Black Rulers of Ancient

by Thomas Kummert www.ancient-cultures.info

Everybody has heard of and many even Those few who really will venture into visited the massive and incredible , will find themselves travelling rather royal tombs of the legendary Egyptian alone a thousand kilometers all the way down ’s. But who has ever heard of Black the from the confluence of the White and Pharaohs? Well … possibly only a few ancient Blue Nile at Khartoum towards the Egyptian history aficionados. border.

But of those who read about these intriguing And the unquestioned acceptance of pharaohs, did they really take the trouble to low comfort travel will definitely be highly travel along the five Nile cataracts to visit the rewarded. Yes you will be really stunned numerous necropolis of the ancient Nubian and completely surprised. Because you will Kingdoms with over 300 pyramids? And let me find out, that there are many more pyramids tell you, there are many more pyramids across in modern day Sudan, than in the famous Nubia or Kush as the Egyptians called it. ancient Egyptian Empire. Re temple at Soleb in northern Sudan built by pharaoh Amenhotep III in Nubia

Yes these are much smaller, Egypt-Nubian History but nevertheless really worth visiting, due to their There are only a few references in Egyptian amazing set-up. They were erected in long lines annals, which mention the existence of ancient and groups in vast sandy fields close to the various Nubian kingdoms. About 5,000 years ago Pharaoh ancient Nubian capitals along the Nile. Djer, ruler of the First Egyptian Dynasty, is reported to have conquered the southern Kush Kingdom. Soleb Temple Kush was the Egyptian name for Nubia, which This ancient site is one of the most northern is the regional name for northern Sudan and the Temple sites in modern day Sudan. Here Egyptian dark skinned population living there. Egyptians Pharaoh Amenhotep III. built during the Armana called nehasi in their language. Period of the 18th Dynasty a temple consecrated to sun god Amun Re. This most southern temple And about 500 years later famous Pharaoh in the Egyptian Empire was erected by his son Snofru attacked Kush again and it is reported Hapu. meticulously, that he took 7.000 prisoners men and women plus 200.000 heads of cattle and At Sedeinga he also constructed a companion sheep. temple for Queen Tiye, which unfortunately is very much destroyed. Of the Soleb Temple only a few Snofru was the only pharaoh, who built three columns are still standing or have been re-erected huge pyramids. One of the famous two at Giza to give visitors a bit of an impression, how the and two further south at Dahshur. He also started temple must have looked like. to build numerous mini pyramids across his vast empire to demonstrate his First Pre-historic Traces power. It is not surprising that in the vicinity of Nubia’s first capital Egyptian Records , the first human traces We know that Egyptian’s were discovered. These date were famous for keeping back to over 1,6 million years very detailed records. But ago and belong to our anchestor what does this tell us? homo habilis. Certainly that the Kushite rulers in the south became Also close to Kerma in Wadi a thread to the mighty El Arab a pre-historic settlement Egyptian Empire and was found and dated to 8,300 started to attack it. BC. Another ancient neolithic settlement site called El Barga One discovery is very could be dated to 7,500 BC. It interesting. Just consider was inhabited for over 2,000 this remarkable symbolism. years scientists could establish Tutanchamun sandals by studying the two ad joint found in his tomb were cemeteries they discovered. papayrus bundle columns at Soleb decorated with two dark

2 skinned figures believed to be Kushite rulers. This is a clear sign of Egyptian superiority. Treating your enemies with your feet and showing them your soles, is a huge insult and sign of ultimate submission.

Was it a love hate relationship with Nubia? Possibly both depending on changing luck of each other’s military campaigns. Certainly it was also a great portion of wishful thinking. As we later find out, Nubians conquered and ruled Egypt for over 100 years.

partly sand covered Meroe Ongoing Military Campaigns Another 500 years later about 1,500 BC Pharaoh Thutmosis I. passed with his army and ships the third cataract, which until then, was a natural defense line for Nubians. Now he could conquer the Kushite capital Kerma and the surrounding fertile Dongola area. The Egyptian Empire herewith controlled Nubia up to forth cataract.

Then again in 591 BC Pharaoh Psammettich II. attacked Nubia and the capital was moved 500 km further south and up the Nile to Meroe. Egyptians had no name for the Nile and just called it river iteru, as there was only one river in the whole had larger pyramids a flat top? world. scientists are not certain about that

At that time Greek historian Herodot named black Nubians as Ethiopians or “sun burned” and described them as rich, beautiful, strong, long living in a land full of wonders. And he was right with his description of the Nubian people, their way of life and culture.

Egyptian Influence Let’s take a step back and investigate how the Nubian Culture could develop to such a sophisticated level. Definitely they learned and copied a lot if not everything from the Egyptians. Recent research pyramids with pylon shape sacrifice chapel smaller pyramids were plastered & painted is telling us, that Kushite art was influenced by Egyptian Culture. But it had its own identity with a very specific Nubian character and originality.

They produced a fine ceramic, not by wheel like in Egypt, but by hand. Actually all jewelry and art was locally produced. So Nubia took advantage of Egyptian technology and advancement and adopted it, but gave it their own style.

How did Egyptian influence work and was accepted? Wealthy and fertile Egypt either drew immigrants as workers, and or the powerful empire took prisoners as slaves. We further know that Nubians like Libyans made up a huge part of the good example of mudbrick pyramid ever growing Egyptian army. with plastered surface & chapel in front

3 Libyans had no life supporting Nubians also believed strongly The new Nubian empire now river, but Nubians were much in a life after death and therefore stretched from Thebes to the more closely linked through the copied nearly all Egyptian burial sixth cataract at the confluence Nile with Egypt. As we later see, of the White and Blue Nile, where this had an enormous effect on today the Sudanese capital , religion and Khartoum lies. their culture as a whole. Another important indication One should not speak about of Nubian rule in Upper Egypt the Egyptian influence, but better is, that the High Priestess of of the totally entwined cultures, Thebes carrying the god like even if their character and nature title of “Amun’s wife” made were so different. Nubians were ’s daughter Amenerdis much more African, a nature her successor. Now Nubia which really was absent from also controlled the powerful Egyptian thinking and culture. priesthood, which often stood in competition with the royal court. Economic Success Nubia actually gained influence Black Pharaohs and wealth as important Musawarat rare elephant figure Six black pharaohs ruled Egypt intermediary of significant for 125 years until 655 BC. Their Egyptian trade with Africa. This rituals. It is also no wonder, that rule is today classified as the trade included vast amounts Nubians worshipped certain 25th Egyptian Dynasty during the of valuable timber, specific Egyptian gods more than so-called Third Interim Period in stones for huge sculptured Egyptians did themselves. Egyptian history. Even if they had statues, various oils, important themselves depicted on temple frankincense, ostrich feathers That made them fully accepted walls in full Egyptian ornate, and elephant ivory. by Egyptians, very much so, that they were proud enough to show Nubians were even appointed distinctive Nubian attributes. Gold and precious stone were Egyptian vice-kings in Nubia. also on the trading list. Wild They resided in Aniba between First they carried two golden animals such as lions, apes and the first and second cataract uraeus snakes on their fore later elephants, plus a large close to the famous Abu Simbel head to demonstrate they were variety of wild hides. Not to site. rulers of Egypt and Nubia. Then forget the important slave trade there was the distinctive Nubian already existing at that time. But Rise of Nubia cap, ear rings and a neck band surprisingly Nubia had no own Finally in 780 BC Nubia decorated with a ram head. One coinage. became independent, when item they did never wear, it was Egypt struggled with wide spread the Egyptian ceremonial beard. Egyptian Inspiration internal conflict. This weakened Therefore it is not surprising, Egypt so much, that Nubian The last black pharaoh that despite having their Tanwetamani, a nephew independent culture, of famous Nubian King Nubia got inspired by Tarhaqa, escaped Egyptian life style and Assyrian attack on Egypt religion including the and fled back to Nubia. typical pyramid burials. Other Foreign Rulers Interestingly though, But Nubians were not that Nubians started to the only foreign rulers in build pyramids, when 4,000 years of the mighty Egyptians had stopped Egyptian Empire’s history. around 2.000 BC and ram sphinx lined alley at Naqa The provenance of the changed to underground Hykos rulers is still not burials with complex chamber King Kashta took advantage and fully certain. It is assumed they systems. successfully conquered Egypt. came from Palestine or Syria.

4 first Nubian capital Kerma with rests of ruined temple defuffa

Thereafter followed Libyans had four residential areas with to have accepted and followed. and Nubians as rulers of Egypt, around 200 small houses and But the big surprise for than twice Persians conquered 2,000 inhabitants. There were excavators at Kerma was a the Egyptian Empire. Finally the also larger houses for an elite unique mudbrick tower called Greek established their Ptolemaic and a royal palace with a round Western Defuffa. This immense rule, so-called after the general audience hall measuring 14 structure had no rooms inside of Alexander the Great. During meters. only a staircase outside leading this period the famed Cleopatra to the top. made history and Romans finally Royal Power & Priesthood dominated the Near East from 30 Different to Egyptian practice, It is believed to be have used BC onwards. where the temple served as for religious purposes, like the administration and storage ziggurats in Mesopotamia. It Nubian Beginnings center, at Kerma the royal measured 45 meters in length The pre-historic capital of palace had this function. This and was over 18 meters high. In Kerma is the most northern is an important difference addition the city was surrounded and closest to Egypt. It was the indicating the clear domination by a ten meters high protection center of the ancient Kushite of king over priesthood. wall with four gated entries. Culture. Archaeologists today have established five different But then the priests could Kerma Necropolis periods. decide, when the king had to No royal city without a give up power and die. A unique necropolis. But the one at Kerma So we are looking at 2,000 rule the kings in change seemed was in various ways special. On years of human settlement at this about 90 hectares it houses up important site. That time horizon to 40,000 graves many of them also means, that its beginnings huge round burial mounds. But coincide exactly with the start as a surprise 16 tombs were of Egyptian history the so-called discovered with mass side Old Kingdom Period. burials.

Kerma was the royal seat from Here US archaeologist George 2,500 to 1,500 BC. Recently Reisner made a gruel some archaeologists excavated close discovery in 1912. The entire by a settlement they called Pre- royal court was buried alive with Kerma, which was dated back to their ruler. One of these tumuli 3,500 BC. measures 90 meters and the respective king was buried with But let’s look more closely over 400 persons of his court at Kerma. This Nubian capital here. These mounds are dated was still small, but nevertheless Amun temple at between 1.800 to 1.700 BC.

5 Classic Period assumption could not During its Classic yet been proved by Period from 1.700 archaeologists. to 1.550 BC Kerma was at its cultural and From the time line economic heights. The it might be possible, typical red brownish because Ramses II. Kerma pottery was created the Abu Simbel produced in numbers Grotto Temples 700 on pottery wheels years earlier. And and could easily be was powerful distinguished by its enough to have this black painted rims and immense work done décor. group of pyramids at Meroe north field and even bigger to demonstrate his The Kawa Temple situated sphinxes in front like the Egyptian dominance. He also undertook near Dongola is also part of this temples in Karnak. numerous building project all period. With increasing Egyptian across his empire. pressure, Nubians moved their Its granite altar was made capitals step by step further south during the rule of Taharqa and is Important Meroe Site and up the Nile. decorated with the typical relief The Meroitic Period was engraving of the unification of the last Nubian period, which Napata Period Upper Egypt ta-shema and Lower lasted for 650 years until 350 On the Kerma Period followed Egypt ta-mehu as Egyptians AD. Its start and the move of the the Napata Period, which lasted named it. A clear manifestation capital further south to Meroe from 900 to 300 BC. With the first that Nubians ruled Egypt at the coincided with the arrival of move of the royal court, Napata time. the Greek with Alexander the as new capital was erected near Great. modern day town of Karima. Here Local guides love to point out, at the foot of Jebel Barkal a large that possibly four enormous This move brought about royal necropolis with various statues were cut out of the rock many changes. The Nubian pyramids was created and kings face of Jebel Barkal, similar Kingdom became more African up to Arqamani were buried here. to the famous Abu Simbel and less Egyptian. One of statues, but much larger. It looks the most important changes The religious precinct includes intriguingly possible and every was, that women now came an important Amun Temple. This one’s imagination is left to play into power and dominated the temple like many in Nubia is very with the idea if true or not. kingdom. much destroyed and has not yet been rebuilt by archaeologists. But the rock face today Various strong queens are The temple has an ally of ram is so degraded, that this documented as rulers and it

pylons are rather large example of plastered surface sacrifice chapel detail view

6 incredible large Meroe necropolis treasure hunters destroyed many pyramids is possible, that a matriarchate economic activity was iron most important and amazing. existed at the time, whereby smelting, which was the basis of With more pyramids than at any daughter inherited from their Meroe success. site in Egypt it stands really out mothers. The list of powerful amongst all Nubian sites. The queens includes names such The necropolis area is the northern necropolis consists as Shanakdakheto, Malagaye, last and is subdivided into of 44 pyramids, the south area Nawidemak, Amanirenas, three groups of pyramids in the has 16 and the west field only 9 , and north, south and west. Here pyramids. There might have been Amanikhatashan. This era of archaeologists have identified more, as many were destroyed female rulers was also called the over 900 pyramids and tombs. in the search for treasures and Period. The first ruler buried in Meroe might still lie hidden beneath the about 280 BC was Arqamani. sands. Meroe Kingdom German archaeologist Karl Egyptian Goddess Isis Pyramids were first built from Richard Lepsius excavated in became the main deity and was sandstone and later bricks were Meroe between 1842 to 1845 depicted to touch the queen at used. As said all Nubian pyramids and drafted the first plan of the her elbow as sign of her divine are small and their heights only necropolis and sketched most representation on earth. As prove range from a minimum of 10 of the pyramids. The Meroe site of female rule and matriarchate meters to a maximum of 30 was recently declared UNESCO it is interpreted, that men were meters. World Heritage site. depicted at the side of queens, but without royal insignia. But they have a rather steep The Meroe capital consists of They were simple touching the angle with 70 degrees, which four areas, including the walled queens crown as sign of support gives them a much taller look. royal city with palaces and a or submission. Pyramids were covered with Roman type bath, the significant plaster and were painted in Amun Temple precinct and the Nubian Pyramids earthen colors like ochre and residential areas. The main The Meroe necropolis is the beige.

visible traces treasure hunters various sacrifice chapels large pyramids at Meroe

7 line of mudbrick built pyramids at extensive Meroe necropolis

It is not certain, if all pyramids Unique is also the sacrifice building erected close to the were fully built up. Some are chapel attached to the pyramids pyramid. German archaeologist missing its top. So the theory here. They have normally two Friedrich Hinkel recently found is, that they might have been rooms to place the food plates a building plan engraved on constructed with the aim of for the deceased as sacrifice. the outside wall of a Meroe a platform on top. Possibly The walls were covered with sacrifice chapel, which confirms to have a space to perform the typical standardized relief the findings and some further certain annual rituals. Future scenes. assumptions. investigations might shed more light on this theory. Relief Scenes Another unique feature here These depictions have been is the front wall of the sacrifice It has to be pointed out, that classified in three periods. The chapel, which has been there are no rooms inside any first feature typical Egyptian constructed as a typical Egyptian pyramid, like in Egypt. They scenes with hieroglyphs and pylon gate. Pylons in Egypt are have been purely constructed ruler names in cartouche style. huge entrance gates to temple as monument on top of the The second period shows the areas. burial chambers below ground death tribunal in front of God level. Osiris. This ceremony included Similar to Egypt they are the weighing of the deceased decorated with the typically Meroe Pyramids heart against a feather. It also large “beating of enemies” deep The pyramids in Meroe can be included the typical death book relief scenes executed by the divided into two periods, which scenes. ruler to show his strength and is determined by their size. dominance. From the time of King Arqamani The last period starting to Queen Amanishakheto larger after the rule of Natakamani is Burial Chambers pyramids with a side length showing the deceased with his As mentioned the burial of 18 meters were erected. wife and gods in a more realistic chambers are not inside the After 50 AD with the rule of approach. pyramid, but under their ground Natakamani the pyramid side level. And surprisingly their lengths reduced to one third or In Egypt sacrifice chapels or entrance tunnels lie in front of the 6.6 meters. temples were always a separate sacrifice chapel.

relief scene at Musauwarat es Sufra Nubian queen with double ureaus helmet Horus with double crown of Lower & Upper Egypt receiving lion god Apedemak scepter

8 For kings three burial chambers structure is called the Great during King Arnakhamani’s reign were carved out. Queens only Enclosure. The various temples 235 -218 BC. had two, but later all rulers were on terraces are connected via buried in two chambers. Ancient records The underground tomb talk about the famous chamber walls were annual holy marriage painted with death festival practiced here. book scenes like in the But it has little if nothing Egyptian royal tombs to do with the Egyptian in the famous Valley of sed festival to renew the Kings and Queens. powers of the pharaoh.

All tombs have already Lion Temple been plundered in The fascinating Lion antiquity. There was only Temple was erected one untouched tomb of Naqa “kiosk” & lion temple in 220 BC for the local Queen Mernua dated lion god Apedemak. It is around 600 BC. It was a typical corridors and long ramps. A interesting to note that local gods Egyptian style burial with proper similar feature does not exist in are rare, but Apedemak became mummy bundle, death mask, Egypt, despite the presence of one of the most important gods amulets and multiple stacked huge temple precincts. in Meroe. coffins. Ancient Graffiti In addition many elephant Various ushebti and many These filigree graffiti are were found here. It is grave gifts were added. These different from Egyptian style assumed, that the site may have were unused items especially relief scenes. They were first been an elephant training center. produced for this burial. Later the believed to be of more recent This assumption is supported burials were done without coffins date, but the Humbold University by the fact, that Nubians were and often multiple burials were in Berlin has proven their historic the first to domesticate African found in the same chamber. And age. These images include elephants. burial gifts were used items from lion god Apedemak, horse and the household of the deceased. horse rider depictions, camel Please remember that and fish figures and a dog hare Indian elephants were easy to Italian adventurer Guiseppe chase. domesticate, but the African Ferlini visited Meroe in 1821 and subspecies proved to be less destroyed many pyramids in the They also include two human able to be trained. It is also search for treasures. He found figures today called the “beer known that Nubians used and the untouched burial traded them as war chamber of Queen elephants. Amanishakheto with 155 pieces of jewelry. Naqa Ruins He tried to sell these, This site is the largest but at the time he was and youngest ruin field unsuccessful, as no in Sudan. It is also the one believed, that such closest to its modern a sophisticated culture day capital Khartoum existed in Africa. Finally only about 100 km north some of the pieces of it. So it is possibly the ended up in museums in latest Nubian capital Munich and Berlin. Musauwarat es Sufra with various palaces and temples. Musauwarat es-Sufra drinkers”, horned altar depiction, In the south and close to boat image and many different It’s time line coincides with Meroe a huge temple precinct geometric forms including the Ptolemaic rule in Egypt and is situated with over 4,000 relief property marks or religious upcoming Roman Influence. scenes on its long walls. This signs. All these were dated Naqa belonged to the Meroe

9 Kingdom Period. Temples were Nubian Rulers Kashta 760-747 BC built here for sun god Amun, For a better understanding of He was king of Nubia in Napata Egyptian goddess and Nubian history, their rulers and and the first documented joint ruler local god Apedemak, the latter culture I have summarized below also in Egypt. He conquered Lower two temples erected by King all available details about them Nubia and Upper Egypt up to the Natakamani. from Egyptian annals. But these first cataract at Aswan. He installed only cover the seven Nubian a stele in the Chnum Temple on Here a unique painted altar kings, who ruled over Egypt for Elephantine Island at Aswan and was discovered, which has no 125 years. established close religious ties to parallel in Nubia as well as in Egypt. Egypt. Piankhi 747-716 BC And a second Amun He was a son of Kashta. From Temple was constructed by his many titles one can see that Amanichareqerem. Later in Nubian rulers from now on used 135 BC Queen Shanakdakheto the full adoption of Egyptian erected a temple for the Theben Culture to show their determination divine trilogy of gods Amun, to rule Egypt. After controlling the and Chons. She also dedicated capital of Upper Egypt Thebes and it to the only local divinity lion being the de facto ruler over the god Apedemak. entire Egypt, he was challenged by Tefnakhte a local ruler at Sais in Meroe Script the Nile delta. Meroe writing was developed rather late in 150 BC, but Piankhi was eager to extend his unfortunately still has not yet territory further south and up the been deciphered. It also has to Nile. Tefnakhte was supported by be said, that the names of local Meroe script on column various local leaders as Lower rulers and their chronology is still Egypt during the Third Interim rather unclear. Only for those Alara 780-760 BC Period was divided into many small Nubian rulers, who reigned over He was a Nubian ruler, but was city states. So Piankhi’s generals Egypt detailed records exist in not documented as ruler in Egypt besieged Herakleopolis and Egyptian annals. and therefore was not part of 25th Hermopolis to gain total control. dynasty. German archaeologist These details I have added to Jürgen von Beckerath published Thereafter three other cities gave this article for your information, the first conclusive Egyptian up and only Memphis had to be as it gives an interesting insight chronology about 50 years ago. taken in battle. Finally four other into Nubian history. Alara was not mentioned therein, cities Leontopolis, Sebennytos, but he is seen as the founder of Athribis/Heliopolis and Tanis/ Meroe ceramic was produced the new Nubian Kingdom. One Bubastis surrendered. Now local on site. It was a very thin, reason could be, that he did not leader Tefnakhte followed and this beautifully painted and stamped use the typical Egyptian royal resulted in the re-unification of pottery ware. titles yet. Upper and Lower Egypt in 727 BC.

lion temple at Naqa only fully reconstructed temple in Sudan ruins at Naqa

10 partly sand covered pyramids vast pyramid field at Meroe with burial chambers dug below ground level

These descriptions are a Memphis and Luxor. In Nubia Taharqa’s building activities perfect example of the enormous he only completed two projects in Nubia included projects in struggle to keep such a huge in Kawa and Dongola. Napata a big Amun Temple, and diverse Empire together. colossal stone statues, at All this is documented on the He erected an Abydos tomb, Sanam an Amun-Re Temple, important victory stele found in but his burial site remained at Kawa completion of the Amun Temple in Napata at Nubian in el-Kurru, where he Tutankhamun Temple plus the Jebel Barkal. was buried again in a small new Amun Temple with sphinxed steep pyramid including his procession alley, hall This important stele is situated horses like his predecessor and chapel, at Tabo a temple on today in the Cairo National Piankhi. Argo Island, at Semna the East Museum. The text has 159 lines Temple to worship Sesostris III., on all four sides and is one of the 702-690 BC at Buhen various reliefs, columns most important documents of He was the son of Piankhi and chapel at the South Temple, this period giving a good insight and was only documented on a at Qasr the Ibrahim Temple, plus into Nubian history. Piankhi is Nilometer in Karnak on a stele buildings at Gezira Dabarosa, buried in a small steep pyramid of governor of Pharbaithos. His Faras, Kalabsha, Philae Island, in el-Kurru and his horses were building activities in Karnak, el-Kab and Hefat/Asfun Matana. buried nearby. Memphis and Saqqara were rather limited. Shebitku is His building activities in Egypt 716-702 BC reported to have lost a battle in were focused on Karnak and He was another son of Palestine against Assyrians. His included new temples and many Kashta and brother of Piankhi, small steep pyramid is situated additions to existing structures. who ruled before him. He is also in Nubia in the el-Kurru the first Kushite ruler over the necropolis. Taharqa’s burial site was entire Egyptian territory after now erected at the new he conquered and killed local Taharqa 690-664 BC necropolis on the other Nile leader Bakenrenef in Lower He was another son of side opposite Jebel Barkal. In Egypt. Piankhi, who undertook various his small steep pyramid 1,070 military campaigns defending ushebti figures were found. He moved to Memphis and Egypt against powerful Assyrian His gives us an indication of adopted the full pharaoh attire, ruler Asarhaddon. But in 667 BC his importance, because these titles and also cartouche names. Assyrians under Assurbanipal figures represent servants His Egyptian throne name conquered Lower Egypt up to helping him during his life after Neferkare is the same as used Thebes. death. by Pharaohs Pepi II. as well as Neferkare and later Ramses IX. Thereafter followed a period Tanutamun 664 - 655 BC of ongoing local rebellions with He was the son of Shabaka. He started many smaller many leaders being captured Possibly he was co-regent for building activities in over 14 and executed. His son a short time with his nephew important Egyptian cities remained in Nubia and was Taharqa. But he was crowned including the royal cities of crowned king ruling in Napata. at Napata not in Thebes or

11 Memphis. By killing local ruler Necho an Assyrian supporter in Sais, he was able to gain short lived control again over Lower Egypt.

663 BC Assyrians attacked again and he had to withdraw to Nubia. After this lost battle Egypt was ruled de facto by Thebes mayor Montuemhat and high priestess Shepenupet II. But for whatever reason Tanutamun was still officially pharaoh until 656 BC. His burial site is in Nubia in el-Kurri at a small steep pyramid, which today northern Sudan landscape is totally destroyed.

Summary It is unfortunate that excavations by archaeologists have been done on a very limited basis so far. Sudan has such a fascinating history and could like Egypt draw a lot of tourists. This could generate many jobs and much needed income.

The Nubian people are very friendly and again compared with its northern neighbor, one can say they are more authentic, open and welcoming to strangers. This is a typical Bedouin nature and Nile with jebel Barkal in the back & large necropolis at its foot explains this difference.

The archaeological sites are really amazing and are proof of the sophisticated culture, which started here about 5,000 years ago. And the Nubian Kingdoms do not stand back to the Egyptian Empire. It actually competed at the same level, despite copying their life style and religion.

One thing is certain, Sudan will go on to surprise us. I wonder what secrets still lie underneath the sands to be discovered in future typical desert scenery in northern Sudan excavations.

Travel Tips There are enough simple hotels and Nubian guesthouses along the Nile. So it is not necessary to book one of the various 100% tented tours offered. Nevertheless it is a special treat to use the tented camps in the Meroe pyramid field with the benefit of sunset and sunrise right next to these amazing pyramids. Nubians are very friendly and open to strangers. In 2015 there was no security risk to travel in that area. But please check prior to departure.

Photos: courtesy of A Krause & S Kampmann

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