The Sveconorwegian Pegmatite Province: Identifying the Parameters Controlling the Abundance and Genesis of the Pegmatites

The Sveconorwegian pegmatite province: Identifying the parameters controlling the abundance and genesis of the pegmatites

Nanna Rosing-Schow

Dissertation for the degree of Philosophiae Doctor

Natural History Museum

University of Oslo

May 2020

Contents

Acknowledgements ...... v

1. Introduction ...... 1

1.1 Historical background of southern Norwegian pegmatite mining and research ...... 1

2. Scientific background ...... 4

2.1 Classification of pegmatites ...... 4

2.2 Pegmatite genesis models ...... 5

3. Geological setting ...... 8

3.1 Sveconorwegian orogen ...... 8

3.2 Sveconorwegian pegmatite province ...... 9

4. Thesis summary ...... 11

4.1 Thesis conclusions ...... 14

4.2 Thesis outlook ...... 16

5. References ...... 18

6. List of papers ...... 25

Paper 1

Paper 2

Paper 3

iii iv Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my two supervisors Axel Müller and Henrik Friis this thesis could not have happened without you. Axel you have always taken great interest in my work and made sure I was progressing of this I am grateful. Henrik without you my excel spreadsheets would have never functioned as good and I would not have had daily talks about the world. I would also like to thank my colleagues for making Økern a nice place to work with everything from Friday bbq’s, Christmas lunches and discussions about northern Norwegian reality stars. Spe- cial thanks my office mate Øyvind Sunde for always making the workday more fun, Lene Liebe Delsett for always believing in me, Maayke Koevoets-Westerduin for being a good friend welcoming me to Norway, Eirini for good on and off work times and Nelia Castro for always supporting me with hugs and encouragement. I thank May-Liss Funke for being my partner in crime, the Christmas lunches would never have happened without your excessive amount of kitchenware and hjerterum. My fieldwork would have been boring without the com- pany of Georg Steffensen. I also send my thanks to my office neighbors Aubrey Roberts and Victoria Sjøholt Engelschiøn you have always been up for a chat and some zen moments in front of your aquarium. I would like to thank Muriel Erambert for many nice and useful hours on the microprobe, Tom Andersen and Magnus Kristoffersen for helping me with the laser ablation analyses. I would like to send my regards to Lars Tveit and Tor Peder Lohne for always being welcoming and helpful with our fieldwork in Tørdal. I would like to thank Ole Rabbel for a fun time living together and for keeping me fed and high on caffeine especially during these corona times. Arianne I am happy that I have gotten to know you it has been really nice hanging out, sowing and painting I hope we can continue this somewhere in Scandinavia. Siri you have been a very good friend here in Norway always up for a nice dinner and a good talk let’s keep this going. Anne Brandt Virnes and Trygvi Årting geology would never have been this fun without you. This thesis would never have been finished in time without the virtual writing retreat group especially Mathew Stiller Reeves thank you for improving my writing skills immensely and Anette Granseth thank you for all the hours spent on listening to me reading aloud, editing and very useful scientific discussions. I would especially like to thank Rolf L. Romer, Fernando Corfu, Tom Andersen and Radek Škoda for good cooperation on my papers. I thank the Norwegian amateur geology community for giving me a nice welcome and always being willing to help with samples and advice on pegmatite localities, with a special mention

v to Lars Kvamsdal who has been a big support and good friend during my whole PhD helping with both on and off work things. I am also grateful to Øivind Thoresen without who my papers would not have had so good quality mineral pictures. I send my regards to the pegmatite community, full of really nice people always fun and interesting to hang around both the pegma- tologists and the peglets. Not to mention the group of Sneaky Zucchinis.

Last but not least I would like to thank my family. Mom for always being there for me and making sure I was always clothed in wool wherever north I went to study. Dad I wish you could be here to see the completion of my PhD. Søren I could not have done this without you thank you for always being there to support and cheer me up and to go on adventures looking for rocks and minerals (and trees).

And to everyone else that has been part of making this PhD possible:

Nanna Rosing-Schow Oslo, April 2020

vi 1. Introduction

Pegmatites have intrigued researchers and mineral collectors for over a century because of their large crystals, striking fabrics and rare mineral content. This PhD project aim to study granitic pegmatites in order to better understand their genesis, which is still highly debated (London and Kontak, 2012; Thomas and Davidson, 2016). The study has a strong economic interest because they contain economically important minerals and improved understanding of pegmatite formation will in a long-term lead to a better success for pegmatite deposit exploration.

Pegmatites are igneous rocks commonly of granitic composition with mineral grain sizes larger than 2 cm (London, 2008). The main characteristics of pegmatite are: i) systematic coarsening in grain size from margin to center, ii) mineralogical and chemical zonation from margin to center, iii) anisotropic fabrics as for example layering, oriented crystal growth and graphic intergrowth of quartz and feldspar (graphic granite) (London and Kontak, 2012).

Most pegmatites consist of quartz, feldspar and mica. Less than one percent contain uncommon minerals rich in Li, Be, Cs, B, P, and Ta (London and Kontak, 2012). Pegmatites containing these uncommon minerals are called rare-element pegmatites. Lithium is used in Li batteries, quartz to produce solar photovoltaic panels and Rare Earth Elements (REE) for Nd magnets in generators of wind turbines, just to mention a few applications. These examples illustrate the high importance of pegmatite occurrences to produce alternative and renewable energy sources. Thus, research on the diversity, distribution and genesis of pegmatites are of scientific and economic importance and impact.

1.1 Historical background of southern Norwegian pegmatite mining and research Granitic pegmatites in southern Norway has been mined since the late 18th century until today (Andersen, 1926; Müller et al., 2017a). The pegmatites were mined mainly for feldspar and quartz, but also for white mica, Sc and Be. The first mining of feldspar started in 1792 in Narestø, Flosta, Aust-Agder (Andersen, 1926). The feldspar was mainly mined in small quarries by 2-3 people, no large scale mining existed (Andersen, 1926). In 1882 production of Norwegian feldspar was worth around 200,000 Norwegian kroner (Vogt, 1882), which corre- sponds to around 14,000,000 Norwegian kroner today (Norges Bank, 2020). In 1926 Norway

1 1. Introduction

produced up to 40,000 ton feldspar annually representing 13 % of the annual feldspar world- wide (Andersen, 1926).

As feldspar production increased the Norwegian Geological Survey decided to produce a com- prehensive study on feldspar occurrences and mining in Norwegian (Andersen, 1926). The work resulted in the publication of Feltspat I by Andersen (1926), Feltspat II by Andersen (1931) Feltspat III by Barth (1931), Feltspat IV by Broch (1934) and Feltspat V by Bjørlykke (1939). The publications were mainly aimed at local miners with no geological background (Andersen, 1926). The Feltspat I provided a general explanation of the characteristics of feldspar minerals, deposit types and use of feldspar. Feltspat II, III, and IV described pegmatite localities including pegmatites in the Bamble and Evje-Iveland areas, which are studied in this thesis. The last publication Feltspat V describes the rare minerals found in the southern Nor- wegian pegmatites, which is partly why the pegmatites are famous today.

Following the feltspat works southern Norwegian pegmatite research focused on the rare element mineralization and the mineralogy. As described in Feltspat V (Bjørlykke, 1939) the pegmatites contain several rare minerals. The southern Norwegian pegmatites are type localities for 14 different minerals (Table 1). Except for microcline all the minerals are rich in rare elements like the Sc-bearing Oftedalite and Thortveitite. The presence of these and other rare element minerals points to an enrichment of Sc, Be, Li, Sn in the pegmatites. This rare element enrichment was studied mainly in the Tørdal pegmatites (Oftedal, 1940,1942; Bergstøl and Juve, 1988). In recent years, southern Norwegian pegmatites have been investigated for their high purity quartz content (Ihlen et al. 2001, 2002, 2004; Ihlen and Müller 2009, Müller et al. 2015).

Table 1 Sveconorwegian type locality minerals. See figure 1 for location of pegmatite districts

Mineral Formula Pegmatite Field District Reference

Breithaupt Microcline KAlSi O Unspecified Arendal Bamble 3 8 (1830)

Lindvikskol- Brøgger Hellandite-(Y) (Ca,REE) Y Al□ (B Si O )(OH) Kragerø Bamble 4 2 2 4 4 22 2 len quarry (1903)

Berzelius Xenotime-(Y) Y(PO4) Hitterø Hidra Mandal (1824)

2 1.1 Historical background of southern Norwegian pegmatite mining and research

Rasvåg feld- Scheerer Polycrase-(Y) Y(Ti,Nb)2(O,OH) Hidra Mandal 6 spar quarries (1844)

Igletjødn Norden- Kainosite-(Y) Ca2(Y,Ce)2(Si4O12)(CO3)∙H2O Feldspar Hidra Mandal skiöld quarry (1886)

Urstad Feld- Brøgger Aeschynite-(Y) (Y,Ln,Ca,Th)(Ti,Nb) (O,OH) Hidra Mandal 2 6 spar mine (1906)

Bergstøl et Tveitite-(Y) (Y,Na) Ca Ca F Høydalen Tørdal Nissedal 6 6 6 42 al. (1977)

Raade et al. Kristiansenite Ca ScSn(Si O )(Si O OH) Heftetjern Tørdal Nissedal 2 2 7 2 6 (2002)

Cooper et al. Oftedalite KSc □ Be Si O Heftetjern Tørdal Nissedal 2 2 3 12 30 (2006)

Kolitsch et Heftetjernite ScTaO Heftetjern Tørdal Nissedal 4 al. (2010)

Agakhanovite- Hawthorne (Y,Ca,□) KBe Si O Heftetjern Tørdal Nissedal (Y) 2 3 12 30 et al. (2014)

Evje-Ive- Schetelig Thortveitite Sc Si O Ljosland 04 Setesdal 2 2 7 land (1911)

Neumann Frikstad 03 Evje-Ive- and Davidite-(Ce) Ce(Y,U)Fe (Ti,Fe,Cr,V) (O,OH,F) Feldspar Setesdal 2 18 38 land Sverdrup quarry (1960)

□ (Fe2+ Fe2+)Nb (ThNb Fe2+ Ti4+O Østfold- Cooper et al. Aspedamite 12 3 4 9 3 42 Herrebøkasa Østfold (H2O)9(OH)3 Halland (2012)

The Natural History Museum of Oslo, Norway has a long and strong tradition in pegmatite research since the famous studies by Waldemar C. Brøgger (Brøgger, 1890, 1906; Brøgger et al., 1922). Waldemar C. Brøgger was one of the founders of the museum. The museum has a large collection of minerals of which about 20% originate from pegmatites. I chose to study pegmatites in southern Norway because of their abundance, historical importance, rare element composition and the large collection of samples from these pegmatites at the museum.

3 2. Scientific background

2.1 Classification of pegmatites Several classification schemes for pegmatites have been proposed throughout the years (London, 2008). The most widely used today is the classification scheme of Černý and Ercit (2005) (Table 2). The scheme has five main classes: Abyssal, muscovite, muscovite rare-element, rare-element and miarolitic (Černý and Ercit, 2005). The classes are divided into sub- classes and the rare-element class is further subdivided into types and subtypes. This scheme is a depth- zone classification where the different classes represent different depth of pegmatite intrusion. The abyssal class represent the deepest intrusions and the miarolitic class the shal- lowest intrusions. In addition to the depth classification, Černý and Ercit (2005) presented a chemical classification where pegmatites are divided into two families based on chemical composition: LCT for Li, Cs and Ta enrichment, and NYF for Nb, Y and F enrichment. In addition, a mixed family exist for pegmatites with mixed LCT-NYF signature. The LCT pegmatite family is the most abundant and has received more study (London, 2008).

4 2.2 Pegmatite genesis models

Table 2 Pegmatite classification scheme by Černý and Ercit (2005) containing both the depth classification and the chemical classification. HREE = Heavy Rare Earth Elements, LREE = Light Rare Earth Elements.

Class Subclass Type Subtype Family HREE NYF LREE Abyssal U NYF B, Be LCT Muscovite REE NYF Muscovite rare-element Li LCT Allanite-monazite REE Euxenite NYF Gadolinite Beryl-columbite Beryl Beryl-columbite-phosphate Spodumene Rare-element Petalite Li Complex Lepidolite LCT Elbaite Amblygonite Albite-spodumene Albite Topaz-beryl REE NYF Gadolinite-fergusonite Beryl-topaz Miarolitic Spodumene Li LCT Petalite Lepidolite

2.2 Pegmatite genesis models Pegmatite genesis covers several aspects of pegmatite formation, from large scale regional processes forming pegmatite melts to small scale internal crystallization processes. This thesis focus on the regional scale genetic models.

Several regional pegmatite genesis models emerged in the 19th century but when the Jahns and Burnham (1969) model was published it became the most accepted (London 2008). The Jahns and Burnham (1969) model states that pegmatites are derived from granitic plutons. When the

5 2. Scientific background

granitic magmas become H2O saturated, an aqueous phase form. The formation of this aqueous phase represents the transition point of the melt from forming granitic to a pegmatite fabric (Jahns and Burnham, 1969). One of the critics of the Jahns and Burnham (1969) model is the low solubility of aluminosilicate components in an aqueous fluid (London, 2008). Since pegmatites are rich in feldspar, high concentrations of aluminosilicate are needed. With the emerge of experimental petrology the Jahns and Burnham (1969) model was slowly discarded, including the notion of an initial aqueous phase. The old model was replaced by a model stating that pegmatites originate from granites without the need for an initial aqueous phase (London, 1987, 1990; London et al., 1988).

The model presented by David London states that advanced fractionation of a pluton-size granitic magma can produce several hundred pegmatites (London, 1987, 1990; London et al., 1988). Rare element pegmatites form when large volumes of melt undergo extensive crystal fractionation such that the incompatible elements become enriched in the last, remaining melt. The pegmatites will generally spread out from the pluton, but some can get trapped as pegmatite pods within the pluton (Černý, 1991a,b). Several authors note that the pegmatites become chemically more evolved the further away they moved from the pluton forming a chemical zonation of the pegmatite field (Černý, 1991a; Černý and Ercit, 2005; London, 2008). The London model has been the dominating paradigm for pegmatite genesis up until recently.

Parallel to the development of the London model, several authors suggested anatectic melting as a genetic process for both simple and rare-element pegmatites (F.W. Breaks, J.J. Norton, the schools of J.J. Papike, G. Matheis and G. Morteani) (Černý, 1991b). These authors later abandoned anatexis (Černý, 1991b) but it was resurrected in 1996 when William “Skip” Sim- mons gave a talk at the Geological Association of Canada and Mineralogical Association of Canada (GAC-MAC) meeting in Manitoba. His talk was titled: “Evidence for an anatectic origin of granitic pegmatites, western Maine, USA” (Simmons et al., 1996) and it was not altogether well received. Petr Černý, one of the pioneers of pegmatite research (Ercit, 2018), stood up and said “Skip, I commend you for having the courage to give this presentation in the LION’S den. But there just isn’t enough time to tell you all the ways you are wrong!” and then he walked out of the auditorium (W. B. Simmons; pers. commun., 2020). In his talk, Simmons questioned the genetic relationship between the Sebago batholith and the adjacent pegmatites, western Maine, USA (Simmons et al., 1996). He suggested that the pegmatite melts were derived directly from metasediments by anatectic melting instead of from the Sebago batholith (Simmons et al., 1996). His main arguments were the significant difference in REE chemistry 6 2.2 Pegmatite genesis models between the granite and pegmatites and field evidence of partial melting in relation to the pegmatites (Simmons et al., 1996). Later studies have made the anatexis model more accepted as an alternative to the London model (Roda et al. 1999; Maas et al., 2015; Müller et al., 2015).

The anatectic model proposes that pegmatite melts are formed directly through low degree partial melting and not derived from a granitic pluton. Anatectic pegmatite genesis often works as an alternative model in areas where there is no clear relationship between pegmatites and granite. For example if no potential parental granite is exposed; the granite occur to far away from the pegmatites (Ercit, 1999; Beurlen et al., 2014; Shaw et al. 2016; Müller et al., 2017b; Konzett et al., 2018); or the pegmatites are significantly older or younger than an adjacent granite (Goodenough et al., 2014; Müller et al., 2017b; Webber et al., 2019). In addition, anatexis has been proposed as a possible genetic process in areas where classical chemical zoning of the pegmatite field is lacking (Roda et al., 1999; Shaw et al., 2016; Müller et al., 2017b; Fuchsloch et al., 2018; Webber et al., 2019) or where geochemistry suggest that the granite and pegmatites have different sources (Carson et al., 1997; Maas et al., 2015; Shaw et al., 2016; Fuchsloch et al., 2018; Konzett et al., 2018). Müller et al. (2015; 2017b) suggest that anatexis is an important model for the pegmatite genesis in southern Norway.

7 3. Geological setting

3.1 Sveconorwegian orogen

Fig. 1 Simplified geological map of the Sveconorwegian orogen. Pegmatite districts: 5 - Hardanger, 1- Mandal, 2 - Setesdal, Bamble, Nissedal, Buskerud, and Østfold-Halland

The Sveconorwegian orogen covers most of southern Norway and parts of southwest Sweden (Fig. 1). The Mesoproterozoic orogen formed around 1.1 Ga to 0.9 Ga (Falkum, 1985; Gower

8 3.2 Sveconorwegian pegmatite province et al., 1990; Bingen et al., 2008; Li et al., 2008; Slagstad et al., 2017a). It consist of five litho- tectonic units: the Eastern Segment, the Idefjorden Terrane, the Kongsberg Sector, the Bamble Sector and the Rogaland-Hardangervidda-Telemark Sector (Slagstad et al., 2017b).

Two main models exist for the tectonic evolution of the Sveconorwegian orogen: i) Bingen et al., (2008) and Möller et al. (2015) suggest that the orogen formed by collision of Fennoscandia and Amazonia, ii), whereas Slagstad et al. (2013, 2017b, 2018, 2019) and Granseth et al. (2020) suggest that the orogen formed as a result of accretionary processes along the Fen- noscandian continental margin. In recent years most studies supports the model proposed by Slagstad et al. (2013, 2017b, 2018, 2019) and Granseth et al. (2020).

The orogen consists of interlayered orthogneiss, paragneiss and supracrustal rocks, in addition to granitoids of the Sirdal Magmatic Belt (Coint et al. 2015), A-type hornblende-biotite granites (Vander Auwera et al., 2003), and pegmatites of the Sveconorwegian pegmatite province. The granites are late- to post-orogenic and range in age from 1000 Ma to 920 Ma (Granseth et al., 2020). Several authors suggest that the granitic melts formed by heat induced melting caused by mafic underplating (Andersen, 1997; Andersen et al., 2001, 2007, 2009; Slagstad et al., 2017b). The granites were originally thought to be the source of the pegmatites (Juve and Bergstøl, 1997; Andersen et al., 2007).

3.2 Sveconorwegian pegmatite province The Sveconorwegian pegmatite province hosts more than 5000 pegmatite bodies and represents one of the largest pegmatite clusters in the world. The province includes the pegmatite districts Hardanger, Mandal, Setesdal, Bamble, Nissedal, Buskerud, and Østfold-Halland (from west to east; Müller et al. 2015) (Fig. 1). The pegmatite districts are divided into several pegmatite fields (Table 3). The Sveconorwegian pegmatite province contains both simple and rare element pegmatites. The rare element pegmatites classify as NYF family (Müller et al., 2015).

9 3. Geological setting

Table 3 The Sveconorwegian pegmatite province is divided into seven pegmatite districts which are futher divided into several pegmaite fields. *Pegmatite fields studied in this PhD project.

Province District Field Hardanger Haugesund Hidra Mandal Farsund Setesdal Evje-Iveland* Krisitansand* Glamsland-Lillesand Froland* Bamble Arendal Sveconorwegian Søndeled Kragerø* Fyresdal* Nissedal Kviteseid Tørdal* Buskerud Flesberg* Göteborg Østfold-Halland Halland Østfold*

10 4. Thesis summary

The aim of the thesis is to establish how parameters such as mineral chemistry, crystallization age, host rock chemistry and melt source control the abundance and genesis of the Sveconor- wegian pegmatites. One of the main objectives is to determine whether the Sveconorwegian pegmatites are either derived from residual melts of granites or by direct anatectic melting of host rocks.

The thesis consists of three papers that study the pegmatite genesis using different approaches and methods. The first paper is published in The Canadian Mineralogist, the second paper is in preparation with plans of being published in Precambrian Research and the third paper has been submitted to Lithos.

I used samples collected during my fieldwork, samples from previous fieldwork performed by Axel Müller, samples from the mineral collection at the Natural History Museum of Oslo, and samples bought from or donated by mineral collectors.

I did fieldwork in the Evje-Iveland, Froland, Tørdal, Flesberg and Østfold pegmatite fields during the summers of 2016, 2017 and 2018. The fieldwork included mapping and sampling of both the pegmatites and host rocks. The mapping focused on the Tørdal pegmatite field. In the Tørdal area only a 1:250,000 geological map exist (Dons and Jorde, 1978). The lack of detail meant that the boundary between the Tørdal-Treungen granite and the Nissedal outlier was poorly defined. During the mapping, one of the aims was to better define this boundary. Another aim was to map pegmatite bodies to extend the pegmatite field maps published by Juve and Bergstøl (1990) and Segalstad and Raade (2003). Segalstad and Raade (2003) divided the Tørdal pegmatite field into three mineralogical zones: pegmatites dominated by pink K- feldspar, pegmatites dominated by white K-feldspar and pegmatites dominated by green “am- azonite” K-feldspar, where the fractionation degree of the pegmatites increase from pink to white to green. The mapping showed that the boundaries set by Segalstad and Raade (2003) extend towards both east and west. New areas of interest found during the mapping was especially the Svåheii and the Sjauset areas, which contain previously unknown chemically evolved pegmatites.

The first paper of the thesis studies the mica chemistry in pegmatites from the Evje-Iveland, Tørdal and Froland pegmatite fields. Micas are the third most common mineral in pegmatites (Černý and Burt, 1984), which makes them useful for comparing pegmatites both within the 11 4. Thesis summary same field and on a regional scale. In addition, micas carry important trace elements like Li, Rb and F that can be used to evaluate the fractionation degree of the pegmatites (Černý and Burt, 1984; Neiva, 2013; Marchal et al., 2014).

We used several methods to study the mica chemistry: bulk sample geochemistry, electron microprobe (EMPA) and laser ablation inductively coupled mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Since the samples were up to 20x5 cm in size, bulk sample geochemistry could give useful measurements of the major element composition. One problem with the bulk sample method is that samples may contain micro inclusions, which can affect especially the measured trace element values. For trace element measurements, we used LA-ICP-MS. We also used the electron microprobe for major elements measurements. Mica samples in thin section are often difficult to polish because of their cleavage, but we found that thin flakes of mica mounted directly on carbon tape and carbon coated gave close to equally good EMPA measurement results as thin sections. The electron microprobe gives more precise measurements than bulk chemistry but it cannot measure Li. Several authors have suggested calculations to estimate the Li content from either the SiO2 or F content. To distinguish between the different Li-rich micas like polylithionite and trilithionite estimated Li content is not precise enough. For precise Li measurements LA-ICP-MS was used.

The K/Rb ratio of the micas together with the Li and F content showed that the Tørdal and Evje-Iveland pegmatites are more fractionated than the Froland pegmatites. The Tørdal and Evje-Iveland pegmatites both contains Li-rich micas, but the Li content is significantly higher in the Tørdal micas with up to 7.7 wt% Li2O. A few of the Tørdal pegmatites (Heftetjern, Skarsfjell and Upper Høydalen) and Evje-Iveland pegmatites (Skripeland, Landås, Katterås 1) contain Li-rich mica with up to 7.7 wt % Li2O in polylithionite from Upper Høydalen. Even though the Li content is high compared to the 1.1 wt % Li2O for the Alvarrões lepidolite mine in Portugal (Lepidico 2020) the tonnage of mica is too low to be of economic interest. The Li- rich micas in Tørdal are also highly enriched in Ta, Sc and Sn compared to the Evje-Iveland pegmatite micas. The difference in trace element concentration could reflect regional source differences.

The mica chemistry alone does not allow conclusions on whether the pegmatites formed from residual melts of the granites or by in situ partial melting of the host rocks. Age dating of the granite and the pegmatites can shed more light on the temporal relationships. The interest in

12 age determinations of especially the Tørdal pegmatites and the Tørdal-Treungen granite lead to the second paper.

The second paper is about age dating in the Sveconorwegian pegmatite province. The age dating builds on the model and data published by mainly Müller et al. (2017b) but also on age data from others (Baadsgaard et al., 1984; Pedersen and Maaløe, 1990; Romer and Smeds, 1996; Scherer et al., 2001; Seydoux-Guillaume et al., 2012). One of our main goals was to date the Tørdal pegmatites and the Tørdal-Treungen granite since age data for the pegmatites and a well-constrained age for the granite was lacking. In addition, we presented new ages from the Flesberg, Kragerø, Østfold, Kristiansand and Fyresdal pegmatite fields covering al- most all large fields of the Sveconorwegian pegmatite province.

Age dating of pegmatites tend to be challenging as minerals commonly used for dating like zircon are often too metamict to date successfully. The challenge of metamict minerals is especially true for rare-element pegmatites highly enriched in U and Th. Fortunately these pegmatites often contain rare assembly minerals like columbite group minerals and ixiolite, which incorporates less U than zircon. We chose columbite group minerals and ixiolite for pegmatite age dating using U-Pb TIMS. In addition, we did age dating on monazite using EMPA. The EMPA dating method is less precise than TIMS dating, but provides a useful age estimate. The Tørdal-Treungen granite is, like the pegmatites, rich in U that caused problems for previous dating attempts (Andersen et al., 2007). We used TIMS dating on zircon and Nb-Y-oxide for the Tørdal-Treungen granite of 946 ± 4 Ma. The granite yielded an age c. 40 Ma older than the Tørdal pegmatites.

The new age dating results show that pegmatite formation of the Sveconorwegian orogen fall into two age groups: Group 1 (1090-1030 Ma) and Group 2 (920-890 Ma). Group 1 is syn- orogenic and Group 2 is post-orogenic. All pegmatite fields, except the Østfold pegmatite field, are either younger or older than adjacent granites or no granite exist in the area. We suggest all Group 1 pegmatites formed by anatexis and not from adjacent granites. For the Group 2 pegmatites we also suggest an anatectic origin except for the Østfold pegmatite field where the pegmatites could have originated from the adjacent Iddefjord granite. The data pointed to an anatectic origin for most of the Sveconorwegian pegmatites but could not say anything about the source of the melts.

In the third paper, we study the Pb isotope signature of pegmatites and granites to identify source components of the pegmatite melts. Pb isotopes show the amount of mantle and crustal 13 4. Thesis summary components in a source (Andersen, 1997; Halla, 2018). If a granite and a pegmatite have melted from the same source or the pegmatites are derived from the residual melt of the granite they will have similar Pb isotope signatures (Maas et al., 2015). If they have different signatures, a genetic relationship between the two can be excluded. We analyzed Pb isotopes on K- feldspar in pegmatites from the Tørdal, Evje-Iveland, Froland, Flesberg and Østfold pegmatite fields.

We chose the Pb system because three parallel decay series exist that produce radiogenic lead: 238U  206Pb, 235U  207Pb and 232Th  208Pb. These decay series together can give more information than isotope studies based on a single parent-daughter pair (Halla, 2018). Another reason for choosing the Pb system is that K-feldspar, which is abundant in pegmatites and granites, can take up Pb, but excludes U and Th. This means that the Pb isotope signature of K-feldspar in pegmatites and granites reflect the isotope signature of the melt from which it crystallized (Halla, 2018). The Pb isotope analyses were done by LA-ICP-MS on K-feldspar from pegmatites and granites.

The results of the K-feldspar isotope analyses showed that the Evje-Iveland and Froland pegmatites have different isotope signatures than their adjacent granites, while the Tørdal and Group 2 Østfold pegmatites have similar isotope signature to their adjacent granites. . In paper 2 we propose that the Evje-Iveland, Froland and Tørdal pegmatites formed by anatectic melting of their host rocks. For the Evje-Iveland and Froland pegmatites, the different isotope signature of the pegmatites and granite confirms this suggestion. The similar isotope signature of the Tørdal-Treungen granite and the Tørdal pegmatites do not confirm the anatectic melting model from paper 2. Since the granite is c. 40 Ma older than the pegmatites, this similarity could mean that pegmatites and granite had the same source rock or that the pegmatites formed by anatectic melting of the crystallized granite.

4.1 Thesis conclusions The Sveconorwegian pegmatite province provides a natural laboratory to study pegmatite genesis. Since the province, both contain abundant granitic plutons and pegmatites it can be used to test whether the anatectic model can be applied to rare-elements pegmatites in different tectonic settings.

We used mica and columbite group mineral chemistry to evaluate the fractionating degree of a pegmatite melt. The mica mineralogy shows that the Tørdal and Evje-Iveland pegmatite fields are among the most evolved pegmatite fields in the Sveconorwegian pegmatite province 14 4.1 Thesis conclusions

(Paper 1). Evidence from columbite group mineral chemistry supports this but also indicate that the Østfold pegmatite field contain fractionated pegmatites as seen by the presence of tantalite-(Mn) in the Halvorsrød pegmatite (Paper 2). In general, the mineral chemistry shows that several Sveconorwegian pegmatite fields contain highly fractionated rare-element pegmatites of the NYF family.

The Proterozoic Sveconorwegian rare-element pegmatites crystallized during two main peri- ods: from 1090-1030 Ma (Group 1) and 920-890 Ma (Group 2) (Paper 2). The Group 1 pegmatites formed during a time of compression in the Sveconorwegian orogen and overlap with high grade metamorphism. The Group 2 pegmatites formed during extension as a continuation of the large-scale magmatism that formed the A-type hornblende-biotite granites. Both pegmatite groups are thought to have formed by anatexis and not from the residual melts of granites, except for the Group 2 Østfold pegmatites, which might be related to the Iddefjord granite.

We suggest two different types of anatectic melting for the pegmatite Groups. The Group 1 pegmatites melted by strain-induced melting, while the Group 2 pegmatites melted by heat- induced melting. The heat came from mafic underplating. The same mafic underplating caused the granitic melts, but the pegmatites might represent a later, less pronounced pulse of underplating. The chemical differences between the two pegmatite Groups seem more related to source variations than mode of melting.

The Pb isotopes show that the pegmatites have variable crustal sources with little mantle input (Paper 3). Simple 3-stage Pb isotope modelling reveals that the crustal sources are heteroge- neous in terms of Pb isotopic composition. Variations in mica and columbite group mineral chemistry between the different fields seem to reflect this variation in crustal sources.

The Sveconorwegian pegmatites are strongly host rock controlled occurring mainly in amphibolite-dominated supracrustal units. Müller et al. (2015) and Müller et al. (2017b) suggested that the amphibolitic host rocks were the source of the pegmatite melts. Melt experiments show that melting of amphibolite tends to produce tonalitic melt compositions (Rapp et al., 1991). For the granitic pegmatite melts to originate from amphibolites the melts either underwent fractionation during melt movement or have a mixed melt source of amphibolitic and more felsic compositions.

We show that rare-element pegmatites of the NYF family can form by anatectic melting. The composition of the pegmatites seem more related to their host rocks than to tectonic setting.

15 4. Thesis summary

Since pegmatites of the LCT family have received more study (London, 2008) this thesis is an important contribution to the study of the NYF pegmatite family.

4.2 Thesis outlook The conclusions above have wider implications for future pegmatites studies. We show that age dating of pegmatites and nearby granites can be a useful indicator of whether the pegmatites and granites are genetically related. If the pegmatites are significantly younger or older than the granites anatectic melting of host rocks needs to be considered as a potential source. The age dating can point to an anatectic origin but does not provide information on the melting process or the pegmatite melt source. Pb isotope studies on K-feldspar from pegmatites and granites can give information on whether the pegmatites and granites have the same source but also the general amount of mantle and crustal components in the source.

For future work in the Sveconorwegian pegmatite province, it would be beneficial to explore in depth the genesis of the Østfold pegmatite field. This is the only pegmatite field in the Sveconorwegian orogen that contains pegmatites potentially derived from the residual melt of a granite. Little is published about these pegmatites apart from this study and no detailed map exist. Detailed mapping of the pegmatites should be carried out with focus on potential zonation of the field. Thereafter it would be useful to analyze the micas and compare them with the other fields to see if there is any strong chemical difference between them.

One of the other questions regarding the Sveconorwegian pegmatites is the temperature and pressure conditions under which they formed. The temperature and pressure conditions can be evaluated using thermobarometric studies on fluid and melt inclusions. In addition, the fluid and melt inclusion composition can reveal the melt composition during pegmatite formation. The pressure temperature conditions can reveal the spatial relations to the granites in depth in addition to the already known temporal relations.

The current study also leaves open the question of the Tørdal pegmatite formation. Dating indicates that the pegmatites cannot be derived from the Tørdal-Treungen granite, whereas the Pb-isotope suggests a common source for both pegmatites and granite. To solve this question melt experiments or modelling on potential source rocks to determine the melt composition and partial melting degree could be useful. This could reveal whether the pegmatites formed from the residual melt of a granite or from melting of the amphibolitic host rocks. Several authors (e.g. Snook, 2014; Simmons et al. 2016) have used trace element modelling of potential host rocks to compare with whole rock pegmatite trace element content, but few to none 16 4.2 Thesis outlook have attempted to model the major element composition. Combining modelling of both major and trace elements would show that a potential source could produce a pegmatite melt with the appropriate major and trace element composition.

A better understanding of the origin of pegmatites has implications for pegmatite research and pegmatite exploration, but also leads to a better understanding of the regional scale processes for an entire region where pegmatites occur.

17 5. References

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23 24 6. List of papers

Paper 1

A comparison of the mica geochemistry of the pegmatite fields in southern Norway

Nanna Rosing-Schow, Axel Müller and Henrik Friis.

The Canadian Mineralogist, 56, 463-488 (2018)

Paper 2

New insights in the formation of Sveconorwegian pegmatites, southern Norway Nanna Rosing-Schow, Rolf L. Romer, Axel Müller, Fernando Corfu, Radek Škoda and Henrik Friis. (In prep.)

Paper 3

Pb isotopes as a tool for granite pegmatite source modelling – examples from the late Mesoproterozoic Sveconorwegian pegmatite province, southern Norway

Nanna Rosing-Schow, Tom Andersen and Axel Müller

(Submitted to Lithos)

Paper I

I Paper Paper

Paper III