The Development of the Water Management System of Angkor: a Provisional Model
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THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF ANGKOR: A PROVISIONAL MODEL Roland Fletcher1, Christophe Pottier2, Damian Evans1, Matti Kummu3 1 Department of Archaeology, University of Sydney, ² EFEO Siem Reap, ³ Finnish Environmental Institute and Helsinki University Email: [email protected] Keywords: Cambodia, Angkor, irrigation, GIS, water management ABSTRACT voirs around Angkor Thom, and southwards to the shore The nature and even the existence of water management of the Tonle Sap is an elaborate, interconnected water at Angkor has been the subject of considerable debate network. The network has three main sectors (Fig. 2), as since the 1970s. Recent work at Angkor by the EFEO and identified by Kummu - a northern zone where water was the Greater Angkor Project has mapped a vast water spread out across the landscape and its flow rate could be management network extending across approximately reduced; a central zone around the temples where water 1000 sq km. From the new map an outline can be provide was held in the baray; and a southern zone, between the of the development of the network between the 8th-9th and centre of Angkor and the lake, where water was either the 14th centuries. Each large extension of the network disposed of rapidly to the lake or distributed slowly from tapped water from a succession of natural rivers flowing west to east across the slope of the landscape (Evans and from NE to SW. Each river was further north and was Kummu 2003) tapped further to the west. The network had five major The large scale, integrated perspective provided by the components - E-W embankments that trapped water comprehensive remote sensing AIRSAR radar coverage flowing from the north and northeast; N-S channels that has enabled us to move away from the conventional view eventually delivered water to large reservoirs (baray); the of Angkor, readily identify the nature and overall opera- baray and the large temple moats; embankments and tion of the water network in Angkor and also see it as a channels oriented from NW to SE that could distribute system of interconnected elements. Previously, the water back from west to east across the slope of the land; emphasis on the central area of Angkor has prevented a and channels oriented towards the southwest which could recognition of the crucial role of the northern half of dispose of water rapidly to the lake, the Tonle Sap. Angkor and the function of the Great North canal and its Significantly the later major channels, such as the Angkor subsidiaries. These are clearly visible on the 1994 radar Wat canal and the canal that pre-dated the current Siem image from the space shuttle Endeavour, which was Reap river, were drains that served to dispose of water commissioned by the World Monuments Fund. They into the lake. were in part, mapped on the ZEMP GIS database (Engel- hardt 1996) and are also partially represented on Claude Jacques map of Angkor in 1978. Focusing on the centre also diverts attention from the major channels that cross INTRODUCTION the southern half of Angkor and take or took water di- rectly out to the lake. These have been partially noted From the early 1990s Angkor has been mapped in two since the 1960s and were systematically mapped by stages, first by the EFEO and then by the joint efforts of Pottier (1999) in the 1990s. the Greater Angkor Project, an international collaboration Since the 1980s and a seminal paper by Liere (1980) between the University of Sydney, EFEO and the there has been a debate about the management of water at APSARA Authority which manages the Angkor World Angkor and the interpretation of the large water features Heritage Site. The mapping from ground surveys and such as the baray and the temple moats, in terms of remote sensing has shown that the well-known group of varying degrees of ritual-functional dichotomy (Acker great temples lies at the centre of a dispersed, low-density 1998, Stott 1992, Egawa 1999, Fukui 1999). This paper urban complex covering about a 1000 sq km, containing a does not propose to review or discuss the content of that vast, linear network of embankments and channels (Fig. convoluted debate but instead intends to contribute 1) (Pottier 1999; Evans 2002; Evans et al 2007; Fletcher towards a redefinition of the debate by presenting a new et al. 2003). The urban complex extends far beyond the model of the development of the vast water management conventionally recognised central area of Angkor that is network that the work of the EFEO and the Greater now delimited by the Heritage Park. Angkor Project has revealed. From north of Bantei Srei in the northeast and Nokor Pheas in the northwest, through the great baray or reser- IPPA BULLETIN 28, 2008, PP. 57-66 FLETCHER ET AL: WATER MANAGEMENT AT ANGKOR; A PROVISIONAL MODEL Figure 1. The Angkor dispersed, low-density urban complex (Evans and Pottier). Note 1: The new, provisional map of Greater Angkor has been prepared at the University of Sydney by Damian Evans, combining the radar data with the survey work of Christophe Pottier in a GIS database. Mapping of Angkor continues both by the EFEO and by the Greater Angkor Project (GAP). The Spatial Organisation of the Water Management the East Baray also has an inlet channel in its NE corner Network and a massive masonry lined outlet channel in the middle of its eastern bank; and the West Baray was a meticulous Once the entire network from the lake to the hills is piece of engineering (Fletcher et al. 2003: Fig 6). There is presented on a single map it is apparent that the great an intake channel 25m wide in its northeast corner, fed by baray are the middle zone of a huge water management canals from the north and east (Fig. 3). A channel also system (Fig. 2). The northern zone between the hills and cuts through the southern portion of the east bank of the the major baray is a collector and flow management baray and another channel cuts across the SE corner of system for spreading water across the landscape and also the baray to enter feature CP807 to the south. Further directing it southwards down major channels. These evidence of a precise function for the baray is the grid of constructed channels, in essence canals, have right angle channels south of the SW corner of the baray, identified turns or cross-channels into which water could be by Pottier (2000a). The rectangle formed by the outermost shunted, slowing it down or speeding up its flow as channels of this feature has previously been misidentified required and removing suspended sediment. The northern as part of the boundary of a pre-Angkorean “city”, Bantei part of the network would therefore have played a crucial Choeu (e.g. see Higham 2001: 66). All of the baray are role in slowing down and dispersing the monsoon water. associated with linear channels and banks outside the From the network of embankments and channels the northern and southern banks, leading in to the NE corners water could then move southwards either into bypass of the baray and also extending out from the eastern channels or into the baray. banks and to the south and southeast. The central zone of the network is the major baray The southern zone of the network is a suite of disposal and temple moats that were built from the 9th to the 12th and distributor channels. The most obvious set is associ- century AD. These now appear to have been a set of ated with the West Baray and consists of a channel massive water storage units fed by the northern collector running to the south-west - the shortest, steepest and system. While the East and West Mebon and the Neak therefore the quickest route to dispose of water into the Pean leave no doubt that the baray had a ritual meaning, lake; and also a channel to the south-east, the Southeast 58 INDO-PACIFIC PREHISTORY ASSOCIATION BULLETIN 28, 2008 Figure 2. Tripartite water network (Kummu). Figure 4. Eastern side of buried Angkorian channel (marked by black line). Probably the original line of the post-14th century Siem Reap channel. Below is an earlier channel of unknown date. Above is a recent channel (dashed line) (Fletcher). some significance for a preceding form of the network (see below - East Baray Addition). The Rolous group deserves further attention as it has a baray (the Indratataka) and also a major channel running due south to the lake that would have acted as a disposal channel. The village of Kompong Plok is located at the southern end of this channel. It also has what may be a distributor channel as well, previously interpreted just as a road. The linear embankment leading south-east from the centre of Angkor to the Indratataka and the Angkorian road running SE from the SE corner of that baray would have channelled water to the southeast in the same way as the SE canal/road that extends to the SE from the grid of Figure 3. West Baray intake channel (Fletcher). channels near the south-west corner of the West Baray (see Pottier 1999: 120-3). In addition, a poorly preserved, Canal/Road, that goes all the way to the south of Roluos and probably early channel runs westwards towards Vat andthen on to the Damdek “canal” and beyond. The SE Attvear. These appear to be elements of a whole early road/channel is almost the slowest route the water could network around the Roluos group.