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Evolution - Advanced www.ck12.org _17LmpwZw.. 1 www.ck12.org 2 Evolution - Advanced Douglas Wilkin, Ph.D. Barbara Akre Niamh Gray-Wilson Say Thanks to the Authors Click http://www.ck12.org/saythanks (No sign in required) AUTHORS Douglas Wilkin, Ph.D. To access a customizable version of this book, as well as other Barbara Akre interactive content, visit www.ck12.org Niamh Gray-Wilson EDITOR Douglas Wilkin, Ph.D. CK-12 Foundation is a non-profit organization with a mission to reduce the cost of textbook materials for the K-12 market both in the U.S. and worldwide. Using an open-source, collaborative, and web-based compilation model, CK-12 pioneers and promotes the creation and distribution of high-quality, adaptive online textbooks that can be mixed, modified and printed (i.e., the FlexBook® textbooks). Copyright © 2016 CK-12 Foundation, www.ck12.org The names “CK-12” and “CK12” and associated logos and the terms “FlexBook®” and “FlexBook Platform®” (collectively “CK-12 Marks”) are trademarks and service marks of CK-12 Foundation and are protected by federal, state, and international laws. Any form of reproduction of this book in any format or medium, in whole or in sections must include the referral attribution link http://www.ck12.org/saythanks (placed in a visible location) in addition to the following terms. Except as otherwise noted, all CK-12 Content (including CK-12 Curriculum Material) is made available to Users in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC 3.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc/3.0/), as amended and updated by Creative Com- mons from time to time (the “CC License”), which is incorporated herein by this reference. Complete terms can be found at http://www.ck12.org/about/ terms-of-use. Printed: January 24, 2016 www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Evolution - Advanced CHAPTER 1 Evolution - Advanced CHAPTER OUTLINE 1.1 History of Life - Advanced 1.2 The Fossil Record - Advanced 1.3 Aging of Rocks and Fossils - Advanced 1.4 Molecular Clocks - Advanced 1.5 Geologic Time Scale - Advanced 1.6 Macroevolution and the History of Life - Advanced 1.7 Formation of Earth - Advanced 1.8 First Organic Molecules - Advanced 1.9 The First Cells - Advanced 1.10 Evolution of Eukaryotes - Advanced 1.11 The Evolution of Multicellular Life - Advanced 1.12 The Late Precambrian - Advanced 1.13 Ancient Plants and Animals - Advanced 1.14 The Age of the Dinosaurs - Advanced 1.15 The Age of Modern Life - Advanced 1.16 Darwin - Advanced 1.17 The Voyage of the Beagle - Advanced 1.18 Influences on Darwin - Advanced 1.19 The Theory of Evolution - Advanced 1.20 Evidence of Evolution - Advanced 1.21 Evolution and the Fossil Record - Advanced 1.22 Comparative Anatomy and Embryology - Advanced 1.23 Molecular Biology and Evolution - Advanced 1.24 Biogeography - Advanced 1.25 Artificial Selection and Coevolution - Advanced 1.26 Evolution of Resistance in Bacteria - Advanced 1.27 Summary of Evolution - Advanced 1.28 Genes and Alleles - Advanced 1.29 Sources of Genetic Variation - Advanced 1.30 Populations and Gene Pools - Advanced 1.31 Allele Frequencies - Advanced 1.32 Microevolution - Advanced 1.33 The Hardy-Weinberg Model - Advanced 1 www.ck12.org 1.34 Mutation and Gene Flow - Advanced 1.35 Population Size and Genetic Drift - Advanced 1.36 Natural Selection and Populations - Advanced 1.37 What is a Species? - Advanced 1.38 Speciation - Advanced 1.39 Isolating Mechanisms and Speciation - Advanced 1.40 The Rate of Speciation - Advanced 1.41 Taxonomy - Advanced 1.42 The Linnaean System - Advanced 1.43 Phylogeny - Advanced 1.44 Cladistics - Advanced 1.45 The Kingdom in Biology - Advanced 1.46 The Domain in Biology - Advanced 1.47 References Introduction The Grand Canyon, shown here, is an American icon and one of the wonders of the natural world. People come from all over the world to view this natural wonder. The Grand Canyon is also a record of the past. Look at the rock layers in the picture. If you were to walk down a trail to the bottom of the canyon, with each step down you would be taking a step back in time. That’s because lower layers of rock represent the more distant past. The rock layers and the fossils they contain show the history of Earth and its organisms over a 2-billion-year time span. Although Charles Darwin never visited the Grand Canyon, he saw rock layers and fossils in other parts of the world. They helped inspire his theory of evolution. Darwin’s theory rocked the scientific world. You will read why in the following concepts. 2 www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Evolution - Advanced 1.1 History of Life - Advanced • Explain the current thoughts on the history of life. Do dinosaurs prove evolution? For millions of years dinosaurs roamed and dominated the planet. Then, 65 million years ago, they went extinct. In fact, well over 90% of species that have ever lived are now extinct. But as species go extinct, other species change to take their place. This change in species over time is evolution, the focus of the lessons in this concept. History of Life “There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.” - Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species. 1859 Without argument, Charles Darwin (February 12, 1809 –April 19, 1882) is one of the most important (if not the most important) biologists to ever live, and one of the most influential people in history. The full title of Charles Darwin’s scientific literature is On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, first published on November 24, 1859. It is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology. In recognition of Darwin’s importance as a naturalist, biologist, and scientist, he was honored with a state funeral and buried in Westminster Abbey in London, close to Isaac Newton. Westminster Abbey is the burial site of many of Britain’s monarchs. The history of life as we currently understand it is vast, wondrous, dramatic, humbling, and ennobling. The expanse of time during which life has flourished is vast and almost unimaginable: between 3.5 and 4 billion years. The diversity of species throughout this time has been wondrous: some 30 million species occupy Earth today and over 90% of all which have ever lived are now extinct. Both the tales of change in environment and in diversity have been dramatic: ice ages, volcanism, continental drift, mass extinction, and bursts of evolutionary creativity have all shaped the natural environment. It is humbling to recognize that humans have played a relatively small part in this history; if the 4.6 billion-year story of Earth were reduced to a single cosmological day, humans would occupy 3 1.1. History of Life - Advanced www.ck12.org just the last minute and a half, and civilization would cover less than the final second. It is ennobling to realize that this story reveals that we are related to and interdependent with all other species - back 4 billion years to so simple a beginning. Finally, the history of life suggests that we might add one more striking impression: terrifying is the realization that we are in many ways unique among species in our unprecedented power to change the environment, influence evolution, and destroy the planet’s biodiversity. The Phylogenetic Tree of Life FIGURE 1.1 A family tree of living things both summa- rizes our understanding of the history of life and shows that humans and animals share common ancestors with all of mod- ern life. This diagram demonstrates our current understanding of evolutionary re- lationships. We will explore some of these relationships later in additional concepts. The Figure 1.29 is a phylogenetic tree of life illustrating that all life shares a common ancestor. Phylogenetics is the study of the genetic and evolutionary relationships among and between species. All species are divided among three domains of life: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya (or Eucaryota). Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotic domains. The eukaryotic domain is composed of animals, plants, fungi, and many types of protists. Notice how this diagram shows how all species arise or evolve from common ancestors. Earth in a Day It’s hard to grasp the vast amounts of time since Earth formed 4.6 billion years ago and life first appeared on its surface. It may help to think of Earth’s history as a 24-hour day, as shown in the Figure 1.2. Humans would have appeared only during the last minute of that day. If we are such newcomers on planet Earth, how do we know about the vast period of time that preceded us? How have we learned about the distant past? Vocabulary • biodiversity: The variety of life and its processes, including the variety of living organisms, the genetic differences among them, and the communities and ecosystems in which they occur. • continental drift: The early 20th century hypothesis that the continents move about relative to each other by appearing to drift across oceans. • Darwin: Charles Darwin, an English naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection. 4 www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Evolution - Advanced FIGURE 1.2 History of Earth in a Day. In this model of Earth’s history, the planet formed at midnight.
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