Haim Fireberg Antisemitic Perceptions and JewishSense of Belonging

The beginning of 2017 was characterized by asurge of bomb threats to Jewish community centers and throughout the United States. The count was in the hundreds. “‘These are regular occurrences now,with afrequency that’sbeen increased and on ascale that’sbeen increased,’ Elise Jarvis, associ- ate director for lawenforcement outreach and communal securityatthe Anti- Defamation League [ADL], told the Guardian.”¹ The Jewish publicattitude was that “incidents of hate targeting JewishAmericans have been on the rise since the November election, as have incidentstargeting Muslims, Mexicans, black Americans and immigrants. [Even though the ADL still] hesitated to link the re- cent threats … to election results.”² But manyAmerican were panicked and pointed to the extreme right as responsible, although without anyproof, because of theirsupport of the newlyelected president,Donald Trump.³ It wasnot asecretthatthe majorityofAmerican Jews weresupporters of the Democratic Party and wereinfavor of Hillary Clinton for presidencyover Trump.⁴ So the burst of threatscould onlyconfirm their presumptions that lib- eral life in the US was fading away under the new administration.⁵ An ADLre- port claimed of asharp increase in antisemitic violent manifestations—especially of bomb threats and desecration of cemeteries—since Trump was elected in No- vember 2016,apparentlyproved their fears. But this report was criticized as lean- ing on unreliable data thatonlyincurred and caused panic about daily antisem-

 J. Lartey, “Jewish Community Centers in US Receive nearly50Bomb Threats in 2017 so far,” TheGuardian,February 4, 2017,https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/feb/04/us-jewish- community-centers-bomb-threats.  Ibid.  Cf. E. Strauss, “The JCCBomb Threats Confirm That Jewish Parents AreRight to Be Afraid,” Slate,January 19,2017, https://slate.com/human-interest/2017/01/the-jcc-bomb-threats-confirm- that-jewish-parents-are-right-to-be-afraid.html.  Cf. R. Shimoni Stoil, “ Voted70%–25%infavor of Clinton over Trump, Poll Shows,” TheTimes of ,November 10,2016,https://www.timesofisrael.com/american- jews-voted-70 -25-in-favor-of-clinton-over-trump-poll-shows/.  Cf. M. Smith, “Anonymous Bomb Threats Rattle Jewish Centers Across Eastern U.S.,” New York Times,January 9, 2017,https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/09/us/bomb-threats-jewish-centers. html.

OpenAccess. ©2021Haim Fireberg, published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative CommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110671995-020 394 Haim Fireberg itic threats among Jews.⁶ The American JewishCommittee’s(AJC) extensive sur- veyfrom April 2019 reveals that the vast majority of American Jews feel that an- tisemitism in the US is in its peak over the lastdecade, even though most of the participants testified thatpersonally they had not experienced anyantisemitic manifestations, neither physicallynor online.⁷ The Kantor Center,atTel Aviv University(TAU), which has analyzed worldwide over the lasttwen- ty-five years, has not identifiedany major differences in violent antisemitism in the US over the last few years.⁸ This kind of paradoxshould be studied in depth, and Ihavechosen to do so by analyzingthe well-documented European Jewry’s experience. Reviewing antisemitic violent incidents worldwide reveals that the aftermath of Jewish hatred is constantlythriving.Whilst studying and comparing contem- porary antisemitism in EU Member States, several peculiarities, almost paradox- es, can be identified. One of them hints that the level of violent antisemitism, as shown by the number of violent incidents, does not necessarilyindicate the level of antisemitic sentiment.Itcould be considered as anecessary condition in de- fining antisemitismbut undoubtedlynot asufficient one. This article analyzes the contradictory factors that influencethe understanding of antisemitism by in- dividuals,organizations, and states using the latest empirical evidence available. In late 2012,the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA)con- ducted asurvey on antisemitism in eight EU Member States (the United King- dom, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Sweden, Hungary, and Latvia).⁹ An ex- tended follow-up survey and research is taking place in 2018, in which thirteen MemberStates are taking part,includingAustria, who did not partici-

 As an expert on violent antisemitism and the researcherincharge in the KantorCenter,TAU, for analyzing antisemiticviolence, Ihaveshown that in the five months followingthe elections, therewas no increase in threats or desecration incidents in comparison to the eight previous years of President Obama’sadministration. Our yearlyreportshaveshown that therewereno dramatic changesinviolenceoverthe years. Cf. “Annual Reports on Worldwide Antisemitism,” Kantor Center for the StudyofContemporary European Jewry,last updated 2020,accessed Oc- tober 28,2020, https://en-humanities.tau.ac.il/kantor/rerearch/annual_reports.InMarch 2017, it was alreadyclear that the majority of the bomb threats were ahoax.  Cf. “AJCSurvey of American Jews on Antisemitism in America,” American Jewish Committee, issued October 2019,accessed October 28,2020, https://www.ajc.org/sites/default/files/pdf/ 2019-11/2019AntisemitismSurvey-Book_11.19.pdf.  Fordata, see the KantorCenter’s “Annual Reports on Worldwide Antisemitism.”  Cf. EU Agencyfor Fundamental Rights (FRA), and Hate Crime against Jews in EU Member States:Experiences and Perceptions of Antisemitism,issued November 8, 2013,ac- cessed October 28,2020, https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-2013-discrimination-hate- crime-against-jews-eu-member-states-0_en.pdf. Antisemitic Perceptions and Jewish Sense of Belonging 395 pate in the original survey.¹⁰ The survey reachedout to 5,847Jews, and the re- sults werepublishedinNovember2013.Sixty-six percent of the participants de- clared that antisemitism in their countries is “abig problem” or “afairlybig problem.” The most concernedgroup to see antisemitism as ahugeproblem werethe Hungarian Jews (90 %), and almost neck-and-neck werethe French Jews (85%). On the otherhand, in the UK (52%) and Latvia(54%), most of the respondents agreed thatantisemitism is “not avery big problem” or “not aproblem at all.”¹¹ The survey has shown that the diversity of antisemitic per- ceptions are not divided along geographic lines. Although country differencesexist,the biggerpicture reveals that more than three-quarters (76%)ofthe overall participants think that antisemitism “has worsened over the past five yearsinthe country wherethey live.”¹² France and Hungary lead this perception—Hungary with 91%and France with 88 %. But alsointhe UK, whereonlyaminoritybelieved that antisemitismisareal problem, 66%ofparticipantsstill agreed thatthe situation has worsened. In Lat- via, only39% claimed so.¹³ In France and Hungary,whereaccordingtothe FRA surveyantisemitism is a considerable problem, the levels of antisemitic violence based on TelAvivUni- versity[TAU] publications¹⁴ sharplydiffer.InFrance, between the years 2009 and 2015,werecorded ayearlyaverage of 142violent incidents. In Hungary, on the other hand, the seven-year averagewas around nine incidentsonly. It seems that violence alone cannot explains the fact that in both countries the sense of insecurity is amajor factor in contemporary Jewish life. In the UK and Latvia, wherethe Jewishpopulation estimatedalmost no problems with antisemitism, TAUdata reveal an even more astonishingsitua- tion: in sharp contrasttoLatvia wherethe recorded averageofviolent incidents from 2009 until 2015 was onlyone, the averageyearlyamount in the UK was 144. The UK infamouslyholds the European record.

 Cf. EU Agencyfor Fundamental Rights (FRA), “Major EU Antisemitism Survey Planned for 2018,” issued December 13,2017, accessed October 28,2020, https://fra.europa.eu/en/news/ 2017/major-eu-antisemitism-survey-planned-2018. The countries coveredare:Austria, Belgium, Denmark,France, Germany, Hungary,Italy, Latvia, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Sweden, and the UK.  FRA, Discrimination and HateCrime,16.  Ibid.  Cf. ibid., 17.  Data on violent antisemitic events is based mostlyonthe TAUannual analysesthat have been published yearlyfor the last 26 years by the Kantor Center for the StudyofContemporary European Jewry. 396 Haim Fireberg

Violent antisemitism is not aproblem in Latvia and matches the FRA survey results. In Hungary,with alarge Jewishpopulation (the third largest in after France and Britain), almost all the targets wereJewish facilities and memo- rial sites and not human beings.Would it be right to assume that neither the total sum of violent cases in Hungary nor their natureshould be considered as an ex- planationtothe outcome of the survey;that is, antisemitism in Hungary is flour- ishing and is “abig problem”?¹⁵ The year 2015 presented anew notorious record in murderous antisemitic vi- olence in Europe. Just to mention three: the attack that occurred in Paris on Jan- uary 9, whereanIslamist killed four Jewishshoppers at akosher supermarket; the attack on the central in Copenhagen in February whereasecurity guard was murdered and two others wereinjured by an Islamist gunman; and in Manchester in September,four Jewish boys werebrutallybeaten and severelyin- jured in an antisemitic attack. Although the state of violent antisemitism in France and the UK has alot in common, the surveyshows thatthe people in both countries understand the problem differently. If it is thereforenot the extent of violence that generates the sameanxiety towardantisemitism, what could France and Hungary—for instance—have in common that makes the Jews there very concernedwith “the problem of antisem- itism”? In January 2015,inthe wake of the Paris massacres,the French PM, Manuel Valls, recalled the visions of the French Revolution: “The choice was made by the French Revolution in 1789 to recognize Jews as full citizens. To understand what the idea of the republic is about,you have to understand the central role playedbytheemancipation of the Jews. It is afounding principle.” Valls did not try to defend the current situation in France; on the contrary,hespoke sharp-

 Antisemitism Worldwide 2014: General AnalysisDraft,ed. D. Porat (:KantorCenter of the StudyofContemporary European Jewry,2014), https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/ images/kantorfull.pdf; Antisemitism Worldwide 2013: General AnalysisDraft,ed. Stephen Roth Institutefor the StudyofContemporary Antisemitism and (Tel Aviv:Kantor Center of the StudyofContemporary European Jewry,2013). In Hungary,14violent incidents against Jews were recorded in 2013,and 15 in 2014.In2013,116 of violent manifestationswererecorded in France; in 47 cases persons had been attacked (41% of the cases). One hundred sixty-four incidents were recorded in 2014,88(54%) of them targetedpersons.Inthe UK, 95 violent inci- dents wererecorded in 2013,63ofwhich (67%)targeted persons.In2014, the overall violent in- cidents were 141, 82 (58%) against persons. Antisemitic Perceptions and Jewish Sense of Belonging 397 ly and bitterly: “If … 100,000 Jews leave,France will no longer be France. The French Republic will be judgedafailure.”¹⁶ Although Valls was known for his warmattitudes towardFrench Jews, his decisive words should alsobeunderstood in connection with the continuous emotional erosion that manyFrench Jews have about the being French citizens and practicing open at the sametime.For many,itwas onlythe tip of the iceberg; aprocess lasting almostadecade in which Jews felt thatthey are not onlyunderattack by vast groups of radical Muslims, but that the main political groups,primarilyfrom the French Left abandoned them. ApopularJewish opin- ion is that there is an unholy—although undeclared publicly—alliance between French radical Left and Muslim extremists against acommon enemy—the Jewish community in France for an alleged unequivocal support of Israel.¹⁷ When such aconnection is being made,evencasual criticism of Israeli policy towardatwo- state solution becomes antisemitic in natureand involves calls to Boycott,Di- vestment,and Sanctions[BDS] on Israel, while it is illegal accordingtoFrench law.¹⁸ Ron Azogui, amember of the Service de Protection de la Communauté Juive [SPCJ] concluded:

Antisemitism in Francecannot be consideredanymoreasatemporary situation associated with the situation in the ; it is astructural problem that has not been foughtas such and has not been halted yet. … Forty percent of racist violenceperpetrated in France in 2013 targeted Jews.However,Jews represent less than 1percentofthe Frenchpopulation. … [Webelieve] that antisemitic violencehas settled and is anchored in society.But the ag- gravating factor is that French Jews feel isolated in their fight against antisemitism. Aren’t the values that areattacked by this scourgeare those of awhole nation?¹⁹

Unfortunately, his rhetorical question as well as Valls’sremarks are still part of the French Jewish community’scommon experience.

 J. Goldberg, “French Prime Minister: If Jews flee, the Republic Will Be aFailure,” TheAtlan- tic,January 10,2015,https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2015/01/french-prime- minister-warns-if-jews-flee-the-republic-will-be-judged-a-failure/384410/.  In 2015,one of the prominent Jewish intellectuals in France, Shmuel Trigano, expressed this view in his publication: AJourney Through French Anti-Semitism (Spring,2015). Foronline sum- maries on Trigano’sattitudes,see: https://jewishreviewofbooks.com/articles/1534/a-journey- through-french-anti-semitism/, accessed October 28,2020.  Cf. J. Y. Camus, “France,” in Antisemitism Worldwide 2014: General Analysis Draft,ed. D. Porat (Tel Aviv:Kantor Center of the StudyofContemporary European Jewry,2014), https://www.je wishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/images/kantorfull.pdf, 63 – 66.  Stephen Roth Institute, Antisemitism Worldwide 2013,52. 398 Haim Fireberg

In Hungary,wefind thatthe quest for Hungarian national identity in the twenty-first century,the uncertainty about its common values and the place of minorities, includingJews, in this nation-state are central issues in Hungary’s discourse today. Dr.Rafi Vago,the renownedscholar, has thus described the sit- uation there:

deep divisions in Hungarian political life [could be found], between the center-right party Fidesz [the rulingparty], the extremist right wing party, Jobbik,and the liberal-left,over Hungary’spast.It…became atest case for the delicatebalanceand relationship between various parts of Hungarian society,the media and the political spectrum.²⁰

Vago stressed that standing in the center of the conflict was

the need to facethe fateofits almost 600,000 Jews whoperished in and eval- uate the inter-war and war time Horthyregime … The [recent years] … became [also] the focal point of strong differencesofopinion [about] the rise of antisemitism,and the govern- ment’shandlingofthose issues.²¹

Although the number of violent antisemitic incidents in Hungaryisrelatively small and rare,there are strongfeelings among the Jews. “Jews can now feel an- tisemitism in the streets,”²² stressed SchlomoKoves [Slomo Köves], the ex- ecutive Rabbi of the Unified Hungarian Congregation. Manyconsider that the bad atmosphere is the resultofthe nationalisticdiscourse, especiallythe revi- sionism of Hungary’sWorld WarIIpast:

The main danger in Hungary is the attempt to “whitewash” the anti-semitic past,rehabil- itate aspects of the Horthyera,emphasize Hungary’salleged loss of sovereignty in March 1944,with the German occupation, thus as attempt to relativize Hungary’sroleinthede- struction of its Jewry.²³

It is not adebate that takes place behindclosed doors and in academic circles only, but in the media and in public demonstrations as well. Afew examples in short:

 R.Vago, “Hungary,” in Antisemitism Worldwide 2014: General Analysis Draft,ed. D. Porat (Tel Aviv:KantorCenter of the StudyofContemporary European Jewry,2014), https://www.je wishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/images/kantorfull.pdf, 54.  Ibid.  Stephen Roth Institute, Antisemitism Worldwide 2013,44.  Ibid. Antisemitic Perceptions and JewishSense of Belonging 399

‒ In 2014,the government,ruled by Fidesz,erected astatue at Freedom Square, showing Germany’simperial eagle striking down on archangelGa- briel, Hungary’sguardian angel, symbolizing Hungary’sinnocenceversus Nazi aggression, in commemoration of March 19,1944,the date of the Nazi occupation of Hungary.Continuing opposition to the statue reflects the attitudes of wide segmentsofthe Hungarian public, not onlyamong Jews, that the statue deflects Hungary’sresponsibility for the Holocaust. The leading historian of the Holocaust in Hungary,and Holocaust survivor, Prof. Randolph L. Braham,returned aprestigious state award to the Hungar- ian government in protest of rewriting Hungary’shistory.²⁴ ‒ Another sourceofdispute is the project of the “House of Fates,” aplanned educational center and aHolocaust museuminthe eighth district,now home to manyJews. It became the focus of ongoingdebates claiming that the project’saims are not clear,that the voice of the Jewish community has not been taken into consideration.²⁵ Although the dispute has nothing to do with antisemitism per se, and manyprominent members of the Jewish community,although not the official ones, are involved in the project,the contemporaryopinion among the Jewishleadership in the Federation of Hungarian JewishCommunities [Mazsihisz]—and it is spreading down to the ranks—is of cessation from the government.²⁶

The FRA survey has shown manyparallels between French Jewry and Hungarian Jewry thatsupport the analysis above. Although France and Hungary differ in their political systems and civicethos, the willingness of Jewish citizens to em- igrate “because of not feelingsafe living there as aJew” in both countries is the highestaccordingtothe FRA survey: 48%ofHungarian Jews and 46%ofFrench

 Cf. Vago, “Hungary,” 54;R.L.Braham, “Hungary:The Assault on the Historical Memory of the Holocaust,” in The Holocaust in Hungary: SeventyYearsLater,ed. R. L. Braham and A. Ko- vacs(Budapest: Central European University Press,2016), 261–310.  Cf. “Budapest Politicians Tour New Holocaust Museum Described as Shocking,” Hungarian FreePress,May 7, 2015,http://hungarianfreepress.com/2015/05/07/budapest-politicians-tour- new-holocaust-museum-described-as-shocking/; Vago, “Hungary,” 55.  Foranupdateonthis controversy,see: “High-rankingFidesz Leader’sAnti-Semitic Com- ments Shakethe Hungarian Jewish Community,” Hungarian Spectrum,issued December 1, 2019,accessed October 28,2020, https://hungarianspectrum.org/tag/mazsihisz/. Another con- troversy was about the anti-George SoroscampaigninHungary that deepenedthe gapbetween the Government and the veteranJewish establishment headed todaybyAndras Heisler.Cf. R. Ahren, “Decrying ‘Betrayal,’ Hungary Jews SayNetanyahuIgnoringThem,” TheTimes of Israel, July 20,2017, https://www.timesofisrael.com/decrying-netanyahu-betrayal-hungary-jews-say- pm-ignoring-them/. 400 Haim Fireberg

Jews.²⁷ The feelingsofinsecurity led to an increasingdisbelief in the futureofthe community and has weakened the sense belongingtothe nation as it would be shown later on. While the twocountries differ in the overall number of violent antisemitic incidents, the fear of becomingavictim of threats, insults and verbal harassment—important factors in creatinganantisemitic environment—is very similar.Sixty‐five percent of Hungarian Jews and seventy-six percent of French Jews wereworried of being exposed to these kinds of attacks. The onlyactual differencewas found when they wereasked about their wor- ries of being personally attacked. Seventy-one percent of French Jews answered that they are worried, in comparison to forty‐three precent of Hungarian Jews. Indeed, this difference could be explained by their specific experiences.²⁸ On the other hand, Hungary has one unique factor—as 66%ofrespondents empha- sized—which is the vast exposure of individuals to antisemitism in the public sphere, first and foremost,bythe eagerness of mainstream politicians to adopt publiclyantisemitic attitudes and antisemitic rhetoric, something that al- most does not exist in French politics.²⁹ On the other side, we have the UK and Latvia. The FRA surveyrevealed, as was mentioned above, that 52 %ofUKJews believethat antisemitism is not,or almostnot aproblem in Britain. And it is the highest rate among the EU mem- bers. The Jewish PolicyResearch (JPR) concluded in wake of the survey: “[The British Jewishpopulation has] astrong sense of belongingtothe UK.”³⁰ There are several empirical indications that support this assumption, for example, 77%ofthe respondents declared that they “have not considered emigrating” be- cause of their fear of antisemitism.³¹ Knowing that the UK, accordingtoTAU data, has the highest rate of antisemitic violence in Europe, causes one to won- der how is it that onlyarelatively small proportion of UK respondents to the FRA survey claimed to be worried about being avictim of violence. Thirty-five percent wereworried of verbal harassmentand twenty-five percent wereworried of phys- ical attacks; the smallest rate of all participants in the survey.³² Even though the

 FRA, Discrimination and HateCrime,37.  Cf. ibid, 33.  Cf. ibid., 26.  M. Whine, “UnitedKingdom,” in Antisemitism Worldwide 2014: General AnalysisDraft,ed. D. Porat (Tel Aviv:Kantor Center of the StudyofContemporary European Jewry,2014), https://www. jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/images/kantorfull.pdf, 71.  Cf. FRA, Discrimination and Hate Crime,37.  Cf. ibid, 33.Itisinteresting that when askedabout their personal experience, the rate of those who have suffered from violenceisclimbingto19%.This is abovethe percentage of Lat- via’srespondents (16%) and Italy, with the lowest rate of people whoactuallysufferedfromvi- olence(12%). Antisemitic Perceptions and Jewish Sense of Belonging 401 number of violent antisemitic incidents in Britain is the highest among EU mem- bers, the sense of security of the , and their belief as shown in the survey,ofbeing integrated into the British society,are remarkable.³³ In comparison to France, aconsiderablylower rate of respondents claimed to be suffering from antisemitic attitudes in the public sphere or at social events. The surveyrevealed that UK Jews sense that manyinthe political establishment —at least when it comes to the Conservative Party and the more moderate repre- sentativesofthe Labour Party—are standing with them in fighting antisemitism and discrimination.³⁴ Concerns and questions have been raised in Britain recentlyabout the future of Jewish existenceinthe country.The sense of security was diluted in the wake of the murderous antisemitic incidents in 2014 (Brussels), and in 2015 (Paris, Co- penhagen, and Manchester), and the hate against the Jews shown in the streets of European capitals during the summer of 2014 and “Operation Protective Edge.” Aprominent Londoner lawyer,Hillary Freeman, summarizedthe popular feelings:

As aJew,Ifind this particularlyoffensive.It’stakingthe Holocaust—the greatesttragedyin the history of the Jewish people—and usingitasastick to beat us with. … Iamhorrified that my grandma, now 96,might live to see the country that gave her sanctuary over 70 years agobecome aplacethat is no longer safe for Jews.But the terrifyingtruth is that oncethe genie of antisemitism has been released from the bottle, it is almost impossible to put it back.³⁵

The Paris massacres have sentshock wavesthroughout the UK’sJewish society, and its members have been looking for reassurance to their civilian statusinthe

 My analysis totallyobjects to Jonathan Boyd’sconclusionthat “most European Jewish pop- ulations appear to feel astrong sense of belongingtothe countries in which they live,and most seem to be abletocomfortably manage the relationship between their Jewish and wider national identities.Eveninthe countries where levels of antisemitism arerevealed by these and other data to be highest, Jews feel remarkablyattached to the nations in which they live:over70per- cent of respondents in Hungary feel astrong sense of belongingtoHungary,and over 80 per cent of respondents in Francefeel astrong sense of belongingtoFrance.” J. Boyd, “Jewish Life in Europe: ImpendingCatastrophe, or Imminent ?,” Institutefor Jewish Policy Research, issued November 2013,accessed October 28,2020, https://archive.jpr.org.uk/down load?id=1491,12.  Cf. ibid, 26.  H. Freeman, “Why, as aBritish , I’mTerrified by the Anti-Semitism suddenlySweeping my Country,” The Daily Mail,August 9, 2018, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/debate/article- 2720381/Why-British-Jew-I-m-terrified-anti-Semitism-suddenly-sweeping-country.html. 402 Haim Fireberg

UK. In 2015,during ameetingwith Jewish Leaders, Cameron, PM, praised the sense of mutual solidarity and belongingthat unifies all Britons:

Iknow that everyone will be very concerned about what happened in Paris and the appal- ling attacks … Iwant to reassure youthat we will try and do everythingwecan to make sure that your organizations areproperlyengaged with our police and security servicesright across the board to see if thereisanythingmorewecan do to ensuresecurity … But I think we should use the momentum of those great demonstrations to emphasize what we areinthis country:avery successfulmulti-ethnic, multi-faith democracy.³⁶

In November2017, while celebrating acentenary to the , Theresa May, stressed thatthere

can be no excuses for anykind of hatred towards the Jewish people. Criticizingthe actions of Israel is never—and can never be—an excuse for questioningIsrael’sright to exist,any morethan criticizing the actions of Britain could be an excuse for questioning our right to exist.³⁷

The Jewishleadership has continuouslyplayeddown asurvey from January 2015,called the “Antisemitism Barometer”—criticizing it for severe methodolog- ical faults—which claimedthatalmosthalf of UK Jews are now consideringem- igrating.³⁸ By doing so, they also preferred to neglect the consequences from the changes of the Labour Party’sleadership, headed by JeremyCorbyn, its harsh new policies towardIsrael, and the antisemitism in the party’sranks.³⁹

 “Jewish Community Leaders Meet with Prime Minister David Cameron,” Jewish Leadership Council, issued January 13,2015,accessedOctober 28,2020, https://www.thejlc.org/jewish_ community_leaders_meet_with_prime_minister_david_cameron2.  R. Sanchez, “Theresa MaySaysthere Can Be ‘No Excuse’ for Anti-Semitism as she Marks Bal- four Centenary with Netanyahu,” TheTelegraph,November 2, 2017,https://www.telegraph.co. uk/news/2017/11/02/theresa-may-says-can-no-excuse-anti-semitism-marks-balfour-centenary/.  Cf. J. Lewis, “NearlyHalf of British Jews Saythey Have no FutureinEurope, StudyFinds,” TheJerusalem Post,January 14,2015,https://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/Nearly-half-of-British- Jews-says-they-have-no-future-in-Europe-study-finds-387693; “The Antisemitism Barometer,” Campaign Against Antisemitism,last updated2019,accessedOctober 28,2020, https://anti semitism.org/barometer/.  Cf. A. Borschel-Dan, “British Jews Fight to Regain the Labour Party they onceCalled ‘Fam- ily’,” TheTimes of Israel,November 9, 2017,https://www.timesofisrael.com/british-jews-fight-to- regain-the-labour-party-they-once-called-family/.For an extensive analysis of the contemporary relations between the British Left and the British Jews,see: D. Hirsh, ContemporaryLeft Antisem- itism (Milton: Routledge,2018); and also D. Rich, “Antisemitism in the RadicalLeft and the Brit- ish Labour Party,” Kantor Center Position Papers,issued January 2018, accessedOctober28, Antisemitic Perceptions and JewishSense of Belonging 403

Jonathan Arkush, the president of the Board of Deputies, has pushed for- ward the idea of reaching out to the growingMuslim society,offering to tighten the bond of citizenship and integration of British society,inorder to fortify again the sense of security among the UK Jewish population. In his words:

Iwant to meet Muslims and show them that Jews areactuallyhuman beings and youcan combine beingagood Muslim with beingagood British citizen and hopefullytakethem away frombeingatrisk of flirtingwith jihadi ideas.⁴⁰

Latvia, like Hungary and almostall post-Soviet States,dealsmainlywith its past in its quest for the future: the quest for anational identity. Violent antisemitism is almostanon-issueinLatvia. Unfortunatelyfor the small community,the ador- ation of the Latvian Nazi-eraSSunits and other Nazi collaborators became part of the national discourse of the new Latvia.⁴¹ Even so, ahighproportion of the respondents (68 %) in the FRA survey showed ahighsense of belongingand an- swered that they have “not considered emigrating.” On the one hand with sim- ilaritiestoHungary,wesee risingnationalism and the eulogizingoftheir own Nazi past,but on the other hand with similarities to the UK, we see adeclaration of trust in their homeland.⁴² The respondents wereasked to point to several statements that are “possible contexts for negative statements about Jews.” In almostevery possible “context,” the Latvian proportions werethe lowest.Every statement that involved public at- titudes or politicians’ attitudes against Jews had gotten alow rating;incontra- diction to France, Hungary,and even better than the UK’sresults.⁴³ The empiri- cal findings show that what is being considered from the outside as aneo-Nazi and nationalistic debate has not yetconverted into antisemitism and has not yet givenrise to anew generation of extreme antisemites. One more factor is that the Israeli-Arab conflict,which accordingtothe Latvian respondents has the small-

2020,https://en-humanities.tau.ac.il/sites/humanities_en.tau.ac.il/files/media_server/0001/ Dave%20Rich%20180128.pdf.  S. Linde, “New UK Jewish Leader: IWant to Meet Muslims,” TheJerusalem Post,June 25, 2015,https://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/New-UK-Jewish-leader-I-want-to-meet-Muslims-407127.  Cf. Stephen Roth Institute, Antisemitism Worldwide 2013;I.Cantorovich, “Post-Soviet Region in 2014,” in Antisemitism Worldwide 2014: General Analysis Draft,ed. D. Porat (Tel Aviv:Kantor Center of the StudyofContemporary European Jewry,2014), https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary. org/jsource/images/kantorfull.pdf, 19–20.  Cf. FRA, Discrimination and Hate Crime,37.  Cf. ibid, 26. 404 Haim Fireberg est influenceonantisemitic discourse or violence in comparison to France, Hun- gary,and the UK (14%,56%,49%,and 35%respectively).⁴⁴

Conclusion

Afew patterns have been found whilst studying and comparing contemporary antisemitism in four EU Member States,two from —France and UK—and two from Central and —Hungary and Latvia. ‒ The level of violent antisemitism, as is shown by the number of violent in- cidents, does not necessarilyindicate the state of antisemitic perceptions. Generally, it could be anecessary condition in defining an antisemitic at- mosphere but undoubtedlynot the onlyone. France and Britainhavethe highestlevel of recorded incidents, but their Jewish population’sself-percep- tion of antisemitism is almostthe opposite. The samecould have been indi- cated in Hungary and Latvia. Both countries have alow level of violent an- tisemitism, but their perceptions of antisemitism in their countries differ from each other. ‒ In both countries whererespondents have indicated thatantisemitism is a severe problem (i.e., France and Hungary),they show either ahighratio of estrangement from the ethos that have been chosen for national identity (Hungary), or demonstrate ongoing dissatisfaction from the state of civic consolidation and express worries about society’sdisintegration (France). In both Latvia and Britain there is ahigher level of confidenceinthe civic order,especiallyinBritain, and astrong belief that the British society is on the right path in dealingwith the challenges of . But confidenceingovernment and society,orlack of it,isonlyone part of the sufficientconditions. ‒ Frustration from the political establishment,from ruling parties, and from the solutions they supplyinorder to control violent antisemitism, but much more importantly,tosupplyacommon basis for all fractions of society to unite around, are the major factors in adopting harsh perceptions about antisemitism. Without belief in the future of the country,and without confi- dence thatJews are an important component of its society,Jews feel aban- doned.And this lack of confidenceisthe main sufficient condition in adopt- ing the hard antisemitic atmosphere. In the UK we have shown ahighlevel of cooperation between the authorities and the Jewishcommunity;inLatvia

 Cf. ibid, 24. Antisemitic Perceptions and JewishSense of Belonging 405

it was not adeclaredissue but empiricallygiven that no friction was found between the Jews and the government. But in France, though de facto, the authorities are trying their best to confront antisemitism and to find new paths to civic integration, the level of trust toward the political establish- ment is still very low.⁴⁵ Much of the same could still be said about Hungary. There are manysimilarities here also to the US Jewry experience and the di- vision over the Trump administration.

Haim Firebergisaresearch associate at the Kantor Center for the Study of Contem- poraryEuropean Jewry, TelAviv University and head of research programs at the Center.His main foci of research arethe urban historyofthe JewishYishuvin Palestine and during the first two decadesofthe State of Israel, and the study of virtual Jewishcommunities (maintaining Jewishand Israeli life in cyberspace). Firebergisalso active in monitoring and researching contemporary antisemitism, concentrating on Europe.

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