Construction of the Suez Canal

Home , Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez), Ferdinand de Lesseps, Geography of Egypt, Isthmus of Suez, Lake Manzala, Lake Timsah

INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

This paper was downloaded from the Online Library of the International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE). The library is available here: https://www.issmge.org/publications/online-library

This is an open-access database that archives thousands of papers published under the Auspices of the ISSMGE and maintained by the Innovation and Development Committee of ISSMGE. Construction of the Suez Canal

Mamdouh Hamza - Professor of Soil Mechanics and Foundations, Suez Canal University, Port-Said, Egypt & Chairman of Hamza Associates, Cairo, Egypt

ABSTRACT : This paper briefly describes the history of the great Canal at Suez, the engineering and construction challenges and the enormous obstacles which had to be overcome. The paper also highlights the principal role of De Lesseps, the fight between the French and English over ruling the world’s most important highway, the many sacrifices made by Egyptians and the evolution of the art of dredging.

RÉSUME: Ce document décrit enbref l’histoire du Canal de Suez, les défis d’ingénierie et, de construction, et les obstacles qui ont été surmontés. Il éclaire le rôle principal de De Lesseps, les luttes entre la France et l’Angleterre pour gouverner la voies la plus importante au monde, les sacrifices des Egyptiens et l’évolution de l’art de dragages.

1 INTRODUCTION for the purpose of transporting wheat from the Nile Valley to Mecca by water from Cairo to Jeddah via Suez. In 776 A.D., Abbasi Caliph Abu Jaafar Abdullah al Mansour The construction of the Suez Canal created the most important ordered the canal to be blocked at the junction between the canal highway in the world, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the and the Bitter Lakes to hinder the transport of supplies between Red Sea. The construction of the Canal created three cities; Port- Egypt and the inhabitants of Medina, who were at that time in Said, Ismailia and Suez; and created two main ports, Port-Said revolt against the Caliphate. and Suez. The Suez Canal project resulted in Egypt becoming It seems likely that these earlier canals were only navigable bankrupt in 1876 and being occupied in 1882. The canal was during the seasons of high Nile and that, for the rest of the year, nationalized in 1956, which led to the 1956 war between France, the level of water, which depended on the level of water in the England and Israel from one side and Egypt on the other side. Nile, was too low for the passage of ships of any size. Traces of these early canals were found both by Bonaparte’s surveyors during the French occupation at the end of the eighteenth century 2 THE HISTORY OF THE CANAL and fifly-five years later, by De Lesseps’ engineers during their preliminary surveys. Although these canals were not built for the purpose of 2.1 Antecedent Canals marine communication between the Mediterranean Sea and the According to Herodotus and Diodorus, the Pharaoh Nacho of the Red Sea, the knowledge that they had been built served as an XXVIth dynasty, who ruled Egypt between 609 and 593 B.C. inspiration and example, one thousand and more years later, to started to build a canal from the Pelusiac branch of the Nile those who began thinking and planning in terms of a canal for through the way of Wadi Tumulat, a natural depression running this purpose. east and west between the Nile delta and the Isthmus of Suez. Herodotus said that 100,000 Egyptians perished in the course of 2.2 The Development o f Plans for the Suez Canal digging this canal. The Canal was continued after the Persian conquest by The serious contemporary efforts that resulted in the evolution of Darius Hystapsis (52M86 B.C.) who again discontinued it the Suez Canal date back to the days of the French expedition. In fearing that if he cut through the Isthmus, Egypt would be 1798, Bonaparte accompanied by an impressive body of French flooded by sea water as the Red Sea was believed to be higher scientists, engineers, physicians, zoologists, agronomists, than mainland Egypt. At that time, the canal reached as far as the archaeologists and many others, formed themselves into an Bitter Lakes. “Institut d’Egypte” for the purpose of studying, documenting, The canal was finally completed by Ptolemy II and named and making recommendations about various aspects of Egyptian Philadelphus (285-246 B.C.). A port called Arsinoe was created life and culture. Among the schemes for the modernization of near the existing modem Suez. A lock was constructed with Egypt was the Suez Canal. Bonaparte made a personal double gates between the Red Sea and the canal to prevent the reconnaissance in the Isthmus, accompanied by members of the influx of salt water to the Nile. “Institut d’ Egypte” and of the “Commission des Sciences et des This canal does not seem to have remained navigable for long Arts”. He inspected the anchorage at Suez, explored the country and had become disused by the beginning of the Christian era. between Suez and the Bitter Lakes, and claimed to have After the Roman conquest it was restored to use in 98 A.D. discovered traces of the old Ptolemaic canal mentioned earlier. under the Emperor Trajan, when the Nile terminal was moved to On his return to Cairo he appointed the engineer Le Père, to Babylon, a few miles upstream from modem Cairo, by extending make a detailed preliminary survey. the canal from the original terminal on the Pelusiac branch, to A serious surveying error was made over the relative levels the mainstream of the Nile. Trajan’s canal appears to have been of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, which seemed to used for navigation for about a century, Figure (1). confirm existing tradition and which affected future thinking Amr Ibn El Aas, the Arab Governor of Egypt, re-opened about the Canal for the next fifty years. Le Père and his Trajan’s canal in 641-642 A.D., on the order of the Caliph Omar, assistants found, erroneously, that the level of the Red Sea at

2311 Mediterranean sea

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Figure 1: Isthmus of Suez and Delta with the Ancient Canal of Trajan, The Sweet Water Canal and the Maritime Canal. 2312 Table (1): The Diffèrent Projects of the Maritime Canal Avant Projet by M. Mougel & The Project of the The Project of the The Project o f the M. Linant Commission International superior counsel o f general contractor work Date March 1855 December 1856 1 8 5 8 - 1859 1859 Description Alignment followed by the Suggested to introduce a Proposed by the natural configuration o f the light slope at the canal bed general contractor places, avoiding as much as from south to north in o f the project. This possible curvatures. order to conserve the level alignment had o f the Bitter lakes at 0.28 many curvatures m below average elevation of the red sea Width (m) 100 m at water level, 65m at 80 m at water level, 44 m 58 m at water level, 22 bed level at bed level m at bed level Depth (m) 7.50 to 8.00 8.00 Side Slope 2:1 2:1 2:1 2:1 Locks With two locks Without locks Without locks Without locks Interior port At Timsah lake At Timsah lake At Timsah Lakes, Bitter Lakes & Ballah Lakes Estimated volume o f 74,679,132 104,477,926 91,177,926 Reduction in soil excavation (m3) excavation by 11,392,515 Estimation o f total 162,550,000 118,851,595 124,000,000 expenses (Francs) high tide was thirty feet above that o f the Mediterranean Sea. water infiltrating through the sand, and disruption to the traffic They deduced from this that a direct cut between the by the lock operations at each end. Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea was impracticable, and Figure (2) presents the different plans initially prepared for concluded that a new canal must follow, more or less, the route the Suez Canal layout. Table (1) presents a comparison among of the old Ptolemaic canal and join the Red Sea to the these different plans. Figure (3) presents the constructed layout Mediterranean Sea via Nile. and the Sweet Water Canal layout. In 1840, based on Mohamed A li’s instructions, Linant published a report on his canal studies. This report assumed the correctness o f Le Père’s findings about the relative levels of the 2.3 Concessions by the Egyptian Government Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. He suggested that the The main features of the first concession (1854) were: difference in head would provide a current running form south to The period o f the concession is 99 years from the day of north. He proposed a canal with locks and with strong banks to the opening o f the Canal between the two seas. prevent flooding He therefore suggested the direct route as a All necessary land, will be granted free and exempted from possible alternative to the classical route via the Nile. taxes. In the spring o f 1847 three teams o f engineers from the The net profit will be divided as follows: “Société d’Etudes” arrived in Egypt, led by Talabot, Stephenson 15% the Egyptian Government and Negrelli. Stephenson’s team was to investigate the Gulf of 10% Founders shares. Suez, Negrelli’s the Bay of Pelusium and Talabot’s the interior 75% the Company of the Isthmus. They recommended the route from Alexandria to Suez via the Nile. The Company is granted to work all mines and quarries belonging to the public lands without paying. As early as 1851 De Lesseps had got in touch with Talabot The Company is to enjoy free importation o f all machines who supplied him with information about the work of the and materials from abroad for the works of the Concession. “Société d’Etudes”. They believed that De Lesseps would put his negotiating ability at the disposal o f the “Société d’Etudes”. De The main features o f the second concession (1856) were Lesseps was in disagreement with the “Société d ’Etudes” on two The Canal should be a direct cut between the Red Sea and fundamental points. From the technical point of view he appears the Mediterranean Sea; to have become convinced that the Talabot scheme for a canal There should be a navigable freshwater canal connecting via the Nile would be impracticable owing to the increasing size the Nile with Lake Timsah and running parallel to the of the ocean-going steamships which the canal would have to whole length of the Maritime Canal; accommodate and as a result a direct cut across the Isthmus was De Lesseps should be President o f the Company for the practical. From the political point o f view, he seems to have first ten years after the Canal’s completion; realized that financial backing from the great European banks At least four-fifths of the workers employed in the was unrealistic due to the known British opposition. De Lesseps construction of the Canal shall be Egyptians; opportunity came in September 1854 when Abbas, the Viceroy The Egyptian Government should give the Company free of Egypt died and was succeeded by his uncle Mohamed Said, and free o f tax the use of all public lands necessary for the an old friend of De Lesseps. construction of the Canal and its dependencies; During that time Mr. Maclean, a well known English The Company will get free o f tax for the first ten years, the engineer on the British Commission, submitted a proposal which use o f all public land brought into cultivation as a result of was seriously considered, debated and finally rejected. This was the Company’s operations. to construct high banks all along the course o f the Canal and raise the waterline almost to the level of these banks, confining the water between locks at both ends. But there were obvious objections to this scheme; danger o f the banks bursting, or the

2313 MEDITERRANEAN SEA

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THE EXECUTED PROJECT. (1859)

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/?Î7>5E4 The difference between the two concessions can be summarized The canal was damaged extensively and was out as follows: of operation for several years. The first concession had been for a period o f 99 years 1975 June The canal was again opened, and since then has without provision for renewal. The second concession was been maintained and enlarged also for 99 years but with a provision for renewal up to 500 years subject to an increased take by the Egyptian Government, 5% increase every 100 years. 3 CONSTRUCTION COST AND EGYPT’S SHARE The second concession provided that De Lesseps should be President for ten years from the time that the Canal was According to the Company’s books the total cost of the Canal opened, while the first concession provided that the construction at the end o f 1869, was 453,645,000 Francs. Of this President should be nominated by the Egyptian sum, 200,000,000 was funded from the original capital. All of Government. which, including the Egyptian Government share holding, had The first concession made a provision for fortification for been fully paid up by the end of 1869. The balance of the canal to be erected by the Egyptian Government at their 253,645,000 was paid as follows: own charge. The second concession made no mention of fortification. 1. 100.000.000 Francs obtained from two bonds issued in 1867-1868. The supply o f labor was done through corvee and courbash. A 2. 84.000.000 Francs indemnity. ’corvee’ is a draft o f forced labor, pressed into service by the 3. 10.000.000 Francs received from the resale of the village headmen under the orders of the Government to perform Wadi Lands to the Egyptian Government (the public work. A ’courbash’ is a rawhide whip wielded by the Company bought it earlier for 2,000,000 Francs from overseers on the backs of the wretched laborers. It was certain the Egyptian Government). that the only way o f recruiting labor on the scale required would 4. 30.000.000 Francs paid by the Egyptian Government be by means of a corvee. Such a corvee would have to be raised to the Company for various physical assets, customer by the Egyptian Government by an agreement between the and fishing rights, etc., purchased by the Egyptian Company and the Egyptian Government The Decree appeared Government from the Company in accordance with to commit the Government to supply on demand all the labor the terms o f a convention signed on 23 April 1869. which the Company, in its own estimation, might require. 30.000.000 Francs obtained from interest paid by the Workers should be paid at a rate o f from 2.5 to 3 piastres a day Egyptian Government under the terms of the March plus rations to the value o f one piastre a day. A piastre is 1/100 1863 and January 1866 conventions, on amount due of the Egyptian Pound. on the Egyptian Government’s ordinary shareholding and on the indemnity. 2.4 Milestone Events o f the Suez Canal Apart from the sum o f 453,645,000 Francs appearing in the 1854 By a French initiative, the Viceroy of Egypt, Company’s books, there were numerous expenses incurred by Said Pasha, decided to build a canal connecting the Egyptian Government in connection with the Canal as the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea. follows: (1) Cost o f construction of sweet water canal from 1858 “La Companie Universelle du Canal Maritime Cairo to Ras El Wadi 21,500,000 Francs. (2) Cost of de Suez” is formed to construct the canal. The construction of Radoub Basin at Suez 9,000,000 Francs. (3) Cost company, which was owned by both French and of construction o f port works at Suez 23,395,000 Francs, and (4) Egyptian interests, agrees to build the canal and Construction of lighthouses at northern terminal o f Canal administer it for the following 99 years. After 1,250,000 Francs. The total comes to 55,145,000 Francs. this time, the ownership would pass to the The money spent by the Egyptian Government on the Canal Egyptian government. was in the form of share capital, indemnities, public works 25/4/1859 Construction began. connected with the Canal, the expenses ofNubar’s missions to 17/11/1869 With great splendor, the canal is opened for Paris and Constantinople, and the lavish entertainment which navigation. Average dimensions were 22 meters accompanied the formal opening o f the Canal in 1869. Most of in bottom width, 58 meters in surface width, and this money had to be raised by foreign loans. It has been depth o f 8 meters. estimated that the total amount o f debt incurred by the Egyptian 1875 The British government buys the Egyptian Government in the course of raising the money spent on the stocks Canal amounted to some 400,000,000 Francs. The 400,000,000 1888 By an international convention, the canal was Francs in 1869, mostly loans, continued to grow and represented opened for ships o f all nations. most of the Egyptian Government’s total debt of 2,225 million 1936 Through a treaty, the British received rights to Francs at the time o f Egypt’s bankruptcy in 1876. keep military forces in the Canal Zone. In return, the Egyptian Government received (1) ordinary 1948 Egyptian authorities introduced regulations share at a par value o f some 87 million Francs. They had against the use of the canal by vessels serving surrendered all interest and dividends until 1894, and in 1875, Israelis ports. sold the shares to the British Government for 100 million Francs, 1954 Agreement between Egypt and Britain provided and (2) 15% o f the net profits of the Company, which was sold for British withdrawal within the following 7 in 1880 to the Credit Fancier for a sum o f 22 million Francs. years. Table (2) presents the annual expenses during the construction 1956 June British troops left and Egyptian forces moved period. into British installations. 1956 July Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal France, Britain and Israel attacked Egypt, 31/10/1956 Year Construction Others* Total declaring their intention to open up the canal for Expenses all vessels. They were forced to withdraw under 1860 3,624,678 5,575,934 9,200,612 US pressure. 1861 10,830,671 2,535,971 13,366,643 1957 March Reopening o f the canal, following UN action. 17,127,447 1962 All original shareholders were paid off 1862 9,177,026 7,950,420 5/6/1967 Due to the Six-Day War, the canal was closed. 1863 18,348,535 8,988,194 27,336,729

2316 1864 20,870,147 7,967,018 28,837,166 proposed scheme of the canal was sixty miles of passage through 1865 22,601,229 8,709,614 31,310,844 lakes and forty miles cut in the land. 1866 32,867,559 7,893,214 40,760,774 1867 54,547,022 14,759,232 69,306,255 4.2 Geology o f the Isthmus 1868 38,515,062 12,545,304 51,060,367 lsl 68,808,160 47,258,376 116,066,537 The entire soil of the Isthmus of Suez belongs to the Tertiary semester formation like lower and Middle Egypt and the great plateau of of 1869 2nd the Libyan Desert. The composition of the ground of the Suez 19,783,772 8,650,732 28,-,34,504 Canal consists of three distinct zones: semester of 1869 1. The first, the Mediterranean which starts at the salt Total FF 299,973,867 132,834,015 432,807,882 marsh of Ballah shore (0 km) to the km 66. ♦Social charge, general administration fees, accessory 2. The second, the middle one, including the lake materials and administration department costs Timsah, comprises the region between km 67 and km 95. 3. The third starts from km 96 to the Red Sea shore at 4 CANAL PROFILE km 160.

4.1 Topography Figure (4) shows Egypt in the past geological periods. The Mediterranean Sea or the Red Sea has covered the Isthmus All along the course o f the Canal, there is a natural depression. region during different geological ages. It is concluded (Ball, The lowest portion of which is the basin of the lakes which had 1938) that between the commencement of the Pleistocene period long been dry. At only two locations does the ground rise much and now, the lands bordering the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez have above the level of the sea: Chaluf (36 feet) and El Guisr (59 undergone elevation or the sea level has fallen by something like feet). a hundred meters. Accordingly the final uncovering of the The shoreline was very shallow and large ships could not Isthmus o f Suez is related to this geological period. Figure (5) approach within four or five miles. It was also feared at that time provides Suez geological map. that as fast as the channel was dredged the sand would slip from beneath and the whole “tumble in“. The quicksand would swallow up stones later. However, a point was discovered in the 4.3 Morphology o f Isthmus: rim of sand where fully 30 feet of water could be found within little more than a mile from the shore. The Nile runs south north through Egypt. It is surrounded almost A rather curious configuration of the outline of the coast is parallelly by two chains of mountains, which separate it from the that the sea is separated from a huge lake known as “Lake Libyan Desert and the Red Sea. Near Cairo, the Nile bifurcates Menezelah” by a long strip of very soft clay that appears on the into two branches, which embraced the Delta plain. The eastern map like the rim o f a tea-cup, a few hundred feet wide. This sort mountain chain becomes much lower after crossing the line of sea-wall stretches across for about forty miles. Somewhere in connecting Suez and Cairo and extends as calcareous hills in a this rim an opening was to be made for the canal; further a port northeast direction to the other side o f Lake Temsah. and a town would have to be formed, with docks to shelter and Between the Red Sea and the Gulf of Pelusium, there is a repair vessels, warehouses to store goods and all on a strip of depression, which is evident by the Bitter Lake and Lake land. Within ten years this strip o f very soft clay slob has been Temsah. The depression has indeed some undulations between converted into a thriving town, laid out in regular streets and the bitter lakes and Lake Temsah and further between Lake squares, having 10,000 inhabitants; a fine port had been created. Temsah and Lake Manzala. With the exception o f the two ridges The first part o f the canal is “Lake Menezelah”, a shallow which rise from 12 to 15 meters and are very short there is a sort lake which would have from four to five feet o f depth, and in o f almost horizontal valley along the whole length of the which for 29 miles the Canal would have been excavated The isthmus. At the middle o f this longitudinal valley there is a mainland is then reached at “Kantara” where for about 3 miles it perpendicular depression which extends from the center of the proceeds as a small tongue o f land which separates the great lake isthmus to the alluvial lands o f the Delete. from a smaller one, called “Lake Ballah”, a distance of about It results from this natural morphology o f the isthmus that the five miles, and there reaches a tract extending for nearly ten direction of the canal is marked by nature and that the second miles and consisting o f a gradually ascending series o f hills in depression which connect Lake Temsah to Belbeys represent the “El Guisr”. It was expected that the El Guisr excavation would proper connection between the interior navigation of Egypt with represent a major challenge and one of the serious difficulties of the maritime navigation. Based on the above morphology and the work. This plateau was about ten miles in length and rose confirmed by finding from the soil investigation, the study about fifty feet above the waterline. revealed two main geological facts: After this, comes “Lake Timsah”, where it was proposed to construct a halfway port. Across this hollow it was now to 1. During great inundation, the Nile water reach the proceed for four miles. Though called a lake it had been long isthmus in three locations: (a) in the north at Lake dried up. It is now a great sheet of water, four miles long by Manzalah through Damietta Branch, (b) the central three miles wide. Next the Serapeum plateau was encountered, part at Lake Temsah through the valley of Wady stretching for about seven miles. Its highest point being about 35 Toumilat which is usually flooded during high Nile feet above the sea level. Had the Canal been carried forward in a levels and filled parts o f Lake Temsah and (c) Bitter straight line another stiff plateau, that o f Geneffe, would have Lakes by going around the Serapeum ridges during been encountered; but by following the course of the lake and exceptionally high Nile floods. striking off to the right it was avoided. The distance through the 2. The intrusion o f the Red Sea to at least the Bitter Bitter Lakes was about twenty miles. After this bend the straight Lakes as evidenced by the presence of salt bands and course was resumed, down to Suez, where another plateau, that the marine shells. of El Chalouf, was intersected. The basin of the Bitter Lakes provided a depth of twenty feet of water without cutting for a distance o f about eight miles. The

2317 I

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2318 Figure 5 : Isthmus of Suez Geological Map 2319 4.4 Soil Boring A second, boring No. 12, made at the other end of Serapeum, and on the slope which leads to Lake Timsah, also produced sand mixed with fine gravel. The initial soil investigation was two boreholes by M. Lepere as At Lake Timsah, the southern part was dry. There was a little part of the work done by the Egyptian Commissioners, at water only in the northern part because the inundation of the Nile stations 16 and 21, respectively. This was followed by 19 was not very great that year and the river did not then reach the boreholes by De Lesseps Engineers along the some 160 lake. But the signs o f the Nile presence could be seen kilometers length of the canal. These 19 boreholes were everywhere by the slime which been previously left there, executed between 1854 and 1855. During the actual construction similar to that of the plains o f Upper Egypt. It is probable that additional and confirmation boreholes were drilled at an average the Red Sea stretched even as far as Lake Timsah as under the intervals of 150 meters. Sir Hawkshaw, president o f the slime, borings showed shells that belong to the Red Sea which Institution of Civil Engineers, upon reviewing the soil do not exist in the Mediterranean Sea. Two boreholes No. 15 and investigation campaign declared that 150-meter apart boreholes 16 made in Lake Timsah, and yielded only sand of different are not a guarantee. The 19 boreholes were executed in the color somewhat argillaceous. following locations: To the north of Lake Timsah the ridge of El Guisr is the Roadstead of Suez, highest point of the Isthmus at 16 meters above the lower level The ridge separates Suez from the Bitter Lakes, o f the Mediterranean Sea. It consists of a great deposit of sand. The basin of the Bitter Lakes, Borehole No. 18 was the deepest excuted borehole at depth of The ridge of Serapeum, 23.35 meters. The soil formation is, from the surface to the The ridge of El Guisr, the highest point of the Isthmus, and bottom, sand alternating with little beds o f clay and of sulphate Lake Manzalah. of lime; small gravel; fine sand. The last four meters are sand Two borings were first made near Suez in the course of the hardened almost into stone. future Canal. The first borehole is eleven meters in depth. Soil From the ridge of El Guisr to Pelusium, the gravel, has been formation is as follows from the surface to the bottom, yellow getting finer and finer, and entirely disappears. Two borings agglutinated sand, coarse and muddy sand, very fine sand, and were made in Lake Menzaleh. Borehole (20) yielded Nile slime, yellow argillaceous sand. The second borehole is twelve meters sandy clay, and sea sand. Borehole (21) yielded sea sand, muddy in depth, produced shells, gravel, and coarse agglutinated sand, sand, and, sandy mud. Figure (6) shows borehole locations and which forms a hard rock of 3 'A meters in thickness; fine yellow soil classification. sand slightly agglutinated, coarse red sand, and firm sand and gravel. Except for 3 'A meters of thickness, where the agglutinated sand has almost attained the hardness of stone, the 4.5 Soil Profile nature of soil is good for the dredgers to excavate to form the For summary, along the Maritime Canal of Suez, in its whole canal channel. To the north and west of Suez extends a plain course of 157,956 meters, the subsoil conditions are two mostly covered by sand that appears to consist o f the deposit left principal kinds: (1) clays, from Suez to the Bitter Lakes; and (2) by high tides. It is impregnated with a damp salt which makes it firm sand, from the Bitter Lakes to its termination in the Bay of compact. Pelusium. It may be generally stated that the soil profile along The third borehole was undertaken at 814 kilometers from the canal consists of two portions. The higher portion from Suez, on the first traces of the canal o f the Pharaohs, on the track “Lake Menezelah” to about the middle, was formed mainly of o f the caravans from Egypt to Mecca. The borehole showed ten sand easy to work with. TTie second portion, the lower half, was meters o f clay, more or less sandy. The two banks of the ancient mainly gravelly, with clay. The soil profile along the Canal is canal can be recognized and were in some places fifty meters shown in Figure (7). Detailed soil profile is presented in Figures apart with height of five to six meters. The borehole also (B .l) through (B.4). indicated some crystallized sulfate o f lime and some pebbles in Near Serapeum a layer o f rock was found, which in one place the sand mass. The fourth borehole is about twenty kilometers and for a length o f eighty yards, increased suddenly form a few from Suez. The top 2 to 3 meters are sand followed by nothing inches to a thickness of seven feet. Figure (B.5) provides a but clay all the way to depth 16.0 meters. Borings 3 and 4 longitudinal profile along the rock layer found near Serapeum. therefore, showed plainly that the ridge, which separates the Red At the bottom of the Bitter Lakes a six feet deep deposit of Sea from the Bitter Lakes, consists almost entirely o f clay, more crystallized salts was found. This proves that the Red Sea had or less compact. formerly flowed over this basin. Figure (B.6) provides a The Bitter Lakes, forty kilometers are divided into two longitudinal profile along the salt band and presents its basins, a small and a larger basin. Four borings (5th 6th 7th and disintegration with time. 8th) made in the small basin o f bitter lakes, the superficial soil were besides sulphate of lime, sand and shells, and light brown clay, more or less sandy. This clay has occasionally the 5 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CANAL CROSS appearance of the slime of the Nile. The greater basin is about SECTION AND ITS ALIGNMENT twenty-five kilometers long. The bottom is covered with sand, shells, and crystallized sulphate o f lime. A thick bed of sea salt The practical breadth of the canal is its breadth at the bottom. Al was found in the deepest part o f the lake. Two borings have been made in the large basin of Bitter Lakes; these are the 9th and opening, the Suez Canal cross section breadth measured 72 feet 10th. The 9th boring of depth of 2.20 meters, presents only from end to end, though for seventy-seven miles (78% of the agglutinations o f shell, more than 20 centimeters in thickness, total length) it was double the width. The smaller dimensions and after this, sulphate of lime and salt The 10th boring, which were adopted for the heavy cuttings, tg save expense. At the is 3.5 meters deep, shows nothing but sea salt. At these two opening, the Canal had been excavated mainly according to one borings, the surface of the soil is 6.69 meters and 7.35 meters o f the following sections: below the lowest level of the Mediterranean. These masses of salt are sometimes placed on deposits o f mud from the Nile. 1. 196 feet in width at the surface o f water, 26 feet deep, and From the middle o f the isthmus at the ridge of Serapeum to 72 feet at the bottom. The slopes are 2 horizontal to 1 the Mediterranean nothing was found but sand, except at Boring vertical, with one or more horizontal benches of 10 feel in 19, where there is marl. width, according to the depth of the cutting. Boring No. 11 made at the boundary between Bitter Lakes 2. 327 feet in width at the surface o f water, with the same and Serapeum, produced only sand and fine gravel for 8 meters. depth of 26 feet for width o f 72 feet at the bottom. The

2320

R E D SE A /r^qjtnt.4. 'fâ'îfï cl ^ ; ; UM See figure B.l-4 L ^ J agglom erate AMERS LAKES AMERS rock B.13 sorr the Maritime Canal . . 1 i ! i i I i i ! 1 1 h See figure SERAPEliM ! : I ì ! i : a: i n ! ì I : ! LAKES TIMS AH TIMS LAKES BALLAI! See figure B.l-2 i 1S U î U i î 1 î i U î U 1S i Figure 7 : Longitudinal Geological Cross Section of i ! ! CALCAREOUSSOIL & GYPS j 13 GRAVEL* BOWLDERS su nrt.AY su i! :Î!Ì1iII il IiIi !1 !i !i !1 IiIi il :Î!Ì1iII i! 11i

LAKES MANCALA !S!

See figure B.l-1 1111! j COMPACTED SAND PORT SAÏD PORT Medherr»««*» Se* Medherr»««*»

2322 slopes of the lower part o f the excavation are also 2 Miles horizontal to 1 vertical, but those above and below the Port-Said to near El Ferdan 37 surface of the water are 5 horizontal to 1 vertical, connected Through Lake Timsah 5.5 by a horizontal bench o f 58 feet Through the Bitter Lakes 23.5 At the Suez end o f the Canal 11 The work was carried out with reference to these two sections in Total 77 the following manner: Through Lake Timsah and the Bitter Lakes, only the lower According to Section (1) (smaller section): portion was required to be excavated, in consequence o f the low level of the ground. Details of the executed alignments of the Miles Maritime Canal are summarized in Table (3). From near El Ferdan to Lake Timsah 9.5 Table (4) presents the cross section of each reach along the From Lake Timsah to the Bitter Lakes 7.5 Suez Canal at its inauguration and should be read in conjunction Through the deep part of El Chalouf cutting 5 with Figures (8), (9) and (10). Total 22

According to Section (2) (larger section):

Table (3): Alignment of the Suez Canal No Alignment Angle Length Tangents Strait line Curvatures Radius between length length length (Km) angles (Km) (Km) (Km) (Km) 1 Between south extremity & the first curvature 138° 30’ 00” 2.941 1.212 1.728 2.317 3.200 2 Of the Quarantine 167° 32’ 40” 2.905 0.328 1.364 0.654 3.011 3 Of Suez 172° 12’ 40” 9.483 0.204 8.950 0.408 3.000 4 South Small Bitter Lakes 152u 05’ 00" 15.122 0.497 14.421 0.949 2.000 5 The Small Bitter Lakes 137° 39’ 00” 6.910 1.162 5.251 2.217 3.000 6 South the Great Bitter Lakes 142° 36’ 30” 8.578 7.416 7 The Great Bitter Lakes 142u 36’ 30" 14.797 14.797 8 Serapeum 153“ 10’ 00" 14.422 0.477 13.945 0.936 2.000 9 Toussoum 160u 20’ 20” 7.178 6.701 10 Garage 109u 00’ 00” 0.706 0.210 0.496 0.364 0.294 11 Timsah lake 144“ 30’ 00" 2.138 0.565 1.363 1.093 1.765 12 Site no. VI 151u 00’ 00” 1.848 0.556 0.727 1.088 2.151 13 Two curvature at El Guisr 141° 20’ 00" 1.048 0.354 0.137 0.682 1.011 14 El Guisr 136“ 55’ 00” 11.919 0.828 10.735 1.579 2.100 15 Ballah Lake 158“ 00’ 00” 4.116 0.388 2.899 0.767 2.000 16 Ballali Lake 5.083 0.292 4.402 0.581 2.000 17 Ballah Lake 171“ 20’ 00” 2.167 0.151 1.723 0.302 2.000 18 El Menzalah Lake 145“ 34’00” 48.105 0.924 47.026 1.797 2.991 19 Port Said 158“ 00’ 00” 1.790 0.866

Table (4): Different Cross Sections of the Maritime Canal Place From To Length (km) Section ID Port-Said lighthouse to the 0.00 1.428 1.428 Part of the access channel and the Port basin entrance o f the canal Crossing of El Manzalah lake 1.428 61.125 59.697 Profile (1) and El Ballah Lakes 61.125 62.711 1.586 Transition profile El Guisr 62.711 76.229 13.518 Profile (2) + Profile modification (3A - 3B) Timsah lake 76.229 84.009 7.780 Profile (1) 84.009 84.109 0.100 Transition profile Serapeum 84.109 94.013 9.904 Profile (2) 94.013 94.113 0.100 Transition profile 94.113 95.663 1.550 Profile (1)

Entrance of Amers lakes 95.663 95.963 0.300 Profile (4) with two submerged dikes 95.963 96.673 0.710 Profile (4) with one submerged dike (Africa side) 96.673 98.443 1.770 Profile (5) with immerse dikes The large Bitter lake 98.443 114.393 15.950 Lagoon 114.393 114.524 0.131 Lagoon The small Bitter lake 114.524 132.300 17.776 Profile (5) with immerse dikes The small Bitter lake 132.300 133.500 1.200 Profile (4) with one submerged dike (Africa side) 133.500 134.303 0.803 Profile (4) with two submerged dikes

2323 PROFILE ( I ) ja L a <20.20) im . EiN -T 2; ja dO Skr ä 7 ra Iv » r * im »l.>,Tuii 4 ____LIS____j . .4-24 i X» .1»

PROFILE ( 2 )

8 m i- J,v*ri*H4 "U 3 m

PROFILE MODIFICATION

PROFILE ( 3A ) PROFILE ( 3B ) BETWEEN KILOPOINT 74.544 & 75.334 AT EL GIIISR

PROFILE ( 4 )

Figure 8 : Vertical Cross Section Along The Maritime Suez Canal ( 1 )

2324 HALF PROFILE WITH IMMERSE BANK

PROFILE ( 5 ) Stalrvel (18:25) 98P5P* BE

-UUL. TX*.. " S ( t n « .. m

.WID_____•i*.1”.

PROFILE ( 7 )

MODIFICATION OF THE PROFILE NORTH ELCHALOI F

Figure 9 : Vertical Cross Sections along the Maritime Suez Canal (2 )

2325 MODIFICATION OF THE PROFILE SOUTH EL CHALOUF

PROFILE ( 8B )

JJrn67 - ... -*•

PROFILE ( 9 )

CANAL PROFILE AT THE EXITE CURVATURE OF SUEZ (JULY 1868) PROFILE ( 10 )

Figure 10 : Vertical Cross Sections along the Maritime Suez Canal (3 )

2326 Year Cross Section (m)J Depth (m) 1869 304 7.80 Before 1980 1800 16.00 1980 3600 19.50 1994 4000 20.50 Second stage 5000 25.00 (currently)

Figure (11): Progress of Suez Canal Cross Section Since Opening in 1869 till Now 2000 El Chalouf 134.303 137.053 2.750 Profile (6) 137.053 142.382 5.329 Profile (7) + Profiles modification (8A - 8B) at north & south El Chalouf At Suez 142.382 148.871 6.489 Profile (9)

Suez exit curvature 156.575 158.977 2.402 Profile (10) Access channel at the Suez 158.977 162.401 3.424 Bed Canal width 80m Port fifteen days and a consequent delay in the completion of the The progress of the canal cross section since inauguration in works. 1869 is presented in Table (5). Figures (8) through (10) present The union of the two seas caused the rapid dissolution of the the cross section along the canal at opening. Figure (11) shows salt crust of the Bitter Lakes whose 100,000 acres were filled by the progress of the Canal cross section since opening in 1869. 24u> October, in seven months rather than the anticipated ten months. Thus the Bitter Lakes were filled faster and Lake Table (5): Development of the Suez Canal Cross Section since Timsah slower than had been calculated. Inauguration in 1869 The absence of current between the two ends o f the canal Year Maximum Maximum Depth Cross proved the accuracy of Bourdaloue’s survey o f 1847. The tidal Draft Tonnage Sectional influence of the Red Sea extended only as far as the Bitter Lakes, (m) (ton) (m) Area (m2) which worked as a great reservoir o f the waterway and regulator 1869 6.76 5,000 6.76 304 o f the sea level at either ends. The creation of large surfaces of 1900 7.80 460 water increased the rainfall in the Isthmus but did neither produce any local extension o f the area of cultivation nor 1908 8.35 680 significantly influence its climate. 1912 8.35 720 The calculation indicated that the total quantity o f water that 1914 8.84 870 flow through Serapeum Weir, from 18 March to 15 August 1869 1935 10.06 1,050 (127 days), was 421.1 million m3. The average rate of flow per 1954 10.67 30,000 14.00 1,200 day was 3.32 million m3/day. This accounted for a loss of 60.4 1960 11.28 80,000 15.50 1,800 million m3 by evaporation and infiltration. On 15 August 1869, 1980 16.15 150,000 19.50 3,600 the measured total quantity o f water was found to be 499.2 million m3. On 26 August, the salt band of thickness 2.12 m had dissolved to 0.5 m over a total area o f 65.9 km2. The volume of 6 ENGINEERING dissolved strata was 106.9 million m3. Subtracting from the total quantity of water (499.2-106.9=392.3 million m ) then the total 6.1 Hydraulic Engineering volume of water was 392.3 million m3. The volume difference between calculated and measured quantities of water was 31.6 The final filling of the Canal took place on 15th August, 1869. million m3. The barrage at the Suez end was cut and the restless waters of Figures (E .l) through (E.3) present schematic plans and the Red Sea stormed through the gap with torrential violence sections of the barrages and weirs at Lake Timsah, Suez and into the 22-mile dry cutting through the Suez Plain, the Chalouf Serapeum. Table (6) presents an engineering comparison cutting to the Bitter Lakes. The water release caused 40,000 between the three weirs. Table (7) presents the progress of the English Pound worth o f damage, the suspension of dredging for filling of Lake Timsah.

Table (6): Comparison between the Three Weirs, El Timsah, Serapeum and Suez Weir El Timsah Weir Serapeum Weir El Suez Weir Construction period August 1866 to November December 1868 to February 1866 1869 The filling begin on 12 December 1866 18 Mars 1869 16 August 1869 Name o f the lake to be filled El Timsah Bitter Lakes Bitter Lakes From Mediterranean Sea Mediterranean Sea Red Sea Duration o f filling 8 month 5 month before activation of El Suez Weir and 70 days after the entrance of the water o f the Red Sea through El Suez Weir Table (7): Filling of Lake Timsah Dates Elevation of water in the lake The monthly water rise Average water rise per day (m) (m) (cm) 12 December 1866 13.80 End of December 1866 15.08 1.28 6.4 End o f January 1867 15.94 0.86 2.9 End of February 1867 16.70 0.76 2.7 End o f March 1867 17.29 0.59 2.0 End of April 1867 17.61 0.32 1.1 End of May 1867 17.93 0.32 1.0 End of June 1867 17.99 0.06 0.2 End of July 1867 18.09 0.10 0.3 15 August 1867 18.20 0.11 0.6

2328 6.2 Geotechnical Engineering Depth of water at 8 m 5.80 to 6.00 (Inauguration day) m 6 .2 .1 Soft Clay Engineering Remainder to be excavated 241 mJ 20000 mJ The portion from Port-Said to Lake Menezaleh, a 20 miles End of extraction work March 1870 March 1870 distance, represented the first engineering challenge. This part was about 5 feet deep with the lake bottom consisting of slob 6.2.3 Slope Stability o f Sand resulting from the rich Nile deposits. The problems were: (1) the excavation o f the mud (2) the construction and foundation of the El Guisr plateau is a series o f hills o f sand. The delusion at that canal banks on very weak soil, and (3) the use of the excavated time was that cutting through sand the rest will fall and fill up material for bank construction. the space and the workmen would be buried alive. The The solution was as simple as utilizing local labor to scoop excavation has to be made to a depth of nearly 70 feet with a up large masses and squeezed the water out by pressing it against total volume of 50 million cubic yards. The work was done using their chests, then laid it in lumps one over the other. By doing 3 lines of tramway, 6 large engines and 250 wagons by the this a small channel 12 feet wide was formed. This channel contractor M. Couvreuxo. Side slopes o f 2:1 proved to be safe allowed dredgers to work, and the operation soon reached below and stable. the mud to the stiff clay. Slob and clay were allowed to dry in 6.2.4 Salt Band o f Bitter Lakes the sun before another layer was added. This provided for cohesion to increase. When finished, the banks stood six feet At the bottom of Bitter Lakes, an extraordinary band of salt, high above water. The sun cooperated and baked the whole into seven miles long by five miles wide was found. It was feared a firm solid mass, so firm that the banks were used as roads that it would be dealt with like rock. It turned out that it was where heavy loads were transported. easily dissolved. The progress of the salt dissolution is presented in Figure (B.6). 6.2.2 Reliability o f Soil Investigation 6.2.5 Effect o f Sand Drifting by Tornadoes and Whirlwinds During his visit to the project in 1863, Sir J. Hawkshaw had before warned of the danger of encountering rock layers. In fact, It was believed that such storms could bury an object in an he predicted the possibility to encounter rock in this particular incredibly short period o f time, filling up the cuttings. The area. He declared that soundings at such intervals were not a contradiction to this assumption was the existence of large guarantee. natural depressions such as Ballah Lake and Timsah Lake. It was In his notes De Lesseps wrote “fifteen days before the found that certain banks formed by these whirlwinds protected inauguration o f the Canal, the engineers came to tell me that, these natural depressions from being buried. This suggested that between two soundings taken at distance of 150 meters, a hard artificial banks all along the canal would be needed to operate as rock layer had been discovered, which broke the buckets of our a protecting measure against filling the canal. dredgers. We have been blamed for not perceiving it sooner. However, a study by Sir J. Hawkshaw using records from the Was it possible to take soundings at shorter distances in a length nearby Sweet Water Canal and soil type around the Maritime of some 102 miles!?” Canal concluded that the sand lying adjacent to the canal was De Lesseps rushed to the site where the rock layer was 15 generally compacted and, being often covered with small gravel feel above the proposed bottom o f the canal and leaving only preventing its shifting. Only the portion from Lake Timsah to nine feet of water. As every one began by declaring that there Lake Ballah (22/2 km) and a portion near Serapeum (14 km) was nothing to be done, De. Lessebs shouted “Go and get would be subject to drifting sand Engineer M. Viilers estimated powder at Cairo, He cried “powder in masses and then, if we that 30,000 cubic meters of sand found its way to the Sweet cannot blow up the rock, we will blow ourselves up”. Water Canal. By proportion, Sir J. Hawkshaw estimated that the The original design total excavation works at Serapeum was Suez Canal would be subject to 118,000 cubic meters, which was insignificant. 6,577,235 m3. On 15 October 1869 the total excavated work stood at 5,903,574 m3. The remainder to be excavated was 6.2.6 Rock Engineering 673,661 m3. After the adaptation o f the minimum profile During excavation for 9 miles in Lake Ballah, an irregular tolerance by reducing the amount of excavation by 200,000 m3, almost dry swamp, the excavated soil was found to be gypsum the remainder to be excavated was 473,661 m3. At the end of which when used for the banks cracked and decomposed. Other October 1869, two rock layers were discovered at Serapeum, at material, a combination o f slob and plaster, had to be carried kilometer 87 and 93, respectively. from some distance to be used for bank construction. Table (8) summarizes the rock type, length o f layer and the In 1865, De Lesseps concluded that during the eight years situation of excavation at Inauguration date. At kilometer 87 they had been exploring and working the line, almost foot by explosives were utilized using bottles containing 5 kg o f powder foot, they had never come upon a single layer o f rock, unless it each, placed on the rock layer at a distance of 3.50 m to 4.00 m. might be a very friable marl in the El Guisr cutting. He was also At explosion, the rock layer was dislocated and broken. This inclined to confess that close to Suez, in the Chalouf cutting, method had produced satisfactory results at kilometer 87 and the they had encountered a regular ledge o f rock, but that the band had been broken to small pieces and then elevated by engineers had made a short curve and avoided it However, Sir J. dredgers. At kilometer 93 boring was utilized by digging open Hawkshaw predicted in 1862 the presence o f a rocky formation pits with variable depth 1.20m to 1.50m on the rock layer and fill in that area. At the last moment, on the very eve o f opening the it with cartridges containing variable amount o f powder. The Canal, a mass o f rock was discovered which had escaped notice depth of the open pits varies between 2/3 to 3/4 o f the layer at the Chalouf cutting, exactly as Sir J.Hawshaw had predicted. thickness to be dislocated. At depth o f 17 feet below water line, a thin stratum o f Rock suddenly increased from a few inches to the thickness o f 7 feet Table (8) Rock excavation at Serapeum for about 80 yards. Lying between two trial borings, this layer kilometer 87 Kilometer 93 was not detected until after the water had been let in. The rock Type of rock Sandstone Gypsum or was removed by blasting and dredging. Three dredgers were at Agglomerate work with huge blocks o f stones being brought up by the Length of the layer 17m 150m buckets, which were split and broken by the rock. The rock Depth o f water above the layer 5.50 m 4.50 m

2329 layers extraction at El Chalouf section, from kilo point 132 to £150,000 expense with plans to extend it further 1500 m in the 142, are summarized in Table (9): subsequent years. Different plans for the design o f Port-Said Port are presented Table (9): Rock layer extraction at El Chalouf in Figures (D .l) through (D.4). Figure (D. 5) presents the design From 138.230 138.145 134.800 134.150 o f Suez Port. Figure (D.6) presents the design o f jetties in both To 138.530 138.230 134.930 134.220 Suez and Port-Said ports. Length 300 85 130 70 6.3.2 Chemical Disintegration o f the Piers (m) Type of Hard rock Sandstone Hard Sandstone Examining the pier blocks in 1 8 7 3 , the submerged blocks were rock sandstone encounter very satisfactory as they were covered with shells and weeds and & ed by marl away from air. The upper blocks however, were exposed to the Gypsum action of air and spray which had disintegrated several of them. Thickness 0.5. to 0.30 to 0.20 to 0.40 to Of the 1459 blocks that were visible, 1059 were broken. Two (m) 2.60 0.40 0.60 1.40 thirds o f the broken ones show signs o f chemical disintegration. Excavalio Dry Dry Dry Dry It was recommended to use rubble masonry laid in mortar of stronger composition to resist the chemical reaction. n method excavation excavation excavation excavation Excavated 90,800 20,800 39,490 11,730 Soil (m3) 7 CANAL CONSTRUCTION Excavated 19,980 120 1,920 1,250 Rock (m3) 7.1 Construction o f the Sweet Water Canal

6.3 Marine and Port Engineering The digging of the Sweet Water Canal, from the end o f the Zagazig Canal at the head of Wadi Tumulate to lake Timsah and 6.3.1 Port-Said Entrance then southward to Suez, was quite straight forward and was done mainly with forced labour and by hand. The cross section of Work began in April 1859 on the construction of the artificial Sweet Water Canal was sixty feet in width by eight feet in depth. port. A temporary jetty 300 feet long was constructed to receive It was completed from Ras-El-Wadi to Timsah (twenty miles) in material by sea, particularly stone from the Mex quarries. Stone February 1862. The extension to Suez (fifty miles) was was also made on the spot with a mixture of one-third hydraulic completed in December 1863. The stretch from Timsah to Porl- lime and two-thirds sand, machine mixed with salt water and Said was at first supplied with fresh water by pipeline, after the made into blocks 12 cubic yards in size and weighing 22 tons completion o f the Sweet Water Canal to Timsah, but the each. Nearly 30,000 o f these blocks were used in the extension of the Sweet Water Canal to Port-Said was completed construction of piers, jetties and breakwaters. in 1869. A map and cross sections o f the Sweet Water Canal are At Port-Said the west mole was completed on 10 September presented in Figure (3). It was later determined to draw water 1868 to a length of 1.75 miles, which was exceeded only by that from the Nile directly instead o f a branch at Zagazig to maintain of the breakwaters of Holyhead, Cherbourg and Marseilles. the flow during most of the year. The elevation o f the fresh water That mole provided the protection essential for the new harbor canal at Lake Timsah was some fourteen feet above the sea as but destroyed the equilibrium of the coastline and led to the well as the future Suez Canal. The Sweet Water Canal was accumulation of a sandbank fifty limes as fast as had been connected to the lake by two locks. expected and the formation of an inner submarine beach. On The difference in elevation was used to excavate the south 31st January 1869 the less important east mole was completed, part of the Suez Canal by dredging and to eliminate the effect of having required only 40% as much concrete as the longer west Red Sea high tide while dredging to the final depth. mole. Together those moles created a harbor where few experts had thought it possible and where no materials existed for its construction. 7.2 Construction Equipment Port-Said harbor was originally located in an unbroken line The Suez Canal presents an excellent instance -where the of coast by constructing two piers forward into the sea. Between difficulties prompted the discovery o f means to overcome them. them a channel had been dredged out to connect to the Suez The work was fortunate in having as chief contractors two men Canal. From Damietta branch o f the Nile, lying 25 miles to the o f extraordinary energy and resources, Borel and Lavalley, who north west of Port-Said, a stream o f water 3 miles wide filled took over the work in 1865. They recognized that the contract with suspended fines flows for four to five months every could only be achieved by the aid o f machinery. They summer during Nile flood time towards Port-Said The 7000 accordingly devised those extraordinary dredgers to suit such feet long west pier of Port-Said, disrupts the current by blocking difficulties. The dredgers varied in size according to the work for the onshore half, and forces it to deflect from the pier at a which they were required, and the disposal of the dredged considerable angle and to flow back to meet the offshore half at materials. the north of the west pier. This resulted in the finer particles The smaller dredgers were 15-horse power. There were also falling to the bottom and a submarine beach is formed, which intermediate size dredgers, then followed the largest machines of increases every summer. During winter the north west winds 75-horse power. The largest dredgers were 110 feet in length, level it down and produce general shallowing o f the mouth of with 27 feet beam, and having their drum s 48 feet above the the harbor. water-line. The cost of each was £ 20,000. Comparing the survey o f 1870 to that o f 1873, it was found De Lesseps, said “our dredging machine carried from two to that during three years more than 5,000,000 cubic yards of sand three thousand cubic meters a day, and as we had sixty of them, and silt had accumulated between the 18 and 30 feet contour we succeeded in extracting monthly as much as two million lines. The 30 foot contour line was receded seaward 1200 yards cubic meters (about 2,763,000 cubic yards)”. The consumption and became 1450 meters from pier head in May 1873. The of coal came to a total of £ 40,000 each month. The cost of these dredgers was nearly £ 2,500,000. The disposal of dredged coastline of solid dry sand had advanced 780 feet. The shoal material took one of the following forms: had crept along the entire length of the 2100 m west pier. The 1. If the dredged materia] was required for reclaiming land, Company decided to extend the west pier 600 m into the sea at or for making concrete blocks, the spoil was made to fall

2330 into large boxes, having a capacity of four cubic yards. 7.3 Construction Techniques Seven o f these fit into a barge, which was moored under the spout o f the dredger. When all were filled, the barge 7.3.1 Cutting through Serapeum Plateau was floated under a steam crane, by which the boxes were lifted out and placed on trucks, running on The cutting in the Serapeum plateau ofTered the most Iramways. On arriving at their destination, one end of extraordinary difficulties, which the contractor was unable to these boxes opened on hinges, and the contents were overcome. Manual labor failed to make the enormous cuttings. thus readily deposited. An intelligent idea was to excavate using dredgers as follows: 2. The greater portion of the Port-Said dredged material The contractors banked up the Canal at the point to which was, however, conveyed in large barges (twin screws of the Mediterranean Sea water had been brought, 30-horsepower) some four or five miles out to sea, and Scooped out the remainder to a certain depth by manual dropped into deep water. These barges were 140 feet labor, long, with a beam of 23 feet The dredged material was Banked this up at the end next to Bitter Lakes, discharged by means o f twelve trapdoors, at the bottom Turned the Fresh Water Canal into the excavation, of the barge, the opening and closing of these being Then the dredgers were brought into play, dredgers, which regulated by chains. were originally forwarded by means of the Maritime Canal 3. Large proportion of the dredged material was discharged from Port-Said to Ismailia. There they passed through the from dredgers into an apparatus which had been named locks into the Fresh Water Canal, which raised them the long couloir (long duct), one of the most important seventeen feet above the sea level. machines. These couloirs varied in length, the longest A cross-cutting was then made from the Fresh Water Canal being about 75 yards. Their shape was that of a semi to the line of the works on the Maritime Canal, by which ellipse, five feet wide and two feet deep. They were the machines were floated into their respective positions at supported by a tall iron framework resting on the deck of this superior elevation. a barge, ninety-six feet long by twenty-eight feet beam, The dredged materials were conveyed by lighters into large and drawing six feet of water. The dredgings, when artificial lakes, which have been formed for this special dropped into the elevated end of the long duct, were purpose in close proximity to the Maritime Canal. These assisted in their downward progress by a strong current lakes were made in November 1866, the level o f the Nile then being at its highest point at that season. They contain of water, which was supplied by a rotary pump driven by a separate engine. In addition to this, when the dredged 5,000,000 cubic yards of water and were capable of receiving 2,800,000 cubic yards of dredgings. material were found to be of tenacious nature, scrapers or sweepers were employed. This apparatus consisted of an endless chain, which was made to pass along the When these dredgers had dredged to the required depth, the center o f the couloir. On this, scrapers were fixed at connection with the Fresh Water Canal was closed and the dam intervals, fitting the shape o f the couloir. With the in the line of Suez Canal was removed. By this means the level assistance of waterpower, the long couloirs could deliver of the Fresh Water Lake fell to that of the sea level. The dredgers their dredged material almost on a horizontal line. The descending at the same time continued to dredge the canal to its longest couloirs were used with the largest class of final prescribed depth. dredging machines. The upper end was about twelve 7.3.2 Extending to Suez yards and the lower about six yards above the water-line, thus easily clearing the low banks previously formed by The final stretch of 12 miles near the Red Sea towards Suez was smaller dredgers. The shorter couloirs were placed on the also dredged using fresh water through a junction with the Fresh dredging machine itself, and were balanced by a Water Canal. In doing so, the dredgers were independent of the counterweight on the opposite side. high tide of the Red Sea. 4. The elevator was introduced in situations where dredges were far below the level of embankments. This machine 7.4 Construction Sequence resembled in principle the couloir, but the inclination of the plane was in the opposite direction, i.e. upwards The withdrawal of the forced labour during May 1864 compelled instead o f downwards. This duct consisted of an inclined the Company to increase its European employees and to plane, about fifty-two yards long, and carrying two lines mechanize its operations as much as possible. At that time, the of tram rail. The inclination was one in four, and it was excavation was limited to 18,500,000 cubic yards, or 15% o f the supported in the middle by an iron frame. When this reduced cube of excavation. The Company divided the work of machine was at work, the lower extremity of the duct excavation into four large contracts, (1) with Alphonse Couvreux was three yards above the water, whereas the upper end on 1 October 1863 for the El-Guisr cutting, (2) with Dussaud is about fifty-two yards distant, with an elevation of Brothers on 20 October 1863 for the harbour moles of Port-Said twelve yards, thus reaching over the embankments. (3) with William Aiton on 13 January 1864 for the thirty-seven Seven boxes of dredged material were floated under the miles from Port-Said to El Guisr and (4) with Borel & Lavalley lower extremity o f the elevator. Each box was raised in on 26 March 1864 for the whole of the fifty-four miles from El succession by an endless steel wire rope, and it then Guisr to the Red Sea. travels to the upper end of the incline. On reaching this The main contract was that of Aiton since all the others were point the box swings vertically, then the door opened, dependent on its execution. Aiton had successfully dredged most and the contents were thus completely emptied. of the Clyde but was almost ruined by the high cost o f dredging of Lake Menzaleh and surrendered his contract to Borel & Figures ( 12) and (13) present a schematic for the basic Lavalley. Thus the Company entrusted ninety miles to a single excavation system. Figure ( 14) shows a plan and elevation of a great contractor, Borel & Lavalley. large dredger with a 70m couloir. Figure (15) shows elevation Borel and Lavalley, were both graduates of the Ecole for the CouvTeux Excavator. In addition, Figures (C .l) through Polytechnique. They got involved in 1864 but had successfully (C.7) show schematic plans and elevations of different dredgers adapted their techniques to the conditions of the Isthmus and and equipment used for excavation of the Canal. perfected the construction of the most powerful bucket-dredgers ever built. Their share of the work was increased from one-third to three-quarters. They gave employment to 20,000 men and excavated 74,000,000 cubic yards along ninety miles o f the

2331 Î STAGE OF EXCAVATION REMOVAL OF SOIL BY THE HANGING WHEELBARROW

2d STAGE OF EXCAVATION REMOVAL OF SOIL BY THE WHEELBARROW

Not to scale

Figure 12 : Stages and Methods of Excavation ( 1 ) 3d STAGE OF EXCAVATION REMOVAL OF SOIL BY THE INCLINED PLAN

12.00

Not to scale

Figure 13 : Stages and Methods of Excavation ( 2 ) igure 14 : Large Dredger ( Couloir of70 Meter) F

2334 Couvreux Excavator: Bucket type dredge but operated from the shore. The dredger is moved on the banks of the channel on a rail system. Dredged spoil is discharged through the chute into land based carriages.

Figure 15: Couvreux Excavator igure 16 : The Opening Ceremony The Opening : 16 igure F

2336 Canal, the greatest task ever commissioned to a single and served. The Viceroy had brought over 500 cooks and 1000 contractor. Unfortunately Paul Borel died on 17 October 1869 servants from Trieste, Genoa, Leghorn, and Marseilles. under the pressure of the work. The greatest drama ever witnessed in Egypt began on 17 Work was temporarily interrupted in 1866 by the epidemic of November at Port-Said on the beach to the west o f the mole and cholera which broke out at Suez on 21 May and at Alexandria on in front o f the Eugenie Quay. Three pavilions had been erected, 2 June. The disease was carried from the Delta by refugees with that o f Ismail’s guests overshadowing both those devoted to fleeing to the disease-free Isthmus and broke out at Ismailia on Islam and Christian guests, as shown in Figure (16). 24 June and at Port-Said on 29 June. The epidemic caused a The completion of the Suez Canal revived the dream of panic flight o f workers led by the Greeks, reducing the labour Panama canal and inspired many to think to imitate at Panama force from 6,000 to 3,000. The disease affected Ismailia more what De Lesseps had achieved at Suez. The Americans became severely than Port-Said or Suez, killing 6% of the population of eager to construct the Panama canal. The successful completion 4.000, including the only grandson of De Lesseps and the wife of of the Suez Canal produced a mania for cutting through Voisin, before its ravages ceased in August. Isthmuses and to provide vessels with a direct course. The The Mediterranean Sea water was first admitted to the Canal success of De Lesseps thus encouraged proposals for a Comith on 12 December 1866 through El Guisr reach into Lake Timsah, Canal, a Holstein Intermaritime Canal, a Bridgwater-Exeter which became a lake of salt rather than of fresh water. At the Canal and a Manchester-Liverpool Ship Canal. Even a Calcutta- limestone plateau of Serapeum, which was on the same level as Calais Canal was proposed, in order to link India to Manchester. the Sweet Water Canal to Suez, that canal was tapped during the successive high Niles o f 1865, 1866 and 1867 in order to turn At the end, I would like to acknowledge the wealth of three large depressions into artificial lakes o f fresh water. Within information found in the great documentary book “le Canal de those lakes, dredgers worked from January 1867, dredging their Suez” by Voisin Bey published in 1904.1 took the liberty to use way down from a height o f 33 feet above sea level and so excerpts, figures and illustrations from this book and reproduce replacing dry excavation by dredgings. They disposed o f their them from their original for purpose o f illustration in the paper spoil with the help o f side emptying lighters introduced from and in the oral presentation. The figures have been modified December 1866 and were reinforced by trough dredgers which slightly to restore their original quality, highlight the important arrived via the preliminary channel from April 1867. information and translate the data from the French language to Lake Timsah admitted its first dredger on 20 June 1867. By the English language. 15 August 1867 the lake had reached the level o f the Mediterranean Sea, in 8 months rather than the anticipated 4.5 months. At El Guisr, Couvreux made rapid progress during 1866 9 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS and 1867, and completed his contract by 31 January 1868, having perfected his mechanical excavator in the process. By the I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to Field Marshal end of 1867, 44,000,000 cubic yards or 45% o f the new cube of Ahmed Fadel, Chairman o f the Suez Canal Authority for excavation had been removed at 71% of the total cost. By 15 assisting and making all information in the authority position February 1868, 49,000,000 cubic yards or 49.5% of the cube of related to the history o f the Suez Canal and its development excavation had been removed, leaving only half to be excavated available to me. at steeply falling unit-costs as the Company at last reaped the Many thanks to Mr. Mike Chrimes, Librarian at the advantages of its large-scale overhead investment in mastering Institution o f Civil Engineers, UK and Mrs. Carol Morgan, the techniques necessary to conquer the desert. By 15 July 1869, Archivist at the Institution o f Civil Engineers, UK for helping in 90.000.000 cubic yards or 91% of excavation had been data collection related to this research project. extracted. Also, I extend my thanks to my colleagues at Hamza Figures (F .l) through (F. 11) demonstrate the main Associates; Eng. Dahlia A tef and Eng. Hossam Abdallh for construction activities during the 11 year span between 1859 and assisting me in the preparation o f this manuscript. 1869.

10 REFERENCES 8 OPENING CEREMONY Badger G.P., (1862), "A Visit to the Isthmus of Suez Canal The fixing o f the opening date of the Suez Canal to 17 Works", Smith, London, 67. November 1869 raised the Company’s shares 23 per cent above Ball J., (1939), "Contributions to the Geography o f Egypt", par value to 615 francs and createdasensationinEngland.lt Government Press, Cairo. stopped owners of sailing ships from buying new vessels and Bradsham’s Railmay (1857), "Through Route and Overland created a marked recession to the business o f steam shipping, Guide to India, Egypt and China", Adams, London. especially in Marseilles, Trieste, Genoa, Odessa, Barcelona, Bradsham's (1860), "Hand-Book to the Bengal Presidency", Amsterdam and Liverpool. On 28th September 1896 De Lesseps Adams, London. made the first direct trip from the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Brunlees J. and Webb E.B., (1859) "Proposed Ship-Railway Sea in fifteen hours. Across the Isthmus o f Suez", Reed, London. Voisin Bey carried the works to their triumphant conclusion Charles Beatty, (1956), "Ferdinand De Lesseps a biographical and earned the highest reputation in civil engineering by his nine study", Eyre & Spottiswoode . Publishers .LTD. years of service in the Isthmus. Colquhoun, British Consul- Dassi G.F., (1860), "Notes on Sueis", Naples, 8. General in Egypt, wrote “It is clear that De Lesseps was a man Dicey E., (1902), "The Story of the Khedivate", Rivingtons, of immense vitality, great persuasiveness, and supreme self- London, 36. confidence”. Douin G., (1937) "Historie du Regne du Khedive Ismail", ii 309- Ismail, Egypt Viceroy at the time o f Canal construction, 742. invited to the opening ceremony all the Moslem princes o f Asia Emerit M., (1952), "La Crise Syrienne et l'Expansion and Africa as well as all the Christian princes of Europe and Rconomique Franqaise en I860", Revue Historique, 217, America, but not the Turkish Sultan whose presence would have 220 . deprived Ismail o f the opportunity to play host to his fellow Famie D.A., (1969) "East n West of Suez; the Suez canal in monarchs. The Viceroy made the necessary arrangements for history 1854- 1956” Clarendon Press, Oxford. receiving 6000 foreign guests. Sheds were constructed in a few days to hold 6000 persons, with tables constantly replenished

2337 Fitzgerald P., (1876) "the great canal at Suez: its political, Engineering, and financial history", Volume (1) and (2); Tinsley Brothers, London. Goncourt J., (1862), "journal des Goncourt", Charpentier, Paris ii. 23-4. Hansard, (1860) "The English in Egypt", Commons Debates, Mildmay, 221,249-50,455. Hansard, (1861), "Lords Debates", Lord Carnarvon, 1555. Illustrated London News (1863), 31 January 1863,125,130. Illustrated London News (1863), 14 February 1863,176. John Marlowe, (1964), "The Making of the Suez Canal", The Cresset Press, London. Kwang-Ching Liu, (1962), "Anglo-American Steamship Rivalry in China, 1862-1874", Harvard University Press, 31. Lesseps F., LTsthme de Suez. Lesseps F., (1875), Lettres, ii. 336. Lesseps F., (1877), Lettres, iii 381-2, 391-2. Lesseps F., (1879), Lettres, iv. 32, 9 9 ,1 1 0 ,1 3 3 4 , 190,461. Makepeace W., (1921), "One Hundred Years o f Singapore", Murray, London, ii. 110. Maury A., Nott J.C. and Gliddon G.R., (18570), "Indigenous Races of the Earth; or, New Chapters o f Ethnological Enquiry", Triibner, London, 100-24, 321-3. Mehta S.D., (1945), "The Cotton Mills o f India 1854 to 1954", Multatuli and Dekker E.D., (1868), "Max Havelaar, or the Coffee Auctions o f the Dutch Trading Company", Edmonston, Edinburgh, 353. Nott J.C. and Gliddon G.R., (1854), "Types o f Mankind: or, Ethnological Researches", Lippincott, Philadel-phia, 141-79, 21045,667-88. Ritt, O. and Vieme H., (1864), "Les Interets de la Compagnie du Canal de Suez et ceux du Gouvemement Egyptien", Revue Contemporaine, 340-1. Ritt O., (1869), "Histoire de l'lsthme de Suez", Hachette, Paris, 247,476-96. Sabry M., (1933), "L'Empire Egyptien sous Ismail", Geuthner, Paris, 63, 90. Sammarco A. ,(1937) "Le Regne du Khedive Ismail de 1863 a 1875", Le Cairo,169-89. Saturday Review ( 1859), 24 December 1859, "The Suez Canal", 7 6 3 4 , Senior N.W., (1886), "Conversations and journals in Egypt and Malta”, ii. 133 Smyth C.P., (1864), "Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid", Strachan, London, 374-6, 383. Steele J., (1872), "The Suez Canal: its Present and Future", Simpkin, London, 16. Suez Canal Authority, (1999), "Yearly Report". Taylor T., (1860), "The Overland Route", Theatre Royal, HaymarkeL The Economist (1869), 26th June 1869,749ii. The Times (1858), 7 April 1858, 8iii-iv. The Times (1859), 26 May 1859, 8iii., 16 December 1859, 8ii- iii, 20 December 1859,6iv. The Times (1860), 23 April 1860,6iii. The Times (1869), 26 June 1869, 6ii. 19 July 1869, 5v, 21 September 1869, 5i. Trollope, (1859), "The West Indies and the Spanish Main", Chapman, London, 338. Trollope, (1883), "An Autobiography", Blackwood, Edinburgh, i. 155-6,165-7. Tuchman B.L., (1956), "Bible and Sword. England and Palestine from the Bronze Age to Balfour", 146-7. Voisin Bey, (1904), "Le Canal de Suez", Volume I, thorough VI Wallace D.M., (1883), "Egypt and the Egyptian Question", Macmillan, London, 268-9,310-11.

2338 igure A.l: International Maritime Routes. F

2339 avec les Trac«» d'execuuon UV CVNA1. MARITIME KT \)V CANAI. IVEVl IX)I CI

mnKkiiurrh

' ^ ^ l’ù*»„* °« ' ‘NÎ^ . iiàü^ndt :t'OKT-SA!i vVK sPwkKtrp'Atf'

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Men r.* Irli -1 «-«rii kNS»

de T*èiuÂf, 3M*V«4I

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2340 the Maritime Canal (1) igure B.l: Longitudinal Geological Cross Section of F

2341 it it ! i i ¡ i i i ti i i i i* ti i i » ♦» i i i i ♦» » t t i* i* i i 75 ! ! i i i i i i i i i i i i i i •: t i i t •: i i i i i i 1 I 1 1 1 1 li 1 1 1 l l li i 1 i |J 1 i 1 i: «l 1 i i ti I i i«i 1 I i i i i i i i i i i ii i i ii a 1 1 70 75 i I 1 I i I 1 1 1 1 1 1 I ililí ililí l l l i | l l | i l l l 65 ¡70 : : i : : 1 1 < t 1 1 1 1 1 1 t < 1 1 65 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 the Maritime Canal (2) 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 » 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 » * » 1 1 1 I 1 » I • • I » 1 I 1 1 1 » * : : i ¡so ¡45 ¡50 ¡55 igure B.2: Longitudinal Geological Cross Section of F HAKDHOCI» | | | sorrsorK ¡¡¡.MÍ I' ACCLOMfJUTF. I' ACCLOMfJUTF. sanb «-rn> «-rn> roOT ^ CAlXA»t1 í • 1 il 1 1 lil «1 I 1 1111*1 1 »111111111111 lililí 1 35 ¡40 | | CHAVO, * BOULOHU * | | CHAVO, 35 40 45 50 55 60 : : i i r : i i i

2342 ; ...... t .... ¡115 "1 ...... * 'I .... ¡110 I ...... * .... "" — .... - fthe Maritime Canal (3) ¡105 105 110 115 — ».„T ...... 4 00 4 p 100 ...... I Figure B.3: Longitudinal Geological Cross Section o HAND ROCK 1 1 I SOFT ROCK (' "" . ' j AGGLOMERATE i

ari.o i s sou .a cy w CALC,

j COMPACTED SANO 2] c»Avr,L*Bot.!Uas:RS ( I f ora

£ ro M| Average level 160 RED SEA 5 ** ns 160 - 4 - *"5 ‘C*23 «r>I —I i 2 wv s©I r* 155 S i . 2 155 .. »I f 5 «» r*$ r* o' $ r * 160 *s OS« 160 ...L. a a «> fthe Maritime Canal (4) r-j v> "*s n 5 3 S fs r 145 n $ r* 145 ..J. ; 2 3 4 s s r 140 140 ..J.. 135 135 ...L. Figure B.4: Longitudinal Geological Cross Section o 1130 t t 130

...U. HEOISOILS A GYPS AGGLOMERATE a 1125 LC a 125 C „„J. rS rS 2; o; «; ¡3; 3 5 5 3 3 j : 5 |" | COMPACTEDSAND | ".. j SOFTSOCK r ~ i GRAVEL* IOI-LDLRS 1' " '" " f «AND ROCK n; n; e

2344 ~¥~7~ 155» T r r x x v RIGHT PLAN RIGHT — ^ : T T ~ — ------ZA \/\/V¥X^- SOUTH & Z k~ imvtun) iBVEt; (unimvtun)iBVEt; r ------n r _ ...... zziM i x.-xsxss^^'. --

------M ------s 0 ...... ■if •' ■if m - ^ ------7 EL EL CHALOUF SECTION WORKS THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE INCLIED PLANS ------KILO 138 KILO 138 _ZL BP 85* Wf (SÎÏ UK _ SOIL BEFORE EXCAVATION (2048) Figure B.5: The Chaloufand Serapeum Section Works £ = LONGITUDINAL PROFILE OF THE ROCK LAYER GENERAL PLAN OF THE ROCKLAYER EXTRACTION SITE NORTH s?« ■ *?<*». ■ an.Mfnt. rm< nr *n rwmt * Mm** w*m*c, Mm** rwmt* *n « I I « morn*, fs n PROFILES rvrKw*r»jKorr»r.iA?«Ai. r»>r r»>r AT SERAPEUM tr.sfrvrrtipnorut *rni»awJM!«u* tr.sfrvrrtipnorut ...... ------>™ kwtobuîohu, «rte« kwtobuîohu, «rte« >™ I I ■ PROFILE OF K1LOPOINT 87 MO PROFILE OF KILOPOINT 93 000 PROFILE OF KILOPOINT 92 900 OCK LAYER EXTRACTION R

2345 THF. PLAN AFTER THE EXECUTION OF THE BOREHOLES IN 1868-1869 THE PLAN AFTER THE EXECUTION OF THE BOREHOLES IN 1890

LONGITUDINAL PROFILE OF THE SALT BAND LONGITUDINAL PROFILES FOR THE SALT BAND ON THE LIGHTHOUSE CENTER LINE

Figure B.6: The Large Basin Plans of Amers Lakes a relative short s o f this horizontal chain the filled bukets Figure C.l: Evrard Dredger (Schmidt System) (Schmidt system): Spoil discharge is sidew ays over d Dredger Evrar are moved sidew ays on a horizontal ladder. distance using a “horizontal bucket chain” : by mean

2347 tance using a flate Evrard Dredger : 2 C. Figure Spoil discharge is sidew ays over relative short dis d Dredger Evrar conveyor belt.

2348 igure C.3: Combe Dredger F 11.00 2.35 6.40 Bum icho n Dredger: Spoil discharge is sidew ays relative short distance using a flat conveyor belt

2349 Figure C.4: Burnichon Dredger Spoil discharge is sidew ays over ichon Dredger: B um relative short distance using a flat conveyor belt

2350 a “ chu.e” w ith u s i n g Small Dredger LongCouloir C.5: igure F Long Couloir: The spoil is discharged by gravity variable length small Dredger

2351 PLAN 17.M rges are equipped w ith om bination o f floating and land based llation. The other part is supported on a Figure C.6: Elevator Equipment ifted from the barge and transported over pontoon along w hich the barrages moore ners are em ptied and transported back to the ELEVATION SECTION A-A Equipm ent: Barge unloading discharge system. The ba evator foundation; i.e. one end is supported on a floating El and wrailsystem hich contains on the canal the banks. steam driven transport insta the elevator.barge. TheAt the whole end o f (heavy) the elevator system the contai is supported in a c “ standard” spoil containers. These containers are l

2352 Boats carryin g f ill: These barges are equipped w ith diffe rent type o f discharge system : ( i ) bottom doors, i.e. the doors are moved by means of chains; (2) side doors, the spoil is discharged sidew ays through chain activated doors.