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The City Game Fit: the Reverse Engineering of Urban Games

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The City Game Fit: the Reverse Engineering of Urban Games The City Game Fit: The Reverse Engineering of Urban Games De Stad-Spel Schikking: Het Ontmantelen van Stadsspellen (met een samenvatting in het Nederlands) Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Utrecht op gezag van de rector magnificus, prof.dr. H.R.B.M Kummeling, ingevolge het besluit van het college voor promoties in het openbaar te verdedigen op maandag 22 juni 2020 des middags te 4.15 uur door Sjors Carel Martens geboren op 4 juli 1991 te Rotterdam Promotoren: Prof. dr. J.F.F. Raessens Prof. dr. P.J. Werkhoven Copromotor: Dr. M.L. de Lange The author of this dissertation received financial support for the research conducted from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) within the project Graduate Programme Games Research (project number 022.005.017). Table of Contents Acknowledgements i List of Figures iv Summary in English v Samenvatting in het Nederlands viii Introduction 1 Chapter 1 – Urban Games as Playable Sociocultural Systems 15 1.1 Demystifying the Magic-Bullet Theory through Affordances 18 1.1.1 The Magic-Bullet Theory 19 1.1.1.1 Epistemology of the Magic-Bullet Theory 19 1.1.1.2 Technology of the Magic-Bullet Theory 22 1.1.1.3 Criticism on the Magic-Bullet Theory 23 1.1.2 Affordances Approach 25 1.1.3 Affordance Agency: Signifiers, Constraints and Feedback 28 1.2 Play as a User Model 30 1.2.1 Urban Play 31 1.2.1.1 Appropriation 32 1.2.1.2 Carnivalesque 34 1.2.1.3 Expressive, Personal and Autotelic 38 1.2.1.4 The Understanding of Play 40 1.2.2 Loops and Metagames 41 1.2.2.1 Loops 41 1.2.2.2 Metagame 43 1.2.3 Radical Players in Urban Games 48 1.3 Urban Games 48 1.3.1 The Urban Game System 48 1.3.1.1 Space 49 1.3.1.2 Moveability 50 1.3.1.3 Sociability 52 1.3.1.4 Defamiliarisation 53 1.3.2 Our Model of Urban Games 54 1.4 Conclusion 55 Chapter 2 – Creating an Operational Model of Cities 57 2.1 Understanding the City Model 58 2.1.1 Understanding the City 58 2.1.1.1 Urban 59 2.1.1.2 Political 59 2.1.1.3 Geographical 60 2.1.1.4 Social 60 2.1.1.5 Interpretative 60 2.1.1.6 ‘The’ City 61 2.1.2 Understanding the Model 62 2.1.2.1 Models 62 2.1.2.2 City Models 63 2.1.2.3 Relation to Other Approaches 66 2.1.3. The Locus of the City Model 67 2.1.3.1 Discursive City Models 68 2.1.3.2 The Technological City Model 69 2.2 City Models in Urban Games 71 2.2.1 City Model Characteristics in Loops 72 2.2.2 City Model Characteristics in the Metagame 72 2.2.2.1 Informational Metagame 72 2.2.2.2 The fictional metagame 74 2.2.2.3 The Economic Metagame 74 2.2.2.4 The Performative Metagame 76 2.2.2.5 The Contextual Metagame 77 2.3 City Model Inventory 79 2.3.1 City Models of Participation 79 2.3.2 Dimensions of City Models of Participation 80 2.3.2.1 The Area of Effect of the City Model 80 2.3.2.2 Involved Actors in the City Model 81 2.3.3 City Model Categories 83 2.3.3.1. Nr. 1: Governance City Model 85 2.3.3.2 Nr. 2: Holistic City Model 87 2.3.3.3 Nr. 3: Facilitating City Model 88 2.3.3.4 Nr. 4: Social City Models 89 2.3.3.5 Nr. 5: Place-making City Models 91 2.3.3.6 Nr. 6: Expressive City Models 92 2.3.3.7 Nr. 7: Educative City Models 93 2.3.3.8 Nr. 8 Modernist City Models 94 2.3.4 Category Conclusions 96 2.4 Conclusion 96 Chapter 3 – Reverse Engineering the Fit 98 3.1 The Fit 99 3.1.1 Description of the Fit 99 3.1.2 Variable Relations Underlying the Fit 100 3.1.3 Granulation of the Fit 102 3.2 Looking at the Label – Questioning the Fit 107 3.2.1 Too Big a Problem 108 3.2.2 Interdisciplinary Intervention 109 3.2.3 Social Sciences Intervention: Statistical Validation Alternative 111 3.2.4 Unfitting Game Design 113 3.2.5 Urban Fitters 115 3.2.6 Prevaluation 116 3.3 Interdisciplinary Reverse Engineering 117 3.3.1 When to Reverse Engineer 118 3.3.2 The Epistemology of Reverse Engineering 120 3.4 Action Space Analysis 122 3.4.1 Implementation: Charting Affordances 123 3.4.1.1 Loops 125 3.4.1.2 Metagames 126 3.4.2 Design Step: Finding the Pursued Interaction 127 3.4.3 Requirements: City Models Informing Affordances 128 3.4.4 Comparison: Fitting City Models to the Pursued City Models 130 3.4.4.1 Quantitative Analysis 130 3.4.4.2 Qualitative Analysis 131 3.5 Conclusion 134 Chapter 4 – The Fit in Urban Games: Case Studies 135 4.1 Urban Games Organisation 136 4.1.1 Degree of Symbolic Presence 136 4.1.1.1 Physical Presence 136 4.1.1.2 Facilitating Presence 137 4.1.1.3 Symbolic Presence 137 4.1.2 Relation to Space 138 4.1.2.1 Purposive or Location Independent Games 139 4.1.2.2 Discursive Walking, or Hybrid Games 139 4.1.2.3 Conceptual Walking, or Location Based Games 139 4.1.3 Case Study Selection 140 4.1.3.1 Quadrant 1 141 4.1.3.2 Quadrant 2 142 4.1.3.3 Quadrant 3 142 4.1.3.4 Quadrant 4 143 4.1.4 Case studies setup 143 4.2 Case 1: GEOCACHING 144 4.2.1 What is GEOCACHING? 144 4.2.2 The Implementation Phase of GEOCACHING 146 4.2.2.1 Core Loops 146 4.2.2.2 Secondary Loops 148 4.2.2.3 Metagames 152 4.2.3 The Design Phase of GEOCACHING 155 4.2.4 The Requirement Phase of GEOCACHING 156 4.2.5 The Comparison Phase of GEOCACHING 158 4.2.5.1 Quantifying the fit 159 4.2.5.2 The GEOCACHING Discourse Model 160 4.2.5.3 Qualifying the fit 161 4.2.6 Conclusion of GEOCACHING 165 4.3 Case Study 2: ONTDEK OVERVECHT 166 4.3.1 What is ONTDEK OVERVECHT 166 4.3.2 Implementation Phase of ONTDEK OVERVECHT 169 4.3.3 The Design Phase of ONTDEK OVERVECHT 171 4.3.4 The Requirement Phase of ONTDEK OVERVECHT 173 4.3.5 The Comparison Phase of ONTDEK OVERVECHT 173 4.3.5.1 Quantifying the fit 173 4.3.5.2 The Discursive model of ONTDEK OVERVECHT 175 4.3.5.3 Qualifying the fit 175 4.3.6 Conclusion of ONTDEK OVERVECHT 179 4.4 Case Study 4: CITIES: SKYLINES 179 4.4.1 What is CITIES: SKYLINES 179 4.4.2 Implementation Phase of CITIES: SKYLINES 181 4.4.3 The Design Phase of CITIES: SKYLINES 185 4.4.4 Requirements Phase of CITIES: SKYLINES 187 4.4.5 The Comparison Phase of CITIES: SKYLINES 188 4.4.5.1 Quantifying the fit 189 4.4.5.2 Discursive model of CITIES: SKYLINES 191 4.4.5.3 Qualifying the Fit 192 4.4.6 Conclusion of CITIES: SKYLINES 195 4.5 Case 4: POKÉMON GO 196 4.5.1 What is POKÉMON GO 196 4.5.2 Implementation Phase of POKÉMON GO 197 4.5.3 The Design Phase of POKÉMON GO 205 4.5.4 The Requirement Phase of POKÉMON GO 207 4.5.5 The Comparison Phase of POKÉMON GO 209 4.5.5.1 Quantifying the fit 209 4.5.5.2 Discursive model of POKÉMON GO 210 4.5.5.3 Qualifying the Fit 213 4.5.6 Conclusion of POKÉMON GO 215 4.6 Validating a Method 216 4.6.1 Validating the Reverse Engineering of POKÉMON GO 218 4.7 General Conclusion 220 Chapter 5 – Fitting Design Implications 220 5.1 The Fit of the Fit 222 5.1.1 During Design - Prevaluation 222 5.1.2 After Design – Assessment & Alternatives 223 5.1.3 Beyond Design – Reflection and Critique 224 5.2 Comparative Fit Studies 225 5.2.1 Tailored Fit 226 5.2.2 Conditional Fit 227 5.3 Applying the Fit 228 5.3.1 Game Design Guidelines 228 5.3.2 Informed Policy Making 230 5.3.3 Fitting a Smart City 233 5.3 Conclusion 238 Conclusion – Sharp Dressed Games 239 Appendix 1 – Translating City Models through Values into Game Design 244 Appendix 2 – Academic Positioning of the City Model 247 Appendix 3 – Literature Reviewed for monikers of City Model categories 252 Appendix 4 – Inventory of afforded loops and metagames, reconstructed city models, and relations to the pursued city model in GEOCACHING 253 Appendix 5 – Inventory of afforded loops and metagames, reconstructed city models, and relations to the pursued city model in ONTDEK OVERVECHT 257 Appendix 6 – Inventory of afforded loops and metagames, reconstructed city models, and relations to the pursued city model in CITIES: SKYLINES 262 Appendix 7 – Inventory of afforded loops and metagames, reconstructed city models, and relations to the pursued city model in POKÉMON GO 266 Sources 270 Acknowledgements Writing a dissertation is a grand enterprise for one person.
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