BIOTECHNOLOGY, BENEFITS AND RISKS, February 6 to March 21, 2008
Weeds, feral crops in agriculture, how it all started, Sorghum in Africa Klaus Ammann February 15, 2008
General Risks-Benefits, Public Researc Ecology and detection of plant ferality in the historic records Definition of a weed Ideal weed characteristics (after Baker, 1974):
1.Germination requirements fulfilled in a broad range of habitats 2.Discontinuous germination (internally controlled) and great longevity of seeds 3.Rapid growth through vegetative phase to flowering 4.Continuous seed production for as long as growing conditions permit 5.Self-compatible but not completely autogamous or apomictic 6.When cross-pollinated, unspecialized visitors or wind-pollinated 7.Very high seed output under favourable environmental circumstances 8.Produces some seed in wide range of environmental conditions; tolerant and plastic 9.Adaptations for short- and long-distance dispersal 10.If a perennial, vigorous vegetative reproduction or regeneration from fragments 11.If a perennial, brittleness, so not easily drawn from ground 12.Ability to compete interspecifically by special means (rosette, choking growth, allelochemics
Definition of a weed after Baker 1974 Yoshimura, Y., Beckie, H., & Matsuo, K. (2006) Transgenic oilseed rape along transportation routes and port of Vancouver in western Canada. Envionmental Biosafety Research, 5, pp 67 - 75 http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Brassica/Yoshimura-Transportationroutes-Brassica-2006.pdf Feral oilseed rape Canada Yoshimura, Y., Beckie, H., & Matsuo, K. (2006) Transgenic oilseed rape along transportation routes and port of Vancouver in western Canada. Envionmental Biosafety Research, 5, pp 67 - 75 http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Brassica/Yoshimura-Transportationroutes-Brassica-2006.pdf
Feral oilseed rape Canada Yoshimura, Y., Beckie, H., & Matsuo, K. (2006) Transgenic oilseed rape along transportation routes and port of Vancouver in western Canada. Envionmental Biosafety Research, 5, pp 67 - 75 http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Brassica/Yoshimura-Transportationroutes-Brassica-2006.pdf
Feral oilseed rape Canada Hammer, K., Arrowsmith, N., & Gladis, T. (2003) Agrobiodiversity with emphasis on plant genetic resources. Naturwissenschaften, 90, 241-250
Plants under human influence Hammer, K., Arrowsmith, N., & Gladis, T. (2003) Agrobiodiversity with emphasis on plant genetic resources. Naturwissenschaften, 90, 241-250
Agrobiodiversity, Gene Pool Concept Brassica napus, Sinapis arvensis Fruits of weedy Brassicaceae Our results clearly show a very pronounced influence of especially the frequency of parents and hybrids on their fitness (Fig. 2): B. napus, B. rapa and backcross plants (F1 ♀ x B. rapa) set many more seeds in pure stands than in mixtures and more seeds in stands with high frequencies of themselves. F1 plants set many more seeds in mixtures and at low frequencies of itself.
Thure Hauser and Rikke Bagger Jørgensen Plant Environment Interactions Programme
Hauser, T.P., Jorgensen, R.B., & Ostergard, H. (1998) Fitness of backcross and F-2 hybrids between weedy Brassica rapa and oilseed rape (B-napus). Heredity, 81, pp 436-443
Brassica crossing scheme From WIKIPEDIA Brassica crossing scheme Possible conclusions as examples Dear Friends and colleagues of Third World Network: Government Study Finds GM 'Superweeds' New government research in the UK has reported on the discovery of the first GM superweed in the country. This was the result of GM oilseed rape cross- breeding with a common weed, charlock, a phenomenon that was earlier thought to be impossible. The discovery raises fears that herbicide-resistant superweeds could develop in the British countryside if GM crops were grown commercially. There is also the possible fallout for the environment as this means that more and deadlier herbicides will need to be employed to kill the GM weeds
A total of 95459 seedlings of wild relatives were grown and tested. Of these, only 2 plants, of Brassica rapa showed resistance to the treatment.
Brian Johnson, an ecological geneticist and member of the government's specialist scientific group which assessed the farm trials, has no doubt of the significance. "You only need one event in several million. As soon as it has taken place the new plant has a huge selective advantage. That plant will multiply rapidly." Third World Network propaganda super weeds Claims of GM-field ‘superweed’ are dismissed 15:08 26 July 2005 NewScientist.com news service Rowan Hooper
A herbicide-resistant weed has been found in a field used for the UK’s farm-scale evaluations of genetically-modified crops but – despite the claims of several media reports – it is no GM “superweed”, say scientists.
Gene transfer has been shown in the lab to be possible between GM oil seed rape – Brassica napus – and a closely related species, field mustard – Brassica rapa. But there is not yet proof that it occurred between oilseed rape and the more distantly related charlock, Sinapis arvensis.
Natural resistance “There is no superweed and there never has been,” echoes Brian Johnson, ecological geneticist at English Nature, the nature advisers to the British government. “It’s more likely that herbicide resistance in charlock has evolved naturally.”
Brian Johnson Statement Brian Johnsons denial of statement As the scientist quoted in your article (GM crops created superweed, say scientists, July 25), can I clarify that I specifically said the plants found during the research were not, in my view, "superweeds" because one of them appeared to have non-viable seed!
I neither said or implied that the plants found by the researchers would multiply rapidly or have a "huge selective advantage" - quite the opposite.
Daniels, R., Boffey, C., Mogg, R.J., Bond, J.M., & Clark, R. (2005) The Potential for Dispersal of Herbicide Tolerance Genes from Genetically-Modified, Herbicide- Tolerant Oilseed Rape Crops to Wild Relatives, DEFRA pp 23 Report to DEFRA http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Brassica/Daniels-Superweed-Defra-2005.pdf
Hails, R.S. & Morley, K. (2005) Genes Invading New Populations: A Risk Assessment Perspective. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 20, 5, pp 245-252 http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Brassica/Hails-invading-2005.pdf
Brian Johnson dementi In conclusion, we have found that the potential exists for naturally occurring hybrids between B. napus and S. arvensis to form, with S. arvensis as the maternal parent. No S. arvensis population, or B. napus cultivar, was identified which hybridized readily and hybridization rates were too low to detect in the field. These results confirm the findings of previous studies which concluded that the risk of gene transfer from B. napus to S. arvensis is minimal.
Moyes, C.L., Lilley, J.M., Casais, C.A., Cole, S.G., Haeger, P.D., & Dale, P.J. (2002) Barriers to gene flow from oilseed rape (Brassica napus) into populations of Sinapis arvensis. Molecular Ecology, 11, 1, pp 103-112 http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Brassica/Moyes-Barriers-2002.pdf
Crossings B.napus x Sinapis arvensis very rare Hybrids between Brassica napus (Oilseed Rape) and Sinapis arvensis (Charlock) are a rare event
Moyes, C.L., Lilley, J.M., Casais, C.A., Cole, S.G., Haeger, P.D., & Dale, P.J. (2002) Barriers to Gene Flow from Oilseed Rape (Brassica Napus) into Populations of Sinapis Arvensis. Molecular Ecology, 11, 1, pp 103-112 http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Brassica/Moyes-Barriers-2002.pdf
Crossings B.napus x Sinapis arvensis very rare Edwards, M. (1980) Aspects of the Population Ecology of Charlock. Journal of Applied Ecology, 17, 1, pp 151-171 http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Brassica/Edwards-Population-1980.pdf Population development dependent of season Sinapis arvensis world distribution Brassica rapa world distribution Human factor European hunters and gatherers 10‘000 years ago
Genetic 'signature'
Lounes Chikhi, from University College London (UCL), UK, and colleagues looked for this marker by analysing mutations (errors) on Y chromosomes, the bundles of DNA handed down from father to son. Computer analysis In particular, they studied rare mutations called unique event polymorphisms (UEPs). These are not thought to have occurred more than once in recent human history. The presence of UEPs in different populations is likely to indicate common ancestry rather than recurrent changes in gene structure.
European hunters and gatherers The research team took the results of a previous study and subjected them to a new computer-intensive technique. From this, the scientists estimate that Middle Eastern farmers contributed about 50% of the analysed genes to the modern European population.
Contributions ranged from 15-30% in France and Germany, to 85-100% in southeastern European countries such as Albania, Macedonia, and Greece.
These figures are much larger than previous ones, suggesting that the Middle Eastern contribution to European genetic heritage has been underestimated.
Influence genomics and migration 1. Gatherer-hunters Gathering, hunting and fishing are successful forms of subsistence economy. 99 percent of human history and 90 percent of all human individuals which ever lived belong to this stage. Gatherer-hunter cultures have become rare nowadays and are mainly found in remote areas under extreme conditions (like desert, rain forest, tundra, high mountains) which may not be representative for study. In earlier days gatherer-hunters did not live on the edge of existence minimum but were allowed to be selective. The influence on the environment was low, but always density-dependent. Social organization was already characterized by labour partition between man and women, group formation, and territoriality.
1. Gatherer-hunters 2. Shepherd nomads (transhumance) Shepherd nomads prefer non-settled keeping and breeding of cattle and other domestic ani-mals. They are specialized on areas with low or unpredictable precipitation. Here field agri-culture without irrigation can not be carried out on a long term. The exact time of origin is unknown. There is a greater social differentiation (craftsmen, tradesmen). The number of animals is correlated to the social prestige. Shephard nomads are often involved in conflicts with other cultures because of alledged envi-ronmental damage caused by migrating herds.
2. Shepherd nomads 3. Tillage or arable farming (field and garden) To be found since 8,000-10,000 years in Persia and Palestine. The starting point is called the „Neolithic Revolution“. a. Extensive forms (mainly based on subsistence economy) - Shifting cultivation, a sequence of repeated clearing, burning, tillage, and migration
- Garden hoed crop culture (using a hoe, spade stick or similar tools)
3. Tillage arable farming b. Intensive forms (true stationary life form). Work is done for not removing the land (soil cultivation, fertilization, crop rotation). True arable farming was particularly dependent of the use of effective ploughs. It was accompanied by a surplus economy which lead to
- labour partitioning between towns and countryside, - keeping of stationary armies, - highly differentiated social labour division into class and caste systems, - population growth.
Intensive forms Further properties are - the idea of landownership, - the inheritance of land (as private property), -the idea of nuisant plants and animals (weeds,pests).
4. Agro-industrial agriculture. Nowadays food production is based on the utilization of fossile energy (1-3 are based on enewable resources). Since c. 1850 agriculture is dominated by use of - artificial fertilizers, pesticides, insectizides, fungicides, - fuel for agricultural machines including the energy for the production of the machines, - energy for transporting good (both input and output of production).
4. Agro-industrial agriculture Figure 1. A diagrammatic indication of the relationship between economic development and environmental concern. The three primary economic systems of agrarian-, industrial-, and knowledge-based service are indicated with arbitrary indications of wealth and development. SO2 emission is used merely as an indicator of industrial development and the subsequent environmental concern generated The Population/Biodiversity Paradox. Agricultural Efficiency to Save Wilderness Anthony J. Trewavas Plant Physiology Jan. 2001
Trewavas Population-biodiversity paradox Hypothesized proportions subsistence components Hunter-Gatherer and Agricultural frontiers Early history of agriculture Shinden: Holy rice fields C, gods B came from mountains Man came from villages A
Japanese world view Summary of Northeast Asian Chronology The Fertile Crescent, 9000-4500 BCE
Fertile Crescent Present-day distribution of wild emmer wheat, Triticum dicoccoides
Early triticum development Present day distriution of einkorn Regions with domesticated hulled wheats Spread of Agriculture into Europe Eariest agricultural cultures Europe Main centre of origin of triticum boeoticum Triticum dicoccoides Aegilops squarrosa Hulled wheats in Spain Hilled wheat treatment in Spain Hulled wheats culture Triticum spelta Analysis of numbers of papers/mentions over time (Agricola database 1970-1996):
:
Source: AGRICOLA database (1970-1996) Common Name(s): spelt wheat
Triticum spelta publications Human factor: culture, spirituality Early development of of maize development Early
Mangelsdorf, P.C. (1986) The Origin of Corn. Scientific American, 255, 2, pp 80-86 http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Bt/Mangelsdorf-Origin-Maize-1986.pdf Kimber, G. & Athwal, R.S. (1972)Reassessment of Course of Evolution of Wheat. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 69, 4, pp 912-& http://www.botanischergarten.ch/EPOBIO-Wheat/Kimber-Reassessment-Evolution-Wheat-1072.pdf www.hort.purdue.edu/.../ lecture14/fig_14-4.html
Early maya charts Maya goddess Maya view of origin of mankind 6080–6084 PNAS April 30, 2002 vol. 99 no. 9 A single domestication for maize shown by multilocus microsatellite genotyping Yoshihiro Matsuoka*†, Yves Vigouroux*, Major M. Goodman‡, J esus Sanchez G.§, Edward Buckler¶, and John Doebley*
Multiple Origin of Maize Principle Component Morphology Teosinte Pylogenesis of Maize and Teosinte http://www.cec.org/files/pdf//Vaughan-e.pdf
Maize landraces and teosinte locations Left: teosinte, right teosinte hybrid Great variety of chromosomal structures show that geneflow is not destabilizing the genomes of maize and teosinte Kato: Review of introgression between maize and teosinte Variety of chromosomal structures stable Pychythenic chromosomes and centromers Swiss landrace of maize from Thusis, Graubünden, Eastern Switzerland
Swiss landrace from Thusis, transposons Ecological factors Salt in soil forced mesopotamian cultures to move north Poisoned fields: A contributor to collapse
Mashkan-shapir was a typical Mesopotamian city, located about 20 miles from the Tigris River and connected to the river by a network of canals. Despite a flourishing civilization, Mashkan- shapir was abandoned within only 20 years of its settlement. What could have caused this rapid demise?
Along with factors such as war and changes in the environment, scientists now believe irrigation techniques played an important role in Mashkan-shapir's collapse. The same process that allowed farming in this region also eventually made it impossible to farm. Irrigation has a Catch-22: if irrigation water is allowed to sit on the fields and evaporate, it leaves behind mineral salts; if attempts are made to drain off irrigation water and it flows through the soil too quickly, erosion becomes a problem.
Poisoned fields Synecological factors Deutschewitz, K., Lausch, A., Kuhn, I., & Klotz, S. (2003) Native and alien plant species richness in relation to spatial heterogeneity on a regional scale in Germany. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 12, 299-311
Main land uses and biotopes in Dessau district Spacial distribution of plant richness Dessau Relation richness, neophytic, archaeophytic, native Spacial distribution first principal componant scores Evidence: Macrofossils www.nau.edu/~qsp/ macrobotanical_lab.html Ken Cole demonstrates proper midden analysis procedures
Macro-Archaeobotany www.nau.edu/~qsp/ macrobotanical_lab.html Sandra Swift purifies midden plant matrix through hydroclensing
Purifying plant matrix FIGURES 5-15. Plant macrofossils from late- Pleistocene Matianuck Avenue site (Connecticut), representing species present (5-10) and absent (11-15) from the contemporary alpine flora of the White Mountains: 5, 6, Harrimanella hypnoides, 5, branch with leaves, 6, capsule; 7-10, Salix uva-ursi, four different leaves; 11-13, S. reticulata, three different leaves; 14, 15, Thalictrum alpinum, two achenes. (All scale bars 1 mm.)
http://www.erudit.org/revue/gpq/1999/v53/n1/004854ar.html Harrimanella hypnoides Macrofossils Late-Pleistocene Padulosi, S., Hammer, K., & Heller, J.e. (1995) 4. Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Hulled Wheats © CAB ABSTRACTS, CAB International, Castelvecchio Pascoli, Tuscany, Italy, IS: 92-9043-288-8, pp 262 http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/publications/pdf/54.pdf Emmer spikelets Egyptian Charred hulle wheat chaff Turkey Charred hulled wheat grains Turkey Sediment samples from the Early Bronze Age settlement Hirbet ez-Zeraqon, Northern Jordan, ca. 8 ha in size, were analysed for seed remains since 1996 in the archaeobotanical laboratory of the University of Tübingen. Emmer, barley and lentil are the main crops. http://homepages.uni-tuebingen.de/simone.riehl/archbot.htm
Early Bronce age charred grains Barley, Emmer Fertile crescent with wild wheat localities Ancient Egypt desiccated bread loaf DISCOVERY OF RICE PHYTOLITHS IN THE NEOLITHIC SITE AT JIAHU OF HENAN PROVINCE AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE CHEN Baozhang , (Regional Development Institute of Xuzhou Normal University, Xuzhou 221009, China) ZHANG Juzhong (Cultural Relic Institute of Henan Province, Zhengzou 450004, China) LU Houyuan 2 Results Three types of phytoliths belong to Oryza. They are fan-shaped, dumbbell-shaped parallel to each other along the long axes, and phytoliths from caryopses (9). Some fan-shaped phytoliths from leaves and dumbbell-shaped phytoliths occur in the 9 samples, and many phytoliths from caryopses are in samples Jh2, Jh3, Jh6 and Jh 9 (Fig. 2). Fig. 2. Photographs of phytoliths. a, Fan-shaped phytolith from sample Jh6, x 1000; b, d, fan-shaped phytoliths from sample Jh6, x 800; c, fan-shaped phytolith from sample Jh9, x 800; e, fan-shaped phytolith from Oryza rufipogon Griff. (produced in Dongxiang of Jiangxi Province), x 800; f, fan-shaped phytolith from sample Jh2, x 800; g, i, phytoliths in caryopses from sample Jh2, x 400; h, dumbbell phytolith from sample Jh2, x 400; j, phytolith in caryopses from sample Jh6, x 400; k, dumbbell phytolith from 0. rufipogon Griff. (produced in Jiangxi), x 400; 1, m, phytolith in caryopses of 0. sativa keng Ting (0. s. japonica) (breed: Balila), x 400. Rice phytoliths Neolithics Henan Province IDENTIFICATION
Many plants don't produce phytoliths: only a partial indication of plants in area Non-related species produce the same types : "dumbbells, saddles, bowls, boats, bottoms" Some Taxonomic categories can be recognized: panicoid, festucoid, chloroid A few forms are diagnostic to species level: e.g., maize
Triticum phytolith
Phytolith identification, Triticum Evidence from Herbarium collections ifrne ntefeunyo eedseslfo iet ieand fromyearto year Differences inthefrequency ofgene dispersal from lineto Gene dispersal into Gene dispersal Jonathan Gressel Jonathan Gressel Yolande Jacot 0,08 0,06 0,04 0,02 0,1 1* , Klaus Ammann 0 4 , Iñigo Loureiro
S. viridis, Millet Trsu
Arsu 1 , Pia Rufener Al Mazyad 2 , Haibo Wang Haibo , Srsu sampled within the 20 m plot sampled withinthe20 TRsp Gene dispersal China dispersal from termshort experiments Gene field 5
, Elena Benavente ARsp
SRsp 1 , Cristina Chueca 1999 2001 6 2 , Jacques David , Jacques
2001 2000 1999 3
, Herbarium Collections: Data on hybrids over decades
Herbarium collections Gene flow assessment of transgenic crops in Switzerland an ecological risk assessment of vertical gene flow Klaus Ammann, University of Bern 1 Yolande Jacot, University of Neuchâtel 2 Pia Rufener Al Mazyad, University of Bern 1
1 Botanical Garden, Altenbergrain 21, CH - 3013 BERN 2 Institut de Botanique, Chantemerle 22, CH - 2007 NEUCHATEL
Kapitel 3 in:
Elisabeth Schulte und Othmar Käppeli (Hrsg.) 1996 ISBN 3-9521113-0-9
Gene flow assessment Dutch-Swiss-Irish method Dutch - Swiss Method of assessing three gene flow codes
Ruud van der Mejiden, Willem Brandenburg, Femke Frietema Yolande Jacot, Pia Rufener AL Mazyad, François Felber, Roberto Guadagnolo, Dessislava Savova
Method not using transgene crops, i.e. respecting the Precautionary Approach
3 classes of gene flow assessment Freq uenc seed Hy bridization, p ollen transp ort etc. dispersal 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 0 1 tom ato 2 tobacco 3 4 5 1 0 1 Potential Risk 2 beet 3 4 of Gene Flow 5 2 0 1 to wild 2 endive 3 4 turnip relatives 5 lettuce 3 0 1 for 19 Swiss 2 cabbage 3 radish 4 crops: 5 rape 4 0 maize 1 barley 2 wheat carrot 3 rye chicory 4 5 5 0 1 potato 2 3 clovers 4 alfalfa 5 grasses
Potential Gene Flow to Wild Relatives in Switzerland Wheat
Ae. squarrosa / T. aestivum Hybrid in field Aegilops squarrosa Ae. squarrosa / T. aestivum ο
Aegilops squarrosa : + Triticum aestivum : • • Wheat
Ae. ovata / T. aestivum Aegilops ovata Ae. ovata / T. aestivum Hybrids Ae. ovata / T. aestivum
• Ae.ovata : ▽ • T. aestivum : ο • Ae.triticoides (F1): ■ • Ae.speltaeforme( BC) : ● • Ae. triticoides (F2) : ⊠
Aegilops ovata x Triticum aestivum Julia Keller Senften: Lactuca serriola Principal Component Plot of
Lactuca serriola x sativa Principal Component Plot Some forgotten crops Conserving and increasing the Use of Neglected and Underutilized Crop Species Monographs & Publications
Part of the listed publications is a series of monographs which is the result of a joint project between the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) and the Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK).
The financial support has been provided by the Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) of Germany through the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Italy through the Department of Cooperation for Development. This series of monographs intends to contribute to improving the potential value of these crops through increased use of the available genetic diversity. http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/Nus/pubs/list.asp
NUS Neglected and underutilized Crop Species Authors: M. Andean roots and tubers: Ahipa, arracacha, maca and Hermann, J. Heller yacon (eds.) year: 1997 At least 25 species of root and tuber crops from 16 genera and 15 families are native to South America. Apart from the 7 species of potato (Solanum spp.), there are nine lesser known species native to the Andes that are grown for their edible underground organs and are traditionally, but not exclusively, cultivated by indigenous people who use them for subsistence or as cash crops. This book is the first of two volumes to deal in depth with the biology and genetic resources of these Andean root and tuber crops, and, following an introduction, is divided into 4 multiauthor sections: (1) ahipa (Pachyrhizus ahipa) by M. Sorensen, W. J. Gruneberg and B. Orting; (2) arracacha (Arracacia xanthorrhiza) by M. Hermann; (3) maca (Lepidium meyenii) by C. F. Quiros and R. Aliaga Cardenas; and yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius) by A. Grau and J. Rea. Each section follows the standard format for the series and reviews aspects of their taxonomy, botany, origin, ecology, properties, uses, conservation, evaluation of diversity and breeding. In addition, full accounts are given of crop production areas, agronomy, limitations, prospects and research needs. A single appendix lists research workers by country. Andean roots and tubers Selection of the IPGRI database:
Aibika/Bele Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medik.
Cultivated extensively in the lowlands of Melanesia, aibika is one of the highest yielding leafy vegetables, and is nutritious and easy to grow. This monograph reviews its taxonomy, origin, uses, genetic resources, ecology, agronomy, reproductive biology, crop protection, breeding and research needs. Appendices listing a basic descriptor list, details of the Papua New Guinea collection, insects found aibika in Pacific Island countries and research contacts are included. Stephen R. Proeston 1998
Aibika-Bele: Abelmoschus manihot Bambara groundnut Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc. A u t h o Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 9.) r s Proceedings of the workshop on Conservation and Improvement of Bambara : Groundnut J . 14-16 November 1995, Harare, Zimbabwe H Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) is an indigenous African crop that has been cultivated for centuries from Senegal to Kenya, e and from the Sahara to South Africa and Madagascar. Despite its drought tolerant properties, bambara groundnut has largely been l ignored by the scientific community being regarded as a poor man's crop. This workshop represents an effort to coordinate efforts l e across Africa aimed at the conservation of genetic resources of V. subterranea and its development as a crop. Following a brief r introduction and a bibliographical review, country reports are presented from 11 African countries detailing production, genetic , resources and potential for breeding. These are followed by 6 papers each in two sections on agronomy and genetic resources, the recommendations of working groups and a report on the establishment of the International Bambara Groundnut Network. Four F . appendices include the workshop programme, a list of participants, addresses of bambara groundnut researchers, and institutions maintaining collections. B e © CAB ABSTRACTS, CAB International g e m a n n ,
J .
M u s h o n g a
( e d s . ) Bambara, Vignea subterranea Black nightshades Solanum nigrum L. and related species
Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 15. Authors: Jennifer M. Edmonds, James A. Chweya Year: 1997
The black nightshades (Solanum nigrum and related species in sect. Solanum) are worldwide weeds of arable land, gardens, rubbish tips, soils rich in nitrogen, in moderately light and warm situations which occur from sea to montane levels. They are, however, also widely used as leafy herbs and vegetables, as a source of fruit and for various medicinal purposes. Therefore, human consumption of their leaves and fruits as food is widespread, particularly in Africa and SE Asia. Unfortunately, there is widespread confusion over the precise identification of the taxa involved, especially in those areas in which the species are most commonly used as food sources. This monograph attempts to identify the species related to the black nightshade more accurately, by providing an identification key, descriptions of the taxa most widely reported to be of dietary and/or ethnobotanical use in various Asian, African and Indonesian countries, listing some of the many vernacular names used for the species, recording precise uses of the various species and presenting some information on their genetic resources. Two appendices are included listing (1) research contacts and centres of research, and (2) gene banks maintaining collections.
© CAB ABSTRACTS, CAB International
Black nightshade, Solanum nigrum Breadfruit Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg
Despite its widespread distribution and use, little work has been done on characterization, evaluation and description of breadfruit germplasm. This publication describes the genetic resources of breadfruit and provides an in-depth look at the current status of breadfruit conservation and the extent of ex situ germplasm collections, especially in the Pacific Islands. Chapters cover the following topics: taxonomy, botany, evolution and domestication, properties and uses, conservation and genetic diversity, breeding, production, ecology, agronomy, and limitations, prospects and research needs. Two appendices detail research contacts and research centres, both by country.© CAB ABSTRACTS, CAB International Authors: Diane Ragone Year: 1997
Breadfruit, Artocarpus utilis Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum Moench
Following a general account of the crop, including importance and distribution, physiology, diseases, genetics and breeding, and the need for unconventional breeding methods, information is reviewed on in vitro methods, including the composition of culture media, establishment of callus culture, organogenesis, plant regeneration and transfer, culture of apical buds, protoplast culture, genetic stability in callus and plants, and biochemical studies using in vitro systems.© CAB ABSTRACTS, CAB International Authors: Clayton G. Campbell Year: 1997
Buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum 1878 1913
Fagopyrum esculentum: Cultivation 1878 – 1913: no big difference
Fagopyrum esculentum German Reich Fagopyrum esculentum Swiss distribution Chenopods Chenopodium spp. The cultivation of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) in the Americas is widespread and well researched. It is less well known that Chenopodium was a common component of farming systems in the hilly and mountainous regions of Asia, particularly the Himalayas, the Hangduan mountains and the chain of uplands extending beyond the eastern fringes of the Himalayas as far as Taiwan. Replacement by high yielding varieties of staple crops has led to a decline in their cultivation. With a shift in focus towards production on agriculturally marginal lands, particularly mountainous regions, Chenopodium has a role to play both as a nutritious food crop and as a cash crop. Chenopodium has a high grain protein content, compared with cereals, is able to survive and compete in intercropping systems and forms mycorrhizal associations which maximise their use of scarce nutrients. This monograph describes the genetic resources of Chenopodium under the chapter headings: introduction; history of chenopods in Asia; the chenopod farmers and farming; crop genetic resources: the chenopod landraces; reproductive system and breeding features; phenological and ecophysiological variation; promising features of chenopods; genetic resources conservation efforts; evaluation of genetic variability; introduction of quinoa in Asia; limitations of the crop; and research priorities for chenopod. An appendix lists institutions, professionals and others associated with Chenopodium crop conservation, research and development. © CAB ABSTRACTS, CAB International Authors: Tej Partap, B.D. Joshi, N.W. Galwey Year: 1998
Chenopodium spp. Pisum sativum, Garden Pea
Pisum sativum Pisum sativum Garden Pea
Pisum sativum Pisum sativum Kiefelerbse Pisum sativum, Origin red and distribution green
Pisum sativum origin Coriandrum sativum Sorghum, an important crop for Africa Biofortification Project of Africa Harvest
Professor Klaus Ammann, Guest Professor Department of Biotechnology, TU Delft
Towards a new communicatioin strategy: outlining ways to improve the European consumer and political opinion Research activity developing countries example biofortification Cohen, J.I. (2005) Poorer nations turn to publicly developed GM crops. Nature Biotechnology, 23, 1, pp 27-33 http://www.botanischergarten.ch/PublicSector-Danforth-20050304/Cohen-Naturebiotech-2005.pdf
Public Research & Regulation
Cohen Developing world: Source of Genetic resources: 85% local public Harvest Plus, http://www.harvestplus.org/ Biofortification Project Coverage Potential regional areas of impact of first tier crops Community-based efficacy studies in selected target sites.
Rice Beans Cassava Maize Maize Wheat
Beans Cassava Beans Maize Cassava Maize S.Potato
Harvest Plus Biofortification Project Coverage http://www.harvestplus.org/pdfs/hpRIbrochure.pdf
Harvest Plus, Discovery, Development, Dissemination Figure 2 (p. 22) depicts the approach of deriving new prevalence rates from The concept of dose-response can be applied to capture the magnitude improved iron intakes. The individuals are ranked according to their iron of the effect of biofortification on health outcomes; Figure 3 adapted from intake; the prevalence rate determines up to which intake (cut-off level) of iron Zimmermann and Qaim (2004), shows this association. an individual is considered to be deficient. Improving the iron intake shifts the curve to the right, which implies that more individuals have intakes above the critical cut-off level. The individuals who remain below the cut-off level determine the new prevalence rate. This exercise needs to be carried out for the prevalence rates of both moderate and severe IDA for all target groups. These new prevalence rates can then be used in the calculation of the DALYs lost under the “with” scenario. Stein, A.J., Meenakshi, J.V., Qaim, M., Nestel, P., Bhutta, S., & Bhutta, Z.A. (2005) Analyzing the Health Benefits of Biofortified Staple Crops by Means of the Disability-Adjusted Life Years Approach: A Handbook Focusing on Iron, Zinc and Vitamin A. HarvestPlus Technical Monograph, 4, pp 35 Relationship between micronutrient intake and health outcome h // h l / df / h04 df Research activity developing countries example biofortification Africa Biofortified Project ABP Project Africa Biofortified www.SuperSorghum.org
SuperSorghum project homepage SuperSorghum project Consortium Members Sorghum - (Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench) originated in Africa, probably in several centres on the continent over a period of years. Africa grows over 50% of the world’s Sorghum. The 10 biggest Sorghum producers in Africa are: Nigeria, Sudan, Ethiopia, Burkina Faso, Niger, Tanzania, Mali, Chad, Egypt and Uganda. These countries also contain some of the centres of diversity for Sorghum
Sorghum bicolor distribution main growers Low in protein quality due to its low content of essential amino acids, such as lysine.
The reliance on Sorghum as an important food in regions of Africa and Asia can result in problems associated with malnutrition, especially in children;
Low in protein quality must be enhanced Research activity developing countries example biofortification http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Africa-Harvest-Sorghum-Chapter/Sorghum-Biology-7-Evolution-Geneflow-20070109.pdf
High diversity of landraces of Sorghum bicolor Global map of annual Sorghum cultivated around the world Distribution of cultivated Sorghum races Distribution of wild varieties of Sorghum bicolor Distribution of Sorghums in Africa Probable areas of domestication of selected African crops: No 8: Sorghum Ejeta, G. & Grenier, C. (2005) Sorghum and Its Weedy Hybrids. In Crop Ferality and Volunteerism (ed J. Gressel). CRC Press, Boca Raton http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Afri ca-Harvest-Sorghum-Lit/Ejeta-Feral- Chapt8-Sorghum.pdf
Pattern of Domestication and Spread of the Genus Sorghum Research activity developing countries example biofortification Plants under human influence, complex situation, the weeds and their feral population in the middle Original gene pool concept Complex reality, applies to Sorghum also Adaptation of gene pool concept to Sorghum Moore, G., Devos, K.M., Wang, Z., & Gale, M.D. (1995) Grasses, Line up and Form a Circle. Current Biology, 5, pp 737-739 http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Africa- Harvest-Sorghum-Lit-1/Moore-Cereal- Genomes-1995.pdf
Fig. 7 Alignment of the genomes of six major grass crop species with 19 rice linkage segments, whose order reflects the circularized ancestral grass genome. The data have been redrawn as a series of rice linkage segments (defined by radiating lines) formed into chromosomes (broken color-coded and numbered lines). The thin dashed lines correspond to the duplicated segments. Inversions of sets of sequences within a linkage segment (such as the inversion of segments 3a and 3b in maize chromosome 5) are not shown. Linkage segments forming parts (pt) of Triticeae chromosome 5 are shown as a series of segments connected by colored lines. The alignment is based on the genetic map of the D genome of wheat. The red line indicates the duplicated segments shown as blocks 11 b and 12b. Chromosomes formed by the insertion of one segment into another are shown by black lines with arrows indicating the direction and point of insertion. The points of chromosome breakage involved with insertion events are indicated by black bisected circles. The 'haploid' chromosome number of each species is shown in the column marked 'x'. The haploid DNA content of each species, shown in the column of 1C values, is per 109 bases. From (Moore et al., 1995) Major grass crops. Lined up in circles to demonstrate close genomic relationship Spangler, R., Zaitchik, B., Russo, E., & Kellogg, E. (1999) Andropogoneae Evolution and Generic Limits in Sorghum (Poaceae) Using Ndhf Sequences. Systematic Botany, 24, 2, pp 267-281 http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Africa- Fig. 13 The current classification scheme for the taxa Harvest-Sorghum-Lit/Spangler- sampled on one of the most parsimonious Andropogoneae-1999.pdf ndhF trees. Branch shading is an optimization of haploid chromosome numbers. Awnless taxa are also indicated for the Andropogoneae. Stiposorghum = S, Parasorghum = P. From (Spangler et al., 1999
Current classification scheme for the taxa sampled on one of the most parsimonious ndhF trees. Branch shading optimization of haploid chromosome numbers Schematic diagram of simplest evolutionary model for events that took place in an orthologous region of rice, sorghum and maize genomes after their divergence from a common ancestor Sorghum bicolor flowering, typical wind pollination syndrome, but most cultivated Sorghums with selfing, strong inbreeders Schmidt, M. & Bothma, G. (2006) Risk Assessment for Transgenic Sorghum in Africa: Crop-to-Crop Gene Flow in Sorghum Bicolor (L.) Moench. Crop Sci, 46, 2, pp 790-798 http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Africa-Harvest-Sorghum- Lit/Schmidt-Geneflow-CropSci-2006.pdf
Distant depending hybridization rate, results with high percentage because receiving fields are pollen sterile – not reflecting agricultural reality Some important factors influencing vertical gene flow in Sorghum More important factors influencing vertical gene flow in Sorghum http://www.okfarmbureau.org/press_pass/galleries/grainSorghum/sorghum.jpg
Sorghum field from Oklahoma