Marketing Fragment 6 X 11.T65

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-87332-1 - Tropical Forest Insect Pests: Ecology, Impact, and Management K. S. S. Nair Index More information

Index

Abbreviations: Fig ¼ Figure; sp ¼ species; spp ¼ several species; Tab ¼ Table

Acacia spp 183–4 Agathis sp Thailand A. auriculiformis overview of pests 197 defoliator outbreaks overview of pests 186–7 tree profile 196 85 tree profile 184 Agrilus kalshoveni outbreaks 89 nursery pests 96 A. mangium Ailanthus sp tropical forests 5, 6, overview of pests 185–8, Atteva fabriciella 202–5 Fig 1.1 187–8, Tab 10.1 Eligma narcissus 201–3 Vietnam, sawfly outbreaks tree profile 185 overview of pests 197 90 A. mearnsii tree profile 201 see also India, Indonesia overview of pests 189–90 Alcterogystia cadambae 345–8, Atteva fabriciella, pest profile tree profile 188–9 Fig 10.43 197–200 A. nilotica alpha diversity 7 damage to Ailanthus shoot Celosterna scabrator 193–5 see also species diversity 198, Fig 10.3 overview of pests 190–2, Anaphe venata outbreaks 87 seasonal incidence 199, 191, 192, Tab 10.2, animal carcass feeders 70 Fig 10.4 Fig 10.1 animal dung feeders 50, 68–70 tree profile 190 Anthribidae, timber damage bacteria, use in pest A. senegal 117 management 163–4 overview of pests 195–6 see also Coleoptera bagworms tree profile 195 ants see Hymenoptera on Acacia nilotica 192, Actinophora fragrans, Agrilus Aristobia horridula 212–13, Fig 10.1 kalshoveni outbreaks 89 Fig 10.7 outbreaks in Indonesia Africa Arthroschista hilaralis 273–5, 86–7, 91 bamboo 7 Fig 10.25 Pteroma plagiophleps Cameroon, pest incidence Asia-Pacific region 243–9, study 82 China, nursery pests 96–7 Figs 10.14–18 Ghana Dipterocarpaceae 5 see also Lepidoptera defoliator outbreaks 87 Malaysia, nursery pests 97 Bamboos nursery pests 94–9 Tectona grandis 9 distribution 7, 13 Phytolyma outbreaks 90 plantation defoliation Udonga montana outbreaks tropical forests 6, Fig 1.1 102–3 90

393

394 Index

Bamboos (cont.) budmoths, Switzerland 130 Central America overview of pests 204–5, see also Lepidoptera bark beetle outbreaks 88–9, 205, Tab 10.3 Bugs see Hemiptera 91, 282–5 Cyrtotrachelus 206, Buprestidae Panama Fig 10.6 example 111, Fig 6.2 beetle diversity 40, 42, 47, tree profile 204–5 timber damage 109 42, Tab 2.2, Tab 2.3 bark feeders see also Coleoptera Eulepidotis superior on Acacia nilotica 191, outbreaks 83–4, 84, Tab 10.2 canopy fogging 41, 43, 47 Fig 4.2 on Falcataria moluccana 238, Caribbean tropical forests 6, Fig 1.1 Tab 10.9 tropical forests 6, Fig 1.1 Cerambycidae on Gmelina arborea 251–2, case studies 183 examples 108, Fig 6.1 Tab 10.10 Acacia spp 183–4 Kerala, India 110, Tab 6.1 bees see Hymenoptera Agathis spp 196–7 timber damage 107, 109 beetles see Coleoptera Ailanthus spp 197–203 see also Coleoptera behaviour-inducing Bamboos 203–8 China, nursery pests 96 chemicals, use in pest Casuarina spp 208–11 Cleora injectaria outbreaks 85 management 167 Dalbergia spp 211–18 Coleoptera 40–1, 42, Tab 2.2 biological control methods Eucalyptus spp 218–36 algae feeders 50 159–62, 178 Falcataria moluccana 236–49 animal carcass feeders 68 bacteria 163–4 Gmelina arborea 249–58 animal dung feeders 50, behaviour-inducing Leucaena leucocephala 68–70 chemicals 167 258–68 dead-wood feeders 50, 64, fungi 162–3 Manglietia conifera 268–70 65–8 predators/parasitoids Milicia sp 270–2 Passalidae 68, 69, Fig 3.4 160–2 Neolamarckia cadamba 272–5 flower/nectar/pollen/seed transgenic trees 166–7 Pinus sp 275–87 feeders 50 viruses 164–6 Shorea sp 287–300 fungi feeders 50 see also pest management, Swietenia sp 300–8 outbreaks tropical forests Tectona grandis 308–53 Agrilus kalshoveni 89 biosphere 57–8 Casuarina spp 208 Cryptorhynchus rufescens Black wattle see Acacia sp, C. equisetifolia 89–90 A. mearnsii overview of pests 209–11, Dendroctonus frontalis Bostrichidae 117, Fig 6.5 210, Tab 10.4 88–9, 282–6 timber damage 116 tree profile 208–9 Hoplocerambyx spinicornis dry bamboo culms 120, C. junghuhniana 87–88 Fig 6.6 defoliator outbreaks 85 Platypus biformis 89–90 Kerala, India 114, overview of pests 211 Polygraphus longifolia Tab 6.2 tree profile 211 89–90 see also Coleoptera caterpillars see cutworms, Sphenoptera aterrima 89–90 Brazil, Maraca´ Island, Lepidoptera plantation nursery damage Eulepidotis phrygionia Celosterna scabrator, pest 94–8, 95, 96, Figs 5.1, 5.2 outbreaks 83–4, 91 profile 193–5, Fig 10.2 Scolytinae 99, Tab 5.1

Index 395

predators/parasitoids 50, D. latifolia 14 ecosystem 57–8 62–3 logging 16 model 58, Fig 3.1 timber damage 104–18 overview of pests 213 nutrient cycling 59–60, Anthribidae 117 tree profile 213 Fig 3.2 Bostrichidae 113–14, 117, D. sissoo properties 58, 59 118, Tab 6.2, overview of pests 214–15, role of insects 61, 74, 77 Fig 6.5, Fig 6.6 214, Tab 10.5 decomposers 62–70 Buprestidae 109–10 Plecoptera reflexa 216–18, as food 70–1 Cerambycidae 109, 110, 216, Fig 10.8 insect/plant associations 107, 110, Fig 6.1, tree profile 214 72–4 Tab 6.1 dead-wood feeders 50, 64–8 as pollinators 71 Curculionidae 110–16, decomposers 59, 63 primary consumers 112, 113, Fig 6.3, animal carcass feeders 68 61–2 Tab 6.2 animal dung feeders 50, secondary consumers 62 conservation 2, 16 68–70 tertiary consumers 62 construction timber 21 dead-wood feeders 50, 64–8 vectors of disease 72 major plantation tree Passalidae 69, Fig 3.4 Eligma narcissus 201–3, species 23, Tab 6.3 litter fall 63–8 Fig 10.5 see also stored timber, food relationships 66, entomology, tropical forest timber Fig 3.3 historical background 33 Craspedonta leayana 254–6, insects/collembolans in literature 33–5 Fig 10.19 India 65, Tab 3.1 environmental protection crickets see Orthoptera defoliators see leaf feeders planting 25 crown layers 9 deforestation 2, 29–30 see also plantation forests profile diagram 10, Dendroctonus frontalis environmental value, tropical Fig 1.3 outbreaks 88–9, 282–95 forests 2 Cryptorhynchus rufescens Dioryctria 278–82, 278, Ephemeroptera 36, 38, Tab 2.1 outbreaks 89–90 Tab 10.11 timber damage 105 cutworms 96, Fig 5.2 Dipterocarpaceae 5, 13 eruptive population growth see also Lepidoptera seed pests 82 129, 130, Fig 7.4 Curculionidae, timber see also Shorea sp see also pest outbreaks, damage 112, 113, 110–16, dominant insect orders 40 population dynamics Figs 6.3, 6.4, Tab 6.2 Coleoptera 40–1, 42, Eucalyptus sp 7 see also Coleoptera Tab 2.2 nursery pests 94–5 Cyrtotrachelus 206, 207, Hemiptera 43–4, 44, overview of pests 219, 220, Fig 10.6 Tab 2.3 222–5 Hymenoptera 41, 43 exotic plantations 221–2, Dalbergia sp 211 Isoptera 43–4 Tab 10.7 D. cochinchinensis Lepidoptera 41 Queensland, Australia Aristobia horridula 212–13, Orthoptera 41, 43 220, Tab 10.6 212, Fig 10.7 dry forests 13, Tab 1.2 termites 220–2, 225, overview of pests 211 dung beetles 68–70, Fig 3.5 236, Tab 10.6, tree profile 211 see also Coleoptera Tab 10.7

396 Index

Eucalyptus (cont.) Falcataria moluccana pests in exotic plantations E. tereticornis, distribution 3 overview of pests 237–9, 253–4 control 232–36 238, Tab 10.9 pests in native plantations damage 226–8, 227–8, Pteroma plagiophleps 237–43, 250, 251–2, 253, Figs 10.9–10 243, 244–7, Fig 10.14, Tab 10.10 incidence 228–32, 229, Figs 10.15–18 Tingis beesoni 257–8, 257, Fig 10.11 tree profile 236–7 Fig 10.20 natural enemies 232 Xystrocera festiva 239–42, 239, tree profile 249 species 230–2, 231, 241, Fig 10.12, Fig 10.13 gradient population growth Tab 10.8 feeding guilds 47 128–30, 129, Fig 7.4, tree resistance 235–36 dead-wood feeders 50 see also pest outbreaks, tree profile 218 decomposers 50 population dynamics Eulepidotis spp outbreaks 83–4, flower/nectar/pollen/seed grasshoppers see Orthoptera 84, Fig 4.2 feeders 51 Gum acacia 195 see Acacia sp, Eutectona machaeralis 155, leaf feeders 48 A. senegal 160–1, 169, 330–2, 336 predators/parasitoids 50–1 control 343–5 sap feeders 48 heath forests 13 distribution 331, 334, stem feeders 49 Helopeltis antonii 98, Fig 5.3 Fig 10.38 see also under individual Hemiptera 43–5, 44, Tab 2.3 impact 337 feeding guilds Phytolyma spp outbreaks 90 incidence 334–6, 335–6, Finland 7, 9 plantation nursery damage Figs 10.40–41 flower feeders 49 98 interrelationship with Tectona grandis 311 sap consumption 48–9 Hyblaea puera 160–1, Food and Agriculture Udonga montana outbreaks 324, Fig 10.37 Organization (FAO), 90 life history 332–4 United Nations 2 Heteropsylla cubana 260, 267 natural enemies 337–8 food chain 59–60 control 267–8 outbreaks 84–5 forest types 11–15 distribution 260–1, 262, population dynamics 6, Fig 1.1 see also tropical Fig 10.22 336–7 forests impact 261–3, 262, exotic plantation forests freshwater swamp forests Fig 10.21 exotic, definition 140 13 life history 260 insect species 141, 142, fungi, use in pest natural enemies 266–7 Tab 8.2 management 62–3 population dynamics pest incidence 135–6 fungi feeders 50 264–6, 265–6, empirical findings 141–2, Figs 10.23–24 142, Tab 8.1 gamma diversity 7 Holometabola 36, 37, 38, 39, risk factors 144–5 see also species diversity Tab 2.1, Fig 2.1 pest origins Ghana Honduras, bark beetle exotic sources 144 defoliator outbreaks 87 outbreaks 88, 91 indigenous sources nursery pests 94–9 Hoplocerambyx spinicornis 87–8, 142–4 Gmelina arborea 290–3 tree species 25–6, 31–2 Craspedonta leayana 254–6, control 296–300 see also plantation forests 254, Fig 10.19 damage 291, Fig 10.28

Index 397

distribution 290, 292, incidence 304, 305 forestry management Fig 10.27 life history 304 problems 18 life history 290–2 natural enemies 306 nursery pests 97 natural enemies 296 insect orders 35–6, 40 outbreaks 87–8, 292–6, India classification 36–7, 39, 294–5 entomological literature 33 Tab 2.1, Fig 2.1 India 294, 295, Tab 10.12, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis see also dominant insect Fig 10.29 outbreaks 293, 295, orders Host Concentration Theory 76 Tab 10.12, Fig 10.29 insect outbreaks see pest host stress 91 insects/collembolans on outbreaks Hybanthes prunifolius, forest litter 65, Tab 3.1 insect species 46 defoliator outbreak 86 Kerala State estimation 46–8 Hyblaea puera 80, 131–3, Hyblaea puera outbreaks identification 46 136–7, 155, 160–2, 169, 317, Figs 10.34–36 numbers associated with 311, 329–30 Hyblaea puera spatial common plantation control 323–9 distribution 318, trees 100, 101, Tab 5.2 distribution 312, 314, 315, Fig 10.36 insecticides 158–9 Tab 10.14, Fig 10.31 pest incidence study 80, economic considerations host range 314 81, 82, Fig 4.2 176 incidence 315–19, 316, 317, stored timber use in nurseries 175 Fig 10.33, Figs 10.34–35 infestations 109, 110, see also pest management, impact 321–3 110, 113, Tab 6.1, tropical forests interrelationship with Tab 6.2 insects, role in ecosystem 61, Eutectona machaeralis tree species 8 74–7 161–2, 324, Fig 10.37 non-timber forest products decomposers 62–70 life history 312–14 28–9 as food 70–1 natural enemies 323 nursery pests 94–5 insect/plant associations outbreaks in natural forests root-feeding termites on 62–70 85 eucalypts 231, Tab 10.8 as pollinators 71 population dynamics species density 9 primary consumers 61–2 319–21, 318, Fig 10.36 indigenous plantation forests secondary consumers Hymenoptera insect species 141, 143, 62 ants 41–3 Tab 8.2 tertiary consumers 62 ant-plant associations pest incidence 136–7, vectors of disease 72 72–3 144–5 integrated pest management fungus-growing 73 see also monocultures, pest (IPM) 154, 159, 173, 182 leaf-cutting 73 incidence, tropical forests see pest outbreaks of Shizocera 90–1, plantation forests management, tropical 90, 268–70 Indonesia forests Hypsipyla 302, 308 Agrilus kalshoveni outbreaks International Union of control 306–8 89, 91 Forestry Research distribution 303, 305, defoliator outbreaks 84–6 Organizations (IUFRO) Fig 10.30 East Kalimantan, pest 173–4 impact 304–5 incidence study 82–3 IUFRO 173–4

398 Index

Kerala State, India on Gmelina arborea 251–2, lowland evergreen rainforest Hyblaea puera Tab 10.10 13 outbreaks 317, on Tectona grandis 80, 308 Lymantria galinaria outbreaks Figs 10.34–6 Lepidoptera 41 86 spatial distribution 318, damage to plantation Fig 10.36 nurseries 96–7 mahogany see Swietenia sp pest incidence study 80, 81, leaf consumption 48 Malayan Uniform System 17 84, Fig 4.2 outbreaks see also logging stored timber infestations Anaphe venata 87 Malaysia, nursery pests 97 Bostrichidae 114, Tab 6.2 Cleora injectaria 85 Manglietia conifera Cerambycidae 109, 110, Eulepidotis spp 83–5, 84, defoliator outbreaks 90, Tab 6.1 Fig 4.2 268–70 Curculionidae 113,Tab6.2 Eutectona machaeralis overview of pests 268 tree species 7–8 85–6 Shizocera sp 268–9 see also India Hyblaea puera 85 tree profile 268 Lymantria galinaria 86 mangrove forests 14 Latin America Miliona basalis 87 defoliator outbreaks Baja, Mexico, pest Ophiusa spp 85 85–6 incidence study 83 Pteroma sp 86–7 mayfly see Ephemeroptera Honduras, bark beetle Voracia casuariniphaga Mexico, pest incidence study outbreaks 88, 91, 93 86 83 Maraca´ Island, Brazil, Zunacetha annulata 86 Milicia spp defoliator outbreaks plantation nursery damage overview of pests 272 84–5, 91 96–7 Phytolyma 270–2 rainforest 13 stem feeders 49 psyllid outbreaks 90 teak plantation defoliation Leucaena leucocephala tree profile 270 102, 319 Heteropsylla cubana 260–68, Miliona basalis outbreaks 87 tropical countries 4–5, 261, 262, Fig 10.21, mixed plantation forests, pest Tab 1.1 Fig 10.22 incidence tropical forests 5, 6, Fig 1.1 overview of pests 259–60 in comparison with mixed leaf feeders 48, 61–2 tree profile 258 species agriculture on Acacia mangium 187, light, effect on population 150–51 Tab 10.1 growth 121–3 in comparison with on Acacia nilotica 191, light timber, tree species 24 monocultures 146–7, Tab 10.2 see also stored timber, 150–3 on bamboos 205, Tab 10.3 timber indirect evidence 149 on Dalbergia sissoo 214, litter feeders 50, 63–6 studies 147–9, 148, Tab 10.5 food relationships 66, Tab 8.3 damage to plantation Fig 3.3 see also plantation forests nurseries 97 India 65, Tab 3.1 Mo sawfly 269–70 on eucalypts 220, 221, logging 1–2, 15 moist deciduous forests 12, Tab 10.6, Tab 10.7 clear-cutting 17 13–14, Tab 1.2 on Falcataria moluccana 238, monocyclic selective 17 moisture, effect on Tab 10.9 polycyclic selective 16–17 population growth 121

Index 399

monocultures, pest incidence nitrogen cycle 60, Fig 3.2 defoliator outbreaks 83–4, 140–2, 142, Tab 8.1 see also ecosystem 84, Fig 4.2 in comparison with mixed non-timber forest products 27 Paraguay, nursery pests 97 plantations 146–7, India 28–29 Paraneoptera 37, 38, 39, 151–3 production/employment, Tab 2.1, Fig 2.1 indirect evidence 149 statistics 27, Tab 1.4 Passalidae, timber damage 68, studies 147–9, 148, nurseries, pest management 69, Fig 3.4 Tab 8.3 174–5 peat swamp forests 13 see also indigenous see also pest management, Peltogyne gracilipes 84–5, 91 plantation forests, tropical forests defoliator outbreaks 84–5, plantation forests nursery pests 94 91 mountain forests 13, 15, beetles 95, 97–98, Tab 5.1 pest management, tropical Tab 1.2 caterpillars 96–7 forests multiple-use forest crickets 96–7 application of control management 17–18 grasshoppers 97 agents to tree canopy see also logging impact 98 171 multipurpose tree species sap-sucking bugs 97 constraints 171–2 (MPTS) 24 termites 95–6 economic considerations see also plantation forests whitegrubs 94–5, 95, 168–71 Myanmar, teak defoliators Fig 5.1 volume growth of 85 see also plantation forests protected teak 170, nutrient cycling 59–61, 60, Fig 9.1 natural forests, pests Fig 3.2 environmental impact incidence in comparison role of insects 63 171 with plantation forests see also ecosystem historical background 134–5 155–6 enemies hypothesis 135 Odonata 38, 36, Tab 2.1 international co-operation pest evolution hypothesis older plantations, pest 173–4 136–9 management 176–82 natural forests 176–82 resource concentration see also pest management, nurseries 174–5 hypothesis 135–6 tropical forests older plantations 176–82 incidence studies 80–3, Ophiusa spp outbreaks 85 present status 156 149 Orthoptera 45 prevention 156–7 management 176–82 damage to plantation remedial action 156, 157 outbreaks 78–9, 83, 90–2 nurseries 96–7 bacteria 163–4 see also tropical forests leaf consumption 48 behaviour-inducing nectar/pollen feeders 49 chemicals 167 Neolamarckia cadamba Palaquium, defoliator fungi 162–3 Arthroschista hilaralis 272–5, outbreaks 85, 91 insecticides 158–9, 176 273, Fig 10.25 Paleoptera 37, 38, 39, Tab 2.1, physical methods 167–8 overview of pests 272–3 Fig 2.1 predators/parasitoids tree profile 272 Panama 159–62, 177 Neoptera 36–7, 38, 39, beetle diversity 41, 42, 43, transgenic trees 166–7 Tab 2.1, Fig 2.1 44, Tab 2.2, Tab 2.3 viruses 164–6

400 Index

pest management, tropical East Kalimantan, termites 225–36 forests (cont.) Indonesia 82–3 Tingis beesoni 257–8 research management 172 Kerala, India 80, 81, 82, Xyleutes ceramicus 340–5 seeds 174 Fig 4.1 Xystrocera festiva 239–43, young plantations 175–6 types 128–30, 129, Fig 7.4 241, Fig 10.13 see also tropical forests eruptive 130 pests 50, 56 pest outbreaks gradient 128, 130–1 control 154 causes 131–2 Udonga montana 90 definition 51–6 Coleoptera pest profiles economic damage 80, 92 Agrilus kalshoveni 89 Alcterogystia cadambae 345–8 evolution 136–9 Cryptorhynchus rufescens Aristobia horridula 212–13, see also integrated pest 89–90 212, Fig 10.7 management, pest Dendroctonus frontalis Arthroschista hilaralis 273–5, management, tropical 88–9 273, Fig 10.25 forests, pest outbreaks, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis Atteva fabriciella 197–200 pest profiles, tree pests 87–8 Celosterna scabrator 193–5, Phytolyma spp 270–2 Platypus biformis 89–90 193, Fig 10.2 outbreaks 90 Polygraphus longifolia Craspedonta leayana 254–6, pine aphids 286–7 89 254, Fig 10.19 pine bark beetles 282–5 Sphenoptera aterrima 89 Cyrtotrachelus spp 205, 206, larvae 283, Fig 10.26 effect on forests 74–6 206, Fig 10.6 pine shoot moths 277 genetic traits 132–3 Dioryctria spp 278–80, 278, Pinus spp Hemiptera 90 Tab 10.11 bark beetle outbreaks 88–9, host stress 91 Eligma narcissus 201–3 282–5 Hymenoptera 90 Eutectona machaeralis 330–40 Dioryctria spp 278–80, 280, Lepidoptera Heteropsylla cubana 260–8 Tab 10.11 Anaphe venata 87 Hoplocerambyx spinicornis P. merkusii, bagworm Cleora injectaria 85 290–300 outbreaks 86–7 Eulepidotis spp 83–5, 84, Hyblaea puera 311–30 P. sylvestris 7–8 Fig 4.2 Hypsipyla 302–8 pine aphids 286–7 Eutectona machaeralis 85–6 Phytolyma spp 270–2 pine bark beetles 282–5, Hyblaea puera 85 pine aphids 286–7 283, Fig 10.26 Lymantria galinaria 86 pine bark beetles 282–5, pine shoot moths 277–82 Miliona basalis 87 283, Fig 10.26 overview of pests 276–7 Ophiusa spp 85 pine shoot moths 277–82 Rhyacionia spp 280–2 Pteroma sp 86–7 Plecoptera reflexa 216–18, tree profile 275–6 Voracia casuariniphaga 86 216, Fig 10.8 plant evolution, role of Zunacetha annulata 86 Pteroma plagiophleps 243–9, insects 75–7 natural forests 78–9, 90–2 243, 244–7, Fig 10.14, plantfamilies,distribution7–8 Phytolyma spp 90 Figs 10.15–18 mountain forests 15 Shizocera 90 Rhyacionia spp 280–2 plantation forests 1, 15–16, studies Sahyadrassus malabaricus 30–1 Baja, Mexico 83 248–53 advantages 19 Cameroon, Africa 82 Shizocera sp 268–9 categories 134

Index 401

exotic species 25–7, 31, 32 for environmental population growth 119–20, insect species 142, 143, protection 25 127–28 Tab 8.2 light timber 24 exponential growth 122, pest incidence 136–9, multi-purpose species 24 129, Fig 7.1 142, Tab 8.1 pulpwood 22, 24 logistic growth 124, 127, pest origins 142–4 for special products Fig 7.2 expansion 19–20, 21, 24–5 types 128–31, 129, Fig 1.5 see also pest profiles Fig 7.4 historical background Plantation Politics 32 under natural conditions 22–23 Platypodinae, timber damage 126, Fig 7.3 indigenous species, pest 114–16 principles governing incidence 136–37, gallery system 115, 125–8 144–5 Fig 6.4 Shizocera 268–70 No. of insect species on Kerala, India 113, Tab 6.2 Xyleutes ceramicus 340 common plantation see also Coleoptera see also pest outbreaks trees 100, 101, Platypus biformis outbreaks predators/parasitoids 50, 62 Tab 5.2 89 use in pest management nursery pests 94 Plecoptera reflexa 216–17, 216, 159–62, 177 beetles 97–8, 99, Fig 10.8 primary consumers 58–9 Tab 5.1 pod-boring insects on Acacia insects 61–2 caterpillars 97–8 nilotica 191, Tab 10.2 primitively wingless insects crickets 96–7 pollination 71 37–8, 39, Tab 2.1, Fig 2.1 grasshoppers 97 Polygraphus longifolia Pteroma sp impact 98 outbreaks 89–90 outbreaks 86–7 sap-sucking bugs 97–8 Polyneoptera 36, 38, 39, P. plagiophleps 243, 249 termites 95–6 Tab 2.1, Fig 2.1 control 249 whitegrubs 94–5, 95, population dynamics 119 distribution 247, 248, Fig 5.1 Eutectona machaeralis Fig 10.18 older plantations, pest 335–6 impact 246, 244–6, damage 100–2 Heteropsylla cubana 264–6, Figs 10.15–17 impact 102–3 266, Figs 10.23–24 life history 243–4 pest incidence in Hoplocerambyx spinicornis natural enemies 248–9 comparison with 292–6 Pterygota 36–7, 38, 39, natural forests 134–5 Hyblaea puera 319–23, 318, Tab 2.1, Fig 2.1 enemies hypothesis 135 Fig 10.36 publications, entomological pest evolution hypothesis population change 121, 33–5 136–9 125 pulpwood, tree species 24–5 resource concentration interspecific interactions see also timber hypothesis 135–6 123–4 pyramid of energy 59 sapling pests 100 intraspecific interactions see also ecosystem common plantation tree 123 species 21, 93–4 physical factors affecting Quararibea asterolepsis, constructional timber 122–3 defoliator outbreak 83–5, 21–2, 23, Tab 1.3 population density 120–1 84, Fig 4.2

402 Index

r–K continuum 131–2 on eucalypts 220–1, silviculture, use in pest see also pest outbreaks Tabs 10.6–7 management 176 rainforests 13–14, 13, Tab 1.2 on Falcataria moluccana 238, soil feeders 50 research Tab 10.9 South America management 172–3 on Gmelina arborea 251, moist deciduous forest 14 training 172 Tab 10.10 Paraguay, nursery pests 97 Resource Supply Theory 75 sapling pests 99–100 tropical forests 6, Fig 1.1 Rhyacionia 280–2 see also plantation forests species density 8–9 root feeders 50 Scolytinae species diversity 7–9 on Acacia mangium 187, nursery damage 99, Sphenoptera aterrima outbreaks Tab 10.1 Tab 5.1 89 on Acacia nilotica 191, timber damage 110 stem feeders 49 Tab 10.2 gallery system 112, on Acacia mangium 187–8, on eucalypts 231, Fig 6.3 Tab 10.1 Tab 10.8 Kerala, India 113, on Acacia nilotica 191, on Gmelina arborea 251–2, Tab 6.2 Tab 10.2 Tab 10.10 see also Coleoptera on eucalypts 220, on Tectona grandis 310–11 secondary consumers 59, 62 Tab 10.6 rosewood see Dalbergia sp seed/fruit feeders 49, 67, on Falcataria moluccana 238, Tab 3.2 Tab 10.9 Sahyadrassus malabaricus 348, on Acacia nilotica 191, on Gmelina arborea 251–2, 352–3 Tab 10.2 Tab 10.10 control 352–3 on bamboos 198, Fig 10.3 on Tectona grandis 309–10 distribution 351 seeds, pest management 174 stored timber enemies 349, 350, semi-evergreen rainforest infestations, Kerala (India) Fig 10.44, Fig 10.45 13–14 Bostrichidae 114, impact 351, 352, semiochemicals, use in pest Tab 6.2 Fig 10.46 management 167 Cerambycidae 107–9, life history 348–51 Shizocera sp 90, 268–70 110, Tab 6.1 natural enemies 352 shoot/culm borers on Curculionidae 113, sal see Shorea sp, S. robusta bamboos 205, 206, Tab 6.2 sal borer see Hoplocerambyx Tab 10.3, Fig 10.6 use of pest-resistant spinicornis Shorea sp 287–8 timber 178–9 Santalum album 15 S. robusta wood protection methods sap feeders 48 borer outbreaks (India) 179–81 on Acacia mangium 187, 87–8, 290–300 see also timber Tab 10.1 distribution 3, 9 sustainability of tropical on Acacia nilotica 191, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis forests 30–1 Tab 10.2 87–8, 290–300 Swietenia sp on bamboos 205, Tab 10.3 leaf-feeding caterpillar distribution 8, 14–15 on Dalbergia sissoo 214, damage 80–2 Hypsipyla 302–8, 303, Tab 10.5 overview of pests Fig 10.30 damage to plantation 288–9 logging 16 nurseries 97–8 tree profile 287 overview of pests 301–2

Index 403

sapling pests 99–100 plantation nursery damage tree species tree profile 300–1 95–6 diversity 7–9 Switzerland, larch budmoth timber damage 105–7 geographical distribution 3 outbreaks 130 tertiary consumers 59, 62 latitude/density Thailand relationship 8, Fig 1.2 teak see Tectona grandis defoliator outbreaks on profile diagram 9, 10, Tectona grandis mangroves 85 Fig 1.3 distribution 3, 7, 9, 14–15 nursery pests 97 plantations insects associated with timber construction timber 52–6, Tab 2.4 beetle borers 107–18 21–2, 23, Tab 1.3 logging 16 Anthribidae 117 for environmental pests 136–7, 309–11 Bostrichidae 117, 118–19, protection 25 Alcterogystia cadambae Tab 6.2, Fig 6.5 exotics 25–7, 31–2 345–8 Bupestridae 109–10 insects associated with Eutectona machaeralis Cerambycidae 107, 108, 100, 101, Tab 5.2 330–40 109, 110, Fig 6.1, light timber 24 Hyblaea puera 311–30 Tab 6.1 multi-purpose tree nurseries 94–5 Curculionidae 110–16, species 24–5 Sahyadrassus malabaricus 112, 113–14, Fig 6.3, pulpwood 22, 24 248–53 Tab 6.2 for special products 24–5 Xyleutes ceramicus 340–5 construction timber 21–2, profiles teak litter 23, Tab 1.3 Acacia auriculiformis 184 fungi 62–3 termites 105–6 Acacia mangium 185 organisms associated subterranean 106 Acacia mearnsii 188–9 with breakdown 63–4 wood-dwelling 106 Acacia nilotica 190 tree profile 308–9 light timber 24 Acacia senegal 195 volume growth of plywood 181 Agathis sp 196 protected teak 169–70, pulpwood 22–4 Ailanthus sp 197 170, Fig 9.1 use of pest-resistant bamboos 203–4 temperature, effect on 178–9 Casuarina equisetifolia 208 population growth 121–2 see also stored timber Casuarina junghuhniana termites 45, 67–8, 73–4 Tingis beesoni 257–8, 257, 211 on eucalypts 220, 221, Fig 10.20 Dalbergia cochinchinensis 225, 236, Tab 10.6, transgenic trees, use in pest 211 Tab 10.7 management 166 Dalbergia latifolia 213–14 control 232–6 tree diseases 72 Dalbergia sissoo 214 damage 225–8, 227–8, tree pests Eucalyptus sp 218 Figs 10.9–10 Coleoptera 40–1 Falcataria moluccana incidence 228–30, 229, Hemiptera 43–4 236–7 Fig 10.11 Hymenoptera 41–3 Gmelina arborea 236–58 natural enemies 232 Lepidoptera 41 Leucaena leucocephala species 230–2, 231, Orthoptera 45 258–68 Tab 10.8 see also under individual Manglietia conifera 268–70 tree resistance 236 species Milicia sp 270–2

404 Index

tree species (cont.) non-timber products 27, wood see timber Neolamarckia cadamba Tab 1.4 wood-destroying insects 272–5 pest incidence studies 80–3 Coleoptera 105 Pinus sp 275–87 pest management see pest large borers 107–10 Shorea robusta 287–8 management, tropical small borers 110–18 Swietenia sp 300–1 forests Isoptera 105–7 Tectona grandis 308–9 pest outbreaks 78–9, 83 see also under individual Triplochiton scleroxylon, see also natural forests, species defoliator outbreaks plantation forests 86–7 tropics Xyleutes ceramicus 340–2, 345 tropical countries 3–4, 4–5, climate 3–4 control 343–5 Tab 1.1 geographical definition 3 distribution 340–1, tropical forests 1–2 twig gall, Tectona grandis Fig 10.42 categories 11–12 310–11 impact 343 distribution 13, Tab 1.2 life history 340–2 dry forest 14–15 Udonga montana outbreaks 90 natural enemies 343 moist deciduous forest 14 population dynamics 342–3 Vietnam, sawfly outbreaks 92 mountain forest 15 Xystrocera festiva 239–43, 239, viruses, use in pest rainforest 13–14 Fig 10.12 management 164–6 characteristics 5, 7 Voracia casuariniphaga young plantations, pest distribution 5, 6, outbreaks 86 management 175–6 Fig 1.1 see also pest management, growth dynamics 11, 10, wasps see Hymenoptera tropical forests Fig 1.4 weather, effect on population species diversity 7–9 growth 123 Zunacetha annulata outbreaks structure 9–11 whitegrubs 94–5, 95, Fig 5.1 86 deforestation 29–30 see also Coleoptera, management 15–18, 30–1 plantation forests, problems 18 nursery pests