreements, which include issues ing the focuses of grammar structure and of politeness, appropriateness, and speech vocabulary accuracy, the considerations of act strategies in communication. In a word, speech appropriateness, and the different the teachers should educate students to learn cultural issues. pragmatics in order to integrate themselves into different international environments and interact with foreigners appropriately in our

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SPEECH ACTS EIL/EFL speakers will be more sensitive to people’s intentional meanings embedded in From a perspective of functions in lan- international interaction. They can also learn guages, communications for various par- to be proficient in reacting to the EIL/EFL ticular purposes are categorized into many speakers’ interlocutions in an effective and specific “speech acts”. According to Kasper comprehensive fashion. and Rose (1999), communication action includes not only using speech acts such as INTERCULTURAL INTER- apologizing, complaining, complimenting, ACTION and requesting, but also engaging in differ- ent types of discourse and participating in From the perspective of EIL/EFL in- speech events of varying length and com- teraction, there is not a cultural or a lan- plexity. guage which are better than the others. For Their statement actually means that the this point, Rose and Kasper (2001) argue dissimilar types of functional languages can that the best thing pragmatists can do for be created by concerning the language com- English speakers is to operate with a differ- plexities from aspects of grammatical accu- ent hypothesis rather than with a deficit hy- racy, sociolinguistic competence, and strate- pothesis. I think that Rose and Kasper (2001) gic communication competence. Therefore, have pointed out that the non-native English for facing the challenges in the intercultural speakers, and even native speakers should communications, English speakers need to learn pragmatics by describing and explain- learn techniques and strategies in speech ing interlanguage communication from a acts in order to accomplish goals of estab- universal and intercultural perspective, lishing closer interpersonal relations and rather than stereotype the native-like English completing tasks efficiently through suitable as a standard form of communication. languages. Accordingly, when learning pragmatics, there is no limitation of how many foreign ADVANTAGE OF LEARN- cultures a learner should learn. I might say ING PRAGMATICS the more cultural learned the better, if a learner can absorb sufficient intercultural In fact, one of the advantages in learn- knowledge. Similarly, there is also no re- ing pragmatics is that the learners can inter- straint of how many assumptions of inten- pret the meanings of language from a tional meanings a learner should make when broader intercultural aspect. Through estab- interacting in international situations. lished pragmatics foundation in mind, The reason is that adequate assump-

93 The Significance of Pragmatics／Grace Hui Chin Lin tions made through a more complete prag- FOR AVOIDING MISUN- matics knowledge foundation would attrib- DERSTANIND AND MIS- ute to a correct judgment of the intentional COMMUNICATION meanings in intercultural communications. To conclude, one significant issue of prag- From views of House, Kasper, and matics is that there are no classical and Rose (2003), the pragmatics is a type of standard patterns in each speech act of Eng- knowledge that makes people detect the in- lish. Therefore, the EFL/EIL speakers have tercultural interaction structures and speech to raise their consciousness about various act strategies in order to resolve problems of types of speech acts which are based on a misunderstanding encountered in the inter- structure and convention paragon of another national social settings. Through pragmatics different culture. training, English speakers should be able to For this point, Rose (2001) in one of perceive different interpretations of his studies argues that “pragmatics con- cross-cultural languages, and get accus- sciousness raising is basically an inductive tomed to assorted conventions, structures, approach to develop a general awareness of and forms in speech acts in the other cul- how language forms are used appropriately tures. in context” (p. 171). Accordingly, the goal of We all know that different customs of pragmatic learning that Rose points out is dialogues patterns sometimes would cause that English speakers must be familiar with confusions or embarrassment. Misunder- different suitable forms based on intercul- standing and miscommunication caused tural knowledge, but not transform the from cultural gaps actually can be avoided speaking into a certain standard type of lan- by sufficient knowledge of pragmatics. guage. Therefore, the teachability of pragmatics is In other words, Rose (2001) reveals more and more noticed these years. Through that pragmatics is a study, which makes the being informed about the cultural alterna- learners comprehend that language varieties tiveness, language learners would be capable do exist in various speech acts of EIL/EFL in dealing with cultural diversities and in communications. Pragmatics is also a study, making compromise when talking with peo- which makes the learners accommodate to ple from different language backgrounds. diverse kinds of flexible colloquies in Indeed, the English speakers’ construc- EFL/EIL communication. tion of their pragmatics knowledge is a sig- nificant factor why they can interact and communicate effectively and appropriately in their social life. In reality, for participat-

94 明道學術論壇，3(2)：91-102 (2007) ing international activities as a decent and various strategies of speech acts. Actually, polite member in the current globalized so- everyone is able to provide misunderstand- ciety, the English speakers need to constitute ing examples of pragmatics that indicate the a concept of interaction structures and politeness and appropriateness issues in speech act strategies in cross-cultural inter- communication of his/her original cultures action. Then, they can work, and cooperate (Bardovi-Harlig, 1996). Since cultural con- with foreigners politely and efficiently. tradictions do exit in different countries, everyone is an expert of his/her own lan- HOW PRAGMATICS MIGHT guage and culture. BE TAUGHT According to Bardovi-Harlig (1996), everyone who works with a second or for- Since the pragmatics is a significant eign language, whether learners, teachers, or field of second language learning, many researchers, knows some interesting stories researchers have provided language teachers of miscommunication and misunderstanding and learners’ different approaches, methods, in cross-cultural situations. and strategies for pragmatics education. As I Therefore, through referring to the ex- see it, demonstrating the culture differences amples of miscommunication aroused by through dialogue examples, comparing and cultural difference, English speakers might contrasting the different strategies that dif- be able to avoid the rude or ineffective lan- ferent cultures apply, and learning with sce- guages from perspectives of the other cul- narios and role play are three effective ap- tures. Furthermore, many examples that proaches of teaching pragmatics. demonstrate the cross cultural miscommu- Additionally, I believe that the prag- nication are actually very interesting, which matics training should start at the beginning attributes to stimulating the learner’s moti- of a learner’s English learning, because vation for learning pragmatics. pragmatics education is a significant factor Hint Strategy of Request Speech Act why a person can apply English in According to Weizman (1985), prag- cross-culture communication in a polite at- matics can be taught through speech act titude, even though the learner can only in- strategies in different cultures. For example, teract and communicate in a basic level of for teaching “request” speech act in prag- English proficiency. matics, the “hint” strategy needs to be in- Demonstration through Examples troduced to the learners. The reason is that, Firstly, learning from the examples is a the “hint” strategy is applied in many coun- method that teachers and students can apply ties as a conventional method, for example, to learn the intercultural differences, and countries in Asia.

95 The Significance of Pragmatics／Grace Hui Chin Lin

Hence, English speakers need to be in- ferent cultures do make language learner formed for learning different strategies of gain their opportunity of distinguishing dif- request speech acts of the other cultures and ferent types of appropriate and polite con- learn to raise their awareness of the hidden text. request functions in the languages. In other If these conventional forms and expres- words, if the speakers do not previously sions of various cultures can be displayed by learn the pragmatics, some request speech the implicit video demonstration to the Eng- act might sound like gossips to them. That is lish learners, they might be able to review to say, without learning pragmatics, people the explicit illustrations and explanations might refuse the others without knowing learned from the teachers and apply the rules they just reject to offer people who need learned in classroom in the real situations, their aid. especially in international situations. As a matter of fact, traditional forms of Demonstration through Comparison and request speech act in another country can Contrast not be easily distinguished without prag- What’s important, many scholars matics education. Hence, the strategies of agreed that the successful pragmatics teach- speech act need to be taught with examples ing and learning can be achieved by com- that demonstrate various types of request paring and contrasting examples of different forms in order to raise students’ awareness cultures. Through comparing the similarities of intentional request meanings produced by and contrasting the differences between tar- the speakers. get language speakers’ and non-native Demonstrating by Video Tape speakers’ speech acts and language produc- Besides explicit strategies and exam- tions, the non-native speakers can be very ples, another way to facilitate the learners' clear about what are the native-like forms ability to find socially appropriateness in and what are the intercultural forms (Bar- English communication is through implicit dovi-Harlig, 1996; Kasper & Schmidt, 1996; video demonstration. According to Tateyama, Kasper & Rose, 1999). Kasper, Mui, Tay, and Thananart (1997), the In an empirical study of Rose (2001), implicit video demonstration is a more ef- he reveals that “Hong Kong English bilin- fective way of displaying language expres- guals, especially in direct request contexts sions. I totally agree that designing the video that would be inappropriate to people in the watching into the English learning curricu- United States” (p. 173). As a Chi- lum is very necessary since the films that nese/English bilingual myself, I believe that audibly and visibly offer target language most of the Chinese English speaker would learners the “rules" and “strategies” of dif- tend to avoid miscommunication if they had

96 明道學術論壇，3(2)：91-102 (2007) a chance to learn about intercultural diver- played and contrasted as well. For example, sity. I think that most of the misunderstand- the teacher might show the different orienta- ings are caused by lack of pragmatics educa- tions of speakers and learners and tell the tion. students that saying “Can I…?” is from the Because of the exist of invisible cul- perspective of the speaker and “Can tural differences in our global village, as an you…?” is from the perspective of the English educator as well as a Pragmatics hearer. researcher, I strongly suggest that the lan- Teaching through Role Play guage trainers have to develop the learners’ Beside the pedagogies mentioned pragmatic knowledge, and clarify for them above, teaching pragmatics through scenar- what is appropriate and inappropriate in re- ios and role-plays is also an applicable tech- quest speech through contrasting the differ- nique. Actually, a Japanese researcher, Ta- ences between the target language forms and kahashi (2001) displayed several situations the intercultural language forms in different that the students can use to discuss the ap- speech acts. propriate speech act languages. They are Demonstrating Speeches Created by Peo- request situations like making an appoint- ple from Different Backgrounds ment with professor, extending the paper Inspired by the comparing and con- submit due date, makeup exam for a course, trasting methods, I think that the different and requesting the professor to revise papers. types of speech forms according to different He believed that through the situational social status and different speaker and hearer variables, the request dialogues can be writ- orientations in request speech act can be ten according to students’ selected roles. In learned. For example, the appropriate lan- the role-play with scenarios, students can guage used by people in their high or low practice to use the appropriate language that social statuses can be displayed. The input conveys their intended meanings and ex- offered by teachers to contrast the two pressions of request. Besides gaining an statuses should be taught. opportunity of practicing what had been Teacher might tell the student that the learned in class, I think that the role play is a indirect form, such as “Could you relaxing way of learning that stimulates stu- please …?” is for low status people to re- dents’ learning motivations for pragmatics. quest the higher status people. And, the di- rect form, such as “Can you …?” is for high IMPORTANTCE OF PRAG- status people to request the lower status MATICS people. Additionally, the different perspec- tives used to make requests form can be dis- In fact, although many pedagogies of

97 The Significance of Pragmatics／Grace Hui Chin Lin teaching pragmatics have been provided and showing politeness. I think another reason discussed, the importance of pragmatics has why this topic of request is important is be- not been emphasized in a level that it needs cause it is not easy for us to request the oth- to be emphasized. According to Kasper ers and achieve mutual benefits for both the (2001), pragmatics has played a consider- requesters and the listeners. The speakers able role in first and second language class- might have to learn how to request in vari- room research, but classroom research has ous cultures, and then they can depend on played only a minor role in Interlanguage the situation and select a proper request pragmatics thus far. form. From my perspectives, I believe that In fact, Blum-Kulka, House, and the pragmatics needs to be taught from the Kasper (1989) also raise the awareness for very first year that language learners study a the listeners and the speakers about the target language. Especially, the issues of face-threatening to both the requester and politeness and appropriateness need to be the recipient in his study. He believes that taught. My reason is that the language the recipient might feel that the request is an learners need not only to learn the language intrusion on his/her freedom of action or itself, but also need to notice the importance even a power play. Accordingly, the English of politeness and appropriateness. learners need to learn how to be polite and That is, learning both the “language” appropriate when requesting the others. and the nice “attitude” of communication English learners need to save the face for should benefit the language learners, be- both sides according to their social posi- cause language learners can achieve their tions. communicative goal and fulfill their plan in Since a wrong form of request error international occasion only when they are obstructs good communication between able to interact in an appropriate manner and speakers, makes the speaker appear to be apply understandable language. abrupt or brusque in social interactions, and makes the speaker appear discourteous or EXAMPLE OF SPEECH ACT apathetic. Therefore, the learning of request IN REQUEST AND RECEIVE speech act is very necessary, because being outside the rules of language use or making Speeches acts of requesting and re- a pragmatic mistake may have various con- ceiving might clearly and completely mani- sequences. The following indicates the pos- fest several pragmatics issues, including the sible situations in request speech act. cultural gap, language difference among Actually, the relation strategy is a sig- various social statuses, and different ways of nificant issue in social context of language.

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A requester has to create the appropriate teners’ impositions of doing things are also request sentences according to the language significant elements of a decent request. intimate, friends/acquaintances, and stranger All in all, a pragmatic learner’s familiar situations. For example, the direct request level on the issues and strategies of prag- sentence such as “Hey, bring me a cup of hot matics accords with his/her intercultural tea. I feel so cold now” can be employed ability. When a person is able to practice the when talking to the requesters’ friends, ac- strategies and issues of request learned, we quaintances, but not to a stranger or a new can judge him as a person who can interpret friend. the intentions of a request speech and inter- Indeed, various types of opacity in re- act with an acceptable attitude in the inter- quest speech actually raised the complexity cultural situations without problem. of request strategies. Without learning how to clarify the opacity, some request intention CONCLUSION will not be figure out the listener. On the other hand, a person who made a request In conclusion, learning pragmatics can without using hint strategy may be consid- be a very interesting and challenging ex- ered to be a disrespectful individual. perience. The students can learn a lot of ex- pressions and interpretations of various CRUCUIAL ELEMENTS types of inter-cultural speeches. English TAKEN INTO CONSIDER- learners might feel interested in seeing many TATION IN SPEECH ACT OF different types of conventions, strategies, REQUEST AND RECEIVE and issues in different languages, places and peoples. Besides the strategies of request have been mentioned above, face, status, posi- REFERENCES tion, and imposition issues were also ele- ments that need to be taken in to consider Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1996) Pragmatics and when we make a request. First of all, the language teaching: Bringing pragmatics face-threatening is an element that main- and pedagogy together. In L. F. Bou- tains the confidence for both speakers and ton (Ed.), Pragmatics and language listeners. Secondly, the considerations of learning,Vol. 7, pp. 21-39. University the social status and position are also fac- of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign: Divi- tors of a successful and polite request. sion of English as an International Lan- Thirdly, the status and position that attrib- guage. ute to the power of language and the lis- Blum-Kulka, S., House. J. & Kasper, G.

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(1989) Cross-cultural pragmatics: Re- learning about request in Hong Kong. quest and apologies. Norwood, N. J.: In Culture in second language teaching Ablex. and learning, Eli, pp. 167-180. Cam- Crystal, D. (1997) English as a global lan- bridge: Cambridge University Press. guage. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- Rose, K. R. & Kasper G. (2001) Pragmatics sity Press. in language teaching. Cambridge: House, J., Kasper, G., & Ross, S. (2003) Cambridge University Press. Misunderstanding in social life: Dis- Takahashi, S. (2001) The role of input en- course approaches to problematic talk. hancement in developing interlangauge Harlow, U.K.: Longman/Pearson Edu- pragmatics competence. In K. Rose & cation. G. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in lan- Kasper, G. (1997) Can pragmatic compe- guage teaching. Cambridge University tence be taught? University of Hawaii, Press. pp. 171-199. Second Language Teaching & Curricu- Tateyama, Y. (2001) Explicit and implicit lum Center. teaching of pragmatic routines. In K. Kasper, G. (2001) Classroom research on Rose & G. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics interlanguage pragmatics. In K. Rose & in language teaching. Cambridge: G. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in lan- Cambridge University Press guage teaching. Cambridge: Cam- Tateyama, Y., Kasper, G., Mui, L., Tay, H., & bridge University Press. Thananart, O. (1997) Explicit and im- Kasper, G., & Rose, K. (1999) Pragmatics plicit teaching of pragmatics routines. and SLA. Annual Review of Applied In L. Bouton (Ed.), Pragmatics and Linguistics, Vol.19, pp. 81-104. language learning. University of Illi- Kasper, G., & Schmidt, R. (1996) Develop- nois, Urbana-Champaign: Division of mental issues in Interlanguage prag- English as an International Language. matics. Studies in Second Language Vol. 8, pp. 163-177. Acquisition, Vol.18, pp. 149-169. Weisman, E. (1985) Towards an analysis of McKay, S. L. (2002) Teaching English as an opaque utterances: Hints as a reques international language. Oxford: Oxford strategy. Theoretical Linguistics. University Press. Vol.12: 2/3, pp. 153- 163. Rose, K. R. (1999) Teachers and students

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語用學之重要性

林慧菁 明道大學應用英語系助理教授

摘 要

本文強調「語用學」的英語教育，在此全球化急遽加速的世代是無可避免的。 原因是 因 為近年 來，農、工、商業界與各類學術界之國際會議的與會人士們，皆是使用單一語言— 「英語」來交談。為了避免因文化差異所引起的種種誤會，學習「多元文化」及「語用學」 在第二個千喜年剛剛過不久後的今天，變得刻不容緩。「語用學」使我們了解到，甚麼樣的 對話才算是合宜的跨文化交流。本文中、明道大學應用英語系助理教授林慧菁，特別大聲 呼籲，「英語教育者，對於提升學習者之跨文化交流能力一事，應該要感覺到責無旁貸。尤 其是成年的語言學習者，一定要知道有關各國、文化、種族之間，表達方式及語言意涵上 的暗示性與差別性，進而懂得如何運用恰當且禮貌的語言。」 換言之，筆者認為「語用學」 的英語課程綱要，有必要被具體地設計與真正落實，因為，唯有深入地理解及體諒「文化 差異」，才能幫助「母語者」與「非母語者」，於國際友人間的跨文化互動中，避免因彼此 語言認知上的差異而引起的溝通誤解及障礙。

關鍵詞: 語用學能力, 雙向理解, 語言學, 全球化, 話語的行為

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