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Clothing and Identity in Frances Hodgson Burnett, Edith Nesbit and Beatrix Potter

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Clothing and Identity in Frances Hodgson Burnett, Edith Nesbit and Beatrix Potter Reading the language of attire: Clothing and Identity in Frances Hodgson Burnett, Edith Nesbit and Beatrix Potter Alexandra Jeikner Thesis submitted towards the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of English Literature, Language and Linguistics Newcastle University 3.11.2014 ABSTRACT „Reading the Language of Attire: Clothing and Identity in Frances Hodgson Burnett, Edith Nesbit and Beatrix Potter‟ This thesis explores how a selection of British children‟s stories written by three female authors between 1880 and 1915 reflected and contributed through verbal and pictorial sartorial images to the construction of a new version of identity: one that is not determined by birth and thus cannot be contained by established mechanisms of control. Scholarship in queer theory has already drawn attention to how dress is employed in literature and popular culture to construct identity, but this thesis draws attention to the centrality of dress images in the gradual construction of more liberated versions of not only gender, but also national and class identity. By providing three substantial case studies involving rigorous close reading of the language of dress, this study also lays the foundations for future research. This thesis consists of an introduction, five chapters and a conclusion. Using Beatrix Potter‟s The Tale of Tom Kitten (1907), the Introduction argues that reading the language of attire permits a more nuanced understanding of how a story participates in the discursive construction of identities through a discussion of images of dress, undress and cross-dressing. Chapter Two examines images of dress in the popular press, to illustrate how clothing was closely involved in socio-political discourses and how it both expressed and influenced contemporary (often contesting) constructions of identity. Chapter Three explores how in some nineteenth-century children‟s texts the bodies of animals were implicated in socio-political discourses. Close reading reveals a shift over the course of the century, from clothed animals largely being used to confirm existing social structures to their use to challenge and even transgress existing social boundaries. The chapter explores the implications of this change on constructions of identity that emerge as more negotiable. The next three chapters are based on reading the language of clothing in selected stories by, respectively, Burnett, Nesbit and Potter, focusing on the relationship between clothing and identity. Finally, the Conclusion offers a sartorial reading of a select list of texts belonging to other genres, written in other countries and at other times, to suggest the possibilities of future research in this area. Key texts discussed are Burnett‟s A Little Princess, Being the Whole Story of Sara Crewe Now Told for the First Time (1905), Little Lord Fauntleroy (1886) and The 2 Secret Garden (1911) as well as the lesser-known The Lost Prince (1915). My discussion of Nesbit involves the three stories about the Bastable children in The Story of the Treasure Seekers (1899), The Wouldbegoods (1901) and The New Treasure Seekers (1904). In Potter‟s case, I examine the well-known Peter Rabbit stories as well as a range of others, such as The Tale of the Two Bad Mice (1904), The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle (1905), The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher (1906), The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck (1908), The Tale of Samuel Whiskers (1908), The Tale of Ginger and Pickles (1909), The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse (1910), The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes (1911), The Tale of the Pie and the Patty-Pan (1911) and The Tale of Pigling Bland (1913). 3 To my parents, who always believed in me, Vangelis, who always encouraged me and NiauNiau, who was always with me, almost until the very end 4 Acknowledgements These last seven years have been hard, but also amazing. Working on this thesis while trying to make ends meet during this economic crisis, I have found myself oscillating between stress, frustration, doubt, hope, enthusiasm and exhilaration. First, I wish to thank my amazing tutors, Dr Kimberley Reynolds and Dr Matthew Grenby, without whose knowledge and professionalism as well as invaluable advice, constructive feedback and unfailing emotional support throughout the past years, this thesis would never have been completed. I am also indebted to Dr Barbara Morden, my tutor during my postgraduate studies, who encouraged me to apply, supported my application and was there for me when it was time for the terrifying viva. My thanks also go to my colleagues. Dr Harriett Zengos, who supported my professional development; Dr Jane Mandalios, who inspired me with her sage advice (I will never forget the Brokeback Mountain talk); and Litsa Mourelatos, who saved me (probably without ever realising it) during some very dark times through our chats about academic integrity, cats and dogs, husbands. I am also immensely grateful to friends. I extend my deepest appreciation to Antonis Papastavrou, M.D., who believed so much in me that he supported my first year financially and who unfailingly provided medical care. Furthermore, I thank Eirini Konstantinou, for offering assistance in locating sources, accommodation when in England and emotional support when I was falling apart. And I thank Konstantin Kobitsis, for the cat-sitting and our endless talks, but mostly for being a friend I trust. Most of all I am grateful to my parents, Iliofotisti (Babalou) and Oswald, and my husband, Vangelis, whose financial, practical and emotional support was unwavering. I thank my parents for doing the innumerable things they did, such as going to the supermarket, banks, post and tax offices and taking care of NiauNiau – I thank them for enabling me to come this far and being the best parents ever. I thank Vangeli for his wonderful pizzas and pitas, for taking the car to be serviced, repairing the computer, restoring lost files, covering tuition fees, giving me time and space for this thesis, talking me out of quitting over dinners and drinks – I thank him for always believing in me and being such a wonderful husband. And then there is NiauNiau, who might be no more, but is an inextricable part of this experience. When she immobilized me by sleeping hours, purring, on my lap while I was writing and revising, when she interrupted me with her niaus for the bedroom door, her „yummie Sheeba‟ and „hoppie Tisch‟ or some „hatta-patta‟ – it was her voice and smile that kept me sane. 5 CONTENTS ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................ 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... 5 LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER 1 ....................................................................................................................... 14 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 14 Sartorial traditions and transgressions ...........................................................................................14 Literature review: Functions and meaning of dress ........................................................................28 Choice of texts and illustrations ......................................................................................................33 Illustrations ....................................................................................................................................37 Theoretical framework ...................................................................................................................39 Method ...........................................................................................................................................45 Structure of this thesis ....................................................................................................................46 CHAPTER 2 ....................................................................................................................... 47 DRESS AND THE CHILD: SARTORIAL REPRESENTATIONS IN VICTORIAN TIMES ....................................................................................................................................... 47 Society and magazines, clothes and illustrations ............................................................................47 Children and dress in Victorian times .............................................................................................51 Boys’ fashion: Lace and tweed, kilts and knickerbockers, androgyny and effeminacy ................ 54 Girls’ fashion: Restrictive corsets, liberating sportswear and rational dress ................................ 65 The child in sailor suit: The middle classes and the others ..............................................................86 Philanthropy, poverty and sartorial transgression ..........................................................................88 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 101 CHAPTER 3 ..................................................................................................................... 104 6 THE NON-HUMAN BODY AND DRESS ..................................................................... 104 Animals and dress in the nineteenth and early
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